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Home , Amphibole, Biotite, Feldspar, Matrix (geology), Muscovite, Olivine

Geology 306: Science Laboratory: Identification Supplement Hydrological cycle and the

The Rock Cycle

1. The rock cycle and hydrological cyle both involve the recycling of materials, such as water between the surface and the atmosphere or the recycling of the various types of rocks that make up the surface of the Earth. 2. All rocks are classified based upon their content (mineral composition) and visual texture. a. Texture: The size, shape and arrangement of mineral () grains or fragments of material. 3. Types of Rocks: a. Igneous Rocks: are associated with the crystallization and/or solidification of . i. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and form larger , such as . ii. Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly on or near the surface and form much smaller crystals (such as ) and in some cases no crystals at all, such as which is an amorphous or glassy material. Extrusive igneous activity can also produce violent volcanic eruptions which can produce more fragmental material. b. Sedimentary Rocks: are associated with the accumulation of by-products produced by weathering and erosion on the surface, such as . c. Metamorphic Rocks: are associated with the alteration and deformation of pre-existing rocks known as parent rocks. These parent rocks are deformed by: Heat, Pressure, and Chemically- active fluids to produce new metamorphic rocks, such as Marble or . 4. Igneous Rocks: are classified based on their overall mineral content and visual texture. a. Mineral composition: is based upon the abundance of Ferromagnesian ( rich in and/or ) and Non- ferromagnesian minerals (minerals that lack iron and/or magnesium), which is in turn influenced by Bowen’s Reaction Series. Bowens Reaction Series

i. Bowen’s Reaction Series: describes the sequence of mineral formation in a cooling magma. • Discontinuous Series or Branch: consists of the ferromagnesian minerals: , , , and , which are all dark, ferromagnesian minerals. • Continuous Series or Branch: consists of the non- ferromagnesian minerals, -rich and -rich Plagioclase feldspar, which are lighter colored than the discontinuous branch. • , Feldspar (), and : are all light-colored non-ferromagnesian minerals. ii. Mineral content: will reflect the minerals that are present at the temperature in which the rock solidified. For example, rocks that solidify at higher temperatures may contain more olivine, pyroxene, and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. Rocks that solidify at very low temperatures will contain more quartz and . b. Compositional classes: can be determined by the amount of light (non-ferromagnesian minerals) and dark (ferromagnesian minerals). i. Ultramafic: the composition of the () and rarely found on the surface. Contains mostly olivine, pyroxene, and a small amount of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. ii. : Contains mostly dark, ferromagnesian minerals such as: olivine, pyroxene, as well as, calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar, and small amounts of amphibole minerals. These rocks tend to be dark and denser, such as the rock, Basalt. iii. Intermediate: Contains mostly amphibole, biotite , sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar, and small amounts of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. Typically seen as half ferromagnesian and half non-ferromagnesian minerals, but can have a range of compositions. Intermediate colors, such as the rock and/or . iv. : Contains mostly non-ferromagnesian minerals, such as: quartz, potassium feldspar, and muscovite mica, with small amounts of biotite, amphibole, and sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar. Typically light in color, such as granite

Mineral content of felsic, Intermediate, mafic, and ultra-mafic rock compositions:

Igneous Rock Textural Terms INTRUSIVE TEXTURES associated with Plutonic environments and slow cooling: Phaneritic: Uniform, slow-cooling, and coarse-grained, easily seen, e.g. granite (typical intrusive texture) Pegmatitic: very coarse-grained, larger than your thumb (1-inch) Often forms due to slow cooling of a fluid-rich magma and can produce semi-precious such as aquamarine, , etc. (if this texture is present, the term Pegmatitic is included in the rock name) (E.g. Pegmatitic granite or granite ) : Two or more grain sizes are present due to multiple stages or rates of cooling. (larger crystals) are set in a finer grained due to two or more stages of cooling underground. (If this texture is present, the term Porphyritic is included in the rock name, e.g. porphyritic granite.) EXTRUSIVE TEXTURES associated with volcanic environments and rapid cooling or violent volcanic eruptions: Aphanitic: Uniform, rapid cooling, fine-grained, not visible except under a , e.g. basalt (typical extrusive texture). Porphyritic: phenocrysts in a finer grained matrix due to two or more stages of cooling with the last stage of cooling occurring on the surface. (If this texture is present, the term Porphyritic is included in the rock name, e.g. porphyritic basalt.) Glassy: similar to , due to very rapid cooling and the lack of crystal formation, e.g. obsidian. Vesicular or Cellular: many visible vesicles formed as magma cooled around gas bubbles that were escaping, thus preserving the spherical shape of the gas bubbles. (When large very large vesicles are present the term vesicular is added to the rock name, e.g. vesicular basalt, otherwise specific rock names such as scoria may be used.) Amygdaloidal: Vesicles are filled in with secondary minerals, e.g. amygdaloidal basalt. (If this texture is present, the term Amygdaloidal is included in the rock name, e.g. Amygdaloidal Basalt.) Frothy: glassy & vesicular, many small vesicles, foamy-looking, e.g. . Fragmental/Pyroclastic: particles, ash, fragments (which are typically angular) of rock, etc. fused together, e.g. welded , volcanic . Some Classifications

Emplacement of Plutonic Structures / Formation of Plutons

Sedimentary Rocks The following diagram depicts the chemical equations important to chemical weathering and the formation of chemical cements.

1. Sedimentary rocks: form through the accumulation of weathering by- products, of which there are many types. These by-products will produce different types of sediments based upon their origin. Diagenesis describes the sequence of events or processes that transform a sediment into a and often includes: deposition, burial, and Lithification (compaction and cementation) of sediments. Diagenesis and the transformation of Sediment into Sedimentary Rock

2. Types of Sediments and sedimentary rocks and their textures: a. Clastic Detrital Sediments: are particles or fragments of other materials, such as grains. These particles are broken bits of other rocks and/or minerals and can be transported by wind, ice, and water which can influence the shape and characteristics of the particles. These particles get deposited and undergo Diagenesis, which includes the cementing of the particles together to form a rock, such as sandstone. b. Non-Clastic Sediments: i. Chemical Sediments: form through the precipitation of formerly dissolved materials, such as the formation of salt crystals from an evaporating salty lake, to produce rock salt. These rocks often appear crystalline. ii. Biological, Organic Sediments: sediments associated with the accumulation of biological material, such as leaf litter, shells, fossils, coral reefs, etc. These rocks can be fossiliferous and contain many fossils, such as fossiliferous . c. You can sometimes find combinations sediments accumulating in some environments. For example, an accumulation of mud will often form and , but if it contains abundant fossils too, it would be a fossiliferous mudstone or fossiliferous shale. Such a rock would have both clastic and biological material and could have a Bio-clastic texture. 3. As particles are transported, they may be reduced in size and could also undergo rounding and sorting of the particles. Typically, when clastic sediments first form, they may have a jagged, and fragmental appearance, but as they travel, the sharp corners are often knocked off and the particle becomes smaller with smoother, rounded shapes. For example, in a stream, particles will tumble along and become more spherical and uniform in shape. Sorting describes the uniformity of grain sizes in a sedimentary rock. 4. Cementing agents: are typically materials that have formed through chemical weathering reactions to produce dissolved materials that can infiltrate the deposit of sediments and then precipitate in the pore spaces between the sediments and thus bind the particles together, such as dissolved , quartz, or iron oxides.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic / Detrital Sedimentary Rocks Texture / Composition Comments Rock Name particle size Poorly sorted rounded rock CONGLOMERATE Coarse grained Quartz, , fragments of any rock type. and chert are Poorly sorted angular rock ( >2 mm) dominant BRECCIA fragments of any rock type. Poorly sorted, nonstratified, and Fragments of any angular rock fragments. Coarse to fine rock type Sometimes the larger particles are TILLITE grained (associated with elongate with striations on the flat glaciers) surfaces. Primarily Quartz Usually moderately to well sorted QUARTZ grains and rounded. SANDSTONE Quartz and at least Usually forms from rapid erosion, Medium 25% K-Feldspar with visible K-feldspar grains that grained SANDSTONE grains are often medium to poorly sorted. SANDSTONE Often gray in appearance due to (1/16 - 2 mm) Quartz grains, small the increased presence of GRAYWACKE rock fragments and particles. Usually less well sorted SANDSTONE clay minerals. than quartz Sandstone Fine grained Fine grained quartz (1/256 - 1/16 -sized particles with a gritty feel. SILTSTONE and clay minerals. mm) Very fine Very fine grained grained quartz and clay Clay-sized particles with a soft feel SHALE (Mud- or Clay-stone) (< 1/256 mm) minerals.

Sedimentary Rocks continued… Chemical or Biochemical / Organic Rocks Texture / Particle Composition Comments Rock Name size Medium to coarse Crystalline texture is visable. Forms from a CRYSTALLINE crystalline grains fine-grained lime mud. LIMESTONE Microcrystalline Exhibits Conchoidal MICRITE LIMESTONE Aggregates of Oolites (round spherical fossil features) OOLITIC LIMESTONE Oolites Loosely cemented fossils and fossil Fossiliferous COQUINA Calcite fragments with little matrix. Fossiliferous, with ( CaCO3 ) Abundant fossils in a calcareous (calcite) FOSSILIFEROUS finer grained matrix LIMESTONE matrix Shells of microscopic organisms, clay, very Microscopic CHALK soft. Can be powdery. Usually forms as dripstones - stalactites or Banded Calcite TRAVERTINE stalagmites. Similar to Also known as dolomite, reacts with acid DOLOSTONE Limestone (CaMg(CO3 )2) only if powdered. Chemical replacement! Chalcedony Hard, dense masses or beds and exhibits Crypto-crystalline (SiO2) . Variety of colors CHERT possible. Micro-crystalline Chalcedony, Hard, dense masses or beds and exhibits to Quartz (SiO2) conchoidal fracture. Tends to be gray to FLINT Crypto-crystalline black and can exhibit a chalky rind. Fine to Coarse Gypsum An evaporite, inorganic precipitate. ROCK GYPSUM crystalline grains (CaSO4 *2H2O) Fine to Coarse An evaporite, inorganic precipitate. Salty Halite (NaCl) ROCK SALT crystalline grains taste. Silica Shells of microscopic organisms DIATOMACEOUS Microscopic (SiO2) (Diatoms), very soft and similar to chalk, but EARTH will not react with acid. Brownish plant Soft, Porous. Will burn. Plant material may Fibrous PEAT material still be visible Dense and Highly altered, compacted, carbonized plant uniform in remains (plant matter has been converted to COAL appearance, but carbon.) Will burn. its is low. Metamorphic Rocks

1. Metamorphic rocks: have been altered and/or deformed but have not yet melted. The rock prior to deformation is referred to as the Parent rock. is caused by increases in Heat, Pressure and Chemically active fluids.

a. Pressures: stresses applied to the rock which can cause the rock to change shape and is often associated with folding and faulting as well.

i. Confining pressures: are pressures that are associated with burial of rocks at depth and are typically equal in all directions.

ii. Directed or differential Pressures: are pressures or stresses associated with plate interactions and are not equal but are stronger in a particular orientation. Can cause • Compression or compressive stresses: →  Plates collide and the gets thicker.

• Tension or tensile stresses:  → Plates pull apart and the crust is thinned.

• Shear stresses: Plates slide past each other.

b. Foliation: is a preferred alignment in the rock caused by directed pressures and can include the alignment of mineral crystals, folds, rock , color banding, or color streaking, etc.

c. Metamorphic Textures: is based upon the type and presence or absence of foliation.

i. Foliated: Rock contains a preferred alignment in the form of foliation.

ii. Non-Foliated: Rock does NOT contain a preferred alignment in the form of foliation. The rock appears more uniform with crystals in random orientations.

iii. Weakly-foliated: Rock may exhibit foliation, but it is very faint and harder to see.

d. Mineral Composition: is based upon the dominant minerals in the rock. Metamorphic rocks often contain index minerals, which are minerals that form at specific temperature and/or pressure conditions. These index minerals can be used to determine the degree or intensity of metamorphism, as well as, to differentiate between different rocks. For example, a muscovite would have a different composition than a biotite- schist, but they would both have a scaly foliation.

i. Index minerals often form Porphyroblasts, which typically grow large crystals because the mineral is at its optimum heat and pressure conditions. CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

FOLIATED ROCKS

Crystal size Rock name Comments Smooth, Flat Rock Cleavage crosses sedimentary Very fine, not visible layers Foliation well developed, but may be wavy; rock has a Fine grains, not visible PHYLLITE "silky" luster Coarse Muscovite schist Visible with unaided eye S Chlorite schist Types of schist, recognized on mineral content, Mostly micaceous minerals C Biotite schist reflect increasing intensity of metamorphism Often with porphyroblasts H Garnet schist from top downward and often have a scaly appearance I schist S schist T schist Coarse, mostly GNEISS Well-developed color BANDING or color streaking Non-micaceous minerals

NONFOLIATED ROCKS

Precursor rock Rock name Comments QUARTZ SANDSTONE QUARTZITE Composed of interlocking quartz grains LIMESTONE MARBLE Composed of interlocking calcite grains CONGLOMERATE STRETCHED-PEBBLE Original pebbles distinguishable, but strongly CONGLOMERATE Deformed and elliptical in shape GREENSTONE Composed of and chlorite Composed of amphibole and plagioclase and may BASALT OR contain garnet Composed of serpentine

MINERALS COMMONLY PRODUCED IN METAMORPHISM No. of cleavage NAME COMPOSITION HABIT H directions Color hydrous Fe, Mg, Al Chlorite silicate sheets 2 1 dark Epidote Ca, Fe, Al silicate massive 5 2 green hydrous Mg silicate sheets and foliated masses 1 1 white, black, green Staurolite Fe, Al silicate long crystals 7 2 lt.-dk. Garnet Fe, Mg, Ca, Al silicate stubby crystals 7.5 0 , brown, black Kyanite Al silicate bladed 5 & 7 2 gray-blue Sillimanite Al silicate needles 5 2 white carbon massive or sheets 2 1 metal gray massive or lamellar, Serpentine hydrous Mg, Fe silicate appears polished 3 - 5 0 or 1 green - black

Additional Classification from Tarbuck and Lutgens Textbook

* can exhibit and therefore can have characteristics of both metamorphic and igneous rocks!