THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN TIMEKEEPING THE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN TIMEKEEPING IN THE ANGLO-AMERICAN WORLD, 1876-1913 BY SCOTT JOHNSTON, B.A. (Hons.), M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Scott Johnston, July 2018 McMaster University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2018) Hamilton, Ontario (History) TITLE: The Construction of Modern Timekeeping in the Anglo-American World, 1876- 1913 AUTHOR: Scott Johnston, B.A. (Hons.) (Brock University), M.A. (University of Waterloo) SUPERVISOR: Professor S. Heathorn NUMBER OF PAGES: x, 351 ii Lay Abstract This dissertation asks why the system of time measurement set up towards the end of the nineteenth century took the form that it did. While partially dependent on new technologies such as railways and telegraphs, timekeeping was shaped more directly by the cultural context of the individuals involved. The dissertation uses the 1884 International Meridian Conference as a case study to suggest that time reform was driven by professional norms more than by national interest or changes in technology. Astronomers and engineers came to the conference with very different visions for modern timekeeping. Indeed, questions about the very nature of accurate time was at the heart of the debate: was time a public good, a commodity, or a specialized tool? The answers to these questions depended heavily on one’s profession, and as a result the standard time system that emerged was far from inevitable, and in fact remained incomplete. iii Abstract This dissertation asks why the system of time measurement set up towards the end of the nineteenth century took the form that it did. The answer is partially dependant on the advent of new technologies such as railways, steamships, and telegraphs. However, instead of focusing on a teleological story of technological progress, this dissertation derives its answer by examining the social, political, and cultural context of the individuals involved. The dissertation uses the 1884 International Meridian Conference as a case study to suggest that time reform was driven by professional context more than by technological imperatives or national interest. Astronomers and engineers came to the conference with very different visions for modern timekeeping. Using a constructivist lens, this dissertation examines the decision-laden process by which temporal knowledge was constructed. Questions about the very nature of accurate time was at the heart of the debate: was time a public good, a commodity, or a specialized tool? The answers to these questions depended heavily on one’s profession, and as a result the conference, directed by astronomers who preferred time as a specialized tool, rejected standard time as a broad reformation of civil timekeeping for the public. The process of construction continued after the conference as well, as the universality of standard time became wrapped up with the heightened accuracy required by specialized astronomical time. Entrepreneurs latched on to this, selling accurate time as a desirable symbol of modernity, while at the same time large numbers of people continued to use older timekeeping methods that were more convenient. New timekeeping methods did not sweep aside the old, leaving timekeeping a more complex, rather than a simplified, process. The standard time system which iv emerged from this complexity was far from inevitable, and in fact remained largely incomplete. v Acknowledgements This project could not have been completed without the support and assistance of several people. I owe a debt of gratitude first and foremost to my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Heathorn, who helped shape this project from the very beginning, both allowing me space to write on my own, and also offering guidance and support when necessary. I found his insight to be invaluable, and I could not have asked for a better supervisor. I also owe a great deal of thanks to my committee members, Dr. John Weaver and Dr. Michael Egan, who brought their own unique perspectives and expertise to the project. I would also like to thank my external examiner, Dr. David Leeson, for his contributions to the final draft, Wendy Benedetti and Debbie Lobban for their friendly support and administrative genius, my Masters supervisor, Dr. Dan Gorman, for encouraging me in my studies, and Dr. H.V. Nelles for serving on my committee in my first year and for teaching me the value of narrative as an analytical tool. I was fortunate to have the financial support of several institutions and funding bodies, including Ontario Graduate Scholarships (OGS), McMaster University, and the Wilson Institute for Canadian History, without which I would not have been able to carry out the research necessary for this project. I visited or contacted several archives to whose staff I am indebted, including Mark Hurn at the Cambridge Astronomy Library, Karen Moran at the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh, Kathryn McKee at the St. John’s College Library (Cambridge), Sian Prosser at the Royal Astronomical Society Archives, John Cable at the Institute of Engineering and Technology Archives, Julie Carrington at the Royal Geographical Society Archives, Chris Atkins at the Maidenhead Library, and vi Krista McCracken at the Shingwauk Residential Schools Centre. I am likewise thankful to the staff at the National Archives of the United Kingdom, the British Library, the Bibliotheque de l'Institute de France, the National Archives of the United States of America, the Archivo General de la Nacion (Dominican Republic), the Archives of Ontario, Library and Archives Canada, the Library of Congress, the BT Archives, the Archives of the Royal Society, Cambridge University Library, and the London Metropolitan Archives. Several of my colleagues also contributed to this project. First and foremost, thank you to my editing buddy Mica Jorgenson, with whom I traded dissertation chapters for editing over the last three years – she read early drafts of every chapter I wrote. I would also like to thank Chelsea Barranger, who edited dozens of bits and pieces of this project over the years, but more importantly, has been my closest friend and partner-in-crime in the History Department since we both arrived at McMaster. My PhD experience was similarly blessed by the kind support and dear friendship of my peers, including Andrew Kloiber, Jacqueline Kirkham, Kelsey Hine, Oleksa Drachewyich, Curran Egan, Samantha Clarke, Shay Sweeney, and Alex Zavarise, all of whom to which I turned for advice on this project at some time or another. Lastly, I would like to thank my family. Thank you to my partner, Megan Johnston, whose love and support kept me sane through the entire project – with chocolate, diversions, and countless impromptu pep talks (not to mention her patient help translating documents from French). Thank you to my sister, Melissa Sillett, whom I followed into graduate school, and to my brother, Steven Johnston, who followed me. vii And lastly, most of all, thank you to my parents, Gary and Rita Johnston, who encouraged and supported me at every turn. They taught me to be humble and to pursue my dreams. I dedicate this project to them. viii Table of Contents Lay Abstract …………………………………………………………………………...... iii Abstract ……………………………………………………………...………………...... iv Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………...…… vi Declaration of Academic Achievement ………………………………………..………... x Introduction: ……………………………………………………………………………... 1 Chapter 1: “Running full tilt against common sense”: Scientific and Bureaucratic Resistance to Standard Time, 1876-1884 …………………………………………..…... 28 Chapter 2: Amateurs, Professionals, and Eccentrics?: Scientific Timekeeping in Context …………….…………………………………………………………………………….. 87 Chapter 3: Two Ideas Collide: Standard Time and Universal Time at the International Meridian Conference, 1884 …………………………………………………………… 143 Chapter 4: “The House that Jack Built”: Selling Time, Constructing Modernities …... 202 Chapter 5: Shaping Norms of Behaviour: Education and Standard Time in North America after 1884 ….…………………………………………………………………………... 275 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..………….... 318 Appendix …………………………………………………………………………….... 332 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………...… 335 ix Declaration of Academic Achievement Scott Johnston is the sole author of this dissertation. x Ph.D. Thesis – S. Johnston; McMaster University – History Introduction In the late nineteenth century, asking someone for the time had the potential to elicit a complicated answer. The problem was not a lack of sources: watches and timepieces were widely available, public clocks adorned city halls and railway stations, and bell signals and calls to prayer of different faiths rang out with religious regularity in many places across the globe. At a pinch, a rough estimate of the time might be determined from the sun or tides. Urban or rural, rich or poor, nation-state or colony, tools for time-telling were ubiquitous. The problem, then, was not a dearth of methods to measure time, but rather a bewildering multitude of often conflicting and competing times. Clocks were not synchronized, and even the best-made timepieces could not keep ticking out a perfect rhythm for longer than a few weeks. This meant that one clock varied from the next with striking irregularity. To make matters more complicated, the question of whether a clock was considered correct was more often a matter of power, politics, and social dynamics than it was of insufficient