ISSN: 0972-7310 Journal of Tourism An International Research Journal on Travel and Tourism

Vol. XIX No. 1, 2018

Centre for Mountain Tourism and Hospitality Studies (CMTHS) HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar Garhwal, India Journal of Tourism Vol. XIX, No.1, 2018 ISSN No. 0972-7310 Patron : Prof. Annapurna Nautiyal, Vice Chancellor, H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University) Srinagar Garhwal, India Editor in Chief : S.C. Bagri, Ph.D., H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University), Uttarakhand, India Editor : S.K. Gupta, Ph.D., H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University), Uttarakhand, India Associate Editors : R.K. Dhodi, Ph.D., H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University), Uttarakhand, India Elangbam Binodini Devi, Ph.D., H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University), Uttarakhand, India Assistant Editor : Rashmi Dhodi, Ph.D., H.N.B. Garhwal University (A Central University), Uttarakhand, India Managing Editor : Devkant Kala, Uttaranchal Petroleum and Energy University, Dehradun, India Editorial Board Members Ratz Tamara, Ph.D., Kodolanyi Janos University of Applied Sciences, Budapest, Hungary Harald Pechlaner, Ph.D., Catholic University of Eichstaettlngolstadt, Germany Dimitrious Buhalis, Ph.D., Bournemouth University, UK Gregory E. Dunn, Ph.D., Oklahoma State University, USA Zaher Hallah, Ph.D., California State University, USA John Charles Crottst, Ph.D., College of Charleston, Charleston, S.C.,USA Robert Inbakaran, Ph.D., RMIT University, Australia Stanislav Ivanov, Ph.D., Verna University of Management, Bulgaria Mathew Joseph, Ph.D., University of South Alabama, USA Terral Philippe, Ph.D., Universite Paul Sabatier, France Brian King, School of Hotel & Tourism Management, Hong Kong Babu Geroge, Ph.D., Fort Hays State University, Kansas, USA J.D. Lema, Ph.D., Drexel University, USA H.H. Chang, Ph.D., Ming Chuan University, The first American University in Asia Scott McCabe, Ph.D., Ph.D., Nottingham University, UK Mark Miller, Ph.D., University of Southern Mississippi, USA Shahdad Naghshpour, Ph.D., University of Southern Mississippi, USA Rose Okech, Ph.D., Masino University, Kenya Catherine Price, Ph.D., University of Southern Mississippi, USA Timothy Reisenwitz, Ph.D., Valdosta State University, USA Surekha Rana, Ph.D., Gurukul Kangri University Girls Campus, Dehradun, India Geoff Wall, Ph.D., University of Waterloo, Canada Mu Zhang, Professor, Ph.D., Shenzhen Tourism College, Jinan University, China Bihu Tiger Wu, Ph.D., Peking University, China Gandhi Gonzalez Guerrero, Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Mexico, Mexico Natan Uriely, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel. Mihai Voda, Dimitrie Cantemir University, Romania Frequency and Subscriptions: Journal of Tourism is published biannual. Annual Subscription rates: India-Institutional: INR.2000, Individual: INR. 1000, Abroad- Institutional: US$ 75, Individual: US$ 40, Demand Draft or Cheque should be in favour of Finance officer, HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar Garhwal and be payable on SBI Srinagar Garhwal (3181) India. Editorial/Subscription Information Centre for Mountain Tourism and Hospitality Studies, HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar Garhwal-Uttarakhand-246174, India, e-mail:[email protected], website-www.jothnbgu.in Editorial

It gives me immense pleasure to bring out the Special issue of the Journal of Tourism. The tourism industry is becoming increasingly competition- oriented. All the tourist's destinations are addressing tourist' needs, their level of satisfaction and their expectations from the tourism industry. Moreover, the stakeholders also realize their responsibilities towards society at large. This special issue of Journal of Tourism focuses on these topics of Destination Re-Imaging and Branding by Sustainable, Responsible & Community Based Tourism. The issue focuses on wide range of subjects of relevance and importance. “Innovation Research in Tourism Business: A Review from Two Decades of Studies” by Ishwar Khatri (NTNU, Norway) reviewed twenty publications from two decades of studies (1997-2017) across the countries and conclusion is made on the innovations in tourism business today. The study is relevant to the sustainability of tourism industry. The paper “A Study on Environmental Orientation among Tourists Visiting Kashmir Valley” by Iqbal Ahmad Bhat brings out the issues of sustainability and management of tourist destinations in the Valley of Kashmir. “Guerrilla Trail: A Tourism Product in the Maoist Rebel's Footsteps” by Surendra Rana and Chiranjibi Bhandari from Nepal draws the reader's attention towards the initiatives and efforts taken by the Government of Nepal, Nepal Tourism Board and local people in making Guerrilla Trail as a tourism product in Nepal. The next paper titled “Website Based Satisfaction in Tourism and Hospitality Sector: An Importance-Performance Analysis in National Capital Region ( NCR) of India” by Lakhvinder Singh and Dinesh Dhankhar is a study on the satisfaction of tourists towards websites of selected tourism and hospitality firms in National Capital Region of India. “Sustainable Developmental Implications of Community Based Tourism Initiatives in Himachal: An Empirical Study” by S.P. Bansal, Purva Kansal and Sandeep Waila discussed the existing literature on community-based tourism. The paper also focuses on different dimensons of community-based tourism from the perception of the community. Samik Ray contributed a paper on “Changes in the Role of Local or Host Community in Destination Imaging” It outlined how and why the local community is vital to destination imaging. The last paper titled “Promoting Gender Sensitivity and Environment Protection through Sustainable Tourism Development: A Review by Priyakrushna Mohanty, Anu Chandran, Nilamadhab Swain revealed the attractive relationship that can be sketched in a cyclic format between tourism development, gender, and environment. I hope and believe that this issue covering multifarious aspects of tourism and destination branding will prove to be an informative and stimulating experience for the readers. I wish an enriching and enlightening reading experience to the readers.

Anukrati Sharma, Ph.D. Guest Editor & Associate Professor Faculty of Commerce and Management University of Kota, Rajasthan, India Journal of Tourism An International Research Journal on Travel and Toursim Vol. XIX, No.1, 2018 ISSN:0972-7310

Contents S.No Research Paper Author Pag e Editorial Note 1 Innovation Research in Tourism Ishwar Khatri 1-13 Business: A Review from Two Decades of Studies

2 A Study on Environmental Orientation Iqbal Ahmad Bhat 15-32 Among Tourists Visiting Kashmir Valley 3 Guerrilla Trail: A Tourism Product in Surendra Rana 33-46 the Maoist Rebel's Footsteps Chiranjibi Bhandari 4 Website Based Satisfaction in Tourism Lakhvinder Singh 47-57 and Hospitality Sector: An Dinesh Dhankhar Importance-Performance Analysis in National Capital Region (NCR) of India 5 Sustainab le Developmental SP Bansal 59-70 Implications of Community Based Purva Kansal Tourism Initiatives in Himachal: Sandeep Walia An Empirical Study.

6 Changes in the Role of Local or Samik Ray 71-85 Host Community in Destination Imaging 7 Promoting Gender Sensitivity and Priyakrushna Mohanty 87-96 Environment Protection through Anu Chandran Sustainable Tourism Development: Nilamadhab Swain A Review.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means- electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher. K e y W o r d s Innovation Research in Tourism Business: A Review from Two

Innovation, research, Decades of Studies tourism, information, communication, technology ISHWAR KHATRI Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

Abstract INTRODUCTION Tourism business is contributing the national nnovation is essentially related to the growth of output economy of individual and productivity. The development of new technologies countries by the inflows of Ifacilitates the generation of new ideas. Innovation in foreign currency; meanwhile, tourism thus refers to the new ideas, new services, and there is a big competition products targeted to fulfill the needs or desires of tourists or within the industry, and many visitors at the same time increasing the competitiveness of the destinations are competing tourism firms. Since there is competition prevalent in the with each others to attract the tourism industry as well, adapting the industry's offerings to visitors. So, the need for best match the changing tourism patterns with new marketing innovations in tourism is in strategies is at the central of gaining success in the place; thus, gaining marketplace. increasing attention in Innovation is an intensely studied phenomenon in the tourism tourism literature and research. This paper aims to field, a relatively new area of interest a fact proven by examine the literatures researches that first appeared in the late 80's and intensified regarding tourism innovation, in the 2000's when researchers and entrepreneurs started to specifically the status and notice the importance of innovation in tourism (Andrea, trends of innovation in 2012). It has repeatedly been claimed that rigid innovation tourism business. Twenty publications from two research has been applied to tourism to only a limited extent decades of studies (1997- and empirical tests of the phenomenon have been modest 2017) across the countries are (Hjalager, 2002; Sundbo, Orfila-Sintes, & Sørensen, 2007). reviewed, and concluded the This paper tries to review the last two decades of innovation innovation in tourism researches undertaken in the field of tourism business, present business today. The findings findings and finally summarize it. Specifically, two questions can be implied for the growth and productivity of tourism are addressed: 1. what is the present status of innovation in business, and setting policies tourism business? 2. How is the trend of innovation in for tourism innovation. This tourism business? study is also significant from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f sustainability of the tourism industry.

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 1 Literature Review explained two components of innovation, This section accounts all the literature namely, technological innovation and non- linked to two things: innovation and technological innovation. Technological tourism innovation. The literature extends innovation depends on technology, from definition and types of innovation to especially ICT whereas non-technological demand & supply side factors influencing innovation, dependent on the intangible tourism innovation and areas of innovation human resources, organizational structure strategies in tourism. Thus, the literature and factors can add value to customer review is written to have an understanding service (marketing, distribution channels of the scope of innovation and provide an etc.). insight to the forces and innovative Innovation in Tourism Business: strategies shaping the tourism business. I n n o v a t i o n i s t h e s u c c e s s f u l What is Innovation? commercialization of new ideas. It can Innovation word was first used by cover all processes in the development of economist and J. A. Schumpeter (1934). He tourism destinations (Lesjak, Miha, et al., defined it from an economic perspective. 2013). New forms of tourism are emerging Schumpeter included product and process in the place of traditional tourism, including innovations. Similarly, Peter Drucker more innovative, specialized, “greener”, defined it from an entrepreneurial customized and experience-oriented forms. perspective derived from Schumpeter's Moreover, the expansion of tourism definition. The word service innovation was demand, as well as demographic changes first introduced by Richard Barras in 1986. (e.g. ageing populations), accelerate the In his approach, he started with the service segmentation of tourism products and the characteristics and also proposed a creation of new types of tourism products. theoretical model of process innovation in A main area of change and innovation in services based on the idea of the reverse tourism concerns the use of information and product cycle (Barras, 1986). A communication technologies (ICT). The comprehensive definition by OECD (2005) diffusion of ICT in the tourism industry covers the manufacturing as well as the enables consumers to interact directly with service sector, incorporates four types of tourism providers. For the industry, this innovations: product, process, might lead to a reduction of transaction organizational and marketing innovations. costs, leading to a process of In an another perspective, Hjalager (2002) disintermediation. Major basic innovations, distinguished four types of innovation: e.g. in transportation, have also largely regular innovations (raising productivity, influenced the growth of the tourism incremental raise of quality etc), industry (OECD, 2004). revolutionary innovations (diffusion of new Australia was the first destination to build technology, new methods etc), niche an international brand image, when the innovations (new market alliances, new Australian tourism council launched “Brand ways) and architectural innovations Australia” in 1996. Tourism.australia.com (redefine physical or legal structure, create stated, all Australian tourism council's new events etc). Similarly, Carvalho (2008) marketing activities are driven by

2 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 understanding and insight into the markets increasing competition in tourism in and consumers targeted. Key activities Europe, changes in consumer behavior, include the Visiting Journalist Program, strengthening the currency of euro have direct marketing, online marketing via shortened the average length of stay. It has Australia.com, celebrity endorsements, also reduced the growth in visitors to consumer and trade promotions, Aussie Switzerland. To develop tourism, it was Specialist Program and trade events. necessary to look for innovative solutions. Australia's tourism marketing focused to The tourism destinations in Switzerland partnership marketing and recently tourism started to introduce innovations into ambassador program, flexible advertising products, but mainly through restructuring. campaigns and internet website are the In today's saturated markets customers look effective means of communication. for “experiences” rather than destination Sandybayev (2016), has presented in his specific products. It will, therefore, become research, five areas of innovation in the increasingly important to use innovation tourism sector: and product development to create ● introduction of new tourist routes, rewarding tourism experiences rather than release of a new tourism or restaurant isolated components. Experience-based product, providing new hotel services; holiday proposals will become the main ● the use of new techniques and motive for the holiday decision (Bartaletti, technologies; 1998). ● use of new tourist resources; Supply-side Factors for Innovation: ● application of new techniques and methods of organization of the business Supply factor leads to the creation of new process; products, services, and markets. Here, the ● opening of new direction and new suppliers create and supply the new tourism markets. offerings. For instance, coastal destinations Demand-side Factors for Innovation: have a high competition because of similar Demand factor influences the market for nature of offerings. So they need to develop tourism business by creating the need for and position their destinations in an the development of new tourism products innovative way. Some coastal destination or services. Poon (1993) stated one of the like Lisbon in Portugal has commercialized significant changes in the travel the innovative ideas to succeed. Completo, marketplace comes from tourists F. & Gustavo, N. (2013) stated all the water themselves. They increasingly seek tailor- sports events ha increased the prestige of made experiences. Today, the economics of the tourism of Lisbon. They represent a tourism allows suppliers to deal more significant contribution to the tourist effectively with the increasing complexity promotion of the city and help develop the and diversity of consumer requirements. local economic fabric and stimulate the New technologies allow for flexible and creation of new tourism products in the segmented vacations, which are cost- sector. The growth of water sports tourism competitive with mass, standardized activities has fostered the increase of offer holidays. and supply of water sports activities and The study of Bertelli et al. (2013) stated thus leading to the growth of clubs and

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 3 enthusiasts, in a snowball effect that brings contribute to increasing sales volume and more events to Lisbon and increases tourist profits. On the other hand, broad use of the demand. Internet facilitates the direct communication Similarly, a well-told story, linked to an between producers (e.g., hoteliers, air area or a tourist attraction, can represent carriers) and consumers, putting into great value for those involved in promoting question the role to be played by some tourism. The use of storytelling in the travel intermediaries. The application of sector has in many cases contributed to a ICT in the tourism industry inevitably leads large increase in interest and visitors, to a process of disintermediation and boosting the economy and providing contributes to industry restructuring and tourists with more meaningful experience innovation (OECD, 2004). at. A project, through storytelling as well as Information Technology, and the Internet destination development, can structure a and World Wide Web, in particular, are narrative that can be used for a regional going to transform the role of travel agents, advantage (Finnsson, 2011). and doubtless sharply reduce the size of the Innovation Strategies with ICT: travel agent industry, unless this industry The tourism industry has always been very can identify a new bundle of services that proactive regarding the adoption of new can be provided to potential travelers. Any technologies (e.g., global distribution household with access to the Internet and systems). Recent advances in therefore access to Google now have telecommunications, networking, databases, immediate access to detailed information data processing, and electronic marketing about almost any conceivable location on provide many new opportunities for tourism the earth's surface as a possible candidate business and are significantly impacting on for a visit. nicketing for airplane travel can traditional tourism business models. The also be arranged on the Internet, which also use of information and communications provides invaluable information about the technology (ICT) adds value to tourism various prices of airplane tickets. In fact, an services and products and supports the American research company (Forrester) has development of industry networks and recently calculated that travel is now the clusters. ICT covers the whole tourism largest online business in the world. The value chain (e.g., information on Internet is obviously transforming the d e s t i n a t i o n s , a c c o m m o d a t i o n , tourism business in many ways, and easy transportation, package tours, and services) access to information is growing rapidly in and displays the actual process and each of the separate components of the availability of such services. The wide industry, and making it increasingly adoption of ICT in the tourism industry is competitive (Rosenberg, 2006). transforming the role played by tourism Bertazzon et al. (1997) stated, at its core, actors such as travel agents, tour operators, the tourism industry “sells” images of the conference organizers, booking agents, etc. geography of different parts of the world. If On the one hand, ICT systems provide tourism marketing is to be effective in detailed, up-to-date information on the achieving the expectations of both tourism availability and prices of products and marketers and their clients, an

4 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 understanding of the geography of the differentiating it from all other products. places that people wish to visit or to market The Relationship, Networks, and must be a fundamental component of the Clusters in Innovation: marketing system. With the creation of Considering the relationship marketing geographic information system (GIS), the strategies of a tourism company, it will task of incorporating meaningful particularly deal with attracting and geographical dimensions and data into encouraging customers, conveying useful marketing efforts has become more information and appropriate product and feasible. The development of GIS and other services for optimizing and identifying electronic communications technology such customers' desires and recording their as the world wide web and the internet behaviors during their shopping for highlights the potential to develop much identifying future trends in the industry. more appropriately targeted marketing tools Using relationship marketing strategies, and techniques. they will not only improve quality, Recently there is heightening use of online customer satisfaction, and profit but also marketing which is transforming the cause the development of tourism sector tourism business. Many forms of online and its increase income (Avcikurt et al., marketing including search engine, email 2016). marketing, online advertising, digital Toader et al. (2013) stated networks and marketing, social media, etc. are being the clusters are seen by many experts as major drivers of innovation in tourism innovative approaches in the development business and marketing. of tourism sector. The network concept can Tourism as an “Experience” Strategy: be defined as patterned relationships among Given the intangibility of tourism products, individuals, groups, and organizations the tourist may be uncertain about the (Dubini and Aldrich, 1991). The quality of the services provided. Despite or cooperation inside of a network is a because of this intangibility, tourism voluntary arrangement between two or products can be enhanced in value by more firms that involves durable exchange, adding sensations (design, fragrance, light, sharing, or co-development of new products color, emotional attachment). Such product and technologies (Groen, 2005). “Business changes can only enhance the emotional clusters” is defined as a geographical group value of the “tourism experience” of interconnected companies and associated (Weiermair, 2006). institutions in a particular field linked by Grech (2006) stated rather than promote commonalities and complementarities Malta as a destination we need to promote (Porter, 1998). Tourism network structures it as an experience. This implies that the within a destination tend to exist only based value provided to the visitor derives from on complementary product, e.g., activities, the experience and not just from the accommodation, transport, and food, services consumed. Promoting Malta as whereby clients are referred from one experience has, therefore, become an organization to another to provide a essential part of the branding process, comprehensive tourist experience (Greffe, giving Malta a distinct feature and 1994). Toader et al. (2013) further wrote

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 5 “The tourism networks are formed from in tourism” was searched. Additionally, SMEs providing complementary products “innovation” “tourism” combined with and services: tour operators, travel agencies, AND or OR. The findings gave numbers of accommodation units, transportation articles related to tourism innovation companies and leisure and entertainment research. However, only twenty units. Due to their initiatives, the cluster publications related to innovative ideas and and networks are a good example of strategies in tourism business were selected. innovative tourism activities, especially of Results & Findings product innovation. The way the cluster and From the literature review study, many network are organized can be considered an categories, forms and ideas of innovations example of organizational innovation.” are identified. The study will contribute to Methodology answer two research questions regarding The study of innovation in tourism business status and trends of innovation in tourism was based upon the reviews of a number of business. In the table below, twenty articles and research papers. Articles related research studies and their authors, date of to the innovation research in tourism were literature publication, research method and searched. Databases like google scholar, findings are presented: sciencedirect, sage, etc were used to find the resources where keywords: “innovation

Author/Da Research Methods Findings te Obje ctives Iplik, F.N. To measure the Questionnaire Establishing an innovation department is et al. level of strategic another significant attempt to activate the (2014) innovation of hotel innovation capacity of hotel firms. firms, and to reveal The cost of the innovation and the obstacles to qualifications of the staff are two strategic innovation important impeding factors which reduce acti vities. the innovation activities of hotels. Nezakati et To the Literature Information technology is highly effective a l. (2015) understanding of review in supporting knowledge dissemination, knowledge sharing communication, and collaboration in in social media in tourism and travel industry. Moreover, the the tourism sec tor. significant role of social media in pre -trip travel planning and decision making was reviewed. It was also revealed that social media act as an important tool in tacit knowledge sharing. Nagy, To investigate Secondary Route-based tour ism product development Katalin, reasons, present search and is known worldwide and can be and situation of the questionnaire particularly advantageous for less Piskoti, route and its developed areas, which are less familiar Istvan attractions, and the in the tourism market. By mixing the (2016) possible tools – phenomena of tourism, the economy, mainly of innovation and social difficulties, certain destination types of tourism routes can be tools for managemen t – to social innovations. make the route function a gain.

6 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Weiermair, Which are success Interview Most successful innovations were new K . (2004) factors for forms of distribution (online booking), innovation in agent relationships and reduced costs of tour ism? product delivery. Co -operative marketing and other forms of strategic alliances were also mentioned. Niche marketing (special interest groups) together with small product changes should also be taken into consideration. Oklobdzija, To present the Literature The more recognizable events the Sonja roles of events in review destination has, the more it is attractive (2015) contemporary for the tourists. The key of their success tourism and to lies in support of the accommodation define their origins, facilities of an appropriate standard, high classification, tourist level of cooperation between tourist value, impacts, and agencies, the availability of specific outc omes. information about events and follow -up activities, and most importantly, proper marketing activities. OECD To examine policy Case Non-technological innovation will play an (2012) environment for studie s increasingly important role in the green innovation, transition to a green economy. Examples green business include the introduction of environmental models and drivers management systems and new business and barriers to models, changes to marketing and green innovation in organizational methods, and also to urism. innovation in social and institutional structures. Liu, Claire To examine Case study Before 1999, New Zealand as a country (2013) innovation in SMEs was marketed with multiple images for in tourism of New multiple markets. From July 1999, the Ze aland. 100% Pure New Zealand campaign was developed with a strong and simple statement that embodies New Zealand characteristics as a people, a country, and an experience. Hjalager, To interpret within Literature The fo llowing types of innovation can be Anne-Mette the framework of a review distinguished: product innovations, classical (1997) typology of process innovations, process innovations in innovations the information handling, management behavior of the innovations and institutional innovations. agents in tourism The article concludes that innovations are and leisure servic es. predominantly launched as part of defensive st rategies by the tourism industry. Boycheva, To identify the Literature The Bulgarian tourism development should Christina types of innovation review be based mainly on the technological (2017) in tourism and the innovations in the field of product main areas where development, process management, internal they could be or external organizational relationships. All applied while the efforts to encourage innovation searching for development should be focused on possibilities to Bulgaria’s outstanding cultural attractions increase the and monuments, on sports and competitiveness of entertainment events, as well as

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 7 the Bulgarian conferences, fairs, and exhibitions because tourism industry they also play an important role in and to ensure its sustainable tourism development. sustainable grow th. Marakova, To define the Literature It is appropriate that innovation policy Vanda & categories of review was also oriented to the target groups that Medvedova innovation are of interest to other sectoral policies , Miroslava including process, (e.g., small and medium size enterprises). (2016) marketing, The territorial dimension is also important; institutional, it would be appropriate to examine how management, product policies influence the dynamics of and service innovations, organizational innovations in the sector as well as the (for example clusters) and to help build knowledge applied to innovation systems. innovations in tou rism. Aldebert et To apprehend an d Case study Over the years, technologies have evolved al . (2011) capture the towards mobile and web 2.0 applications, evolution of which points out the importance of end innovative activities customers. Services dedicated to the in the tourism preparation of transactions are dominating, industry through but there is a striking increase in services the empirical dedicated to the period of the travel, analysis of annual which is coupled with the spread of Tourism@ eve nts. mobile or RFID technologies. Innovation follows th e same pattern , going from market innovation to applications. Inter- To present Case study ICT has changed and continues to American innovation change the nature of contemporary developme strategies, poli cies, tourism. Its major adoption in all parts nt bank cases, challenges, of the industry is transforming tourism (2014) and trends to be into an information and knowledge useful for a broad intensive sector, valid in a globalized audience: national economy. and subnational level tourism, innovation, industry and competitiveness authorities, and private tourism sector locally based Stipanovic, To explore the Case Through creative programs, workshops, Christian current condition study/surve educational and recreational programs, & Rudan, and the possible y/scenario authentic gastronomy, heritage and Elena development analysis events, Kvarner can develop into a (2014) perspectives of creative destination. creative tourism in the tourist destination of Kvarner.

8 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Camison, To offer a Literature Tourism companies are less technically Cesar & diagnosis of the review innovative than manufacturing and other Monfort- “state of the services companies, and that they Mir, V.M. issue” regarding perform mainly incremental innovations (2012) the measurement based on previously available of innovation in knowledge within the organization, the tourism allowing imitators and adapters to industry at the prevail over the genuine innovators. company leve l. Decelle, To study the Literature In contrast to the radical innovations Xavier conceptual and review vital to growth in manufacturing (2004) dynamic approach sectors, innovations in serv ices and to innovation in tourism were secondary and capital- tou rism. scarce, and for this reason they were excluded from the scope of government interest and action. It is interesting to note that the discourse changed with the emergence of new ICTs, which have been especially influential in the realm of tourism. Stamboulis Two core questions Literature Tourism is undergoing significant & emerge: a) how review change and facing a new challenge- Skayannis can culture, that call for new perspectives. At least (2003) knowledge, and two dimensions of the change can be innovations foster identified: new forms of tourism, new tourism? b) characterized by the tendency to depart how might this be from the mass tourism, and the related to new diffusion of information and technol ogy? communication technologies, with a pervasive effect on the creation, production, and consumption of the tourist product. Innovative attempts gain new strategic value when viewed from a perspective that values experience as an important new attribute. Nybakk, To determine if Email Results indicate that there is a positive Erlend et networking is survey connection between networking and al. (2008) positively related to innovativeness, and between innovativeness and if innovativeness and performance. A innovativeness is qualitative case example illustrates the positively related to interaction among actors and the performance in the nature-based tourism resulting impacts on the innovation industry in Norway. process.

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 9 Carvalho, To address a Case study a) the implementation of a Hotel Luisa & general question: Integrated Management System could Costa, how to explain be classified as a radical innovation; b) Teresa innovation in the the implementation of a Hotel (201 1) tourism secto r. Integrated Management System contributes mainly to organizational innovation; c) the firms use sustainability as a strategy for innovation and differentiation from the competition. Pegler, To examine the Case study Measures which include a new strategic Bob current challenges direction, flexible advertising campaigns (200 4) and barriers faced and proactive application of the Internet by the Australian for tourism promotion, will improve the tourism industry environment of the Australian tourism and attempt to industry. reveal its innovative approach to cope with these recent challenges and barriers. Genc, R. To exp lore the Literature Market-oriented innovations are & Genc, relationship review essential in the tourism sector since E. A. between innovation they increase the existing capacity of (201 7) types and their the tourism market, take part in the application in the survival of tourism, are useful for tourism industry overcoming negative effects and play a within the market key role in opening up saturated structu re. markets. Considering the competitive nature of global markets, touristic destinations which are involved in more innovative developments will be more likely to be preferred by tourists, since demands of tourists are even more varied when compared to past years.

Discussion and Conclusion 2016; Genc, R. & Genc, E. A., 2017; Route based tourism product development, Oklobdzija, 2015; Liu, C., 2013; important role of events, new positioning of Weiermair, 2004) etc. as described in the New Zealand, niche marketing together articles reviewed showed an importance of with small product changes, market- “product or market development oriented innovations (Nagy & Piskoti, innovation”. Similarly, use of co-operative

10 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 marketing and other forms of strategic travel planning, decision making and also alliances, positive connection between sharing tacit knowledge is increasing. The networking and innovativeness, ICT for adoption of ICT is also offering tools for clustering and working together and clustering and working together and for globalization & creation of a critical mass globalization and creation of a critical mass. (Weiermair, 2004; Nybakk et al., 2008; However, tourism innovations need a Inter-American development bank, 2004) favorable internal and external environment etc. showed the role of “networks and which can facilitate to adopt new ideas & relationships” in tourism business technologies and network & collaborate innovations. Some other articles focused on with other stakeholders in the tourism “process innovation” such as the sector. So, the study finds that together with introduction of environmental management the new programmes and policies, ICT systems and new business models, based innovation could be an effective and technological innovations development in innovative strategy for tourism business Bulgarian tourism industy, innovation firms. policy oriented to the target groups, creative This study includes some limitations such programs for Kvarner's creative as situational or contextual factors since it development, the implementation of a hotel covers only last two decades of studies. integrated management system (OECD, Similarly, only literatures published in 2012; Boycheva, 2017; Marakova & English articles or books were considered. Medvedova, 2016; Stipanovic & Rudan, The main implication of this study is the 2014; Carvalho & Costa, 2011). Studies emphasis on the role of ICTs and such as, significant role of social media in innovation policies in tourism industry for travel planning and tacit knowledge deriving innovations in tourism businesses. sharing, evolution towards mobile and web Since the innovation in tourism were 2.0 applications and spread of RFID, ICT's studied to a limited extent, this review transforming of tourism into an information study is significant to research such earlier and knowledge intensive sector, proactive studies and specifically examine the status application of the internet for Australian and trends of innovation in the tourism tourism promotion, diffusion of information business. In general, tourism innovation is and communication technologies with a driven by competition since there is a need pervasive effect on the creation, production for sustainable competitiveness of the and consumption of the tourist product tourism firms. Such competitiveness in (Nezakati et al., 2015; Aldebert et al., 2011; tourism business can be derived from Inter-American development bank, 2014; products or services innovation, process Pegler, 2004; Stamboulis & Skayannis, innovation, organizational innovation, and 2003) all gave emphasis on the valuable marketing innovation; however, such nature role of “ICT in innovations” in tourism of innovations in tourism are generally in business. incremental in nature. The use of ICTs and The study shows that technologies have adoption of innovation policies could be the evolved towards mobile and web 2.0 driving force for innovations in the tourism applications which are going from market business. More future researches are needed innovation to applications. Consumer to explore specific innovation ideas and websites are playing a major role in all PR their outcomes regarding sustainability of and marketing activities to reach a large business further. number of consumers around the globe. The significant role of social media in pre-trip

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 11 References Dubini, P., and H. Aldrich. (1991). “Personal Aldebert, B. et al. (2011). Innovation in the and extended networks are central to the tourism industry: The case of Tourism@. entrepreneurial process.” Journal of Tourism Management. Vol. 32, 1204- Business Venturing, 6: 305-313. 1213. Finnsson, P. T. (2011). Holistic stories drive Andrea, N. (2012). A review of tourism and tourism businesses forward. Innovation in hospitality innovation research. Annals of nordic tourism. Nordic innovation centre: the Faculty of Economics 1 (2), 364-370. Oslo. Avcikurt, Cevdet et al. (2016). Global issues Genc, R. & Genc, E. A. (2017). Market- and trends in tourism. St. Kliment oriented innovations in tourism. Research Ohridski University Press: Sofia. in Hospitality Management. Vol. 7 (1). Barras, R. (1986). Towards a theory of 51-57. innovation in services. Research Policy Grech, J. C. (2006). Malta: A permanent 15, 161-173. process of innovation in tourism. Bartaletti, F. (1998). Tourismus im Innovation and Growth in Tourism: Alpenraum, Praxis Geographie, 28/2, OECD publishing. 22-25. Greffe, X. (1994). Is rural tourism a lever for Beritelli, P. et al. (2013). The new frontiers of economic and social development? In B. destination management: Applying Bramwell & B. Lane (Eds.), Rural tourism variable geometry as a function-based and sustainable rural development, 22-40. approach. Journal of Travel Research, Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Vol. 53, 4, 403-417. Groen, A.J. (2005). Knowledge-intensive Bertazzon, S. et al. (1997). GIS applications entrepreneurship in networks: towards a in tourism marketing: current uses, an multi-level/multidimensional approach, experimental application, and prospects. Journal of Enterprising Culture, 13(1), The Haworth Press: Alberta. 69-88. Boycheva, Christina. (2017). Innovation and Hjalager, A. M. (1997). Innovation patterns in competitiveness in the context of the sustainable tourism an analytical Bulgarian tourism industry. Economics typology. Tourism Management, 18(1), Alternatives, 1, pp 137-148. 35-41. Camison, Cesar & Monfort-Mir, V.M. (2012). Hjalager, A. M. (2002). Repairing innovation Measuring innovation in tourism from the defectiveness in tourism. Tourism Schumpeterian and the dynamic- Management, 23, 465-474. capabilities perspectives. Tourism Inter-American Development Bank. (2014). Management, 33, 776-789. Improving competitiveness in the Carvalho, L. (2008), Innovation and Caribbean tourism sector through ICT- Entrepreneurship: A model to service based innovations. IDB. sector, unpublised Ph.D. Thesis, Evora Iplik, F. N. et al. (2014). Strategic innovation: University, June 2008, Portugal. An empirical study on hotel firms Carvalho, Luisa & Costa, Teresa. (2011). operating in Antalya region. Advances in Tourism innovation- A literature review Hospitality and Tourism Research, 2 (1), complemented by case study research. 16-29. Book of Proceedings Vol. 1- international Lesjak, Miha et al. (2013). IMCD. University conference on tourism & management of Primorska Press: Slovenia studies. Algarve. Liu, Claire (2013). Innovation in SMEs in Complete, F. & Gustavo, N. (2013). Lisbon as tourism: The New Zealand experience. a Nautical events destination: A new PATA tourism forum. leisure and tourism attraction. IMCD. Marakova, Vanda & Medvedova, Miroslava. Decelle, Xavier (2004). A conceptual and (2016). Innovation in tourism destinations. dynamic approach to innovation in Forum Scientiae Oeconomia, 4 (1). tourism. OECD, Paris. Nagy, Katalin & Piskoti, Istvan. (2016).

12 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Route-based tourism product development Rosenberg, N. (2006). Innovation and as a tool for social innovation: History economic growth. Innovation and Growth valley in the cserehat region. Club of in Tourism: OECD publishing. Economics in Miskole's TMP, Vol. 12, Sandybayev, A. (2016). Strategic Innovation 75-86. in Tourism. A Conceptual and Review Nezakati, Hossein et al. (2015). Review of Approach. International Journal of social media potential on knowledge Research in Tourism and Hospitality, 2(4) sharing and collaboration in tourism 2431-2455. industry. Social and Behavioral Sciences, Schumpeter, J. (1934). The Theory Of 172, 120-125. Economic Development, Harvard Nybakk, Erlend et al. (2008). Networking, University Press, USA. innovation, and performance in norwegian Stamboulis, Y. & Skayannis, P. (2003). nature-based tourism. Journal of Forest Innovation strategies and technology for Products Business Research. Vol. 5, experience-based tourism. Tourism article 4. Management, 24, 35-43. OECD (2004). OECD conference on Stipanovic, Christian & Rudan, Elena. (2014). innovation and growth in tourism, 18-19 Development concept and strategy for September 2003. Lugano, Switzerland. creative tourism of the kvarner OECD (2005). Oslo Manual: guidelines for destination. Tourism and Hospitality collecting and interpreting innovation Industry 2014. Congress proceedings. data. OECD, Paris. Sundbo, J., Orfila-Sintes, F., & Sørensen, F. OECD (2012). Green innovation in tourism (2007). The innovative behaviour of services. OECD tourism papers, Paris. tourism firms comparative studies of Oklobdzija, Sonja (2015). The role of events Denmark and Spain. Research Policy, in tourism development. Biz Info Journal, 36(1), 88-106. 6 (2), 83-97. Toader et al. (2013). Networks, clusters, and Pegler, Bob. (2004). Innovation in the field of innovation in Romanian tourism. market communication and marketing: Conference of the international journal of The Australian initiative. Innovation and arts & science: 6(2), 81-89. Growth in Tourism: OECD publishing. Weiermair, K. (2006). Product improvement Poon, A. (1993). Tourism, technology, and or innovation: what is the key to success competitive strategies. Cab Intern., in tourism, Innovation and Growth in Wallingford. Tourism. OECD, Paris, 53-69. Porter, M. E. (1998). Clusters and the new Weiermair, K. (2004). Product improvement economics of competition. Harvard or innovation: What is the key to success Business Review, 76(6), 77-90. in tourism?. OECD, Paris.

BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHOR Ishwar Khatri is studying 'International Business and Marketing' degree at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. He also holds the Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree from Pokhara University, Nepal. His research interests are international business, marketing, micro-finance, tourism, and leadership & culture. The author can be contacted by email at [email protected]

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 13

K e y W o r d s A Study on Environmental Orientation among Tourists

Valley of kashmir, Visiting Kashmir Valley environment, sustainable tourism, environmental orientation, endorsement, IQBAL AHMAD BHAT attitude Assistant Professor, Department of Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Management Khallikote University Berhampur, Odisha.

Abstract INTRODUCTION For the promotion and development of sustainable tourism in destination area, here has been a tremendous growth in tourism post- it is imperative to have responsible World War II era. According to the estimates of visitors with pro-environmental United Nations World Tourism Organization orientation. The Valley of Kashmir is T bestowed with bountiful natural (UNWTO), the international tourist numbers have seen an resources and rich biodiversity. Tourists visit Kashmir Valley for its natural and increase of 7% to reach 1.3billion in 2017 (UNWTO, 2018). scenic beauty. Most of the tourist places The development of tourism at the individual destinations in Kashmir Valley are ecologically sensitive and vulnerable to impacts of might be experiencing fluctuations due to various factors uncontrolled tourist movement. Under associated therein. But the overall global pattern since the such circumstances, it becomes post-war era has seen an uninterrupted growth of tourism. important to understand the critical minimum knowledge of tourists about During 1960s the unparalleled growth of tourist movement the environment for the sustainable from more developed countries to less developed ones saw a tourism development. The present study is based on New Ecological Paradigm big surge in tourism development. The growth of tourism in Scale developed by Riley Dunlap and developing countries witnessed a new transition which gave his colleagues, and is a measure of endorsement of a 'pro-ecological rise to tourism dependency or the international 'pleasure worldview'. It is a survey based metric periphery' (Turner & Ash, 1975). According to Jafari (1989, designed to measure the environmental concern of tourists visiting Kashmir 2001), the growth of tourism since post-war era can be better Valley. The survey construct consists of understood through the sequential appearance of the fifteen statements wherein respondents were asked to show their agreement or advocacy, cautionary, adaptancy, and knowledge-based disagreement measured on five point perspectives. The pro-tourism advocates in the early 1950s Likert scale. The agreement to eight odd statements in the construct shows the and 1960s labeled tourism as a benign tool for the respondents' endorsement to pro- economically impoverished developing countries. Different ecological paradigm while as endorsement to seven even statements theories and arguments were built in support of tourism being reflects dominant social paradigm the harbinger of world peace and cross-cultural relationships (DSP). The findings of the present study revealed that tourists in general showed (D'Amore, 1988). The role of tourism as an incentive in the their endorsement to the pro-ecological preservation of destinations environmental and heritage worldview while measuring the average resources was highly appreciated by the propounders of mean score on five point Likert scale. But differences in opinion were found advocacy platform. But several factors in the late 1960s and while measuring the endorsement on the early 1970s saw the emergence of dependency theories, basis of socio-demographic variables. The study which is a first of its kind in wherein the negative impacts of mass growth of tourism the concerned area is of valuable became the focal point of discussion. It was argued that importance for both academicians as well as stakeholders. It is expected that tourism was a means through which the developed regions the present study will help in addressing have been exploiting the less developed nations (Hills and the issues of sustainability and management of tourist destinations in Lundgren, 1977; Britton, 1982). Scholars like Finney and the Valley of Kashmir.

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 15 Watson (1975); and Harrigan (1974) had minimum awareness about the basics of gone to the extent of labelling tourism as a environment. The study takes into account new form sugar, and master-slave different socio-economic and demographic relationship. variables of visiting tourists to understand It was during this time that the their knowledge about the environmental environmental movements started gaining orientation about a destination being prominence which saw the emergence of visited. The study uses the widely accepted new tourism paradigm. According to (Knill, New Environmental Paradigm Scale 1991), a green paradigm of tourism developed by Riley Dunlop and his emerged that challenged the more colleagues for the measurement of exploitative and anthropocentric dominant environmental orientation of tourists social paradigm. This, inturn, gave rise to visiting the Valley of Kashmir. the concept of sustainability and sustainable REVIEW OF LITERATURE tourism development. The decision makers There are numerous studies in the academic and policy framing authorities became more literature on tourism which assertthat aware ofthe ill impacts of mass tourism and environmental attitude is a predicator of started searching for alternative tourism ecologically responsible behaviour (Kaiser, planning, and managerial options. The Wolfing, & Fuhrer, 1999; Singh, 2001; notion of sustainability and sustainable Davis, Green, & Reed, 2008; Lee, 2008). tourism development gave rise to new The concept of attitude is a measure of forms of tourism as an alternative to ill people's behaviour to respond either impacts of mass tourism. The acceptance of favourably or unfavourably towards a the term sustainable tourism has been particular issue. The earlier studies in the widely acknowledged in the present times. field of environment and landscape The broad concepts associated with management have tried to measure the sustainable tourism include ecotourism; human behaviour on the basis of human appropriate tourism; responsible tourism; value and aesthetic orientation dimensions nature tourism; rural tourism; and many (Homer & Kahle, 1988; Rokeach, 1973; other forms (Weaver, 1998; Lane, 1991). Fulton et al., 1996). Similarly, the However, the basic argument which needs relationship between the three domains of to be debated is to what extent the visiting human psychology (cognitive, affective and tourist population has awareness about the conative) as the predicament of basic environmental ethics while visiting environmental behaviour have been any destination. This requires an in-depth empirically verified (Cottrell,2003). The study approach about the environmental studies of (Cheng & Monroe, 2012; concerns of tourists visiting a destination, in Halpenny, 2010; Vaske & Kobrin, 2001) order to follow the practices of suggest that it is the people's attachment sustainability and sustainable tourism. towards the environment which develops a According to (Arcury, 1990), increased pro-environmental attitude and sense of knowledge about the environment is responsibility in them. The earlier attempts assumed to change environmental attitudes, in the direction of environmental value and both environmental knowledge and orientation have been that of Dunlap and attitudes are assumed to influence Van Liere (1978), Dunlap et al. (1992) by environmental policy. The present study is developing the Environmental Paradigm based on the argument that visiting tourist Scale known as New Ecological Paradigm population to any destination of Scale (NEP). This is an instrument which environmental fragility should have critical tries to measure the pro environmental

16 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 orientation of visitors and is widely Dunlap and his colleagues assert that the accepted tool in tourism and sustainability NEP scale has various strengths and studies. inherent consistency which make it more There have been numerous studies reliable globally. The fact is not mere showcasing the importance of environment speculation as the study of Weigel & and inherent human belief. According to Weigel, (1978) has found the validity of Thompson and Barton (1994), two NEP more demanding due to its pro- approaches towards the study of the environmental orientation. The endorsement environment are: ecocentric and to NEP as compared to DSP has been more anthropocentric. In case of ecocentric endorsed due to the fact of changing world approach, humans' value nature and its view especially after the environmental preservation for its intrinsic values while as concerns of the 1970s. Studies in case of in case of anthropocentrism, humans value outdoor recreational activities using NEP as nature for their own needs. The study of a measure of environmental attitude have Guagnano, Dietz, and Stern (1994)has shown different results. For example; Uysal suggested one more approach that of et al. (1994) while examining the visitor 'egocentrism' which is based on personal attitude towards the environment and their goal maximization. Stokols (1990) tries to socio-demographic characteristics that trip bring a balance between human endeavours behaviour and site specific preferences are and ecology by visualizing the spirituality more important as compared to other and instrumentalism as the main dimensions variables. In other cases, the environmental of the environmental drive. The problems attitude has been used as the major tool for of environmental concerns are more rooted market segmentation, wherein NEP and in human behaviour and the socio-cultural socio-demographic characteristics of values which shape their attitude (Skogen, ecotourists or nature-based tourists were 1999). For example, environmental examined (Formica and Uysal 2002; behaviour is depended on personal and Zografos and Allcroff 2007). In certain situational variables and the way in which cases, it has been found that NEP and these interact (Corraliza, & Berenguer, environmental attitude are negatively 2000). related while as in other cases relation was The NEP scale as the measure of human positive (Wearing et al., 2002; Wurzinger belief towards ecology has fifteen and Johansson, 2006; Khan, 2004; Kim, constructs which focus on ecocentric belief Borges, and Chon 2006). The More positive as a change from the Dominant Social relationship between NEP and socio- Paradigm (DSP) or anthropocentrism. The demographic dimensions has been the case scale has been widely used both from the of site-specific preferences and motivational general public perspective as well as behaviours. specific sectors and members of special With an increase in the number of tourists interest group (Edgell & Nowell, 1989; to a destination of the ecologically sensitive Pierce et al.1992). Among the other studies environment, the severity of negative are those of Caron, 1989) Noe & Snow, impacts increases manifold (Newsome, & 1989, 1990; Gooch (1995); Furman (1998); Moore, 2002). The unplanned growth of and Pierce et al. (1987)which show the tourism has damaged the natural and socio- wide acceptance of NEP scale across the cultural environments of many destinations different cultures. All these studies show (Domet, 1991; Frueh, 1986; Hall, & Lew, the continuity to what Dunlap had already 1998; Singh, 1989). These negative effects published in his Washington study of 1978. have led to the growing concern for the

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 17 conservation of natural resources, human infrastructure development, the density of well-being, and the long-term economic forest cover in and around Gulmarg has viability of communities (Akis, Peristianis, considerably reduced (Greater Kashmir, & Warner, 1996; Butler, & Boyd, 2000; 2017).The present study addresses the Cater, 1993; Haralambopoulos, & Pizam, negative side of the tourism development, 1996; Healy, 1994; Mowforth, & Munt, and tries to find out the concerns of visitors 1998; Place, 1995; Richard, & Hall, 2000). and studies their behaviour on the basis of The destinations quality decreases different socio-demographic variables. The substantially when the number of visitors is main thrust of such a concern is to promote beyond the critical limits of carrying more sustainable tourism practices in the capacity (Weaver, & Lawton, 2004).The Valley of Kashmir. negative impacts of mass tourism include AIMS AND OBJECTIVES an increase in the land use resources, The present study is based on the aim to alteration in landscape, pollution (air, land, promote sustainable tourism practices at a water, and noise), irresponsible human destination based on responsible visitor behaviour towards a destination, change in behaviour. The study has the following aesthetics, and more importantly trampling objectives: of biodiversity. 1. To analyse profile the tourists visiting PROBLEM STATEMENT the Valley of Kashmir. The present study is based on the Valley of 2. To evaluate the environmental Kashmir which is known across the globe orientation of tourists visiting the Valley of as 'paradise on earth'. Tourism is Kashmir. synonymous with the development as well METHODOLOGY ADOPTED as an important tool for the promotion of Research design: The present study peace in the Valley of Kashmir. Tourists follows the sequential explanatory research since time immemorial have been visiting design under mixed research methods. The the Valley and its remotest places like research derives its subjectivity through a Amarnath, Gangabal, and Gulmarg. There descriptive path while going deep into the has been more thrust on the positive side of study area and its prospects for sustainable tourism development in the Valley with no tourism development. According to or little attention towards its ill effects. The Creswell (2009), mixed methodology prospective visitors to the Valley of involves the use of both qualitative and Kashmir, in general, have been the mass quantitative approaches in tandem in order tourists in the peak tourism season. This is to make it stronger rather than following a always a welcome step knowing the fact single method. The use of inductive and that tourism brings more economic deductive approaches in the present study development and engages the local helped to build a relationship between population in earning their livelihood. But conceptualization and analytical findings. the flip side of this development has been Inductive method is used to explore the the serious negative impacts on major available information on resources and tourist destinations like Sonamarg, connote the theoretical background while Gulmarg, Pahalgam, and Dal Lake. For, thedeductive method is used in statistical example:Gulmarg initially had one analysis. commercially established hotel during the Scale development: According to Finn post-independence era but it now boasts of (2000), in leisure and tourism surveys the many all season state of art facilities for measurement of attitudes and opinions is of tourists. Due to the mushrooming growth of importance and therefore require answers

18 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 on some rating scale. It was found that the or ecocentric behaviour. The data has been most common scale used in tourism studies collected at major tourist destinations in the is five-point Likert scales wherein Valley of Kashmir keeping in view the flow respondents are supposed to show their of tourists and proximity factors. agreement or disagreement with a statement Sampling: The study uses convenient concerning a particular object. Semantic sampling for data collection keeping in differentials and Likert scales tend to be consideration the ease of access and fine enough to differentiate between ongoing political issues in the valley of responses and coarse enough to enable Kashmir. A total of 500 questionnaires respondents to place themselves (Moser & were distributed among the tourists at the Kalton, 1989). As present study drew on places of visiting destinations. The number previous studies wherein researchers used of filled in questionnaires received were the Likert type scale, therefore, it was 487 and were found useful for final found suitable to incorporate the same scale analysis. keeping in view the nature of the study. Sample size: The sample size for the Instrumentation: The important step in the present study was determined with the help present study was to develop the data of extensive literature survey. While collection instrument (questionnaire) which choosing sample size, the first target in should be flawless and logical. The selecting sample size is the definition of questionnaire for the present study was target population (Albaum & Smith, 2005). prepared keeping in view the area of study The present study has a target population of and similar works conducted before based tourists visiting valley of Kashmir. Next on the review of literature. The studies of approach was to find out the accurate Bagri & et al (2009), Pereira (2011) were sample size. While reviewing different found useful in constructing the studies, it was found that a sample size of questionnaire. The first section of the large quantity would be suitable to gather questionnaire is based on the socio- the requisite information. For example, economic and demographic information. Yacob (2011) had used a sample size of The second section uses the New 298 tourists to study their perception and Ecological Paradigm Scale (NEP) to opinion about ecotourism in Malaysia. measure the responses of visitors on a five- Scholars have different opinions about the point Likert scale. The NEP scale has been sample size, for example; Kline (2005) extensively used in the context of social views sample size fewer than 100 'small' research to measure general environmental and greater than 200 as 'large'. The present attitudes (Hawcroft & Milfont, 2010; Mair, study follows the pattern of Perera (2011) 2011; Kim et al., 2006). The studies of who conducted a study on marketing forest- (Bostrom, Barke, Turaga, & O'Connor, based ecotourism in Sri Lanka wherein he 2006; Dolnicar, 2010; Dunlap, Van Liere, had used a sample size of 540 which was Mertig, & Jones, 2000) have shown that 15 times as the number of observed NEP has considerable validity in the socio- variables. Therefore, taking into cultural domain. There are two distinct consideration the similarity of the research dimensions in the NEP scale in which issue in the present study, a sample size of seven even- numbered items if agreed by 500 was considered suitable for both tourist the respondents, show their anthropocentric as well as the local community to derive behaviour. On the other hand eight odd- the information. numbered items if agreed by the Hypothesis: On the basis of the review of respondents, show their pro-environmental literature and tourism development pattern

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 19 in the valley of Kashmir, following analysis and the resultant hypothesis have hypothesis was formulated. been tested with the help of t-test and H0: Environmental orientation of tourists' ANOVA taking into account mean and is different on the basis of their nationality standard deviation or simple frequency and education. distribution. Statistical tool used: Primary data and the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION hypothesis testing have been performed The first part of the study dealt with with the help of descriptive statistics. The profiling of tourists based on demographics socio-economic and demographic and socio-economic information. The information have been presented with the following table provides the results of help of frequency distribution. The NEP profiling of tourists: Table no 1: Tourist profiling (N=487) S NO Demographic Category of respondents Frequency P ercentage variab les 1 Nationa lity Indian 222 45.6 Foreign 265 54.4 2 Gen der Male 276 56.7 Female 211 43.3 3 Marital sta tus Married 255 52.4 Un-married 232 47.6 4 Age Up to 30 179 36.8 31-50 253 52.0 >50 55 11.2 5 Educat ion Secondary 37 7.6 Graduation 137 28.1 Post-graduation 242 49.7 Others 71 14.6 6 Occupat ion Government 177 36.3 Private 132 27.1 Business 79 16.2 Others 99 20.4 7 Monthly incom e <30000 90 18.5 30000-50000 266 54.6 >50000 131 26.9 The above table gives the information of 52% were in the age group of 31-50 and tourists about the socio-economic and 36.8% were in the age group of up to 30 demographic variables. The demographic years. Similarly, the analysis shows that profile of the respondents consists of well qualified tourists are visiting the valley variables including nationality, gender, of Kashmir, as 49.7% of them are in the marital status, age, education, occupation, post-graduation group of education. In case and income. The major outcome of such of income category, it is found that high profiling gives an idea about the type of income group of people visit valley of tourists visiting a place. It is clearly visible Kashmir. Therefore, it can be concluded from the above table that valley of Kashmir from the socio-economic and demographic attracts younger generation of tourists as information of tourists that upper market

20 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 segment has been visiting the valley of on fifteen items of NEP scale were Kashmir. measured on a five-point Likert scale from The second part of the study dealt with the strongly agree to strongly disagree. The environmental orientation of tourists to results based on frequency distribution are know their level of understanding about the given as under: concept based on NEP. The responses given Table no 2:Frequency distribution of environmental orientation of tourists

items SA A N DA SDA 1.We are approaching the limit of the 248 114 83 13 29 num ber of people the earth can (50.9) (23.4) (17.0) (2.8) (5.9) support

2.Humans have the right to modify 79 77 07 137 187

the natural environment to suit their (16.2) (15.8) (1.4) (28.1) (38.5) n eeds 3.When humans interfere with nature, 373 99 07 05 03 it often produces disastrous (76.7) (20.3) (1.4) (1.0) (0.6) consequen ces 4.Humans ingenuity will ensure that 121 140 143 33 50 we do not make the earth unliveable (24.8) (28.7) (29.4) (6.8) (10.3) 5.Humans are severely abusing the 215 158 19 59 36 ea rth (44.2) (32.4) (3.9) (12.1) (7.4) 6.The earth has plenty of natural 228 109 16 20 114 resources if we just learn to how to (46.8) (22.4) (3.3) (4.1) (23.4) develop th em 7.Plants and animals have as much 308 139 22 18 00 right as humans to exist (63.3) (28.5) (4.5) (3.7) (0.0)

8.The balance of nature is strong 64 38 46 132 207 enough to cope with the impacts of (13.1 ) (7.8) (9.4) (27.1) (42.6) modern industrial nations 9.Despite our special ab ilities, humans 237 180 32 16 22 are still subject to the laws of nature (48.6) (37.0) (6.6) (3.3) (4.5)

10.The so called ‘ecological crisis’ 50 82 98 64 193 facing human kind has been greatly (10.3 ) (16.8) (20.1) (13.1) (39.7) exaggerated 11.The earth is like a space ship with 147 142 42 122 34 very limited room and resources (30.2) (29.1) (8.6) (25.1) (7.0) 12.Humans were meant to rule over 23 43 24 123 274 the rest of the nature (4.7) (8.8) (4.9) (25.3) (56.3) 13.The balance of nature is very 176 131 74 70 36 delicate and easily upset (36.1) (26.9) (15.2) (14.4) (7.4)

14.Humans will eventually learn 37 107 78 80 185

enough about how nature works to be (7.6) (22.0) (16.0) (16.4) (38.0) able to control it 15.If things continue on their present 196 143 42 05 01 course, we wil l soon experience a (60.8) (29.4) (8.6) (1.0) (0.2) major environmental catastrophe *where, SA= strongly agree, A= agree, N= neither agree nor disagree, DA= disagree & SDA= strongly disagree

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 21 The above table presents the frequency concluded from the frequency distribution distribution of tourists regarding the that majority of the respondents showed environmental orientation. The results of agreement to the eight odd statements of frequency distribution show that majority of NEP and disagreement to the seven the tourists either strongly agree or agree on statements of DSP. Therefore, it connotes the eight statements concerning new the positive approach towards the ecological paradigm (NEP). These environmental world view as proposed by statements are: We are approaching the Dunlap and confirmed from other studies limit of the number of people the earth can (Corral-Verdugo, & Armendariz, 2000; support (1), When humans interfere with Dunlap et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2006). nature, it often produces disastrous Similar results were shown in another consequences (3), Humans are severely research work (Bechtel et al., 1997; Liu, abusing the earth (5), Plants and animals Ouyang, & Miao, 2010) while measuring have as much right as humans to exist (7), the endorsement of different tourism Despite our special abilities, humans are stakeholders on NEP scale. still subject to the laws of nature (9), The HYPOTHESIS TESTING earth is like a space ship with very limited Two independent variables as nationality room and resources (11), The balance of and education were taken as the testing nature is very delicate and easily upset (13), variables to find out the difference in If things continue on their present course, opinion of respondents about their we will soon experience a major understanding of environmental orientation. environmental catastrophe (15). It can be Table no 3: Group statistics with t-test

Scale Nationality

Indian Foreign Statistical test

Mean, ±SD Mean, t df p ±SD Item No1 4.01, 1.28 4.19, 1.02 1.726 4 85 .0 85 Item No2 1.93, 1.25 2.85, 1.61 6.978 4 85 .0 00 Item No3 4.76, .49 4.67, .69 1.621 4 85 .1 06 Item No4 4.06, .79 3.05, 1.33 9.975 4 85 .0 00

Item No5 3.76, 1.42 4.09, 1.13 2.822 4 85 .0 05

Item No6 4.57, .74 2.88, 1.78 13.244 4 85 .0 00 Item No7 4.59, .69 4.45, .79 1.950 4 85 .0 52 Item No8 2.37, 1.37 2.09, 1.43 2.162 4 85 .0 31 Item No9 4.45, .77 4.03, 1.17 4.562 4 85 .0 00 Item No10 2.88, 1.27 2.09, 1.44 6.372 4 85 .0 00 Item No11 3.10, 1.36 3.84, 1.22 6.323 4 85 .0 00 Item No12 1.86, 1.19 1.75, 1.14 1.040 4 85 .2 99 Item No13 3.60, 1.28 3.78, 1.29 1.584 485 .114

Item No14 2.76, 1.37 2.18, 1.35 4.486 485 .000

Item No15 4.52, .75 4.48, .69 .655 485 .513

*where P is significant at 0.05

22 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 The above table provides the descriptive further be concluded that out of the nine statistics showing mean value and standard items, three odd numbered (5,9 and 11) deviation of Indian and Foreign tourists on form the endorsement to new ecological the fifteen items of environmental paradigm while as rest of the items orientation scale. The results of statistical t- (2,4,6,8,10 and 14) form the endorsement to test show that there is no significant the dominant social paradigm. difference in the opinion of tourists about From the analysis of environmental the item numbers 1, 3, 7, 12, 13 and 15 paradigm scale according to the nationality regarding their nationality. Except item of tourists, it can be concluded that tourists no.12, all the items constitute an do not follow the same endorsement for the endorsement of tourists to the new dominant social paradigm. In most of the ecological paradigm. In case of remaining statements related to the dominant social nine items, 2,4,5,6,8,9,10,11 and 14 the paradigm, tourists show the difference in result of t-test shows that there is a their opinion or approach towards the significant difference in the opinion of environment. But in case of new ecological tourists about the environmental paradigm paradigm, tourists show no difference in scale regarding their nationality. It can opinion about certain statements and difference in case of certain statements. Table no 4: Descriptive statistics with one way ANOVA Items Edu cation No Mea n ±SD Min Max F p si g. pairs 1 Seco ndary 37 3.76 1.37 1 5 Gradu ation 137 4.28 .962 1 5 P. 242 4.10 1.07 1 5 2.679 .056 Graduation Other s 71 3.96 1.52 1 5 Total 487 4.11 1.15 1 5 2 Secondary 37 2.11 1.25 1 5 Gra duation 137 2.64 1.63 1 5 P. 242 2.336 .073 2.45 1.53 1 5 Graduation

Other s 71 2.14 1.36 1 5 Total 487 2.43 1.52 1 5 3 Secondary 37 4.92 .28 4 5 Gra duation 137 4.66 .75 1 5 P. 242 2.251 .082 4.69 .59 2 5 Graduation

Others 71 4.79 .48 3 5 Total 487 4.71 .61 1 5 4 Secondary 37 4.68 .63 2 5 Graduation 137 3.50 1.27 1 5 1 VS P. 242 2,3,4 3.27 1.28 1 5 16.389 .000 Gradu ation 3 VS Others 71 3.73 .76 2 5 4

Total 487 3.51 1.23 1 5

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 23

5 Secondary 37 4.24 1.22 1 5 Graduation 137 4.12 1.09 1 5 P. 242 5 4 VS 3.92 1.24 1 4. 676 .003 Graduation 1,2,3

Others 71 3.49 1.63 1 5

Total 487 3.94 1.28 1 5

6 Secondary 37 4.22 1.36 1 5 1 VS Graduation 137 3.33 1.74 1 5 2,3 P. 242 5 2 VS 3.45 1.69 1 14.758 .000 Gra duation 4 Other s 71 4.66 .608 3 5 3 VS Total 487 3.65 1.63 1 5 4

7 Seco ndary 37 4.57 .89 2 5 Graduation 137 4.36 .73 2 5 4 VS P. 242 5 4.52 .78 2 5.023 .002 2,3 Gra duation Others 71 4.77 .54 2 5

Total 487 4.51 .75 2 5

8 Secondary 37 2.92 1.56 1 5

Graduation 137 2.00 1.43 1 5 P. 242 5 1 VS 2.24 1.39 1 4.282 .005 Graduation 2,3,4 Oth ers 71 2.21 1.25 1 5 Total 487 2.22 1.41 1 5 9 Secondary 37 4.59 .56 3 5

Gradu ation 137 4.23 .99 1 5 P. 242 5 4.14 1.08 1 2.222 .085 Graduation Others 71 4.27 1.07 1 5

Total 487 4.22 1.03 1 5 10 Second ary 3 7 2.54 1.69 1 5 Gradua tion 13 7 2.32 1.56 1 5 P. 242 5 2.42 1.32 1 1.509 .211 Graduation Others 71 2.75 1.28 1 5 To tal 4 87 2.45 1.42 1 5 11 S econdary 3 7 3.51 1.43 1 5 Gradua tion 1 37 3.65 1.27 1 5 P. 242 5 3.52 1.34 1 1.935 .123 Gradua tion Others 7 1 3.18 1.38 1 5

Total 487 3.51 1.34 1 5 12 Se condary 3 7 1.97 1.31 1 5 Graduation 137 1.74 1.16 1 5 P . 24 2 1.84 1.19 1 5 .642 .588 Gradua tion Others 7 1 1.70 1.02 1 4 Total 48 7 1.80 1.15 1 5 13 Secondary 37 3.62 1.35 1 5 Gradua tion 137 3.75 1.31 1 5 P. 2 42 3.66 1.29 1 5 .270 .847 G raduation Others 7 1 3.77 1.24 1 5 Total 48 7 3.70 1.29 1 5

24 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018

14 Second ary 37 2.76 1.45 1 5 Gr aduation 1 37 2.59 1.44 1 5 P. 242 5 2 VS 2.43 1.36 1 2.927 .033 G raduation 4 Others 7 1 2.07 1.26 1 5 Total 48 7 2.45 1.39 1 5 15 Secondary 3 7 4.68 .58 3 5 Graduation 137 4.39 .78 1 5 P. 242 5 4.50 .71 2 2.427 .065 Gr aduation O thers 7 1 4.61 .67 2 5 Total 4 87 4.49 .72 1 5 *where 1=secondary education, 2=Graduation, 3=Post Graduation, 4=others The above table shows the descriptive 3.51 corresponds to a neutral opinion of the statistics with a mean and standard respondents but respondents with deviation of respondents on the fifteen educational qualification of secondary level items of ecological paradigm scale. The show their agreement to this statement as results of descriptive statistics show that in their mean touches 4.68. Therefore, the case of item numbers, 1, 2 & 3, the average difference in the mean score shows mean score of respondents as per their respondents differ in their opinions. The qualification levels either equals or is near actual difference in opinion is proven with to the total mean score value. For example the help of statistical test (ANOVA) which in case of item no.1, 'we are approaching shows that there is a significant difference the limit of the number of people the earth in the opinion of respondents about the can support' the total mean value is 4.11 ecological paradigm scale as per the and category wise mean value also falls in different educational qualifications. the same range as per the different Further, the result of post-hoc test confirms qualification levels of the respondents. the difference in groups of different Similarly, in case of statement no.2 'humans educational qualifications of the have right to modify the natural respondents. It is inferred from the post-hoc environment to suit their needs' mean falls analysis that the difference in case of item in the category of disagreement, but the no.4 is between respondents with secondary respondents show consistency as per the level of educational qualification and all the different qualification levels. The remaining types and post graduate consistency of results in the case of these respondents with those having educational three statements is further proven with the qualification others. Similarly, in case of help of statistical test of one-way ANOVA. item no 5 the difference is in the pairs with It is inferred from the statistical test that secondary level of educational qualification there is no difference in the opinion of with remaining three types. The difference visitors about the above three statements of in case of item no.6 revealed by post-hoc ecological paradigm scale according to the analysis was found in case of respondents different educational qualifications. having educational qualification secondary In the case of statements 4,5,6,7,8 and 14, with graduates and post-graduates, as well there is a difference in the average mean as others, having similar differences with value of respondents qualifications with that the same group. While in case of item no.8 of the average mean score value. In certain the difference was between others and cases, the difference is more while as in graduates and post-graduates (respondents certain cases it is high. For example, in with educational qualifications). Finally the case of item no.4, the total mean value of difference is noticed in case of item no.14

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 25 which shows the respondents with opinion about the different dimensions of educational qualification others differ in ecological paradigm scale in the majority of their opinion with respondents having the statements. secondary and graduation level of Hypothesis testing summary educational qualification. The dimension for hypothesis The descriptive statistics in case of 'environmental orientation of tourists statements 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 15 show differs' using t-test and ANOVA on testing consistency in the total mean score of variables nationality and education is not respondents with the average mean. For rejected on the basis of statistical analysis. example, in case of item no. 9, the total CONCLUSION mean is 4.22 which mean agreement and Human beings have been profoundly using the average mean also falls in the similar the earth and its resources without taking range, hence showing the similar opinion of into account the negative impacts that have respondents with different qualifications to been generated. The worldwide disasters the statement. Similar results are noticed in like nuclear accidents, depletion of case of rest of the statements, for example, resources, environmental deterioration and item no.12 has total mean 1.8 which means global warming have become burning disagreement and the average mean is also issues. The effects of ecological found in the same opinion as per the consequences due to tourism started gaining respondents' qualification levels. It can be prominence during the 1960s and 1970s concluded that in all these statements there (Pearce, 1985), with a growing realization is a consistency in the respondents' opinion that tourism industry can either moderately about the items as per their qualifications alter the destination or completely revealed by the mean value. transform it into adverse conditions. The Further, the result of one-way ANOVA issues of environmental deterioration due to revealed that there is no difference in the tourism gained prominence and received a opinion of respondents about the statements tremendous boost during the mid-1970s 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 15 as per the different from the efforts of prominent scholars like educational qualifications. Budowski (1976), Krippendorf (1987) and Therefore, it can be concluded from the Cohen (1978). For example, Krippendorf above analysis that out of the fifteen (1982) says that resources are the raw statements of the new ecological paradigm material for tourism which if not utilized in scale, a significant difference was noticed a proper way will lose its value. The reports in the opinion of respondents in case of of United Nations Human Environment item no. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Out of these five Conference of 1972, the World items, two (5 & 7) belong to new Conservation Strategy of 1980, the Report environmental paradigm (NEP) and three of Brundtland Commission (1980) and (4, 6 & 8) are from dominant social Manila Declaration on World Tourism in paradigm (DSP). In remaining statements 1980 were some of the pioneering efforts to (2,3,9,10,11,12,13,and15) there is no address the issues of tourism and difference in the opinion of respondents as environmental concerns across the length per their qualification levels. The opinion of and breadth of the globe. respondents is either positive or neutral in There have been several approaches to case of new ecological paradigm and study the ecological concerns of tourists negative or neutral in case of dominant visiting a natural destination, one such social paradigm. It can be said that being the New Environmental Paradigm respondents show consistency in their

26 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 (NEP), developed by Dunlap and Van Liere among the pilgrims, adventure tourists and (1978). According to Kostova et al. (2011), leisure tourists about the environmental the environmental social paradigm is the orientation. The findings are further best used method to study the approach of consistent with similar results from the humans towards different developmental study of Lundmark (2007) and it is inferred activities they are engaged in. The scale has that most future (ecotourists) would have a great importance when it comes to high level of environmental awareness measuring the human-environment which is consistent with the earlier studies relationships at different levels and has the conducted by (Thompson, 2013; Lee & great value to measure the environmental Moscardo, 2005). concerns of people (Beck & Grande, 2010; Therefore, it can be concluded that in Kostova et al., 2011). The scale has been general respondents showed their successfully used for the last 30 years by endorsement to the new ecological scholars from fields like Psychology, paradigm but from the perspective of their Political Sciences and Geography, and is nationality and educational status, there was generally acknowledged as a reliable multi- a difference in opinion. Hence the proposed item scale for environmental attitudes hunch that there is no significant difference (Dunlap, 2008; Filby, 2015; Kostova et al., in the opinion of respondents about the 2011, Lee & Moscardo, 2005; Luck, 2010; environmental orientation from the Ogunbode, 2013). According to Dunlap et perspective of nationality and education is al. (2000), the scale has extensive rejected. utilization in recreational, tourism and The paper concludes that positive outdoor studies. environmental orientation is important for The analysis of environmental orientation in the destination life cycle and sustainable the present study revealed that tourists, in tourism practices. The study in the area general, endorse the pro-ecological concern which is tag lined as the 'paradise on earth' while calculating the score on five-point has a plethora of issues ranging from Likert scale. The results were found in tourism policy and planning, socio-political, accordance with the criteria laid by Dunlap and environmental due to lack of proper (2000) that in the scale of 15 items tourism planning. Under such representing NEP; the disagreement to circumstances, tourism not only serves as seven even-numbered items indicates pro- the major tool for peace building measures ecological worldview (agreement to eight but also for socio-economic development. odd-numbered items). But similar results The study addresses the issues of mass were not found while measuring the tourism and its negative impacts and passes endorsements of domestic and foreign a message that high ended responsible tourists separately, as there are varying tourist market should be made the focus of opinions regarding the dominant social diversifying the tourism potential of the paradigm and ecological paradigm of the Valley of Kashmir. This would not only scale. This confirms to the earlier study make tourism more community centric but conducted by Bagri & et al. (2009) in the will also ease the pressure on existing similar environs (Himalayas) which had tourist destinations which otherwise are on shown that there is a difference in opinion the verge of reaching thresh-hold level.

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BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHOR Iqbal Ahmad Bhat is Assistant Professor at Department of Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Mangaement at Khallikote University Berhampur, Odisha. He has completed Ph.D in Tourism Management with specialization in ecotourism from Banaras Hindu University. His research interests lie in the domain of tourism and sustainability, ecotourism, pilgrimage tourism, and rural tourism. [email protected]

32 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 K e y W o r d s Guerrilla Trail: A tourism product in the Maoist rebel's footsteps

Tourism, peace, SURENDRA RANA* post-conflict, guerrilla, CHIRANJIBI BHANDARI** maoist, trail, Nepal *Freelance Travel Writer, Kathmandu **Assistant Professor at Department of Conflict, Peace and Development Studies, Tribhuwan University

Abstract INTRODUCTION The impact of war on tourism is epal, a Himalayan country sandwiched between envisaged negative whereby several sectors that are directly and indirectly India and China, experienced a "decade-long armed associated with tourism suffers great conflict (1996-2006)." The CPN-Maoist initiated losses. The experience of a decade- N long (1996 to 2006) Maoist conflict civil war in February 1996 after the then government of in Nepal had similar impacts on the Nepal failed to address forty points demands, which were country's tourism industry. However, related to nationality to people's democracy to livelihood six years after the end of war in 2012, the government of Nepal (Thapa and Sijapati, 2003). The decade-long conflict changed explored and recognized 'Guerrilla not only social and political structure of Nepali nation-state trail' as a unique trekking route passing through the districts of Rolpa, but also left long-term impacts on socio-economy of Nepal Rukum, Baglung and Myagdi in mid- including tourism industry at large. western and western Nepal aiming to retrace the footsteps of the guerrilla, "Nepal has eight of the world's 14 highest mountains above commonly walked during the Maoist 8000 meters." Eight cultural heritage and two natural heritage conflict. Since the very beginning, this trail is visualized as a quite sites recognized by UNESCO belong to Nepal. Also, the essential journey for academicians land is popular as the birthplace of Gautam Buddha, promoter and researchers to learn and experience how Maoist guerrillas had of peace in the world. In addition to mountains and peaks, hiked and fought in such hilly terrain. rich cultural heritage and the friendly hospitality of the people In other ways, it is considered as a are additional assets for tourist attractions. These possible gateway to link the local communities with outside world and combinations of various elements have made Nepal as one of means to improve their socio- the popular tourist destinations in the world. economic conditions. Being a tourism product, it offers a In the period of conflict (1996-2006), the decline in tourist wonderful blend of natural beauty, arrivals in the years (2000, 2001, 2002, and 2005) were cultural heritage and people's war history along with several hills and observed which affected tourism businesses in many ways valleys, varied landscapes, ancient (GoN, 20151). Based on Nepal Tourism Board's record and ruins, mountains, rivers, hot springs, waterfalls with ancient cultures of department of Immigration, 753003 tourists visited Nepal and different ethnic groups along with nation earned Rs. 58.52 billion in foreign exchange from the densely-populated ethnic Magar villages along with different Nepalese tourism industry in the fiscal year of 2016 and 940,218 communities living with harmony for tourists visited in 2017. Further NTB forecasted around 25 % years. In this context, this article tourists increase is expected in the year of 2019. provides a clear description of the guerrilla trail by documenting all the Despite the wide range of concerns; social, political, initiatives and efforts were taken by the government of Nepal and economic and cultural issues associated with Maoist conflict concerned stakeholders including in Nepal, Guerrilla Trail- as a tourism product was explored Nepal Tourism Board. Also, this and recognized by all tourism stakeholders of Nepal. It is a article discusses opportunities and challenges associated with guerrilla combination of the history of people's war and natural beauty trail. in the Himalayan country. It is considered as a wonderful

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 33 blend of natural beauty, cultural heritage value that the sector can bring to the and people's war history (Bhadgaunle, country. As per UNWTO, tourism is an 2013). The scenic hills and valleys, eye- activity of the people to destinations outside thrilling landscapes, ancient ruins, their regular work and residence2. mountains, rivers, hot springs, waterfalls Tourism and Peace with centuries-old cultures of different Tourism and peace are interconnected and ethnic groups, clusters of Magar villages interdependent each other. Tourism is not along with different Nepalese communities only the beneficiary of peace but also a living with harmony for years symbolize vital force for the absence of war and the beauty of Guerrilla trek (Rana, 2017). It sustainable peace. Creating peace through offers trekkers into the history of Maoist tourism is an important means to create post-conflict region, culture and natural peace in the world. The United Nations beauty. In this context, this article probes Conference on Environment and on the guerrilla trek, outlines its route, Development on 14 June 1992 and Amman discusses its opportunities and challenges Declaration on 'Peace through Tourism' associated as a tourism product. adopted at the Global Summit Peace LITERATURE REVIEW through tourism on 11 November 2000 also Tourism is the fastest and largest growing focused on peace and tourism (Kunwar, industry in the world. UNWTO report 1 2010). In 1963, John F. Kennedy realized billion tourists have already traveled around that tourism is a way of achieving world the world by 2015. Both developed and peace. He considers tourism as the vital developing world realizes its significance force to learn a different culture, understand and accepts tourism as the major economic customs and to appreciate the qualities of source to earn foreign exchanges and individuals of each nation (Litvin, 1998). generate employment. Tourism being a Likewise, Louis D'Amore (1998) green industry, it is beneficial for all conceptualized that tourism as an integral stakeholders: governments that earn taxes, part in world diplomacy by "spreading tourism operators who get business, and information about the personalities, beliefs, local communities who get employment and aspirating perspectives, cultures and politics income. According to world tourism and of the citizens of one country to the citizens travel council (economic impact 2017), the of another, 'providing' the opportunity for total contribution of Travel & Tourism to individuals to gain first-hand knowledge of employment (including wider effects from the larger world". investment, the supply chain and induced. Some different dimensions of political By 2027, Travel & Tourism is forecast to instability can be identified within support 1,325,000 jobs (7.1% of total international tourism; wars, civil wars, employment), an increase of 2.9% pa over coups, terrorism, riots and political and the period. The United Nations has social unrest and strikes. War tourism is designated 2017 as the International Year commonly categorized as dark tourism of Sustainable Tourism for Development. (Kunwar, 2010). Peace is the primary As one of the world's largest economic condition for the success of tourism sectors, Travel & Tourism creates jobs, activities. Conflict and war zones do not drives exports, and generates prosperity fall into tourist destinations wish list. across the world. The International Year Diplomatic missions of respective countries provides an enormous opportunity to usually put travel alerts and strongly showcase further the tremendous economic, discourage their citizens from visiting such social, cultural, environmental, and heritage disturbed nations and area. Studies show

34 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 that war tourists are only war journalists in Vietnam. A prime strategy of economic who report on war events and those growth in Vietnam is tourism, where war countries that face conflicts sharply icons are recycled and reproduced in a declined in tourists' arrival. transnational memory for the sake of Tourism: War and Peace prosperity and development. As an War tourism is a concept of tourism in attraction sites examples; war icons have war-torn societies, which is commonly been recycled, reproduced, and consumed practiced in Vietnam, France, United in Vietnam. The commoditization of sites, Kingdom, Belgium, Sri Lanka and other objects, and imaginaries associated with the countries. Countries like France, Belgium, war has contributed to economic activities United Kingdom and Vietnam are filled and peace in distinct ways. with cemeteries and memorials are visited In third world countries, there is a positive by tourists to commemorate millions of relationship between tourism earnings and lives during two world wars3. Mostly economic growth (Sequeria and Nunes, tourists aspire to spend their holidays in 2008). Nepal has also undergone and safe and peaceful places. Civil unrest and experienced ten-year conflict.The country violence negatively impact on tourism being comprised of large portion mostly destinations. However, there are some with hilly terrain and remote villages; opinions that war positively affects tourism could be one of the most viable tourism in the long-term (Weaver, 2000). options for socio-economic growth and Linking the war history with touristic development. Over the past two decades, activities in peace situation, Kugelmass the number of scholarly works has (1996) argues that people aspiring to increased significantly in the areas of overcome through a painful and formative conflict, peace and tourism sector. A clear past, trekking in former war sites can be trend on scholarly work on tourism was cathartic experiences, which involves noticed during and after the conflict. fluctuating and performative engagements In conflict period, everyday news were with memory. reported on conflict issue, and its impact on A number of countries; Vietnam, tourism and different aspects of human life Germany, Cambodia, South America and were widely covered by national and of late Sri Lanka are utilizing war international media. As an impact of the reminiscences as a product of tourism in a conflicts; frequent shutdown, strikes, post-conflict situation. Visiting sites closure of schools, infrastructure associated with the Vietnam War has vandalizing, and decrease in the number of emerged as a vibrant part of Vietnam's tourist arrival also negatively hit in GDP of tourist industry, and crowds of foreign the country. In the aftermath of the conflict, tourists can be found at several sites that academic contribution in the areas of are dedicated to commemorating the war. tourism in relations with conflict, peace and War sites in Vietnam appeared as most economic development has been discussed attractive part of a tourism destination. To and written extensively. Mostly, researches commemorate the war, crowds of foreign have been focused mostly on negative tourists can be found at several sites impacts of war on tourism. (Keyes, 2012). Similarly, tourism statistics of Nepal shows Schwenkel (2004) clearly discussed on that tourists' arrival in Nepal during ten diversification of knowledge, memory, years (1996-2006) conflicts either remained and meaning at former battlefields and constant or declined. However, from the other social spaces about American war insurgents' side, tourism was not disturbed

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 35 any point of time in Nepal. There is a had a policy of attacking tourists even common assumption that tourism is only during the insurgency period, though he successful in peaceful conditions. The role confessed donation were raised voluntarily of tourism in conflict prevention, conflict to support people's war. There were few settlement or post-conflict peacebuilding cases of tourists complains about donation through 'peace through tourism' has been raised by the rebels during their trekking in discussed in various studies4. The human remote regions. But throughout the conflict cost and destruction of infrastructure, period in Nepal no cases of direct tourist escalation of violence and deteriorating casualty were reported. Nevertheless they security situation in the conflict resulted in faced a hard time due to a political the closure of industries under the Maoist disturbance with irregular transport services threat, decrease in remittance from abroad due to frequent strikes called by the rebels. and mass migration from the conflict areas After Maoist laid down their arms in 2006, to other safer parts of the country and peace restored gradually in Nepal, and the beyond5. statistics show tourism industry rebounded An ex-guerrilla commander and people's with increases in tourist arrival (which is army chief6 said that Maoist party never shown in the table below).

Table- I Tourist Arrivals in Nepal Year Tourist Arrivals Year Tourist Arrivals 1995 363995 2006 383926 1996 3936 13 2007 526705 1997 4218 57 2008 500277 1998 4636 84 2009 509956 1999 4915 04 2010 602867 2000 4636 46 2011 736215 2001 3612 37 2012 803092 2002 2754 68 2013 797616 2003 3381 32 2014 790118 2004 3852 97 2015 538970 2005 3753 98 Source: Department of Immigration (Nepal Tourism Statistics, 2015) METHODOLOGY his subsequent trekking activities and visits This article is written based on the with national and international researchers information obtained from both primary and and media persons are also utilized in the 8 secondary sources. Primary information report . Secondary sources of information were gathered from around selected 20 were collected from articles, travel writings informants interviews7 with tourism and other published sources of information stakeholders from Nepal Tourism Board, both available in print and online portals. trekking operators, political parties leaders HISTORY OF GUERRILLA TRAIL from the guerrilla trail areas, among which After the signing of the Comprehensive some names are not disclosed in order to Peace Agreement on 21st November 2006 protect their identity One of the co-authors between CPN (Maoist) and Seven Party and his own experiences during re- Alliances, Maoists entered into mainstream exploration of guerrilla trail since 2011 and politics. With subsequent exploration and

36 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 research over three years concerning beauties. His statement itself was enlarge tourism feasibility in a post-conflict area, the scope of war tourism in Nepal. He "The Guerrilla Trail" was launched in 2012, stated "Guerrilla Trek has the potential of as a new trekking destination in Nepal. One becoming a war tourism product like in of the individuals, Prabesh Roka Magar9, Vietnam, Russia, and China. As war says "initially a group of people (including tourism has been promoted worldwide for researcher, journalist, and authorities from economic benefit, Nepal's Guerrilla Trek NTB) visited Rolpa and Rukum district and also holds the potential to grab the world's shortly provided an itinerary for trekking in attention"12. Then, the product was the region in 2009. Later year, the trail was internationally promoted as a new revisited and re-explored by Surendra Rana; destination for trekkers and widely covered a tourism researcher along with Alonzo by national and international media13. Lyons, a guidebook author, visited the Trekking in Nepal and Guerrilla region with the help of local guides and Trail community. In between, few Maoist leaders Nepal is popular tourist destination mainly frequently talked about the prospect of war for trekking activities, peak climbing, tourism in Nepal. As a result of continuous adventure tourism, cultural destination, and exploration and field visits from 2009-2012 rafting. There are more than two dozen of detail guide book and comprehensive trekking destinations including world 10 trekking, Map was published . famous trekking destination like Annapurna The name of the trail was coined in Regions, Everest region, Kanchenjunga, Rujhikhola by the explorer team11. Former Dhaulagiri, Makalu and several other areas Prime Minister and Supreme Commander ranging from a week to several weeks long. of the CPN (Maoist) Puspa Kamal Dahal The great Himalayan trail is a network of inaugurated Guidebook and Map in October different trekking trails though mid-hill and 2012 in a ceremony organized by Nepal high Himalayas, probably the longest Tourism Board. Speaking at the program, trekking trail starting from East to West he said that trail as the living history of Nepal that takes for over three-month people war, rich cultures and natural duration (Rana, 2017).

Photograph 1 : A beautiful Magar Village in Rolpa district (en route of Guerilla Trail), Photo source : Surendra Rana

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 37 The Guerrilla Trail starts from Beni bazaar, are two major routes explored. The shorter an ancient town in the bank of Kali route traverses the flatland, an easy trail Gandaki River14. It takes 2-3 weeks trekking westward along the Dhorpatan valley journey passing through several remote towards Chhentung, Nisheldhor, Taka, villages, peaceful people and their Lukum, Thabang, Jelbang and Sulichaur. unspoiled, unique lifestyles and culture. It The trail follows Uttar Ganga River as it passes through Darbang, Dharapani, Muna, reaches Rukum, later merged with Sano Lamium, Takam, then steep ascending walk Bheri. There are villages of Upallo sera, of 3-4 hours through dense rhododendron Tallo sera and Taka in nearby distances. forest of Moreni finally reaching Jaljala New road and jeep tracks are being opened pass (3415m).Wide range of snow-clad to connect Dhorpatan via Sera. Until now Dhaulagiri ranges-Dhaulagiri (I, II, III, IV), the motorable road is already connected to Putha, Gurja, Dogari, Churen, Mt. Sisne Sera via Kyubang to Kankri that meets Mid etc. are witnessed close view from Jaljala. hill highway. The trail diverge south with Then the flat land of Dhorpatan followed in steep 3-4 hour climb to reach Tila pass the midst of juniper and pine forest, along (3100m) then descend to Lukum a beautiful with the bank of Uttarganga River. There village of Rukum (Lyons, 2012).

Map 1 : Route of Guerilla Trail, Source: " The Guerrilla Trek (aka, The Shangri-La Trek)" by Alonzo Lyons (2012) Kathmandu: Himalayan Map House The trail passes through the high passes of downhill trek reaches Sulkabang then to (3000 m) followed by descending trail Jelbang village. Alternatively, the trail from reaches the most important village of the temple at Jaljala can be hiked towards Thabang, Rolpa district. Situated at 1975m, Dharmashala, then climb down to Okhreni Thabang is beautiful Magar village with a pass, Majiang, and Jelbang village. There is minority of Dalit settlement. Nearly 3 hours an option of ascending 6-7 hours till steep will reach Jaljala (3100m). Few hours Sulichaur, a popular town of north-eastern

38 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Rolpa. The small town has shops, hotels, food. and restaurants. Also, Jeep service of 3-4 is Bhume is the biggest festival of the region available from Jelbang to Sulichaur (Rana, which falls (mid-June) just before monsoon 2017). season begins. During the festival, people While the longer route takes north towards gather to meet friends and family from far Phalgune dhuri (4000m) then passes and wide. It is celebrated by performing through upper remote part of Rukum special rituals by offering sacrifices to god including Thankur, Jharlung, Pelma, praying for better agricultural yield and Maikot, Hukam , Archalgaon, Chargaon , good health and protect from natural Sisne, Chhipkhola , Melgairi, Syarpu lake calamities. Men, women, and children to Musikot. These villages are mostly continue dancing, singing and merrymaking inhabited by Magar communities, with for a week-long. Other common festivals Dalit and Chhetri as minorities. The other like Dashain, Tihar, Maghe shakrati are part of Chargaon, Pokhara and Syarpu has also celebrated in the region. Popular mostly Chettri and Brahman communities' dances of the region include Tappa, settlement. Dhange, Mayur, Singaru , Nacharu, etc. People, Culture, Landscape, and Dhorpatan15 is the only hunting reserve of History the nation where hunting activities is permitted by government of Nepal. The This section of the trail has tourism reserve is rich in biodiversity including components like people, culture, and plants like fir, pine, birch, rhododendron, history, which are the major attraction for hemlock, oak, juniper and spruce. Wild trekkers. Guerrilla trail passes through animals including blue sheep, pheasant, different villages that are largely inhabited partridge, snow leopard ghoral, sparrow, by ethnic Magar communities. Although Himalayan Thar, Himalayan Black bear, other communities like Chhetri, Brahman, barking deer, wild boar which are Thakali, and Dalit are found living in abundantly found in the region. Endangered Myagdi , Baglung and lower part of Rolpa animals like musk Deer, Wolf, Red Panda, and Rukum districts. Mostly northeast Cheer Pheasant and Daphne are frequently Rukum and Rolpa are home to ethnic spotted in the trail16. Syarpu is beautiful magar communities with a minority of lake situated at 1300 m height in Rukum Dalit. These communities live in the district. There are villages alongside the closely-knit settlement. They have rich lake. It is now popular as boating and cultural and traditions lifestyles. Villages fishing for domestic tourists. There is a like Maikot, Hukam, Taka, Sera, Kankri, homestay facility near Syarpu lake. Few Mahatgaon, Lukum, Thabang, Jelbang are distance east of the lake, Bafikot village villages which are densely populated by lies which was first local autonomous Magar communities. government formed by Maoist during the The overall region of the trail itself has the conflict. Jaljala the hilltop of Rolpa is great significance of people's war history. consider as a symbol of religious Some of the places are specifically importance where hundreds of devotees from nearby districts visit to offer sacrifices described as follows. Lukum is densely every year. At the hilltop there are temples, Magar populated an ancient village with streams and caves. Snow-clad mountains around 250 households. The place is are observed in the north when the weather famous for Bhume dance and Jhankri is clear. The hilltop is endowed with rich (Shamanism). Basic local lodges and flora and fauna. An hour hike towards homestays are available for lodging and Dharmashala (3400m) is situated Martyr's

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 39 monument constructed as war memorial. Rukum. Collective lifestyles were practiced Khara massacre is unforgettable incident in a commune during the conflict. Now a occurred in 2000. Bir Bhan Oli local homestay is provided in the commune for resident remembered, 66 local houses were the travelers. Several other places which burnt down by police and 15 people died in has both historical and cultural importance the incident. Later in 2002 fierce battle took are Chunbang, Mahatgaon, Gam, place between government forces and Ghartigaon, Mirul, Rangsi and others areas guerrillas two times. Thabang had a long 60 of Rolpa and Rukum can be visited and years of history rising against the included as customize packages. Kathmandu rulers and was also birth place Accessibility of Maoist movement in early 199017. It is known as rebel village due to several Regarding accessibility of route, there is elections in the past were boycotted18. The direct bus service from Kathmandu to Beni place was a strategic location for meeting via Pokhara. There are regular services and planning center place of Maoist during from Kathmandu to Pokhara and road the war. The village has homestays, clinic, transport from Pokhara to Beni. Direct bus schools and police post. services are available to Sulichaur to Kathmandu via Pyuthan. Flight service from Nepalgunj is also available to Kathmandu. While taking the upper route to Muskikot town, regular buses and mini- buses are available to Kathmandu and onwards. There is also irregular flight service to Kathmandu from Musikot. There are direct Jeep and Bus service available to Libang and Dang via Ghartigaon. Opportunities Nepal Tourism Policy 2009 realizes tourism sector as an important vehicle for social and economic development. The newly appointed tourism minister19 in his 100 days action plan prioritized development of guerilla trail (Prasain, 2018). Guerrilla trek as a product offers adventurous trekking package and new experiment of learning

Photograph 2: A guerilla walking in route of guerrilla trail, photo source: Surendra Rana

Jelbang, a Magar village is also known as Martyr village. Former VDC suffered heavily during the conflict resulting loss of 72 people's life, the highest numbers in the country reported during the conflict. Home stay is available for accommodation and food. There is two communes at Jaljala Photograph: 3, Trekkers visiting guerrilla trail, commune at Ranchibang and Chhipkhola , photo Source: Prakash Roka Magar

40 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 culture and history for trekkers from Nepal tourism activities. He said that as a product and overseas. Despite being a newly of war guerrilla trail is clear message to the explored trail, it has basic aspects of world about the history of war and tourism elements like attractions; natural restoration of peace in Nepal. Further, he beauty, culture, lifestyles, history, sees the possibility of local economic accessibility: transportation,accommodation: activities through tourism in post-war local homestay, lodges, and hospitality. region. The trail as tourism product is Alongside natural environment, scenic considered as an effective tool to boost the beauty, cultural components as well as the economy of local community people and history of a decade-long Maoist insurgency Nepal government is committed and are the additional attraction of trail. prioritized to uplift the lifestyle of poor, For the researchers and academic crowd, marginalized and disadvantaged group of the trail is expected as a great learning people. Also, this trail has historical platform, which not only offer scenic importance for future generation, to learn beauty and cultural diversity, testimonies of and understand Maoist conflict in Nepal. people those who were the real force Symbolically, monuments and memorial behind the movement, survivors, observers parks in the name of martyrs established in and victims of a decade-long conflict help few places like Khara, Rukumkot, Kakri to get the authentic knowledge of war and and ownership and preservation of meeting peace in post-Maoist heartland. and shelter place of Chunbang. Storytelling- Highlighting the strength and beauty of in every places along the trail, people can trail, Lyons (2012) says, “plenty of share the stories of conflict, and their sunshine for the remoteness of Rukum and experiences provide the unique learning Rolpa that was quelled into a seething pot platform to the people. The trail provides of war once upon a time.” He further unique opportunity to meet and share how opined that communities, passing by the the community people are coping the post- route, i.e. Khara, Khawla, Jhimkhani, conflict situation and promoting the peace Jibang, Khabang, Bafikot, Kunakhet, Pipal, and maintain social cohesion and harmony Rukumkot, Maring, Kakri and Taksara among each other. This is rarely unique stand witnesses to the war and retain the example for other war-torn societies scars of a decade of fighting20. In a similar throughout the world. 21 tone, Sudhan Subedi expressed the trail as Perceptions towards Guerrilla Trail an open museum and great opportunity for The trail was widely covered by media, scholarly articles are rarely written. The author, "The Guerrilla trek", Lyons (2012) opined that trail as "an area of immense peace, beauty and hospitality that is open, ready and willing to host tourists." He further writes trekking through this area will provide the tourism wealth to lower income people in war-torn areas in secluded, majestic and overlooked regions. Similarly, Sue Watt, a travel writer from telegraph, UK had trekked the trail in May 2013 for two weeks with her husband and Photograph: 4, Trekkers visiting guerrilla trail, remarked the real beauty of the trail as "for photo Source: Prakash Roka Magar

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 41 all its beauty, it's those people, their spirit sanitation and public spaces improved due and their rare blend of strength and to the tourists' movement. Better transport, gentleness, who made the guerrilla trail so accommodation, communication, and special" (Watt, 2013)."Nepalese Guerrilla facilities bring in more visitors bringing trail takes tourists through scenes of civil money to residents will help to support the war cited the quote of former Prime socio-economic development. Without good Minister Prachanda and Supreme infrastructure, the flow of goods and Commander of CPN-Maoist "memorials are services is impossible. In addition to built in any country after major revolutions revenue, tourism also brings cultural and guerrilla trail is a memorial of war we reward. It can be a source of pride for local have fought"22(Guardian, 2012). Surendra communities by allowing them to study and Rana envisioned that the trek as beneficial look their history and cultural heritage and for marginalized communities from which develop their own community identity. This most of the guerrillas were recruited at the helps the residents to maintain their initial stage of war. He said that, "People traditions and culture. It revives dance, in the area might have felt isolated from the culture, and tradition conserving many local state and as a result they took part in the heritage sites from destruction, providing civil war. Trekkers and trekking can help tourists a wonderful insight into the local them engage with the global community lifestyles and customs. Hence, tourism (Guardian, 2012)." Most travellers who helps to preserve history and culture of the visited the area expressed their unique region that are at risk of being vanished. experiences they got while travelling Ganesh Man Pun24, opined that Guerrilla through the land. Ches Thurber23, an trail itself is a history of the Maoist war in academician, expressed that the heartland of Nepal, which not only helpful to preserve Maoist conflict is extremely beautiful with the Maoist reminiscences but also equally people's war history and diversity of instrumental for educating future generation agricultural land of wheat, maize, rice, on political change and war history in potatoes, mountain views and amazing Nepal. Further, the trail is considered as a people. noble tourism product that may attract war Advantages of the trail for local and peace researcher, history and political community science scholar and students, and special One of the possible advantages of the interest tourists which will be helpful to guerrilla trail is the creation of job to the uplift people life in the post-conflict region. local community in the post-conflict region. Further, it is believed guerrilla trail can also Tourism creates local employment like tour be a special interest for both former guides, hotel and restaurant workforce, guerrilla and communities, who were transport services, and homestay owners. involved, participated and affected most in the conflict. As a local witness, Ramsur Tourism activities become a supporting 25 medium to local homestay, lodges, and Budha Magar , said that trail is beneficial sales of vegetables, souvenirs, and local for both trekkers and local communities, handicrafts products. Similarly, additional where local people can narrate the war revenue that comes into a community history, share their experiences of past days eventually benefits the local council or and host tourist which can directly benefit governments. The income generated and the local communities. Likewise, Rujhidhan taxes allow development of public projects. Ghartimagar, a teacher and social worker of Local infrastructure like lodges, hotel, new Lukum resident, says the 6-7 group of roads being built, parks developed, and tourist trekked through the region. Due to

42 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 lack of proper trail information, trekkers are groups of trekkers are found regularly often heard of missing the route. According visiting the trek yearly for research and to one of the local school teacher, there is holiday27. Similarly, Mahabir Pun28, a social also lack of tourism awareness among the entrepreneur, in his interview with Nagarik local communities. Also, the concern National Daily29, says as skepticism exists authorities from Nepal government are not among people about the conflict, but it can aware of the new tourism product. be promoted as a fresh and virgin trail. To Challenges meet basic tourist standard, tourism experts Guerrilla trail is considered distinctive from NTB and travel entrepreneurs tourism product in comparison with other suggested for the improvement of home- destinations available in Nepal. Linking stay facilities and in addition training on with the history of war, i.e. footsteps of food and beverages, sanitation and guerrilla and with other attractions like hospitality are essential to provide to the people, culture, mountains, etc. the product local communities. was highly publicized by national and CONCLUSION international media. After a decade of Guerrilla trail as tourism product is conflict ending in Nepal, the area remains considered as a fresh perspective on as war hangover; some people feel as engaging communities in tourism activities, insecure and geographically isolated region thereby addressing the causes of conflict cautioning visitor to travel in the area. In and help in maintaining peace, harmony, general, mostly tourist visits the places, and coexistence among people. The concept where violence is absence or peace and of war tourism is described as "thanotology. security of tourists prevails. According to Dr. Phillip Stone30 "dark Also, the guerrilla trail should be owned by tourism can enlighten an understanding of stakeholders and be an easy word in how contemporary societies deal with and everyday people conversation among local represent their significant dead”, which is a communities, tour operators and authorities. great way of understanding life and living Lack of tourism awareness, trained trekking of people in post-war region, which may guides to explain the war history, people directly contradict with the notion of cultures and war incidents itself is the great common understanding of tourism. challenges. Also, a comprehensive approach However, the authors of this article believes for trail development is required. So far, that the concept of war tourism in Nepal is government and local efforts are undertaken a debatable and vague subject which needs some tourism development. further researches and in no way intend to According to sources, there are plan to promote wars. But war reminiscences of build war memorial and museum. Although Maoist conflict shelters taken by guerrillas, war memorial statues, park, information museums, training spots, monuments, boards on war events are constructed in few bunkers, meeting halls and important sites places and trail marking are made, more can be an element of tourists' attractions. work need to be done. A master plan and These sites are likely to be disappeared in systematic approach is required, and as of future, and highly required to preserve and now, the community has not fully perceived protect for future generation. These ownership nor did stakeholders take serious historical sites are not only tourists' initiative for its development26. attractions but a past history to learn and a Despite wider publicity in the country and true message to mankind how human worldwide, a clear data management system civilization suffers from wars. has yet to be establish and only a few

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 43 The war heritage and peace product of and raised a question about the future of tourism, include within itself the cultural guerilla trek among the community people. diversities of various ethnic, indigenous, As concluding, the government of Nepal and social groups inhabiting different and tourism stakeholders should ensure altitudes, and it manifests in various forms: their dedicated effort to establish this trail music and dance; art and craft; folklores as the memory of war and peace. If the and folktales; languages and literature; product is developed and promoted in philosophy and religion; festivals and systematic planning, it will help to attract celebrations; and foods and drinks, which number of tourists from domestic and also can be an attraction of tourism product. foreign countries including its closest Regarding the prospect of the trail, the neighbors; India and China. Most systematic analysis suggests that guerilla importantly, the tourists visiting the area trail has more opportunities rather than will also help in engaging the local challenges associated with it. communities in tourism activities and help Therefore, with wide range of economic to build a friendly relationship with outside development strategies, for the people from world. By and large, it will further facilitate conflict heartland, promotion and in building better understanding, preservation of guerrilla trail is one of the sustainability of peace and enhancing the available options for communities in war- local economy. torn region, which is considered as an END NOTES alternative way to engage local people and 1. Withdrawals of international flight communities with outside world to initiate connections by foreign airlines were local business start-up, employment factors in the decrease in tourist arrivals. generation and income generation. Despite 2. www.unwto.org a widely publicized and promoted tourism 3. warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/10- product, guerilla trail has not been receiving biggest-allied-war-cemeteries-europe.htm a number of tourists as expected. Adequate 4. Alluri, 2009; Leong, 2008; Richter infrastructures and clear ownership by local 1997, 1999; Richter and Waugh 1986; communities is also a concern. Satani, 2004; Strong-Cvetich, 2007 The discussion also indicates that 5. Haribansa Jha's article on Economic continuous efforts of trail promotion and Cost of Maoist conflict explains that the infrastructures developments from tourism Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the stakeholders and ownership of local country declined from 4.8 percent to 2.8 communities are preconditions for its percent in between 2001 and 2005 and sustainability and develop guerrilla as one the country witnessed significant lost in of the viable tourism product of the private-sector investment from 15.4% in country. Although the government of Nepal 1996 to 12.6 % in 2004. The and other tourism stakeholders government expenditure in the same acknowledged its importance, there is period declined from 9 percent to 6 uncertainty about its future sustainability. percent. The expenditure of the state on Moreover, guerilla trail is perceived as security sector almost doubled from 1.6 quite challenging since Maoist party came percent of GDP to 3 percent in between into peaceful politics, CPN (Maoist) Party 2001 and 2004. split into various groups, and now the 6. Currently serving as second tenure of mainstream group is in the merging process vice president of Nepal with CPN-UML. This has led uncertainty 7. Interview with Mr. Ganesh Man Pun,

44 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Mr. Ramsur Budha Magar, Mr. Prabesh altitude ranging from 2,850m to 5,500m. Roka Magar, Mr.Jagat Gharti Magar 16. Information collected from Dhorpatan 8. Surendra Rana, one of the co-authors of hunting reserve office and Guerrilla trek this article engaged extensively in the guidebook regions during exploration and 17. Nepali Times, March 28, 2016 promotion of trail for over 5 years since 18. 1958, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1956, 2013 2011. A.D. 19. Rabindra Adhikari, Minister of Culture, 9. Prabesh Rokamagar, former cadre and Tourism and Civil Aviation, Nepal social worker from Thabang, Rolpa 20. http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/ Mr. Jitendra Bhattarai and Sudhan Joshi printedition/news/2012-10-02/guerrilla- from Nepal Tourism Board, Raj Kumar trek-set-to-promote-war-tourism.html Thapa, managing director at A1 21.Nepal Tourism Board Official and Himalayan excursion. academician 10.The trail exploration process was carried 22.Ishwar Rauniyar. The Guardian out in various phases and a wide number (www.theguardian.com/world/2012/oct/0 of organizations and stakeholders 5/Nepalese-guerilla-trail-civil-war) on involved in the process. Some of the 5th October, 2012. leading organizations contributed are;; 23. A PhD scholar from Fletcher School at Nepal Tourism Board, District Tuft University, USA, who visited Nepal Development Committee, Rukum, (including Rolpa and Rukum)during his Trekking Agencies Association of Nepal research on Mao and Gandhi : Strategies along with Changing Nepal, Sisne of Violence and Nonviolence in Martyr Foundation, Dynamic Youth Revolutionary Movements, a PHD thesis work in 2014 Society Rukum and local and national 24. Past guerrilla commander, and former leaders of the CPN (Maoist). CA member and one of the Maoist 11.According to Jitendra Bhattarai, the leaders name of Guerrilla trek was coined by an 25. Bhume Rural Municipality chief, east explorer team. Rukum district and former guerrilla 12.www.bbc.com/news/world-asia- commander and commissioner at Maoist 19815779 Army Combatants 13. Kathmandu Post, Republica, Himalayan 26. Limited budget is allocated by Times, Kantipur, Gorkhapatra, AFP, government of Nepal through Tourism BBC,CNN, The Guardian and others Board and Member of Parliament newspapers electoral constituency area development 14. It is a gateway to Muktinath , Upper fund for trail development and Mustang, Jomsom, Dhaulagiri trekking infrastructure. destination. The town was attacked by 27. Proper data keeping system is missing; thousands of Maoist guerrilla in March the information is gathered based on the 2004. As per source, the battle of Beni is formal conversation with tourism considered as one of the biggest battle operators and local communities. d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e l o n g 28. Magsaysay award winner of 2007 conflict.(Kathmandupost, Khadka, 29. Nagarik National Daily held on June Ghanashyam, 2015, Beni remembers 29, 2013 devastated attack ) 30. thesun.co.uk: what is dark tourism? 15. Dhorpatan is a pasture land covering an Travelers visiting war zones and disasters area of 1,325 km2 that lies in district of areas Rukum, Rolpa and Baglung district at an

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 45 REFERENCES Research, Vol 37 (1), 63-66 Bhadgaunle, Amrit (2013). Jaljalama Ashako Lyons, Alonzo (2012). The Guerrilla Trek Kiran. Nagarik Daily Edition, 17th (aka, the Shangri-La Trek). Kathmandu: August, Kathmandu Himalayan Map House Bhattarai, Jitendra (2011). Guerilla Trek on Prasain, Sangam (2018). Tour-Min Issues Nepal's Maoist Trails. Republica National 100-day plan to revitalize tourism. The Daily, 14 January, Kathmandu Kathmandu Post (30 March). D'Amroe, Louis (1998). Tourism The World Rana, Surendra (2017). Guerrilla Trail: Peace Industry. Journal of Travel Trekking in the Post Conflict Region, Research, Vol- 27 (summer), PP 35-40. Yatra (in-flight Magazine) (May Issue). Department of Comparative Sociology Kathmandu: Buddha Air Kennedy, John F. (1963). The Saturday Schwenkel, Christina (2004). Iconographies Review, January 5, United States of War: The Transnational Politics of Keyes, Mark (2012). War Tourism: Shaping Memory and Visuality in Contemporary Memory and Perception in Post-War Vietnam. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Vietnam. Summer Research, Paper 164. Department of Anthropology, Tribhuwan Kugelmass, Jack (1996). Missions to the University Past: Poland in Contemporary Jewish Sequeira, Tiago Neves, and Paulo Maças Thought and Deed. In Tense Past: Nunes.,(2008). Does Tourism Influence Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory, Economic Growth? A dynamic panel data Paul Antze and Michael Lambek, (eds.) approach.” Applied Economics. Vol. 40, PP. 199-214. New York: Rutledge. pp. 243-141. Kunwar, Ramesh Raj (2010). Tourist and Thapa, Dipak and Sijapati, Bandita (2003). A Tourism: Science and Industry Interface. Kingdom Under Seize. Zed Books: Kathmandu: Modern Printing Press London Litvin, Stephen W. (1998). Tourism: The Watt, Sue (2013). Trekking in Nepal: World Peace Industry? Journal of Travel Guerillas in our Midst. Telegraph (29 May, 2013). BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS Surendra Rana is a graduate in tourism studies, and working in tourism field for the last five years. He has extensively involved in exploration and promotion of new trekking trails and tourism destinations in Nepal. He was an important team member in exploring and researching some trails; Guerrilla trek, Dhaulagiri Sanctuary trek and Mundum Trek. He has been cited by travel authors, national and international newspapers. Chiranjibi Bhandari is an assistant professor at Department of Conflict, Peace, and Development Studies, Tribhuwan University. Prior to this, he served as a training coordinator of the Combatants to Peacemakers program supported by USAID Nepal. Chiranjibi also contributed at Secretariat of Special Committee for Supervision, Integration and Rehabilitation of Maoist Army Combatants from 2011 to 2013. Mr. Bhandari was a fellow at the Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies, USA, from where he completed a Comprehensive Crisis Management Course in 2013, and attended Humanitarian Response and the Post Conflict Reconstruction Course at Brown University in 2015. In 2016, he participated in the Civil Resistance and Non-violent Conflict program in the Fletcher Summer Institute of Tufts University. He was awarded research fellowships from International Alert (2011),Center for Nepal and South Asia, and Hiroshima Partnership for Peace building and Conflict Transformation from Hiroshima University Japan (2012). He was also a fellow with the Alliance for Social Dialogue Policy Research (2012). Email id: [email protected]

46 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 K e y W o r d s Website Based Satisfaction In Tourism And Hospitality Sector: An Importance-performance Analysis In Technology, success, satisfaction, website, National Capital Region (NCR) Of India dimension, experience. LAKHVINDER SINGH Department of Tourism Management, Pt. C.L.S. Govt. P.G. College, Karnal DINESH DHANKHAR Department of Tourism & Hotel Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra

Abstract INTRODUCTION Information and Communication nformation & Communication Technology denotes Technology has been extensively application of computer software, hardware and used by modern day tourism and telecommunication devices to manipulate, store, protect, hotel companies in order to I achieve success in their business convert send and receive the information (Olifer & Olifer, through maximizing customer 2006). It has brought large usage among tourism and satisfaction index. It is essential hospitality enterprises in past few years because numbers of to provide tourism services at a travellers now map their itineraries over the internet including faster speed on low cost without any discrepancy as tourist in their 'stay bookings', 'travel insurance', 'tickets' (air, rail & contemporary world become road transportation), travel guide and other linked services. It rational. Therefore, the present has increased the contributions made by web portals in study extended to study the tourism and hospitality sector in India through information & satisfaction of tourists towards websites of selected tourism and communication technology (ICT) based systems to offer hospitality firms in national better and advanced services (Grandson & Pearson, 2004; capital region of India. The study Barnes & Hinton, 2007). This paradigm shift resulted in was largely based on primary extended use of online booking portals over offline booing data collected from 374 respondents through self- mode. structured questionnaire by adopting simple random Table I: Recent Travel Trends sampling technique. The collected data was analysed by Product On line booking (%) Off line boo king (%) using suitable statistical tools. The finding of the study Hotel Accommodation 67 33 indicated variation in customer Domestic Flight 63 37 satisfaction towards different dimensions of the websites. The Travel Guide 53 47 finding of the study suggested Holiday Packages 53 47 suitable measures to increase the customer experience with Rail Ticket 27 73 websites of tourism and hospitality firms in order to bring Mice 27 73 maximum tourists to the study Domestic Bus 50 50 area along with satisfactory experience. Rental Taxi/ Cab 40 60

(Source: e-Travel Marketing India-2015, Octane Research)

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 47 Website and online portals contributed dimensions, grouping of the information are towards the establishment of a 'one stop considered as important part of web shop' for all the journey requirements of a contents (Chung & Law, 2003; Vrana & tourist. The contributions made by major e- Zafiropolous, 2004). The display of contact hospitality portals as cited at E-Travel details such as mobile number, e-mail, etc., Marketing India indicated high usage of forms the important website dimension for web portals for online booking as compared customer satisfaction. However, Davidson to offline booking methods. This and Burgess (2006) explained that various technology has simplified for the firms to hurdles in using websites and portals for collect, manipulate, share and data storage service quality improvements were lack of at error free, exact and faster rate (Ansah, knowledge, lack of time, cost and difficulty Kontoh & Balnkson, 2012). Moreover in finding of professional advisors, lack of sharing of travel experiences on these formal planning and lack of understanding portals also create word of mouth the benefits of service quality, as businesses marketing along with increased tourist were not alert about measurement metrics traffic in competitive tourism market. on impact on profitability of their business. Therefore, in order to survive and Thus, the measurement of website has grow in the industry, firms require focusing become growing issues in tourism and on the improving customer satisfaction and hospitality research as it the first step retention through information & towards developing and delivering an communication technology (ICT) usage. attractive online presence, which is likely to Researchers comprehend that tourism have the maximum impact on Web users. business through websites not only Consumers' web experience also depends empowers travellers to purchase or look for upon the quality of the website (Zeithaml, their 'made to order' tourism services, but Parasuraman & Malhotra, 2002; Zeithaml, also assist suppliers in administration, 2002). In this study, website of tourism and budding and dispensing their products hospitality firms has been visualised as a within short span of time and throughout broader term for customer experience. the globe by availing the efficient tools Therefore, putting forward the rationale for (Buhalis & Law, 2008).Number of hotels this study, the assessment of various and tourist firms have already developed dimensions of website is needed for their websites and portals to provide transformation of the organization that information to the customers in order to resulted in service quality improvement and promote their products and services customer satisfaction. Thus the present globally in a time effective and cost study aimed to find out the satisfaction of reducing manner (Gratzer & Winiwarter, the tourists towards websites of tourism and 2003). This emerging trend forced tourism hospitality firms in national capital region and hospitality firms to provide accurate of India. and suitable information content on their REVIEW OF LITERATURE websites as tourist consider these website In the field of online business, a website and online portals as important factors for stays open all the time and can be accessed selection of firms to book travel products & by potential customers at their leisure time. services. It welcomes customers from all over the The quality assessment of information world without physical and geographical availability on the tourism and hospitality barriers on faster speed and cheaper cost. firms' websites, presence of specific Hence, the implementation of online booking in tourism and hospitably industry

48 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 through websites is essential to enhance playfulness, system design quality, and customer relationship management (Law & system use. Performance attributes such as Leung, 2000). the usability of language, layout & Starkov (2002) was among the few early graphics, information architecture, user researchers who promulgated using website interface and navigation were cited by as means communication with the Yeung and Law (2004) as important customers. Since, internet usage has been dimension for satisfaction of customer. growing rapidly, it is vital to identify how Putting up street maps on the websites has potential customers perceive firms' been another consideration. The potential websites, because such information may guests would like to have pictures of the give an indication of how a hotel's hotel facilities, rooms and other features profitability can be improved. Yelkur and such as location etc. Basic access and DaCosta (2001) argued that hotel website contact about information, such as address, effectively enhance awareness, visibility, telephone number, e-mail, local creating a clear image and platform in transportation or the nearest train/airport promoting and positioning hotel products to station should also be mentioned on the the customers. Heung (2003) observed and website. A multilingual site would be stated that an effective website of a necessary for international visitors. hospitality firms results in increase of Travellers expect websites to be interactive number of reservations, customer loyalty and secure. They are looking for reduced and a good return on investment (ROI), waiting time during browsing, which thus providing maximum customer implies good page loading speed and satisfaction. navigation efficiency. The traveller Ip, Leung and Law (2010)'s study appreciates finding value added services on concerned website dimension of inviting the website such as direct and customers to register and identify their contextualized access to other websites (i.e. interests from which hotel managers can Google maps) that are enabled through the create personalized services and products mash-up technology (Payne, 2005). Jeong, and increase customer satisfaction. Such Oh and Gregoire (2003) examined customer personalization dimension increases the perception of hotel websites and concluded customers' emotional involvement often that colour combinations, ease of use, enlightening their opinions about it as well navigation, quality, information as the service provider. Baloglu and Pekcan completeness, accuracy, and currency were (2006) claimed that to use the internet to its crucial factors influencing the customers fullest potential, hotel companies should purchase decision. continuously redesign their websites for Consumers' viewpoint about dimension of ease and convenience and upgrade their hotel websites from e-marketing purposes web technology to make them more has been studies by Dholakia (2000). personalized for customers. Author suggested that first of all the Legoherel, Fischer-Lokou and Gueguen. reservation transaction should be easy (2002) added another dimension to website accessible and clearly displayed. presence by ruling that the design, content, Information regarding room rates, and management of website should also be availability, and policy should be presented taken into consideration for successful e- on the website. Potential customers should marketing. Liu, Arnett and Litecky (2000) be enabled to make online reservations identified some key design factors such as easily and must be educated about information quality, service quality, cancellation policies of the hotel. Law and

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 49 Bai (2008) considered functionality is OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY connected with the supply of efficient and The objective of the study is to study the sufficient information about the services effectiveness of website towards tourists' and products, such as reservation satisfaction in selected tourism and information, customer information or hospitality firms in national capital region. surrounding area information. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Modern hospitality consumers also want The present study was confined to National payment functions and reservations on the Capital Region (NCR) India which covers website, preferring to complete all of their Delhi, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida area. business with the company on the website The choice of NCR was attributable to from information search to buying. concentration/richness of the area in terms Travellers or customers expect websites to of number of tourism and hospitality firms, be informative, interactive, and attractive nearness to IGI (Indira Gandhi International (Chu, 2001). Rong, Li and Law (2009) Airport), development of the area as a identified the different attributes of tourism and hospitality business hub. information importance in the hotel website The present study approached to different as hotel facilities information, reservation tourism and hospitality firms including information and contact information. Jahng, travel agencies, tour operators, hotels, guide Jain and Ramamurthy (2000) asserted over & escort agencies providers and local five major categories of website design like, carriers. The list of hotels and travel and page loading speed, business content, tourism firms was taken from the official navigation efficiency, security, and website of ministry of tourism, India to marketing/customer focus. contact their customers to record the As with the developments in the field of e- experience of the tourists with their marketing, tourism and hospitality firms are websites. now abundantly conscious of the benefits To examine the objective of present that Internet offers for the promotion of research, the data was collected through their business through website. Websites self-structured questionnaire. The not only create relationships with structured questionnaire was designed and customers, rather they help in creating a validated for the customers using the e- company brand, help in customer retention marketing tools. The period of data and encourage in repeat visits of the collection started in September 2016 to existing customer. So, in order to remain August 2017. Statistical Package for Social competitive, the tourism and hospitality Sciences (SPSS) was used for quantitative firms endeavouring to attach “value” to analysis regarding experience of their offers on websites. Lu and Zhang consumers/travellers/ tourists regarding (2002) also suggested to regularly monitor experience with website of tourism and the website dimension for improving hospitality firms. Customers were selected customer satisfaction. The presentation and either from the database of the selected satisfaction with the website information is tourism and hotels and had consented with a major determinant of e-customers' them to be available for any research study intention to purchase online (Jeong, Oh & through e-mail, or had been staying in the Gregoire, 2003). Therefore, the present property at the time of conduct of this study concentrated on measurement of study. From the 540 questionnaires that customer satisfaction through analysis of were circulated, 374 were usable/returned, tourism and hospitality firms' website. with a total response rate of 74.8%.

50 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 The questionnaire is divided into two parts. familiar with the internet in their daily The first part of the questionnaire routine life, as majority of them started to concerned the background information of use it. As regards the occupations, most of each respondent. In the second phase of the respondents were employed. Students questionnaire, questions regarding the were also included. Twenty five percent importance of websites dimensions were retired persons were also part of the enquired about selected firms on five point sample. Data signifies that a lot many scale from most important (5) to not at all travellers these days, whether, young or old, important (1). In continuation to this, student or self-employed or retired, resorted respondents were also asked about the to using internet in their choice of actual performance of the important destination selection, hotel selection. The websites dimensions on five point scale country of the respondents was also from very good (5) to very bad (1). checked-in. The respondents specified over The study adopted importance-performance country of residence and nationality in the analysis to find the out the gap between questionnaire. In total, the respondents importance of website dimension and their belonged to 11 different nationalities. actual performance of the website Although 61.76% of the respondents were dimension of selected firms. from India, rest of the respondents were DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH from foreign countries including developed FINDINGS and developing countries. Profile of Consumer Respondents Tourism Website Evaluation Out of 374 respondents, 185 were women, The content analysis assessment of the which is 49.47 percent and 189 were men, usefulness of the information on tourism which is 50.53 percent. The percentage of websites and other hospitality firms has male and female respondents was almost been compared and presented in the study. equal (approximately 50%). Respondents in Author at very first stage was apprehensive the age group of less than 20 and above 60 about the differences in information content were almost equal to 11 percent meaning of a hotel and tourist organization, hence it they were less represented. All age groups was thought appropriate that it is better to make quite a good representation in each compare the website attributes of the two age group. The groups being so much and hence assess the importance of website represented indicates that they are the ones content along various dimensions. The

Table II: Importance and Performance Scores of Websites by Item Website Dimens ions Hotels website Analysis Tourism website Analysis Importance P e r formance Im portance P e r formance Information Dime nsion Information of accommodation 4.60 2.69 4.47 2.60 Information of attraction 4.73 2.19 4.43 3.49 Calendar of events 4.12 2.52 4.44 2.20 Information o f entertainment 4.59 2.15 4.26 2.35 Directions and Maps 4.40 2.49 4.15 2.49 Information of Restaurant 4.23 2.60 3.87 3.20 Travel and Tour packages 3.83 3.49 3.53 2.11 Information of Transp ortation 4.33 2.35 3.63 1.69 Information on shoppin g 3.69 2.20 3.93 3.20 Travel instructions 3.08 2.35 2.90 1.69 Information of local weather 3.70 1.85 2.73 3.36

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 51 Facilities Dimension Features Photos 4.12 3.49 4.08 3.20 Previous guest history 4.59 2.20 3.93 2.11 Ambience 4.40 2.35 3.14 2.35 Room Facilities Available 4.23 2.27 3.46 1.69 Location Maps 4.12 1.62 2.90 1.85 Restaurant pictures 3.62 2.20 3.44 3.66 Frequent Guest Programs 3.08 2.11 4.08 2.27 Meeting Facilities Available 3.11 2.35 3.93 1.62 Employment Openings 3.70 1.69 3.14 2.20 Reservation Dimension Room Rates 3.62 2.11 3.93 2.49 Check rates & availability 3.08 2.35 3.14 2.60 Online/Real-time Reservation 3.11 1.69 3.46 3.49 Reservation Policies 3.70 1.85 2.90 2.20 View or Cancel Reservation 3.70 3.66 3.44 2.35 Secure Payment System 3.74 2.35 2.13 1.62 Check-in/Check-out Time 3.62 1.69 3.93 2.20 Special Request Forms 3.08 1.85 3.14 3.20 Payment Options 3.11 3.66 3.46 2.49 Contact Dimension E-mail Address 3.08 2.11 2.73 2.60 Telephone Number 3.11 2.35 2.13 3.49 Postal Address 3.69 1.69 3.93 2.20 Fax Number 3.74 1.85 3.14 2.35 Online Forum 3.62 3.66 2.73 2.49 Feedback Form 3.08 3.20 2.13 3.20 Contact Person 3.70 2.35 3.14 2.35 Communication Dimension 4.06 3.66 3.08 2.11 Contact information (phone, 4.64 2.27 4.30 4.56 email, mailing address, etc.) Capabilities of brochure request 4.06 2.52 4.29 4.66 Destination image message 4.12 2.27 3.67 4.69 (slogan, logo, etc.) Versions of Multiple Languages 3.78 3.85 2.70 3.89 Email bulle tin 2.47 2.85 3.62 2.27 Surv eys 2.88 3.53 1.44 4.69 FAQ (Frequently asked 4.29 2.35 1.33 4.66 questio ns) Transaction Dimensio n Online bookin g 4.46 4.66 2.53 4.22 Events tick ets 4.15 4.69 2.08 4.66 Attraction tick ets 4.24 4.66 1.94 4.69 Shopping ca rts 3.50 4.66 1.25 4.66 Web seal certificatio n 3.54 3.48 0.73 4.66

52 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Relationship Dimensi on Confidentiality polic y 4.36 2.85 4.38 2.85 Discounts and Dea ls 4.71 3.70 3.50 2.70 Customisat ion 3.98 4.52 3.20 3.36 Opportunities of cross sellin g 3.50 4.66 2.82 3.53 Incentive programs/contests 3.57 4.15 2.11 2.35 Programs of Customer loyal ty 3.72 4.77 1.94 4.09 Technical merit Dimension Unbroken Website Lin ks 4.08 4.64 4.55 2.85 Website Loading Tim e 4.60 4.06 4.40 3.70 Active Navigation To ols 4.72 4.12 4.35 4.52 Visual fo rm 4.57 3.78 4.16 4.66 Web pages desig n 4.70 3.17 3.87 2.85 Sites m ap 4.10 4.64 3.44 3.70 Home Button on All Page s 4.64 3.78 3.70 3.66 Hyperlinks to Websites of Local 4.06 2.47 3.69 3.20 Attrac tions & ameniti es Visual Appearance Dimension Clear and Legible T ext 4.64 3.78 4.12 3.66 Adequate Contrast Between 4.06 2.47 3.78 3.20 Background and Text Use of the Colou rs 4.12 3.17 2.47 2.11 Adequate Use of the Space on 3.78 4.64 3.17 3.66 Home Page Personalizat ion Dimensi on Multiple Languag es web pag e 4.64 3.66 3.50 3.78 Translation Servic es 4.06 3.20 3.57 2.47 Interactivity of Trip Organis er 4.12 2.11 3.72 3.17 Opportunity to Send e-postca rd 3.78 2.35 3.50 4.64 Sign Up for the Visito rs 2.47 3.66 3.57 4.64 Social Networking Websites lin k 3.17 3.20 3.72 3.78

From the above analysis, shaded cells in the comparative better than hotel websites in above table depict where the performance on-line bookings, event tickets, attraction was found to be more than importance tickets, shopping carts and web seal (expectations), hence the attributes of certification. So, actions are to be taken by satisfaction for the consumers. For all the hotels to advance the performances of these items in these dimensions, the rankings for functions. Websites specifically scored importance were constantly higher poorly against performance in the comparative to the performance scores, information dimension. Even the attributes representing a gap amongst the importance such shopping information and event and actual performance. The variance in calendar were poorly rated by the communication dimensions and transactions consumers. An evaluation of the websites was most noticeable in hotel and tourism by the consumers indicated that applications firms' websites. Tourism websites were regarding the transaction dimension only

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 53 were extensively organised by tourism & hotel customers. Most vital factors affecting hospitality firms. The outcomes showed the e-marketing tactics were the hotel's firms' are efficiently implement and achieve website interactivity with customers. information technology to favours the Effective navigation tool was the most actions which are sophisticated. important attributes followed by hyperlinks As regards the technical merit dimension, linking to websites of local attractions, hotel websites recorded poor security meeting points, and restaurants specific to measures of websites. Visual forms and site cultural background and country of the From the above analysis, shaded cells in the traveller. The importance of home button above table depict where the performance on all pages, unbroken links, and site map, was found to be more than importance load time and search engine also cannot be (expectations), hence the attributes of undermined. Customers felt that visual satisfaction for the consumers. For all the manifestation enhances the portal's items in these dimensions, the rankings for interactivity. Text must be clear and legible. There is a need of adequate contrast importance were constantly higher between text and background. comparative to the performance scores, representing a gap amongst the importance The importance of photos of hotel features and actual performance. The variance in was pretty high. Other significant communication dimensions and transactions dimensions that improved the website interactivity were previous guest history, was most noticeable in hotel and tourism frequent guest program, availability of firms' websites. Tourism websites were room facilities, hotel location maps, and comparative better than hotel websites in snaps of hotel ambience, restaurant snaps, on-line bookings, event tickets, attraction meeting facilities and space for employment tickets, shopping carts and web seal opportunities. Another sub-dimension of certification. So, actions are to be taken by website reservation items showing the hotels to advance the performances of these Room Rates, Real-time Reservation, functions. Websites specifically scored Reservation Policies, Viewing or poorly against performance in the Cancelation of Reservation, Toll free information dimension. Even the attributes Reservation Phone Number, Secure such shopping information and event Payment System, Check-in/Check-out calendar were poorly rated by the Time, and Payment Options was significant consumers. to customers and increased the website An evaluation of the websites by the interactivity considerably. Also, the Contact consumers indicated that applications Information attribute of the website regarding the transaction dimension only generated highest interactivity. The other were extensively organised by tourism & items in the sub-dimension were providing hospitality firms. The outcomes showed e-mail Address, Feedback Form, a range of firms' are efficiently implement and achieve day/night Telephone Numbers and Online information technology to favours the Forum. Why e-mail address did not have actions which are sophisticated. highest mean score (despite minimal As regards the technical merit dimension, standard deviation) is beyond the hotel websites recorded poor security imagination in the era of information measures of websites. Visual forms and site technology. maps were better reported in tourism Overall, an evaluation of the websites of websites. The above explained features in hospitality firms revealed that each content fact, are crucial to build trust amongst the wise websites were having more of

54 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 weaknesses and lesser of strengths. response to both of these dimension. So, Customers cited that website interactivity actions need to be taken by hotels to becomes pleasure if have control over site advance the performances of these visiting experiences, one should be capable functions. Websites specifically scored to find what he is concerned in seeing, poorly against performance in the navigation must easy and search option information dimension which indicated must be available. Moreover, websites firms' failure to efficiently implement the inspiring visitors to talk back, and web site information technology. As regards the which handled input and queries very technical merit dimension of the websites, quickly and provide the information wanted hotel websites recorded poor performance without any delay were more likely to have as compared to tourism firms' website. In higher interactivity. response to facility dimension, importance CONCLUSION of all items/features was pretty high as Website based tourism and hospitality compared to actual performance. Other business in a developing countries like significant dimensions that improved the India helps to get closer to their customers website interactivity was noted as facilities and also to maintain utility website/s. information dimension and website Tourism and hospitality firms can attain reservation dimension. Overall the their marketing objectives successfully by outcomes point out to reservation content management of their websites and information as the aspect growing the planning for every aspect of e-marketing. website interactivity for the consumers. The present study examined the importance Conclusively on the basis of analysis and performance of tourism and hospitality outcomes, it can be said that an updated firms' websites in national capital region of website nowadays is a very important part India. in the research for information when The content assessment regarding tourism organising a trip. Moreover, web-content and hospitality firms' websites bring this to with high quality should be designed that notice that, on many of the website focuses on the needs of customer. Some dimension/attributes, the performance was measures must be taken to provide found to be more than expectations, hence complete managerial support for website depicting the perceived satisfaction for the quality improvement. This research can consumers. The variance in communication work as seed for future researches for dimensions and transactions was most measuring the impact of e-marketing noticeable in hotel and tourism firms' applications on profitability of the tourism websites. Tourism websites were and hospitality firms and comparative comparative better than hotel websites in studies in this field.

REFERENCES system, The Electronic Journal of Ansah, A.K., Kontoh, M. & Balnkson, V.S. Information System, 10(1): 134-142. (2012). The Use of Information and Buhalis, D. & Law, R. (2008). Progress in Communication Technologies (ICTs) in information technology and tourism Front Office Operations of Chain Hotels management: 20 years on and 10 years in Ghana, International Journal of after the Internet, Tourism Management, Advanced Computer Science and 29, 609 - 623. Applications, 3(3)3, 72-77. Chu, R. (2001). What online Hong Kong Barnes, D. & Hinton, M. (2007).Searching for travellers look for on airline/travel e-business performance measurement Websites?,International Journal of

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 55 Hospitality Management, 20 (1), 95-100. preferences of online buyers and browsers Chung, T. & Law, R. (2003). Developing a differ on the design and content of travel performance indicator for hotel Websites, websites?,International Journal of International Journal of Hospitality Contemporary Hospitality Management, Management, 22, 119-125. 20 (4), 388-400. Davidson, A.P. & Burgess S. (2006). E- Law, R., & Leung, R. (2000). A study of commerce in tourism: Use of web sites by airlines' online reservation services on the small, regional and urban enterprises, internet, Journal of Travel Research, 39, Cooperation Research Centre, Australia. 202-211. Dholakia, R., Miao, Z., Dholakia, N., & Legoherel, P., Fischer-Lokou, J., & Gueguen, Fortin, D. (2000). Interactivity and revisits N. (2002). Selling tourism on the internet: to websites: a theoretical framework. analysis of the balance of power between RITIM Working Paper. seller and consumer during information Grandson, E.E. & Pearson,J.M.(2004). exchange and negotiation, Journal of Electronic commerce adoption: An Tourism and Leisure Marketing, 9 (3), 49- empirical study of small and medium US 63. business, Information and Management, Liu, C., Arnett, K.P. & Litecky, C. 18(4), 145-169. (2000).Design quality of web sites for Gratzer, M. & Winiwarter, W. (2003). The electronic commerce: Fortune 1000 Role of the Internet in the SME hotel webmaster's evaluations,Electronic sector in Austria. In G. Goos, J. Hartmanis Markets, 120-129. & J. Van Leeuwen (Eds.), Web and Lu, Z., Lu, J., & Zhang, C.(2002). Website Communication Technologies and Development and Evaluation in the Internet-related Issues, 28-39, Springer: Chinese Tourism Industry, Special Issue Berlin. of Network and Communications on the Heung, V. C. S. (2003). Internet usage by Internet Development in Asia, 16(3-4), international travellers: reasons and 191-208 barriers,International Journal of Olifer, N. & Olifer, V. (2006). Computer Contemporary Hospitality Management, Networks, Principles, Technologies and 15(7), 370-378. Protocol for Network Design: John Wiley Ip, C., Qi, S., Leung, R. & Law, R.(2010). and Sons Ltd., England. Hotel website performance evaluation: A Octane Private Limited, Delhi, India (2016). ). fuzzy analytic hierarchy process approach. 2015 Annual Report on E-Travel Proceedings of International Conference Marketing India: A Path to Purchase. on E-Business and E-government (ICEE Retrieved from http://octane research.in/ 2010). Guangzhou, China. research/e-travel-marketing-india/. Jahng, J.J., Jain, H. & Ramamurthy, K. Payne, A. (2005). Handbook of CRM, (2000). Effective design of electronic Achieving Excellence in Customer commerce environment: a proposed theory Management. Oxford: Butterworth- of congruence and an illustration, IEEE Heinemann. Transactions on Systems, Man, and Rong, J., Li, G. & Law, R.(2009). A contrast Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and analysis of online hotel web service Humans, 30(4), 456-71. purchasers and browsers, International Jeong, M., Oh, H., & Gregoire, M. (2003). Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(3), Conceptualizing Web site quality and its 466-478 consequences in the lodging industry, Starkov, M. (2002). Brand Erosion or How International Journal of Hospitality Not to Market Your Hotel on the Web, Management, 22(2), 161-175. Retrieved from: http://hospitalitynet. Law, R., & Bai, B. (2008). How do the org/news/Market_Reports/ Max_Stakov_-

56 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 _Hospitality on 27th February 2018. through Web Sites: A Critical Review of Vrana, V. & Zafiropolous C. (2004).Tourism Extant Knowledge,Journal of the Agents' Attitudes on Internet Adoption: Academy of Marketing Science, 30(4), An Analysis form Greece, International 362-375. Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Zeithaml, V.A. (2002). Service excellence in Management, 18(7), 601-608. electronic channels, Managing Service Yelkur, R. & DaCosta, M.M.N. (2001). Quality, 12(3), 135-138. Differential pricing and segmentation on the internet: the case of Hotels, Management Decision, 39 (5), 252-261. Zeithaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A. & Malhotra, A. (2002). Service Quality Delivery

BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS Lakhvinder Singh is the corresponding author and working as Assistant Professor of Tourism in Pt. C. L. S. Govt. P. G. College, Karnal (Haryana). He holds Ph.D Degree in Tourism Management with UGC-NET qualification in Tourism Administration & Management. He also completed his master and bachelor degree in Tourism Management. He has three years of teaching experience and has more than 30 research publications in his credit. He is in the Editorial/Advisory Board of different Journals of International and National repute. His areas of interest include tourist behaviour, tourism marketing, tourism impact, culture & religious tourism, e-tourism and ICT in tourism. [email protected].

Dinesh Dhankhar holds the position of Assistant Professor in Department of Tourism & Hotel Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra with doctoral degree in the subject with UGC-NET-JRF qualification. He has seven years of teaching experience and published a couple of research papers in journals of national and international repute. He is an active member of Indian Hospitality Congress and Indian Commerce Association. His areas of interest are ICT in tourism and hospitality management, tourism marketing, research methodology, transport management and event management. [email protected].

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 57

K e y W o r d s Sustainable Developmental Implications Of Community Based Tourism Initiatives In Himachal: An Empirical Study. Sustainable development, Community based SP BANSAL*, PURVA KANSAL**, SANDEEP WALIA*** tourism, *Himachal Technical University, Hamirpur & Professor of Tourism Management, IVS, MTA, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla **University Business School, Panjab University, Chandigarh, ***University Institute of Tourism & Hospitality Management, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India Abstract INTRODUCTION Developmental implications of community based tourism have ourism as a Socio-economic phenomenon has evolved b e e n r e s e a r c h e d q u i t e into one of the fastest and largest growing industries exhaustively in the past. in the world.The contribution of tourism towards However, these implications have T been started from the perspective development of a community and towards strengthening and of the Government or in investor. empowering of the local communities has been a question of There is a paucity of studies from research for past decade.. Working on these lines some the perspective of the community members. Review of literature researchers and practitioners advocated the ability of tourism indicated that there were few to fully empower people (Sofield, T. H., 2003); while others studies internationally which have established that engaging local population in tourism started the developmental development helps in building stronger and more resilient implications of community based tourism initiatives from the communities (Ruiz-Ballesteros, E., 2011). Tourism as a perspective of the community service sector helps people to develop a variety of skills and members. However, there were with its cross cutting impact on various sectors like hardly any study which targeted developmental implications of agriculture, construction and handicrafts and it creates community based tourism millions of business and employment opportunities (Murphy, initiatives in India or in Himachal P. E., 2013). Tourism can help in developing positive change State. It was to meet this objective that in communities around the world by protecting the the current study was undertaken environment and promoting gender empowerment as it has in Himachal State. The data were the capacity to lift people from poverty thereby providing collected from three community enormous opportunities for the employment (Fisher, R., based tourism initiatives located in Paragpur, Sangla and Naggar. 2005). There can be no real tourism development if it The data were collected with the damages the values and culture of host communities, or if the help of a structured non-disguised socio economic benefits generated by tourism do not trickle questionnaire constructed on the basis of review of literature. The down to the community level (Ashley, C., & Roe, D., 2001). data were collected from 300 It is because of these reasons that Tourism has been tagged as respondents across the three great social tool reducing inequalities and helping destinations. The results of the communities to progress especially the branch of tourism study would contribute to the existing literature on community referred to as community based tourism (CBT). based tourism and also help the The concept of Community based tourism gained momentum policymakers to understand the in mid nineteen ninety's based on the simple notion that different dimension's and aspects of community based tourism. healthy communities are the basis for successful tourism industry. Tourism is often seen as a tool for community to pursue development without losing their identity sidewise

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 59 generating income and employment study. opportunities and thus promoting local Theory Building. development in rural and neglected areas The current study was planned as an and also fighting to stop migration to the empirical study in order to test the cities (Dovey, K., 2009). CBT aimed to developmental implications of CBT in create a more sustainable tourism industry, Himachal Pradesh. An initial review of focusing on the host community in terms of literature indicated that there the variables planning and maintaining tourism which influenced the developmental aspects development(Jamal & Getz, 1995). of Community Based Tourism Initiative Analyzing the benefits of CBT, Blank in (CBTI) could be broadly clustered into his work concluded that local control of three categories i.e. perceptions of the tourism was a winwin situation for most community regarding CBTI, benefits of communities(Blank,1989).Communities' CBTI and perceived costs of CBTI. equal participation improved local Therefore it was decided to study the governance while protecting existing and impact of perceptions, benefits and costs on natural tourism assets including tangible two broad developmental aspects of CBTI and intangible cultural heritage and natural i.e. economic and overall contribution of tourism resources which helped in CBTI. promoting and protecting community pride General perception of Community and identity (Posey, D. A., &Dutfield, G., regarding CBTI: 1996). Perception represents the process by which However, our analysis of the secondary meaning is attributed to an object; event or data across multiple data bases indicated person encountered in the environment that though researchers had worked on (Reisinger, Y., &Mavondo, F. 2005). Community based tourism for more than a Hargie and his colleagues defined decade, the topic was relatively under perceptions as the impressions people form explored in context of India and especially of one another and how interpretations are Himachal Pradesh. Though the Government made concerning the behaviour of has initiated multiple CBT initiatives in others(Hargie, O.et_al, 1994). It is based on Himachal yet hardly any empirical research the observations people make about work could be found on the projects and intentions, attitudes, emotions, feelings, their developmental impact and ideas, abilities, purposes, traits, thoughts, relationship. Some reports were found to perceptions, memories events that are talk about developmental issues however inside the person and strictly psychological. these were Government published reports By way of summary, it appears that the from the investor stakeholder perspective. definitions by Reisinger and Stewart focus The community perspective had not been on perceptions as a process whereas the explored. It was within this backdrop that definition by Hargie focuses on perception the current research was undertaken to as the result the manifestation of study the developmental implications of the impressions. CBT in Himachal Pradesh. This dimension was taken for the present The paper is structured in four parts. The study after taking in account the previous paper starts by reviewing the literature to studies by various researchers. Muzirambi, build the theoretical base for the conceptual and his colleagues in their research model. The second part proposes the provided a conceptual framework of hypothesis. The paper then discusses the community- based nature conservation and research methodology and results of the tourism (Muzirambi, J. M., &Mearns, K. F.

60 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 2015). Their study discussed some (Zapata, Hall, Lindo &Vanderschaeghe, important and guiding factors related to 2011). Community's sense of ownership, community based tourism, i.e. land rights of feeling of responsibility and practical local communities in and around protected involvement and decision making have areas; community-based wildlife been advocated by various researchers management in close relationship with (Simpson, M.C.2008; Boyd, S. W., & community- based ecotourism; and benefit- Singh, S. 2003; Campbell, L. M. 1999; sharing and social development issues. Agenda, M. 1999; Olsen, 1997; Page, S. J., Nevertheless, issues that regard the & Dowling, R. K. 2002; Ross, S., & Wall, strengthening of communities through G. 1999; Zhao, W., & Ritchie, J. B. 2007. tourism participation are still increasingly Leballo, M. 2000, have advocated that important and require further research and community-based tourism empowers local analysis (Simmons, D. G. 1994; Joppe, M. communities, improves local skills, brings 1996; Pearce, D. G. 1992; Ashley, C., about a sense of ownership by local Boyd, C., & Goodwin, H. 2000; Scheyvens, community members and can lead to R. 2002; Macleod, D. V. 2004. Ashley, C., development in a locality.It was based on & Mitchell, J. 2009, Muckosy 2008; and these dimension's highlighted in the review Simpson, M. C. 2008. Therefore, this of literature that this case regarding dimension's included with variables perception of CBTI was framed. regarding general opinion of the community Benefits of CBTI: about CBTI. It was felt that the local For sustainable tourism, the resident communities' perceptions of tourism community of a tourist destination is the impacts were crucial since they affected the most important stakeholder (Muhanna, E. communities participation in the projects. 2007). Researchers have argued that Therefore for the current study it can be community participation must give a sense argued that there would be a positive of ownership and responsibility for tourism relationship between the perception of to the community as a means of ensuring CBTI and economic contribution and the retention of economic benefits and overall development of a community. minimizing of negative socio-cultural Proposition: positive relationship impact (Ying,T., & Zhou,Y. 2007). between the perception of CBTI and Gursov and these cliques in this study economic contribution and overall concluded that the host community support development of a community was affected by the level of community Past research indicated that CBIT concern, eco centric values, utilization of perception included the communities tourism resource base and perceived cost perception about the strength and growth of and benefits of tourism development the rural economies (Goodwin &Santilli, (Gursoy, D., Jurowski, C., &Uysal, M. 2009; and Harwood, 2010), emphasizes the 2002). However, the potential social local participation (Armstrong, 2012; and benefits can only be possessed by a Mohd. Nor &Kayat, 2010), empowers the transparent and community-oriented local community (Armstrong, 2012; and approach, which understands the local Harwood, 2010), creates markets and image and views tourism as a local resource manages by local community (Armstrong, (Murphy, P. E. (2013). CBT is 2012; Dunn, S. 2007; Goodwin & Santilli, characterised as tourism effort which is 2009; and Harwood, 2010), sustainability controlled by the community(Trejos, B., & (Armstrong, 2012; Harwood, 2010; and Chiang, L. H. N. 2009) it can be argued Mohd. Nor, 2009), and reduces poverty that community will be the one receiving

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 61 majority of the potential benefits. Many &Kaboudi, M. 2012). Several other studies researchers have tried to establish this also concluded that the cost of community argument in this study an indicated that if a based tourism initiatives were actually community perceives to receive a majority incurred by the community and (in most of the benefits they tend to support the cases) the community lacked the control of activities more positive (Ekeh, P. P. tourism and therefore, such communities 1974;AP, J. 1992; King, B., Pizam, A., suffered a lot (Buccus, I., Hemson, D., &Milman, A. 1993; Getz, D. 1994; Hicks, J., & Piper, L. 2008); Manyara, G., Hernandez, S. A., Cohen, J., & Garcia, H. & Jones, E. 2007).Traditionally, such a L. 1996; Williams, J., & Lawson, R. 2001; system prevented the growth of sustainable Andereck, K. L., Valentine, K. M., Knopf, tourism and reduced the potential for R. C., & Vogt, C. A. 2005). Extending the tourism. Therefore researchers have above researches it can be argued that if the concluded through research and case studies community perceives to get a majority of that without community control, projects benefits from the CBTI, they would eventually failed upon withdrawal of the naturally tend to support the activities implementers as the community lacked wholeheartedly leading to better competence required to run such initiatives performance of the Scheme. As a resultant (Manyara, G., & Jones, E. 2007; Shunnaq, the perception of benefits of CBT will M., Schwab, W. A., & Reid, M. F. 2008). influence the performance of CBT in both This has prompted a lot of researchers to economic and overall developmental terms. study the stakes of the local community in Proposition: there is a positive CBTI. King and his colleagues in their relationship between the benefits of study proposed that residents of CBTI and economic contribution and communities, dependent on tourism, could overall development of a community differentiate between its economic benefits Community participation in decision- and social costs (King, R., Warnes, A., & making entails democratization of the Patterson, G. 2000). In view of this, it can decision-making process, and can lead to be argued that because the communities can improvement of the quality of life for rural differentiate between the economic and residents (Gao, S., Huang, S., & Huang, Y. social costs of the tourism initiatives, they 2009): Mearns, K. 2003) stated that can also understand the impact of the community-based tourism ensures local impact of such costs on their respective control of activities and increased benefits communities. being realized by locals. Therefore, items Proposition: There is relationship related to these dimensions were added in between the cost of CBTI and economic this cluster. contribution and overall development of Cost of CBTI: a community Tourism has both positive and negative Community Based Tourism Initiative is impacts on a community. Tourism develops helpful for sustainable growth and an area but also brings traffic congestion, development of a community. Based on the increase in crime rate as well as increase in review of literature and theory cost of living. Eshliki and Kaboudi development, following conceptual model conducted a study to analyze the is proposed. community's participation in tourism Conceptual Model development program and evaluted the The objective of the study was to study the degree to which their overall life quality is relationship between general perception, affected by tourism (Eshliki, S. A., benefits and cost of CBTI with economic

62 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 contribution and overall development. between perception and economic Figure 1 outlines the conceptual model. contribution of CBTI. H1: There is a significant relationship H2: There is a significant relationship

Perception Economic Development Social Development H1a

H1b Economic Contribution Benefits Investment Benefits H1c Identity Benefits H d Cultural Benefits 1

H1e Cost Overall Development

Environmental & Cultural H f 1 Sustainability Cost Cost of Living between benefits and economic contribution developmental implications of CBT in of CBTI. Himachal Pradesh. H3: There is a significant relationship The unit of data collection for the current between cost and economic contribution of study were the community members of CBTI. different communities where CBT had been H4: There is a significant relationship initiated by the Himachal Pradesh between perception and overall government. In order to collect data from development of CBTI. the unit of data collection, an attempt was H5: There is a significant relationship made to understand different CBT between perception and overall initiatives across Himachal Pradesh. As development of CBTI. there were multiple initiators being H6: There is a significant relationship undertaken by the government it was between perception and overall decided to divide the margin for these into development of CBTI. three clusters namely Upper Himachal, Research methodology Middle Himachal and Lower Himachal. One CBTI location was chosen from each The present study is descriptive undertaken cluster and data were collected through the to find empirical evidence to test the Sarpanch (head of the community).

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 63 The map indicates the division of Himachal Pradesh into three clusters: Upper Himachal, Middle Himachal & Lower Himachal. There were 536 households in Sangla, 511 cohesion, economic dependency, safety and households in Paragpur and 506 households security, preserving local ecosystem, and in Naggar. The data were collected with the local participation in decision making etc. help of a structured non disguised The dimension related to community questionnaire with help of systematic benefits included items related to creation sampling. Therefore in case of Sangla, of job opportunities, cultural sampling fraction was shows/festivals standard of living, pride and Samplig Fraction= sense of self identity for residents, public n/N=100/536=1/5.36 (i.e.1 in 5) utilities etc. The dimension of cost While in Paragpur, sampling fraction was included items related to cost of living, Samplig Fraction= natural environment, pollution, impacts on local culture and identity etc. There were n/N=100/511=1/5.11 (i.e.1 in 5) 16 items for perception dimension, 18 items In Naggar, sampling fraction was for benefits and 8 items for costs related to Samplig Fraction= CBTI. The questionnaire also contained n/N=100/506=1/5.06 (i.e.1 in 5) questions related to economic contribution While collecting data, every fifth household and overall development of the surveyed was approached in order to fill out a communities in perception of the structured questionnaire in the identified community members (respondents). three communities. The data were analysed using descriptive The questionnaire was self-constructed statistics and hypothesis were tested using and had 3 sections measuring perception, correlation and regression analysis in SPSS benefits and costs of CBTI. Based on the 20. review of literature the items included in Descriptive Socio Demographic Analysis perception dimension were related to out The sample consisted of 300 respondents migration, community pride and social including 229 males and 71 females.

64 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Among the total sample size of 300, 100 Data Analysis respondents were from Sangla, 100 from In order to test the six proposed hypothesis, Paragpur and 100 were from Naggar. The correlation analysis was undertaken done results of the demographic profile indicated across perception, benefits and cost that the sample was skewed towards males. dimensions of Community Based Tourism The results further indicated that out of development in terms of eonomic total 300 respondents, 109 respondents contribution and overall development. were in the age group of less than 30, 117 In order to understand the dimensions of respondents were between the age group of CBTI more precisely, 3 different 30-45 years, 65 respondents were between exploratory factor analysis were undertaken the age group of 45-60 years and only 09 for each one of the three independent respondents were above 60 years of age. variables. The results of factor analysis for An analysis of the educational profile of the perception indicated that the perception respondents indicated that 56 respondents variable could be reduced to two were below matriculate, 128 respondents dimensions i.e. Factor-1 named as were matriculate, 88 respondents were Economic Development and Factor-2 Social graduate, 22 respondents were post Development. A factor analysis for benefits graduate and 06 respondents were above variable indicated that there was a three- post-graduation. The results indicated that factor solution for benefits and these were across the three locations, only 2.0% named as Investment benefits, Identity respondents had post-graduation degree. A benefits and Cultural benefits. Similarly, the qualitative analysis indicated that most of variable of costs was reduced to two-factor the well educated population had moved to solution i.e. Environmental & Cultural nearby towns in search of better job sustainability Cost and Cost of Living. opportunities. The results indicated that in In order to test the six, Correlation analysis terms of occupational activities, 33 was undertaken with the help of SPSS 21. respondents were associated with public The results of the correlation analysis of the sector or governmental employee's, 76 three main factors of CBTI economic respondents were working with the private contribution, it is indicated that there was a sector, 61 respondents were businessmen or significant relationship was found between Entrepreneurs, while only 64 respondents Perception, Benefits and of Cost. An were community tourism entrepreneurs. indepth analysis was done for dependent The results indicated that 49.7% of the variable across the dimensions of respondents were not involved directly in perception (economic development and CBTI while more than 50.3% were social development), benefits (investment, involved with CBTI. The results indicated identity and cultural benefits) and costs that not a huge segment of the respondents (environmental and cultural sustainability was dependent upon community based costs and cost of living). tourism indicating that the sample was adequate for the study.

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 65 Correlation ana lysis of Perception, Benefits cost dimensions Across Economic Contri bution and Overall development. Economic Social Investment Identity Cultural Environmental Cost of Develop ment Developme nt Benefits Ben efits Benefits & Cultural Living (Factor-1) (Factor-2) (Factor-3) (Facto r- (Factor - Sustainability (Factor- 4) 5) Cost 7) (Factor-6) Economic Pearson Contrib ution Correla tion .38 0** .297** .398** .436** .35 1** .10 1** .131** Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .017 .023 (2-tail ed) Overall Pearson Development Correlation .394** .289** .380** .382** .369** .096** .157**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .049 .006

It was found that all the two dimensions of However correlation analysis did not show Perception of Community towards CBTI the strength of the relationship. i.e. economic development and social The regression results indicated that 47.8% development were positively and variance in the data set was explained by significantly correlated with economic the resulting regression model. As per std. contribution and overall development of the 50% or above variance is considered good. community at 99% confidence index. The However in the service industry 30% results also indicated that three dimensions variance can be taken into consideration. of benefits i.e. investment, identity and Therefore the model was considered. cultural benefits were significantly and Y1=β0+β1X1+β2X2+…….βnβn positively correlated with economic Y2=β0+β1X1+β2X2+…….βnβn contribution and overall development of the In the present study seven factors in the community at 99% confidence index. regression equation were Similarly, an analysis of the last dimension X1= Economic Development, X2= social of CBTI i.e. costs, indicated that both the Development, X3= Investment Benefits, dimensions of costs of CBTI X4= Identity Benefits, X5= Cultural (environmental and cultural sustainability Benefits, X6= Environmental & Cultural and cost of living) were significantly and Sustainability Cost, X7= Cost of Living, positively correlated with economic Y1= Economic Contribution and Y2 = contribution and overall development of the Overall Development community at 99% confidence index Based on p values out of 7 independent (table). variables, only 2 values were p<.05 and The results of the correlation analysis therefore treated as significant variables i.e. indicated that there was a positive and investment benefits and identity benefits. significant relationship between the seven The results indicated that other things like factors i.e. economic contribution, social constant 1 unit change in investment development, investment benefits, identity benefits will lead to 0.383 units increase in benefits, cultural benefits, environmental economic contribution of CBTI in and cultural sustainability cost and cost of perception of the respondents. Similarly 1 living with economic contribution and unit change in identity benefits will lead to overall development. It seems that there 0.519 units increase in economic was a positive and significant relationship. contribution of CBTI in perception of the

66 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 respondents as projected in the following table I.

Table I : Results for regression analysis across economic contribution and economic developmen t Unstandardized Standardized Mod el Coefficients Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constan t) 2.732 .622 4.394 .000 Economic .318 .209 .133 1.516 .131 Developmen t Social developmen t .025 .171 .010 .145 .885 Investment benefits .383 .157 .186 2.440 .015 Economic Identity benefit s .519 .179 .238 2.903 .004 Contributio n Cultural benefits .002 .180 .001 .013 .990 Environment and Cultural .134 .091 .084 1.465 .144 Sustainability Cost

Cost of Living -.159 .109 -.091 -1.450 .148

Similarly, a regression analysis of the seven resulting predictive model explained 45.3% variables across overall development of the variance in the Dependent Variable. indicated that across seven factors for The model was significant at (p <.05, Dependent Variable Development, the F=10.760) (table: II ). strength of the model was 45.3% i.e. the

Table II : Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Mod el Coefficients Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant ) 2.003 .285 7.034 .000 Economic .195 .096 .181 2.035 .043 Development Social .006 .079 .006 .081 .935 development Investment .169 .072 .181 2.346 .020 Overall benefits Development Identity benefits .096 .082 .097 1.166 .244 Cultural benefits .067 .082 .069 .814 .416 Environment and Cultural .056 .042 .078 1.333 .184 Sustainability Cost Cost of Livin g -.035 .050 -.045 -.701 .484 The results of the regression analysis will lead to .195 units increase in overall indicated that based on p values out of development of CBTI in perception of the seven independent variables, only 2 values respondents. Similarly 1 unit change in were p<.05 and therefore were assumed investment benefits will lead to 0.169 units significant variables. i.e. economic increase in overall development of CBTI in development and investment benefits. perception of the respondents. The results indicated that the constant 1 Based on correlation analysis all the six unit change in economic development may hypothesis were supported i.e. there was a

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 67 significant relationship between the three variable than investment benefits as a single dimensions of CBTI i.e. perception, cost unit change in identity benefits dimension and benefits and economic contribution and led to 0.519 units change in economic overall development. The results of the development. Thus to promote CBTI, State study indicated that in the perception of the Government should invest in identity consumers, CBTI contributed to economic benefits related strategies, as well as to contribution as well as overall development organize important cultural shows/festivals of the region through all the three to popularize cultural tourism products. dimensions of CBTI. However, regression Similarly, out of seven sub dimensions, analysis indicated that all the sub only economic development and investment dimensions of the three variables i.e. benefits sub dimensions were significant. perception, cost and benefit were not Out of these two significant variables, equally important in terms of CBTI. In economic development was more relevant view of these policymakers and variable as one unit change in economic practitioners should be more careful when development led to 0.195 units change in making policies concerning to CBTI. overall development. In view of this Conclusion Government should invest in economic The current study was an attempt to development related strategies and policy understand the relationship between three makers should think upon issues related to main dimensions of CBTI i.e. perception, check out migration on creating new cost and benefit across to dependent markets for the local products, developing variables of the Himachal State economy skill, knowledge & aptitude of local people, i.e. economic contribution and overall improving safety and security, improving development. The study was an attempt to public utility, preserving local ecosystem, understand this relationship between the and ensuring local participation in decision dependent and independent variable across making. Sangla, Paragpur and Naggar. The data The present study contributes to the extant were collected from 300 respondents and literature of CBTI. It further helps six hypotheses were tested. The correlation practitioners and researchers to develop a and regression analysis support all six perspective of CBTI in Himachal Pradesh. hypothesis were supported yet not all the The current study was an attempt to dimensions of the three variables were understand the use and relevance of CBIT significant. in perspective of Himachal Pradesh. No Out of all there variables and seven sub attempt was made to do cross regional dimensions, only Investment and Identity comparative analysis. Thus the present benefits sub dimensions were relevant and study could be explored as future area of identity benefits was a more important research.

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BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS S.P. Bansal is presently serving as Vice Chancellor Himachal Technical University, Hamirpur & holds the Chair of Professor in Tourism Management,IVS, MTA, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India. Email: [email protected] Purva Kansal is working as Associate Professor in University Business School at Panjab University, Chandigarh. Email: [email protected] Sandeep Kumar Walia is the corresponding author currently working as Associate Professor & Head of Department in University Institute of Tourism & Hospitality Management at Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India. Email: [email protected]

70 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 K e y W o r d s Changes in the Role of Local or Host Community in Destination imaging, Destination Imaging destination imaging agents, imaging inputs, local community, SAMIK RAY visitation, visitors. RLG Govt. of India, Department of Tourism Editor of Tourism Theory and Practice

Abstract Tourism in post industrial society INTRODUCTION passes through three distinct phases, estination image plays a significant role in shaping viz., mass tourism, alternative tourism, and contemporary practices the pre-travel purchase decision, pulling the tourists, in the socio-technological reality destination positioning (Kotler, P., Haider, D. H., & state. As tourism is predominantly an D intangible experience for the tourists Rein, I.1993), and tourism marketing etc. Tourism is a service and travellers, the end service or product by the people, for the people and to the people as it is services at the visiting destinations are quite important. The locals are the prepared and produced by the local-host community and hosts of those services. They are offered to guests or tourists' community for consumption and authentic spokespersons, interpreters and providers of both tangible and experience. Tourism thereby depends upon interaction intangible services, and attractions between two human communities (Hall and Richards, 2000), including lifestyle of visiting place. Their role in destination imaging is hosts and tourists. Hosts are locals, have a significant crucial and imperative. It is true in all contribution towards destination imaging (Chon, 1990) periods and phases of tourism history. though apparently products or services are developed upon The roles of local community in this regard are stratified based on nature destination's natural and cultural attractions. Effect of local of host's involvement in tourism. community involvement in destination imaging begins from Shifts in their role towards d e s t i n a t i o n i m a g i n g a n d pre purchase stage and continues perpetually till post transformation of tourism practices in consumption experience sharing stage. Numerous studies the post industrial state are striking and functional. In the 21st century the have already been undertaken to discuss the images of role of local community in destinations, but effort to examine the role of local destination imaging becomes too crucial when people begin to live in community in destination imaging did not received much the world of neo socio- technological attention yet. reality. Neo-reality within tourism is marked by mobility across, virtual or REVIEW OF LITERATURE real, time and space; shift from collective gaze to individual gaze; Although destination image study is fairly a new predominance of visits undertaken for development, hundreds of researches were published on this authentic experience over mere visits to attractions; ascendency of lifestyle area by now. Among the early studies the works of Reynolds experience paradigm; wide growth (1965), Anderssen, and Colberg (1973), Matejka (1973), of communication through web dependent social media or personal Mayo (1973), Ahmed (1996), Baloglu (1997), and Baloglu digital means. and Brinberg (1997) are worth to mention. In fact the volume The present paper will trace how and why the local community is crucial to of researches done in this field clearly calls attention to the destination imaging and map out the importance of destination image. Predominance of possible qualitative changes in their quantitative technique over qualitative is apparent (Echtner role towards imaging and shifts in the nature of stratified involvement of and Ritchie, 1991 and 2003). Steve Pike (2002) while locals in image formation, occurred reviewing the researches on destination image stated that within host milieu of the post industrial tourism practices. factor analysis, t-tests, cluster analysis, perceptual mapping,

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 71 and analysis of importance-performance marketing and geography (Lynch, 1960; and means techniques were used largely in Downs & Stea, 1977; Saarinen, 1976; data analysis. Among qualitative studies Ashworth & Goodal, 1988), study of Pritchard and Walkup (2000) made destination image receives attention too. significant contribution. Most of the studies DESTINATION IMAGING on destination imaging pay much attention Destination image is a mental construct to the consumer-traveller or visitors' (Reynolds, 1965) either located in mind of perception (Ferrario, 1979; Wee etal. 1985; people who want to know, reveal, and Phelps, 1986; Embacher and Buttle, 1989; understand it for somewhat reason or Gartner and Shen, 1992; Baloglu, 1997; created for portrayal of destination Chaudhary, 2000) and insights or views of attributes. Motives of comprehending image travel trade people (Ritchie and Zins, 1978; could be just a curiosity, urge to visit the Illum and Schaefer, 1995) including destination, thirst for knowledge, and an destination marketers (Illum and Schaefer, impulse to do business using destination as 1995; Bramwell and Rawding, 1996). Case a commodity. Motives for creation could be specific researches were done mostly on promotion, marketing, selling the destinations of developed world. Studies in destination as commodity or a demand for Indian context are barely found. Work of it developed within potential market or Chaudhary (2000) is one of the few in this among curious and interested. Its regard. Effect of visitation in image construction is a psychological process construction (Ferrario, 1979; Wee etal based on cues in the form of information 1985; Phelps,1986), segmentation and and impression (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991 image building (Driscoll and Lawson, 1990; and 2003) stimuli collected from widely Mazanec, 1997), affective analysis of diverse and various sources of imaging. destination image (Baloglu and Brinberg, Image is thus formed by the act of imaging. 1997; Young, 1999), image formation Destination imaging has two ends: receiver, (Gunn 1972; Echtner and Ritchie, 1991 & within the mind of whom destination image 2003; Gartner, 1993; Alhemoud and is to be formed, and creator-sender, who Armstrong, 1996; Bramwell and Rawding, plays the role of creator-transmitter or 1996; Selby and Morgan, 1996; Court and image formation agent. Lupton, 1997; MacKay and Fesenmaier, In tourism, destination imaging is an 1997; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; ongoing dynamic process of creation or Murphy, 1999; Young, 1999), destination formation of ideas, feelings, thoughts, image in positioning (Ahmed 1991;Pike and experiences, facts, values, information, and Ryan, 2004), typology of image forms and impression about a destination. In the mind forming agent(Gartner 1989 & 1993; of potential tourists or visitors it begins Echtner and Ritchie, 1991 & 2003; Milman with cognition or mental process of and Pizam, 1995; Bramwell and Rawding, acquiring information about destination and 1996; MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; understanding destination. For tour Court and Lupton, 1997; Lubbe, 1998; companies from tourist generating Chen and Kerstetter, 1999; Human, 1999; destinations it begins with destination Young, 1999; Chen and Hsu, 2000; selection for outbound tourism but process MacKay and Fesenmaier, 2000; Day, would be the same. This is the beginning of Skidmore, and Koller, 2002; Iwashita, destination image formation at receivers' 2003) receive much prominence in end. At creator-sender end it begins with destination imaging researches. In creation or portrayal of destination image psychology, environmental planning, and then transfer or transmission of created

72 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 image as inputs to the mind of infinite usually known as destination imaging agent numbers of receivers. Inputs spread or (Alhemoud and Armstrong, 1996; transmitted from creators to n- number Bramwell and Rawding, 1996; Court and receivers, and once received, it could again Lupton, 1997; Gartner, 1993; Gunn, 1972; be transferred to other receivers. At pre Murphy, 1999; Selby and Morgan, 1996; visit or selection state image is formed out Young, 1999). They generate and transfer of external and secondary inputs received in or transmit the inputs to the curious and the form of pull or external stimuli (Dann, potential visitors, thus to tourist generating 1977; Kotler, 1982), thereby created images markets. Imaging inputs generated by the are absolutely secondary (Phelps, 1986). agents play like catalyst and primarily Cognition process of acquiring information prompt an urge of travelling or using and impressions towards destination destination as a commodity and shape pre imaging and image formation continues in purchase decisions including selection of the mind of visitor- receivers during destination and travelling there. Even after visitation too. Inputs come through senses purchase and selection the roles of agents of visitor, what they see, feel, and continue with similar multitude and understand during visit, and also from importance as imaging process becomes impressions, ideas, views, and information operative in three broad stages: selection or transmitted by the locals. Images obtained pre-visit, visitation, and post sale or post are primary (Phelps, 1986) which may visit states. So it is an area of substantial contradict or corroborate the secondary investigation. image. Thus evaluation and assessment of Information and impression stimuli all the image created or formed at earlier state through the process come from diverse is possible during visitation. Outcome agents. Involvement with tourism or would be authentic imaging of destinations' residential status is not prerequisite for attribute if it is not otherwise conditioned to playing role of agents. They could be immediate socio- psychological or physical stranger or might be the local to the settings of interactions with locals and destination. They may involve in tourism or preconceive notion or complex socio- may work elsewhere other than tourism psychological attribute that visitors possess sectors and connected to potential visitors by virtue of their socio-economic as friend, relative, family, colleague, peer association. Imaging process continues even group. Gartner (1993) divides the agents after the visitation when the visitors resume into following groups Overt Induced I and acquiring new and contemporary II, Covert Induced I and II, Autonomous, information and impressions from external Solicited and Unsolicited Organic type. sources and share their experiences of visit Other researchers also follow almost similar or image that was formed as a sum of kind of typological divides. None of those destination image perception at pre- visit researches pay much attention on locals or and visitation state. At this state they play supply or destination-side (Tasci & Gartner, the role of both receiver and sender. The 2007) agents' role in destination imaging process could be continued n- period of though they have important contributions time. towards formation of both primary and Tourist Destination imaging agents: local secondary image (Phelps, 1986) while community role becoming operative at all the stages of Destination imaging inputs are pull or tourist destination imaging. In this context a external stimuli (Dann, 1977; Kotler, 1982), theoretical framework of divide among created by a group called creator-sender, agents in terms of their geo-cultural

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 73 association and resident status is quite though stranger to the destination, involve crucial. Primarily a broad divide is thus in destination imaging activities, possible between strangers and locals consciously or without knowing the fact of (fig.1). their participation in it. Techniques are Strangers word of mouth publicity and sharing of Contrary to locals the concept of strangers visitation experience in the form of writing could be described as a community who are in print media or talks in audio-visual neither bearer of local cultural traditions media, and by uploading or posting photos, and heritage nor resident of the destination, information, and comments in social media. thereby is stranger in all respect. Visitors or Sometimes they involved in dynamic tourist are definitely strangers. By the interactions over their visiting experiences above described concept professionals, with peer communicators in virtual space or entrepreneurs, and activists involved in with family, friends, colleagues, and tourism of tourist generating destinations neighbours in a real world setting within a and principal tour companies of a federal known socio-spatial periphery of their country like India are stranger too but their residence or work, either at an arm length role in shaping travel decisions and tourism or across the table conversation. Sharing business deals including promotional experience of visits after return is an age activities is significant. In destination old practice. When people become techno- imaging they play the role of both receiver savvy, web based media are used frequently and generator-sender. Usually information for such experience sharing. Accordingly it and impression about destination are is found that more than 70% of the users' received from supply side on demand and generated contents in social media are during familiarization trip while interacting related to vacation or business travel with the hosts and through personal primary (Kimberlee 2015). If sharing of visitation experiences. While portraying destination experience or travel related reports and image for target market they transform the writings is requested by any tourism received fact into touristic fact by shaping, organization having a definite vested editing, and modifying to suit the vested interest in imaging, the sharing cannot be intention of doing business using independent, unconditional, and free from destination as commodity. Reporters, vested concern of promotion and selling a journalists, columnists, celebrity destination as tourism product. When spokespersons, bloggers, users of social sharing or writing is independent of any media, and travel writers who are non- pressure or obligation, portrayal would be native, non-resident, and not even more objective. Subjective imaging also acquainted with indigenous culture and appears frequently as consumption heritage, are certainly stranger. Destination experience is predominantly intangible and image would be secondary if it is created heterogenic, dependent of variables like out of information and impression inputs, visitors' class, education, work, travel generated by those strangers. Strangers' role experience in terms of temporality and in destination imaging is confined largely immediate psycho-physical settings of with various decisions making at pre consumption. Writings, irrespective of types purchase or pre packaging state as at and subject matter, become subjective when visitation state imaging depends on personal it is influenced by certain pre-conceive experience and impression inputs about notions, ideological prejudices and self destination from supply side. socio-economic or political context that a At the post visit state previous visitors, writer posses.

74 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Supply or destination-side agents authentic and reliable than natives who are Precisely supply or destination-side agents habitual observer and bearer of local consist of diverse groups of locals, usually culture. Often an objective portrayal of residents of the destination, inheritor and destination for natives is quite difficult traditionally bearer of the destination's unless they are either expert in the subjects cultural contents including heritage that contain destination image contents or attribute. In the age of global mobility a keen observer. Accordingly their role in sizeable existence of non-resident locals destination imaging at visitation state is and non-local residents can be traced. vital, thus to primary image formation. (fig.1) Chances of biased and subjective portrayal Non-resident locals by non-local residents cannot be denied as Role of non-resident locals in destination sometimes their observation involves either imaging is vital at pre-purchase state since inferiority complex in relation to native their geo-cultural root is linked with culture or superiority feeling about their destination like local native residents. own culture. Information and impression produced and Local residents conveyed by non-resident locals regarding A destination always requires local their homeland are reliable on average as residents' involvement in developing a their geo-cultural acquaintance with destination as touristic place; towards its destination is on a par with local residents promotion, for preparation and sell of and they do not have any kind of vested tourism demand led products and services; tourism business interest. Spatial difference to make arrangement of all sorts of between the place where they do live now services, facilities, and amenities that a and their homeland bars them to play a role visitor usually needs or demands. Indeed in formation of primary image about locals' involvement in this regard varies destination. Actually non-resident status widely, spread through all three major limits their function within the secondary stages of imaging, and contributes, directly image formation activity. Overrated or or indirectly, towards destination imaging. exaggerated and underrated portrayal is Their inputs are considered to be authentic possible when magnification or as they are the provider, bearer, genuine minimization cognitive distortion syndrome spokesperson, and interpreters of both prevails in non-resident locals' mind. tangible and intangible services, attractions, Non-local resident traditions, heritage and cultural contents of Among the residents, non-locals or non- the destination. However a macro divide natives, though culturally stranger, observe within locals based on the nature of their socio-cultural life of locals ardently. It is involvement would be useful. Primarily possible because they have opportunity to divide among directly involved in tourism, observe it from a close proximity for a indirectly associated to tourism, no apparent considerable period of time by virtue of association with tourism at destination level their resident status within local socio- would be quite likely as its existence is cultural milieu. It is definitely longer than already perceptible. (fig.1) any other culturally stranger group. Thus an Locals no association with tourism objective or unbiased portrayal of Locals who do not have any apparent link destination image by them is fairly possible to tourism like reporters, journalists, if they do not live as closed resident group. columnist of local news agencies; bloggers Sometimes it would be more objective, of any blog other than tourism; social

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 75 media users; and people who neither factor makes them ignorant about socially nor economically benefited from destination imaging. Among them few like tourism etc produce, convey, and transmit a local artisans have little but direct bearing large amount and varied types of on destination image formation if products information while dealing local issues. A made by them are sold to the visitors, collective effect of all those information is directly or through middlemen. The quality clearly evident in destination image attributes of local art and craft certainly formation. Effects, whether positive or contribute to image differentiation. negative and permanent or temporary, are Locals involved directly in tourism valuable as transmitters at least do not have Agents from supply or destination side, any liability to suit the vested tourism directly involved in travel and tourism, interests. Information could be subjective or have a common objective or purpose-goal objective in relation to context where it for destination imaging at all three stages. It could be used or the issue that it deals with. is certainly promotion and marketing a When it becomes subjective; personal or destination as tourism product; in turn sell some sort of vested interest opinion, it, make business or earn livelihood. interpretation, emotions and judgment Procedures or techniques taken by them for become dominant; often considered as ill- imaging at pre-purchase or promotion and suited to overall destination image marketing state vary widely. Predominantly formation. On the contrary objective it is blatant advertisement through different information is impersonal, factual, free traditional media and recently developed from any kind of vested interest based social media. Across the table interactions interpretation, thus apposite to destination or texting, messaging, and uploading related imaging. When reporter, journalist, photos or videos in different social and columnist, blogger, social media users, and personal digital media are found common commoners work at organizations other in communicating information or than tourism, portrayal of destination's impression about destination image and image usually becomes unbiased as their products to the targeted consumers. Travel circle of interests is not conditional to writing or reporting and travel talk show by vested concern options of tourism and celebrity in audio-visual media, both purpose-goal is not linked directly to the sponsored and independent, are also used to tourism destination imaging. Hence their convey destination image. A difference in writings, reports, posting, texting indirectly purpose-goal in this respect is clearly affect destination imaging. evident. While sponsored writings and talks Locals involved indirectly in tourism are keen in commoditising a destination for Publishers and printers of tourism related tourism business, independents like to documents, employees of Public works and convey the common fact. revenue departments, local artisans, Second stage of image formation is suppliers of different materials to various visitation state where image is characterised tourism enterprises, and many more similar by both tangible and intangible attributes professionals are associated to tourism and acquired by visitors based on indirectly as their activities do not knowledge obtained through self senses or connected directly to tourism. Sometimes came from locals in frequent interactions they work for tourism but on demand. with them during visitation. Cognition at Tourism's share in the total volume of visitation state involves experiencing, consumption of their product and services evaluation and assessment. Visitors get is fairly low and insignificant. Probably this

76 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 opportunity to experience the destination few among many who have opportunity of image, evaluate and assess the image that frequent and periodic customer contacts and they acquired during pre-visit state from interactions. Tourism entrepreneurs, local secondary sources. Tour companies of cultural performers, planning people, travel tourist generating destination usually go for writers, chefs, advertisers, celebrity familiarization visit to have a direct spokesperson have lesser chances of experience of destination to be sold in the customer contact and interactions than the tourist market, evaluate and assess the opportunities that locals of frequent information about destination acquired from category have. Isolated category performs secondary sources at selection state. Such support service; does not have direct visitation is crucial for packaging, sale, and contacts and interactions with the marketing. Destination experiences and its customers. Support service staffs of all images are structured or shaped based on tourism establishments like accounts, information, ideas, impressions supplied by maintenance, kitchen services etc. belong to primary destination imaging agents or this category. sources. Thus visitors' experience at the Actually interaction with entire lot of destination and formation of destination's residents within short span of visit is image in their mind, whether satisfactory or neither feasible nor viable; rather it is dissatisfactory and modified or as per possible and logical only with a little group expectation, largely depends on the of locals. Among thousands or millions of portrayal of destination by those primary local residents a group of locals, who have agents who are normally the locals from opportunity of frequent and periodic supply-side. Cognition process of acquiring contacts and interactions with visitors at knowledge of destination image in this state visitation state, came to be the only known may be viewed as the sum of experiences to visitors. It becomes possible by virtue of acquired through self senses and their job position and its nature or due to information, impression, ideas received their frequent, periodic, and repeat presence from primary agents while visitation. The throughout visits at different in person most reliable and effective primary agents interactive sessions. Above all interaction for destination imaging at visitation state continues through a language known to are those who have opportunity of frequent visitors. Language of communication makes and periodic customer contacts and the interaction easier and understanding interactions. better. On the contrary inability to speak in A divide within the periphery of direct local language bars the visitors to interact involvement based on periodicity, and then to know the larger local mass. frequency, and total temporal length of Hence visitors consider those frequent faces customer contact and interaction becomes as spokesperson or representative of crucial and logical then. Divides are destination, visitation experience is mostly frequent, infrequent, and isolated (fig.1). done through their eyes, and their The series is hierarchical. Tour guides and information and interpretation inputs make managers, trip leaders, arrival-departure visitors' understanding about destination transfer staffs, housekeeping personnel, better. At visitation visitors spend most concierge and front desk employees of all time with accompanying tour managers or tourist establishments including tourist leaders and tour escorts and second highest accommodation and restaurants, tourist time spend normally be with the tour vehicle drivers and attendants, employees guides. Logically visitors' interactions of tourist information centres etc are only a mostly occur with them. Thus images,

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 77 visitors take back, formed and shaped by reports, stories, experience writings; those managers and guides etc. celebrity appearance at audio-visual media Reliability of information, ideas, and etc produce a vast amount of information impressions is important for authentic that directly or indirectly play significant cognition at any stage of imaging. People role in destination image formation. commonly believe that when it comes from Actually all those information by and large agents belong to local community are are reconstructed too. Intention of genuine, valid, accurate, and near to the reconstruction is to serve the vested fact. Belief does not corroborate the fact of business interests of the sponsors. It leads actual happenings always as besides to unrealistic, overrated, exaggerated, and authentic information induced, overrated, pseudo portrayal of destination image. exaggerated information do exist. Indeed Information and impression conferred by information about destination are largely the tour guides, managers, and leaders reconstructed when it is distributed, could be objective or subjective but seldom received or requested from local imaging be inauthentic as generation-transmission agents involved directly in tourism like and consumption-corroboration-evaluation advertisers, destination promoters, tour of information occur simultaneously. companies, bloggers work for blogs linked As resident and inheritor as well as bearer to destination, and any other tourist of cultural and heritage contents or attribute business at the destination. For the most of the destination local community has a part, reconstruction is done at the will of crucial role in destination imaging. Their those agents to suit their vested business involvements in this respect are quite interest. Overtly their aim is to increase diverse in nature, magnitude, function, tourist arrival at the destination while volume, and quality. Considering all those covertly it is ensuring multiplication of variables a typological divide is postulated profit out of tourist business. Local tourism and described already. This typological business establishment sponsored travel divide is given below in a chart form (fig.1). Figure 1 Destination Imaging Agents

78 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Destination imaging by local persons and organisations involved directly community in post- industrial state to tourism. Gross distortion of destination The concept of destination imaging and its attribute and denial of live reality inputs in agent was non-existent in pre industrial and imaging at pre-purchase and visitation state, industrial state though travelling and turned the tourists' experience either into making tour were perceptible. Accordingly bubble feel or ghetto (Krippendorf 2002). destination image formation within self or Eventually it blurred distinction between for the known people of traveller did exist. authentic and reconstructed counterfeit Sources of destination image formation image. Groups involved directly to tourism were autonomous, solicited and unsolicited and having frequent and infrequent type. Autonomous sources were generally interaction opportunity with visitors play independently produced printed or written major role in reconstruction or restructuring travel reports, diaries, articles and travelogues; thus well documented. On the the image. other hand information received, whether According to the nature of their solicited or unsolicited, about a destination involvement in reconstruction two stratified at official meetings; unofficial gatherings of groups could be located: tourees and family, friends, neighbours, and in any middleman. Tourees do the image place where the topic of conversation modification to meet either tourists' demand focuses on a specific destination played or profit progression need of the industry. crucial role in image formation too. Middlemen mediate the interaction with Technique is commonly known as word of tourists by manipulating image contents for mouth publicity. Information received from economic gain in mass tourism demand those sources supposedly had no vested context (Van den Berghe and Keyes 1984, interest of tourism business and profit Van den Berghe 1992). Tourees and progression, thereby chances of being middlemen took up the position of unbiased is logically high. Imaging vanguard, tinkered with emotion, images, became subjective too as visitation is attributive content of the place where they predominantly intangible and heterogenic, do live. It gave them the power to modify dependent of immediate social as well as the imaging contents at the will of mass psycho-physical settings of visit, and tourism entrepreneurs. Sponsored travel visitors' pre-conceive notions or ideological prejudices, developed upon their habitual writers and reporters; accompanying tour socio-economic or political context. managers, guides, escorts, leaders; concierge people, cultural show performers Mass tourism state and many more play the role of either When an entirely new economy emerged touree or middleman and sometimes both. out of tourism in the early post-industrial Thus new images, new identities were state, a large scale commoditisation of manufactured. Indignation created among destination image at the mass tourism's some within and outside the hosts too. behest came to be apparent. Destination History then began anew (Ray 2017). imaging then became volume of demand Alternatives' state and product driven, subjective to entrepreneurs' expectation about the norms Indignation against the staged authenticity of experience on holiday. Thus it prompts or reconstructed image initiated alternative reconstruction and reproduction of tourism in various forms. Without initiating destination image towards commoditisation. a counter movement, alternatives promote Constant image tailoring within the tourism commoditisation and reconstruction of milieu was prevalent mainly at marketing, destination image but in a defensive promotion, and visitation state, done by manner, restricted scale, within a limited

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 79 operational area. By restriction alternatives practices lost its contextual relevance and promote elitists tourism to make similar eventually become insignificant too in this volume of profit that was made in mass state. It leads to the gradual shift in the practices. Elite tourists are normally aware paradigm of imaging. The shift becomes of their exotic differences with hosts and apparent in desire of presenting destination their economic and cultural hegemony and in authentic and meaningful manner. superiority over hosts. Hence destination Majority of local tourism entrepreneurs and image is reconstructed for promotion- destination managers set a new trend in marketing and at visitation state to suit marketing and promotional activities elitist ego, tastes, and choices. Tourees and emphasizing authentic portrayal of middlemen were active as self styled destination image while marketing and authentic dealer-broker-interpreter of promoting a destination. Comprehending destination image. Interaction between neo socio-technological reality destination tourists and native is generally brokered promoters create different space within their and controlled by them, becomes restricted websites for uploading and sharing photos, within certain area. Middlemen take the information, and comments of the live role of mediator occupying a crucial space travel experience of their clients. Rapid where industrialised modernity meets the increase in clients' participation in it assists authentic exotic native or ethnic the tourism entrepreneurs to understand the community. Subsequently destination SWOT position of destination imaging imaging through visitors' senses becomes quickly, influences future tourist market to restricted, thereby absolutely dependent on generate an authentic image before visiting tourees and middlemen. Destination image the destination, and makes the choice and formation thereby becomes either partial or selection of destination to be visited in an driven by varied vested interests as authentic and faster way. Specifically mentioned. previous visitors play a pivotal role in Neo socio-technological reality state image formation and modifying the At neo reality state, increased practices of purchase decision of future tourists, and sharing information-impressions about a subsequently in promoting a destination. destination and individual travel Hence marketing and promotion become experiences in digital or social media more authentic, cost effective, and faster unfold reliable image and crude reality of than that of conventional one, existed in destination, authenticated through uploaded pre-digital era. Destination imaging by and shared contents of live realities. Both previous tourists thus begin to be prioritized pseudo or "hyperreal" (Baudrillard 1981) in promotion and marketing which imaging and restricted or pseudo experience eventually put a halt to the practice of on holiday comes into conflict with the imagining, experiencing, and gazing a truth of holiday experiences shared in social destination holidays at the will of third media. Regular and frequent access to those party from supply side or through the eyes contents accelerates longing for authentic of tourees or middlemen. All those imaging and live reality experience, in the initiatives together made a shift within the way the natives perceive, among the new imaging paradigm at marketing, promotion, generation tourists and thus to making their and practice stage. It is a shift from product perception of destination and its image or producer orientation to tourist orientation better. and producer or provider control promotion Approaches to destination imaging to social media users' opinion dependent developed within mass and alternative promotion.

80 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Distinction between deliberately apparent only in post industrial state when manufactured or reconstructed image and the locals' involvement as supply side authentic traditional versions of it began to service provider in organised tourism disappear, effort of imitating traditionally business sector happen to be the most accepted image becomes restricted, and requisite by default. Destination imaging is original or natural versions eventually then marked by shift from unorganised and replace the pseudo versions or casual imaging to vested interest driven and manufactured myth. It makes tourees and organized imaging activity, emergence of a middlemen irrelevant or out of context. A hierarchically stratified specialised shift from mediator or modifier to professionals' group to serve the cause of coordinator or manager of authentic vested interest of mass and alternative imaging and experience arrangements for tourism in imaging activity, transformation tourists on holiday travel is quite coherent of unpolished unmodified imaging contents to the new context. Thus concept, to reconstructed and modified one, technique, practice of destination imaging substitution of traditionally reliable developed within mass and alternative impression by pseudo and restructured tourism context, is redefined. impression, mediator group controlled CONCLUSION interaction between visitor and natives at Role of local community in destination visitation state, bubble image formation, imaging throughout travel history never and eventual disappearing of distinction becomes insignificant or trivial but between traditionally accepted authentic initiative to change imaging concept and image and its reconstructed pseudo version, practice by them in response to the neo increased dependency on touree and socio-technological reality and challenges is middlemen for image formation during the most striking and functional. Despite its visit, and deliberately manufactured image. immense importance, local community's Increased practices of sharing individual role did not receive much attention in travel experiences along with information researches on destination imaging. as well as impressions about a destination Image formation about travelled in digital or social media led to the most destinations in the mind of travellers and striking changes in the destination imaging known people to the traveller is an age old practices. Changes began out of conflict tradition though practices involved in it and between the truth or live realities of its concept changed through the ages. A destination, surfaced overtly when shared in conceptual frame of destination imaging has social media, and the hyperreal or pseudo emerged only in the post industrial era at image developed deliberately at the behest the behest of organised mass tourism while of mass and alternative practice. practices prevailed since early days without Frequent access to live reality contents the conceptual knowledge. Local related to travel in different social media community's involvement in destination accelerates redefinition process of imaging is imperative by virtue of the host destination imaging thus to gradual shift in status. Visitors make their destination the paradigm of imaging. The shifts are experience and form an image of apparent in the development of desire of destination mainly through the eyes of portrayal and presentation of destination locals or out of information and impression image in meaningful manner in terms of transmitted by locals to visitors at authenticity among majority of supply-side visitation. It is relevant all through tourism entrepreneurs; in longing for authentic history. Major shift in this regard became comprehension of image among new

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 81 generation tourists; in portraying more orientation instead of product or producer objective impression than that of subjective; orientation while do imaging and on social in using diverse social and digital media media users' opinion dependent promotion. frequently for imaging as it is faster, cost Hence destination imaging approaches in effective and authenticated by contents like terms of concept, technique, practice, photos or videos of live realities; in giving developed within mass and alternative importance of opinions from previous practices lost its contextual relevance and tourists imaging, in emphasizing on tourist begin to redefined.

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BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHOR Samik Ray is associated with RLG Govt. of India, Department of Tourism as well as he is Editor of 'Tourism Theory and Practice'. Prior to this he was also associated with MPTI (Kolkata), and WTCC School of Trade and Commerce. [email protected]

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 85

K e y W o r d s Promoting Gender Sensitivity and Environment Protection through Sustainable Tourism Development: A Review Gender, environment, ecofeminism, tourism PRIYAKRUSHNA MOHANTY & ANU CHANDRAN development, sustainable Department of Tourism Studies, School of Management, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India tourism and ecotourism NILMADHAB SWAIN Department of Philosophy, School of Humanities, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India

Abstract INTRODUCTION Over the past few decades, the concerns relating to the social and ver since its formal reorganization as an industry environmental impacts of tourism has having substantial potential for economic and social intensified significantly giving birth upliftment in the post world war II era (Lickorish & to an array of path breaking forms of E tourism such as community based Jenkins, 1997), the tourism industry has grown from strength tourism, ecotourism, rural tourism a n d s u s t a i n a b l e t o u r i s m . to strength to become one of the largest industries in the Notwithstanding the divergence in the world and to stage a sustained pattern of growth (UNWTO, operational definitions associated 2016). In 2015, tourism industry contributed a total of 9.8% with these types, gender equality and environmental sustainability are the (US $7.2 trillion) to the world GDP along with providing common underpinning aspects across 9.5% (284 million) of the global jobs which is equivalent to 1 the genres. It is estimated that 60- 70% of the jobs generated by tourism in every 11 jobs across the globe. Further, the growth rate of are taken up by women highlighting international travel and tourism industry (2.8%) has not only the potential of tourism to promote gender equity. Further, there is huge outpaced the growth rates of its counterparts like consensus across the various manufacturing and retailing industry but also the global GDP disciplines regarding the relations between gender and environment, (WTTC, 2016). All of the above said figures have made the which in contemporary research industry to be considered as one of the biggest drivers of the dialect is referred to as “Ecofeminism”. Finally, environment economy (Rogerson & Lemon, 2002) and a prominent tool is one of the most important for global prosperity, modernization and globalization resources for tourism development because tourism depends on (William, 1998). environment for a lot of resources After the World War II, there was a serious need for required for its development. In this backdrop, the current work attempts economic revival and hence industries were developed with to unveil the endearing relationship primary focus on economic aspects only (Willis, 2005). As a that can be sketched in a cyclic result, the initial phases of tourism industry development saw format between tourism development, gender and environment. Throughout a sudden increase in the number of group tours (e.g. group the academia, these relations have tours by Thomas Cook) especially in the mass working class been mostly studied in isolation, yet integrative studies combining all of people (Towner, 1995). these three spheres are scarce. This In the late 1970s, there was a rising consensus among the paper strives to bridge the above said gap in the existing literature and people that economic development alone was not enough for contextualize theoretical constructs development and social as well as environmental by assimilating the leads from reviewing academic works, journals, developments are also the integral parts of development periodicals and archives of media (Willis, 2005). Gender inequality was at its peak at that time reports. The extent to which the linkages between the above owing to the male dominated phase of industrialization. mentioned factors can complement Women were confined to the boundaries of the home and sustainable development ventures are examined in the work. were neither allowed to participate in the activities that

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 87 earned livelihood for the family nor were and increasing attention given by women their opinions considered while making on the aspect of environmental protection decisions relating to household. These (Gaard, 2010). Therefore, there is a clear problems worried many and provided relation existing between women inspiration for academicians like Diana empowerment and environmental protection Pearce (1978), who authored the article (Shiva, Mies and Salleh, 2014). titled 'The Feminization of Poverty: Finally, there was emergence of various Women' that highlighted the presence of form or types of tourism like Rural Tourism more acute poverty among women in (Chow, 1980), Community based tourism comparison to men. (Dernoi, 1988), Farm tourism (Dernoi, 1983 Consequently, all the industries were & Frater, 1983) and Ecotourism (Ceballos, instructed to advocate gender equity and a 1987 & Boo, 1990). All these kinds of lot has changed since then. In this regard, tourism not only went an extra mile to tourism industry has emerged as one of the ensure the principle of sustainability but front runner industries for promoting gender also described the importance of nature in equality and environmental protection. the process of tourism development (Eber, Though, there is presence of many 1992). opposing views in this context, majority of Though academic works involving tourism the papers advocate the above said fact. It development, gender equality and is estimated that 60-70% of the environment protection are not new to the employment generated by hotel, catering tourism scholarship; yet integrative works and tourism industry are taken up by associating the three aspects are exiguous. women (ILO, 2008). Also, tourism is one This paper strives to bridge the above said of the few industries that have shown gap in the existing literature and remarkable potential for environment contextualize theoretical constructs by protection by providing significant assimilating the leads from reviewing incentives and fillip both economically and academic works, journals, periodicals and culturally (Robinson, 1972 & Butler, 1991). archives of media reports. Systematic Similarly, due to industrial revolution, there exposition points to the intrinsic capabilities were severe negative impacts on of tourism as a solution for problems with environment and the world faced never respect to gender inequality and heard problems like global warming and environmental decoration prevailing ozone layer depletion (Donella et al., 1972). especially in underdeveloped and It was then when the various stakeholders developing regions. like organizations, Government and private Keeping all the above mentioned factors in agencies, NGOs and academicians started mind, the current work attempts to unveil to talk about environmental economics, the endearing relationship between the three justice and ethics etc (Seneca, 1974). aspects that can be sketched in a cyclic One interesting area in the environmental relation format. The current work protection discipline is Ecofeminism which channelizes the reviews and opinions opines that women share a special relating to the three aspects towards bigger connection with nature by the virtue of their aspect sustainability (of tourism industry). regular interaction with nature and these Thus, it highlights that, sustainable tourism connections should not be ignored in any stands at the centre of the cyclic relation case (Shiva, 2016). Since its recognisation i.e. to sustain, tourism industry has to take as a formal term in 1970, the concept of necessary steps towards ensuring gender ecofeminism has focused on the specific equity which will lead to further protection

88 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 of environmental resources since women Tourism and Gender- A Reportage share a close relationship with nature and Ensuring equality among genders and finally the protected environment can act as putting an end to all forms of resources for further tourism development. discrimination against women the Ensuring all these factors will lead towards fundamentals of human right and the core promoting sustainable tourism development. values of UN (Bunch, 1990). Even though, Study Objectives equality among genders means The paper has been designed as a empowerment of both men and women, conceptual study with a multifaceted review majority of the academic works project mechanism. One of the primary aims of this women empowerment as a synonym of paper is highlight the academic and gender equality (Ferguson, 2010). intellectual outlook hovering over the nexus Tourism, being a leisure and recreation of gender issues, tourism and environmental industry involves a lot of human elements discourse. The work assimilates the leads and relations; so, it has a significant from the concerns raised by various influence on gender issues and vice-versa practitioners, academicians, agencies and (Swain, 1995). From a general perspective institutions to ensure the aspect of both the genders get affected by tourism sustainability. It tries to bring out a working equally (Swain & Smith, 1989). However, framework from the theories and academic tourism industry is often considered as one conjectures that underscore the basic aspect of those industries that has shown ample of of sustainability and links them with the potential for solving gender related issues overall agenda of this paper. (inequalities) and provide them economical, Research Methodology political and social empowerment especially The paper adapts a conceptual research in the developing regions of the world framework with desk based review where the upward mobility is very difficult approach. Most of its sections are (UNWTO, 2011). The UN, (2011) qualitative in nature as it tries to verify an acknowledged the same when it quoted existing relation through the commentaries, tourism industry as “vehicle for gender views, opinions and suggestions of various equality and women empowerment. United notable authors and scholars across the Nations World Tourism Organization tourism, gender and environment discourse. (UNWTO) has endorsed the goal of women Articles in the referred journals were taken empowerment in more than one occasions as the base of the paper as they are believed and it had celebrated the 2005 World to be the best form of academic Tourism Day under the broader theme communication (Creswell, 2009; Xiao & called 'Tourism Opens Doors for Women'. Smith, 2006). The articles were retrieved by Taleb Rifai, the then Secretary of UNWTO searching keywords in the major search had stated that “Tourism sector can do engines like Google scholar, EBSCO and more to step it up on gender equality” JSTOR following which Content Analysis (UNWTO, 2015). was exercised to outline the different Tourism is a front runner industry in the critical views associated with the concepts. aspect of job generation, contributing 3.6% Then the views were channelized in a and 9.5% to the global direct and total structured format to build constructive (direct+ indirect+ induced) employment arguments for the paper. Finally, (WTTC, 2016). It is estimated that, women concluding remarks were provided by the take up 60-70% of those jobs generated by author backed by the reviews done. tourism (ILO, 2008). Further, the jobs generated by tourism industry are mostly

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 89 part time jobs or jobs that are done on shift humanity as gendered in ways that basis. This gives women better chance for subordinate, exploit and oppress women." participation thanks to the volumes of An in-depth investigation into the leisure hours that are left out after doing the Ecofeminism realm will reveal four major household works (Women1st, 2010). commonalities. (1) There exists a great link Tourism generally generated the jobs like between the oppression and domination of guiding, accommodation and food women and the domination and exploitation arrangements and making souvenirs that of environment (nature) (2) Women are can be performed by women better than assumed to have better understanding and men (Lama, 2000). As discussed above, connection with nature (3) As the women have a better understanding of the suppression of women and the exploitation nature and hence, ventures like ecotourism of women have occurred simultaneously, or rural tourism which has greater linkages women are believed to have higher stake in with nature can be better handled by dealing the environmental problem and (4) women (Scheyvens, 2000). The Millenium Both the movements relating to women and Development Goals (MDGs) formulated by environment aims for a nonhierarchical and the UN asserts gender equality and women egalitarian relationship (Agarwal, 1992). empowerment as its third goal and There is ample of empirical evidences that undoubtedly, the above narrations point to speak for the involvement of women in the fact that tourism is one of the industries protecting the environment (Kirk, 2014). to look for in the future. One of the best examples in this regard is The concept of Ecofeminism- A Critique the Green Belt Movement (1977) which In terms of patriarchal system, women are was an initiative of Wangari Maathai, who considered to be more closely associated with the help of rural Kenyan women took with nature than males which bring out a steps to wipeout deforestation, promote special place (in comparison to male) for plantation, stop erosion of soil, generate women in understanding and shaping the income and restore traditional cooking fuel human and non human nature (King, 1989). (Maathai, 2004). Another exemplary work There is huge consensus across the various in the Indian context is the Chipko disciplines regarding the relations between Movement of Rajsthan (1973). In this gender and environment, which in movement or andolan, 84 villagers contemporary research dialect is referred to commanded by a female named Amrita as “Ecofeminism” (Diamond & Orenstein, Devi risked their life to protect the trees 1990). Mary Mellor, (1997) defines that were ordered by the king (Maharaja) to Ecofeminism as be felled (Singh, Mohanka, & Sah, 2007). “…a movement that sees a connection Women also played a major role in between the exploitation and degradation of protesting against a series of hydroelectric the natural world and the subordination dam on the Narmada river Valley at and oppression of women. It emerged in the Gujurat (Routledge, 2003). Similarly, the mid-1970s alongside second-wave feminism movement led US activist group called and the green movement. Ecofeminism Women Strike for Peace is marked as the brings together elements of the feminist and biggest national peace protest of the 20th green movements, while at the same time Century (Swerdlow, 1993) in which almost offering a challenge to both. It takes from 50,000 women headed by Dagmar Wilson the green movement a concern about the walked across 60 cities of US to protest impact of human activities on the non- against nuclear war (Swerdlow, 1982). The human world and from feminism the view of works of eminent Indian scholar Vandana

90 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Shiva on the concepts of alter-globalization from each other (Budowski, 1976). (Bakker, 2007) and green movements Over the years, many developing countries (Shiva, 1991) only reflects the concern that like Fiji, Kenya, and South Africa etc. have a woman has for nature. realized that the key to their economic If women are put in the driver seat while development lies with using the tourism deciding environmental related affairs, then industry as an “export” industry. These it may empower their voice and provide a countries having abundant natural sceneries platform to share their knowledge on nature and wild life can promote tourism to earn that may act as a guideline for foreign exchange that can alleviate them Governments in making sure the minimal from poverty scenarios and the environment affects of natural disaster (Plan UK, 2011) gets protected in the name of economy and assuring sustainability (Mitchell, (Mascarenhas, 1971). Zierer (1952) Tanner & Lussier, 2007). All the above reinforces this view when he wrote that “A cases and narrations justifies that gender notable characteristic of the tourist industry and environment has a strong connection and recreation industry is that it does not-- and in order to achieve environmental or should not--lead to the destruction of protection, gender issues must be solved natural resources”. Myers (1972) and vice-versa. exemplifies the case of Eastern Africa The Dynamics of Tourism vis-à-vis where National Parks were established to Environmental Protection Mechanism generate foreign exchange when the The relationship between tourism and countries were under a great social and environment is a complex affaire. While economic pressure and thus, tourism some activities of tourism have the industry acted as a conservation mechanism potential to act towards the protection and for wild life (Pollock, 1971). Also, a share conservation of environment, many of them of the income generated from tourism can can contribute adversely if not planned be invested in the maintenance and properly. Unlike mass tourism, which is expansion of the natural and manmade considered as a threat to the natural resources (Waters, 1966). Further, environment; moderate and equitable forms according to Cohen (1978), globalization, of tourism is believed to have beneficial privatization and urbanization are creating a effects for both the natural and man-made great threat to the physical environment. environment (Cohen, 1978). This section of Tourism industry has comparatively lower this article speaks about the latter types of negative impacts on environment and tourism. Not withstanding the above hence, can be considered as a better option mentioned argument, it is an undenied fact over other industries. Also, there is an that the natural resources and environment increase in the number of evidences that are the quintessential elements of tourism tourism promotes the conservation and development. The environment and natural protection related activities through the help resources of a place (in whichever form or organizations like World Bank, UNESCO designation) plays a handful role in and UNWTO (Wall & Mathieson, 2006). carrying out the tourism activities and in The ventures of Tourism for many cases, shaping the elements of the Environmental Protection and tourism process e.g. tourist behavior (Farrel Empowerment of Women an Annotative & Runyan, 1991). It means there is a Analysis (Interpretive Analysis) symbiotic relationship existing between The gender and environment concerns in tourism and environment and hence, their tourism aren't very old. Even then, these development must be such that both benefit concerns are becoming the buzz word of

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 91 the industry. This can be depicted by the women have been ill-treated and nature surge in the number of academic works, (often called as mother) has also been authors, journals and mentions in the policy exploited simultaneously. This provides making documents. Also, the concept of women a better understanding of the needs sustainability is gaining popularity more of the environment and hence, voices of the than ever and gender equality and women must be taken into consideration environment protection are the key while formulating policies. Moreover, indicators of it. Therefore, in order to women are much more dependent upon achieve sustainable status, tourism nature for their survival and any alteration establishments must work towards the in nature (e.g. any natural disaster) makes a fulfillment of these two criteria. The larger impact on women than men. previous three sections threw limelight on Last, but the most critical link is that of the intrinsic relations between tourism, between environment and tourism. Since gender and environment taking two at a the early 1970s, there have been many time. The aim of this section is to discuss voices raised to analyze the impacts of the integrated coexisting relationship among tourism on nature. It was observed that the three concepts. As stated earlier, the mass tourism (considered as the crux of three has a strong linkage among them that tourism industry) has many negative can be sketched in a triangular format. impacts on physical environment. These To start with, let's take the relationship voices gave rise to different kinds of between tourism and gender. Estimates and tourism under the umbrella term of statistics provided by various multinational sustainable tourism. Ecotourism, farm developmental organizations like ILO, UN, tourism, rural tourism and community UN Women and World Bank suggest that based tourism were the torch bearers of tourism is a fertile industry where a major sustainable forms of tourism. Across all chunk of employment is taken up by these types of tourism, environment stands women and in return, women who are at the centre of agenda as all of these considered as more hospitable and better tourism forms are dependent on service provider (in case of accommodation 'environment' for its development. Tourism and F&B) have a competitive advantage industry has a greater dependence upon over men. natural resources as many developing and Next, gender and environment relationship underdeveloped nations that lack basic getting is acknowledged more often in the elements for survival can encash their contemporary literature. The relationship, unspoiled nature in the form of tourism product (of course in a equitable way). christened as “Ecofeminism” argues that in the dominant ideology of patriarchy, Combining the mentioned linkages, a

92 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 framework has been proposed that This work initiates by untailored review of summarizes the relationship between the articles and major works in the field of three factors in a cyclic process. It states women empowerment, environment that balanced and alternative tourism protection and tourism development. Then, development can add to the empowerment it moves to highlight the associations of women. The empowered women can act between the concepts taking two at a time towards preservation and conservation of and finally concludes by drawing a natural resources and based on those natural triangular relationship among the three resources tourism industry may flourish. At areas. Though, this relationship cycle is heart of the framework lies sustainable untested, yet the authors believe that it will tourism development. These linkages may have a great implication in deciding the seem very vague at this point, yet if done in course of tourism in future. This model is an equitable way this triangle can be a boon open to discussions and criticism that will for the social and environmental aspect further refine it. especially in the developing and underdeveloped nation prospect. Conclusion References Agarwal, B. (1992). The gender and d e v e l o p m e n t . E n v i r o n m e n t a l environment debate: lessons from India. conservation, 18(03), 201-209. Feminist studies, 18(1), 119-158. Ceballos, L. H. (1987). The future of Bakker, K. (2007). The “commons” versus ecotourism. Mexico Journal, 1(987), 1. the “commodity”: Alter-globalization, Chow, W. T. (1980). Integrating tourism anti- privatization and the human right with rural development. Annals of to water in the global south. Antipode, Tourism Research, 7(4), 584-607. 39 (3), 430-455. Cohen, E. (1978). The impact of tourism on Belisle, F. J., & Hoy, D. R. (1980). The the physical environment. Annals of perceived impact of tourism by residents Tourism Research, 5(2), 215-237. a case study in Santa Marta, Colombia. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Annals of tourism research, 7(1), 83- Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed 101. methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism. Washington, Oaks, CA: Sage. D.C: World Wildlife Fund. Dernoi, L. A. (1983). Farm tourism in Budowski, G. (1976). Tourism and Europe. Tourism management, 4(3), environmental conservation: conflict, 155-166. coexistence, or symbiosis?. Environmental Dernoi, L. A. (1988). Alternative or conservation, 3(01), 27-31. community-based tourism. In Global Bunch, C. (1990). Women's rights as Conference: Tourism. A vital force for human rights: Toward a re-vision of peace. Montreal: The Conference. human rights. Human Rights Quarterly, International Institute for Peace through 12(4), 486-498. Tourism. Butler, R. W. (1974). The social Donella, H., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J., implications of tourist developments. & Behrens III, W. W. (1972). The limits Annals of tourism research, 2(2), 100-111. to growth. New York: Universe. Butler, R. W. (1991). Tourism, Eber, S. (1992). Beyond the green horizon. environment, and sustainable Weyside Park, Godalming, Surrey

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Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 95 BRIEF PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS Priyakrushna Mohanty is the corresponding author. He is an U.G.C. Junior Research Fellow at the Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University. He is an awardee of the prestigious Travel Corporation (India) Gold Medal for his outstanding performance in Master's Degree in Tourism Studies from Pondicherry University. He has served the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd. for one and the half year following which he was recruited as a Guest Faculty in the Dept. of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University. [email protected]

Anu Chandran, Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University has fifteen years of teaching experience and two years of administrative experience as Divisional Tourism Officer of Andhra Pradesh Tourism Department. He was awarded Ph.D. in Management Studies from the Institute of Management in Kerala (IMK), University of Kerala. [email protected]

Nilamadhab Swain is a Doctoral candidate in the Department of Philosophy, Pondicherry University and holds a M.Phil. Degree from the same department. His research interest lies in the area of environmental ethics and animal rights. [email protected]

96 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Call For Papers Special Issue The Journal Of Tourism: An International Research Journal On Travel & Tourism, December 2018 “Use Of Alternative Tourism Types In Destination Marketing” Anukrati Sharma,University of Kota, Department of Commerce and Management, INDIA, [email protected] Bekir Bora Dedeolu, Nevehir HBV University, Tourism Faculty, TURKEY [email protected] Aim of the special issue  Evaluation of alternative tourism types One of the most important factors in regarding sustainable tourism determining the competitive advantage of  Alternative Tourism Opportunities and destinations is to be able to offer different Challenges and attractive products. Today, however,  The emergence of Community-Based destinations can offer products with similar Tourism characteristics to potential tourists.  Alternative Tourism Tapping the Accordingly, in addition to keeping the Potential of Untapped/Unexplored competitive advantage, destinations must Destinations also produce different products and services  Re-imagining of less Popular in terms of sustainability. At this point, it destinations through Alternative will be appropriate to focus on alternative Tourism tourism types. Alternative tourism types  Alternative Tourism connection with will be able to make efficient use of the Emotions and Experiences resources that the destination has and also  The contribution of alternative tourism enable the tourists to experience different in terms of mature destination experiences. According to this special issue,  Evaluation of applicability of alternative the contributions of alternative tourism tourism types in terms of destination types to destination marketing will be  Comparison of alternative tourism types discussedand solution proposals will be The special issue editors encourage a range presented. of methodological approaches, including The theme and related issues but not limited to: textual analysis;surveys While not limited to the following topics, and interviews; mixed approaches; and case we encourage scholars to focus on: study.  Tourists' attitudes towards alternative Submission Notes and Timeline tourism types Submitted papers should not have been  Tourists' evaluation towards alternative previously published nor be currently under tourism types consideration for publication elsewhere.  Attitudes of businesses towards Abstracts Submissions: 1st July 2018 alternative tourism types Abstracts (up to 600 words) can be  Assessing the economic contribution of submitted directly to the guest editors alternative tourism types via email (email to  The role of alternative tourism in the [email protected]; attitudes of the local people towards [email protected]) tourists Abstract Decisions: 15st July 2018  st The role of alternative tourism types in FULL Paper Submissions: 15 September pricing strategy 2018

Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 97 Revisions and Decisions: 15thNovember adequately revised, will not necessarily 2018 be published in the journal. Publication: December 2018  Full articles having any graphics (figures Formatting and Publication or photographs) should be supplied in  Manuscripts should be typed in Times .tiff or .jpeg format. New Roman 12 point (or 10 point for  The journal strongly emphasizes the tables), single-spaced, and justified to the originality of research work and left margin. One-inch margins should be plagiarism is strictly discouraged. used.  The journal has the condition for  Headings should be in bold. Main publication that manuscripts submitted to headings should include an introduction, this journal should not have been already literature review, methodology, results, published or simultaneously submitted discussion, and references. Main for publication elsewhere. headings should be centered on the page  Research papers will undergo blind and subheadings placed at the left margin review by two reviewers. in italics.  The contributors should ensure that they  Six keywords should be provided to are not infringing copyright. reflect the subject matter.  Please note that initial acceptance of the  References should be in APA 6th edition. manuscript does not guarantee  Submissions should be accompanied by a publication. In case of the copyright title page with the title, keywords, issues the paper may be dropped at any author/s names and affiliations. stage with notification to the author/s.  Manuscript should be in English. Poorly  The Journal also requires transfers of written submissions will not be reviewed. copyright or exclusive rights from the  Papers that do not meet the stipulated authors. However, this does not in any formatting requirements, or are not way restrict the use of article by the author for their own use. ABOUT THE GUEST EDITORS Dr. Anukrati Sharma is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota Rajasthan, India.Her doctorate is in Tourism Marketing from the University of Rajasthan,and she completed her dissertation research on the topic of Tourism in Rajasthan Progress &Prospects.She has two postgraduate degrees specialties-one in International Business ( Masters of International Business) and another in Business Administration ( Masters of Commerce ). Her core subjects are Tourism, Strategic Management, and International Business Management.In the year 2015, she got a Research Award Fellowship by UGC, New Delhi on the topic of Analysis of the Status of Tourism in Hadoti and Shekhawati Region/Circuit (Rajasthan): Opportunities, Challenges,and Future Prospectus. She has written ten books on different subjects.She hadtwo edited books one is titled Tourism Opportunities and Ventures,and another is Maximizing Business Performance and Efficiency through Intelligent Systems, under IGI Global. Currently she is working on her book on Tourism Development & Destination Branding through Content Marketing Strategies and Social Media under Apple Academic Press USA, Sustainable Destination Branding and Marketing: Strategies for Tourism Development under CABI, U.K. Tourism Events in Asia under Routledge and Information and Communication Technologies in Travel, Tourism and

98 Journal of Tourism, Volume XIX, No. 1, 2018 Hospitality Industry: An Extensive Outlook under Cambridge Scholars Publishing, U.K. She is serving as the Editorial Board Member of 26 reputed National and International Journals besides nominated as Reviewer of 17 Journals of National and International repute. She has attended and presented 51 papers in International and National Conferences and is a member of 17 Professional Bodies. She has been invitedfor many talks/lectures/ panel discussions by different Universities like University of Colombo, Sri Lanka,Nepal,Aligarh Muslim University and other Universities within India. Bekir Bora Dedeoğlu earned his master degree from Tourism and Hospitality Management Department at Mustafa Kemal University in 2012 and a Ph.D. degree from in the Tourism Management Department at Akdeniz University in 2016. Bekir Bora DEDEOĞLU, at present, is an AssistantProfessor at the Department of Tourism Guiding at Nevsehir HBV University. His research interests include tourism marketing, social media marketing, destination marketing, destination branding, tourist behavior, and hospitality marketing. He is author of articles in journals such as Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, International Journal of Hospitality Management,Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management and Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research. He has also served as reviewer for top tourism and hospitality journals such as Tourism Management, Tourism Management Perspectives, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, etc.

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