CONTENTS CONTENTS

Introduction Scotland’s rivers and burns About this handbook Key references

Section 1 Basics of river behaviour 1.1 How rivers create their channels 1.1 Factors determining river stability 1.2 Factors increasing the risk of instability 1.3 Getting things in perspective 1.4

Section 2 Farms and water 2.1 Why should farmers bother thinking about water management? 2.1 How farming can affect water and watercourses 2.2 10-point action plan for individual farms 2.3 Golden rules for sorting out river management problems 2.4 Key Scottish river wildlife - breeding times and habitat preferences 2.5 Basic river survey checklist 2.7

Section 3 What to aim for - a blueprint for watercourse management 3.1 Trees and shrubs along rivers, ditches and burns 3.3

Section 4 Legislation 4.1

Section 5 Pollution 5.1

Section 6 Cropping and grazing beside rivers 6.1 Buffer strips 6.2 Fencing 6.4

Section 7 Bank erosion 7.1 Checklist for assessing erosion problems 7.1 Soft revetment techniques 7.3 Hard revetment techniques 7.6 Bank reshaping and reprofiling 7.7 Deflecting water away from the eroding bank 7.8

Section 8 Field drainage and ditch management 8.1 Dredging and channel widening 8.2 Chemical control of vegetation 8.5

Section 9 Reducing flood damage 9.1 Managed flooding 9.1 Embankments and floodbanks 9.2 Partial dredging 9.3 Construction of relief channels 9.4 Channel realignment 9.4

Section 10 Using water wisely - abstraction and irrigation 10.1

Section 11 Gravel extraction 11.1

Glossary of terms

Sources of financial assistance

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook 1.SECTION Farming andWatercourse Management Handbook Designed andprintedbyHay NisbetPress,DilwaraAvenue,Glasgow. Tel: 0141 9593325. Written andproducedbyVyv Wood-Gee, Scabgill,Braehead,LanarkML11 8HA.Tel: 01555 870530. 8 TheSquare,AberfeldyPH15 2DD.Tel: 01887 820449 Any enquiriesaboutthishandbookshouldbeaddressed toWWFScotland. Richard Huxtable,DavyMcCracken,DaveMerrilees,JohnNicol,BrucePhilp,andAlexSinclair(SAC). Barker andAlisonEspie(FWAG); Ken Davies,IanDickson,GarethEdwards-Jones,GarthFoster, AlanFrost, and AdvisoryProject);JeremyRobertsCarolineDavies(RoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds);Hilary Leys andNikkiWood (SNH);Peter Pollard (ScottishWildlifeTrust); StevenBell(WildRiversDemonstration (SEPA); Duncan Glen(TheTweed Foundation);NigelHolmes(RiverRestorationCentre);DavidHowell,Kath Help andadvicehavealsobeengratefullyreceivedfromIanFozzard,ScotMathiesonPeter Campbell training, andmanagingdesign,printdistributionofthefinalpublication. as freelanceconsultantresponsibleforediting,revisingandupdatingthetext,co-ordinatingassociated Palmer, NaturalResourceEconomicsDepartment,SACAberdeen.VyvWood-Gee wassubsequentlyemployed of ElizabethLeighton(WWFScotland).Apilotversionwascompiledandevaluatedin1998byHarriet Scottish AgriculturalCollege(SAC)andtheFarmingWildlifeAdvisoryGroup(FWAG) underthedirection Scottish NaturalHeritage(SNH)inpartnershipwithWorldwide FundforNatureScotland(WWFScotland), This handbookhasbeenproducedthankstofundingfromScottishEnvironmentProtectionAgency(SEPA) and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SCOTLAND'S RIVERS AND BURNS INTRODUCTION

Further information and advice Rivers, burns, streams and drainage ditches are key features of the Scottish landscape, forming a vital part of our country’s environment and economy. Salmon, for which Scotland is world renowned, is but one of the many and varied animals and plants which rivers and burns support. Fishing, canoeing, whisky distilling, many other tourist attractions and non-agricultural industries all depend on a regular supply of clean water, as do all those who live and work in Scotland. Equally important, rivers and burns are integral to farm management, providing water for stock, crops and irrigation and the final conduit for land drainage.

There is much talk about how farmers, the guardians of the countryside, are adversely affecting the quality of watercourses in the name of increasing productivity. Considerable attention is also being drawn to the benefits of natural river management - in other words respecting and encouraging the natural physical processes of rivers and burns whilst at the same time ensuring that they fulfil their essential function for drainage, fisheries, wildlife, stock watering etc. Yet how many of those directly involved in land and water management are aware of the importance of watercourses for anything other than drainage, the potentially damaging effects of everyday farm management or exactly how rivers and burns could, and arguably should, be managed for the benefit of all concerned? SEPA and others produce a range of useful leaflets, but up until now there has been no ready reference for farmers or their advisers specifically addressing the interaction between agriculture and water.

About this handbook

This handbook is targeted principally at those advising farmers and others responsible for management of rivers and burns. It aims to increase awareness of how farming affects watercourses and to identify simple practical ways in which management could be improved for multiple benefit. This handbook is not intended to be a fully comprehensive guide to watercourse management. It is intended to complement rather than duplicate other publications, including those in course of production, which are cross-referenced in the text where appropriate.

Emphasis is on summarising essential information which is not readily available elsewhere, including: •Identification of how farming can adversely affect watercourses and related habitat; •Examples of ways in which farmers can readily enhance the environmental value of watercourses and river corridors without detrimentally affecting their farming operations, and potentially with cost savings; •Practical solutions to common farm water management problems such as erosion and flood risk management; •Sources of financial assistance; •Where to get further advice; •A brief summary of relevant legislation affecting watercourse management.

The whole handbook has been written and designed to facilitate photocopying, attachment to reports or other means of distribution to anyone interested in specific watercourse management issues. The handbook is also available on the internet.

Throughout the text, the terms ‘river’, ‘stream’ ‘burn’ and ‘watercourse’ should be considered interchangeable.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook KEY REFERENCES

Forestry Commission (1997) Forest and Water Guidelines 3rd edition HMSO (due for reprinting 2000)

Hoey TB, Smart DWJ, Pender G and Metcalfe N (1998) Engineering methods for Scottish gravel bed rivers INTRODUCTION Editor K. Leys, SNH, Edinburgh

River Restoration Centre (1999) River Restoration Manual of Techniques RRC, Silsoe, Bedford

RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994) The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire

RSPB (1997) The Wet Grassland Guide RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire

Parrott, J. and MacKenzie, N. (2000) Restoring and Managing Riparian Woodlands, Scottish Native Woods, Aberfeldy, Perthshire

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 1 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR 1.1 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR

In their natural state, watercourses are by nature dynamic but stable - or more accurately ‘metastable’ - gradually adapting their course and changing their flow patterns as they travel from source to sea. Such watercourses exist in a state of equilibrium with the surrounding environment, which allows development of a rich variety of habitats and species. The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook (RSPB, NRA and RSNC,1994) includes a wealth of information on river biology and the habitat requirements of a variety of species.

As land comes under increasingly intensive management, natural shifts in channel and rivers spilling over in spate are no longer considered acceptable because valuable grazing or arable land is at stake. Embankments constructed for flood control are but one example of the many attempts which have been made to control the flow and course of rivers and burns. The natural state of equilibrium is also often threatened by bank erosion resulting from intensive stocking or cultivation of land adjacent to rivers and burns. Land drainage for farming or forestry purposes can have an unexpected impact on the behaviour of watercourses into which drains feed, sometimes at a considerable distance from the drainage site. In many cases, action taken locally has resulted in an increase in erosion and flood problems, upstream, downstream or further on in time, necessitating costly remedial work. Interfering with the natural state of the river or stream often leads to a loss of physical diversity, and a loss of habitats for associated animals and plants.

A basic understanding of river behaviour is essential in order to assess the cause(s) of river-related problems likely to be encountered on farms, and will underpin identification of appropriate remedial action and future management options. Of course there does not have to be a problem to make it worthwhile to take a fresh look at the interaction between farming and watercourses, and to consider scope for improvement.

How rivers create their channels

As water flows downstream from source to sea, much of its energy is spent overcoming the resistive forces of the valley floor: erosion dissipates energy. Material eroded from floodplains, riverbeds and banks is deposited as the underlying slope declines and the stream loses energy. A natural grading system comes into force, with heavier, coarse material deposited first. Sediment gradually becomes finer downstream. Gravel bars created by deposition of coarse sediment add to the diversity of water speeds and depths. As the river changes its course, meanders develop, new and secondary channels are formed, often during floods, and old channels are abandoned (see diagram overleaf).

Flow variations and channel fluctuations are essential to allow rivers and burns to function properly – to filter sediment, to store flood water and to replenish wetlands. Variety and change are also all-important from a conservation perspective in providing the contrasting conditions necessary for a range of different wildlife habitats to flourish. In more stable rivers, the process of change is very slow, whereas in other more dynamic rivers, changes in course and flow-pattern can be dramatic.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook River form – meanders, pools and riffles

riffle

pools typically form on the outside of meanders sidebars are formed on straight sections

point bars develop on the inside of bends

glide 1.2 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR shallowshallow rifflesrifles form as formgravel as is graveldeposited is depodited deeper pools on outside of meanders as erosion occurs

shallow rifles form as gravel is depodited

Factors determining river stability

The stability of any particular river or watercourse is affected by factors at both the catchment and the individual reach scale.

At the catchment scale, ‘macro-factors’ such as climate, under-lying bedrock, drift geology, soil cover, topography and slope form are important because they will determine the amount and rate of water entering the watercourse, and the type and quantity of sediment available for erosion and transportation downstream. Catchment land use is also very important. For example, overgrazing in a significant part of a catchment will greatly increase soil erosion and therefore the sediment load of a watercourse.

At the individual reach scale, factors such as the gradient of the watercourse, type of bankside vegetation and the nature and size of the bed and bank material are important. These factors will affect the velocity of the water, and the ability of the bed and banks to withstand erosion.

Assessment of the basic features of bank slope, material and vegetation type will be a useful preliminary indicator of how susceptible a watercourse is to erosion and hence instability. Adjacent land use is also important to consider.

Typical features of a stable watercourse include:- • well-vegetated margins, including some trees along the banks, the roots of which may help bind the banks • gently sloping banks or steeper banks on soil types that resist erosion e.g. clay

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Typical features of an unstable watercourse:- • bare banks of fine sediments • steeply sloping banks of coarse erodable soils such as sandy material 1.3 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR • a large amount of mobile sediment ranging from cobbles to small gravel within the watercourse • banks undercutting and slumping into watercourses

Two other factors are important:-

(i) the channel slope, or river gradient - generally, a steeper slope generates increased erosive power;

(ii)the cross-sectional profile of the river (or width:depth ratio). This determines the depth of flow, which is directly proportional to the force exerted by the flow on the river bed, which affects the river’s capacity to carry sediment. In a stable reach of river, sediment erosion and deposition will be more or less in equilibrium. If the width:depth ratio is altered, for example by deepening the river, the amount of sediment transported will change and the equilibrium will be lost. This is particularly a problem in gravel bed rivers, where a coarse surface layer of river bed material acts as armouring to protect finer sediments underneath. Removal of the surface layers of gravel will upset the width:depth ratio, and the problem will be exacerbated because of the ease with which the finer unprotected sediments can be eroded.

Factors increasing the risk of instability

At times of peak flow, floodplains help absorb and store excess water and fine sediments. In the lowlands, river levels typically rise and fall gradually as water stored by the floodplain drains slowly. Such gradual change allows time for wildlife to respond to the prevailing conditions, and poses less risk to buildings, people and domestic livestock than rapid changes in water level.

In upland rivers, floods tend to be shorter-lived, with the catchment responding rapidly to rainfall and the floodplain draining quickly as water levels recede. Where a watercourse has been ‘engineered’ and flow over the floodplain has been restricted, peak and low flows are also generally much more marked, or ‘flashy’. The steep gradients of straighter, deeper ‘engineered’ channels encourage and allow far more rapid flow rates at peak times, with greater erosive power than found in watercourses in their natural state. The amount and size of sediment that the river carries will be increased, and this, often combined with the fact that the river is unable to overflow onto its natural floodplain, means that fast-flowing, highly damaging and erosive flows can result. Further engineering may well then be necessary downstream to try and combat the damage that is being caused by water flows due to inappropriate works upstream. The impact of this type of behaviour is also potentially damaging and costly to owners of riverside land.

Engineering work within watercourses and on their banks has the further disadvantage of being disruptive and directly damaging to plants and animals. Bankside and floodplain habitats are lost in many cases. Heavy engineering work can also be visually unattractive.

In general, therefore, rivers in their natural state are usually dynamic, but stable (‘metastable’). Intervention in the natural course or flow rate of the river will increase the risk of instability. Poorly planned engineering work in watercourses already prone to instability can lead to very serious problems. Impacts can include:-

• increased erosion and flooding further downstream due to flashier flows; • increased erosion on opposite banks as water flow patterns are disrupted (with potentially serious implications for neighbouring farmers); • loss of bankside and in-river vegetation, leading to further local erosion; • loss of habitat for plants and animals; • downstream deposition of sediment leading to calls for management intervention.

Well-planned work on unstable reaches of river can be effective, as long as the original causes of the instability are understood and are the target for intervention, rather than the symptoms resulting from the underlying problem. Elsewhere, the best advice is often to respect the processes of natural change and resist intervention.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Getting things in perspective

Scotland’s rivers have been changing since the last ice age. Most now have defined courses cut into the valley floor. Underlying geology and other local conditions are the major factors in determining the most balanced route. Considered in this context, any changes made now will be relatively short-term.

An awareness of the timescale within which changes are occurring will help when making management decisions about whether to take remedial action or whether changes are part of a long-term process, which it may be easier and more cost-effective to leave alone. For example, what seems like a large isolated erosion incident may prove to be long-term migration of a river channel. Looking at old maps to see how the shape of a water channel is changing is one way in which the timescale of river-related problems can be put into context.

There is little to be gained by looking at only a short stretch of watercourse without considering it in relation to the whole farm, and indeed the whole river system. Remember that changes in conditions at one particular location can affect the behaviour of a river both upstream and downstream. 1.4 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 2 FARMS AND WATER 2.1 FARMS AND WATER

Why should farmers bother thinking about water management?

• Opportunity to reduce variable costs and increase farm profitability. • Improved soils, crop yields, animal health and production. • Less risk of land being lost to erosion. • Reduced erosion means fewer problems from gravel movement choking watercourses and drainage outflows. • Preventing pollution ensures compliance with legislative requirements and so avoids legal action. • Reduced flooding damage and disturbance. • Improves wildlife interest. • Opportunity to make a real contribution to local biodiversity action plan (LBAP). • Improves fisheries and game interest/potential. • Enhances the visual appeal of the farm - can be important for farms with associated tourist enterprises, or potential to diversity into this sphere. • Potential to increase farm capital value. • Voluntary grant schemes may help generate income.

Advantages of well-managed watercourses (Alan Scott)

attractive features in the landscape many ditches are of historical origin, marking ancient boundaries

provide water for stock or irrigation of crops act as corridor for movement of Wildlife provide haven for beneficial predators of rodent and insect pests offer rich wildlife habitat

drain and improve workability of the land aid pollination of a variety of crops

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook CHECKLIST OF HOW FARMING CAN AFFECT WATER AND WATERCOURSES

Nutrient enrichment and pollution resulting from farm operations have long been recognised as having an effect on water quality. Efficient functioning of ditches has also been a concern of farmers for many years, to provide constant water supply for livestock and crops and to ensure that drains outflow freely. However, until relatively recently, the majority of farmers have given little time or thought to the many other ways in which farm management affects watercourses.

Ditches and burns are very evidently more than just drains or water-supplies: they form an integral part of a river system, as fundamental to the local economy as the main river. Pollution by agrochemicals is only one of many ways in which farming affects watercourses. What farmers and foresters do on their land has important consequences for other people, for wildlife and for the look of the countryside. The list below summarises some of the many ways in which farming can affect watercourses. The remainder of the handbook looks at some of these issues in more detail. 2.2 FARMS AND WATER

Cropping and grazing • Nutrients leaching from fertiliser or from muck middens and feeding rings sited too close to watercourses result in direct pollution. • Cropping too close to watercourses without leaving a buffer zone of natural vegetation between the river and the cultivated area increases risk of erosion, bank slippage, sediment and nutrient pollution. • Heavy grazing of river margins and use of rivers for watering livestock leads to poaching, loss of riverside vegetation and bankside erosion, which may lead to loss of land.

Drainage and ditching • Inappropriate ditch-cleaning operations, deepening and straightening of watercourses to increase gradient and speed of flow in the hope of improving land drainage results in alterations to the natural flow, deposition and erosion processes of watercourses. • Field drains contribute to the problem of diffuse pollution by speeding up the rate at which water is conducted away without allowing opportunity for natural soil and plant processes to fully utilise nitrates for vegetation growth. • Machinery used for drainage and ditching all too often destabilises banks and damages vegetation.

Flood management and erosion control • Construction of artificial embankments to try and prevent flooding simply moves the problem downstream and usually results in loss of valuable floodplain habitat. • Attempts to prevent or limit erosion of riverbanks and loss of productive land by unsuitable methods, e.g. shoring up eroding river banks with builders rubble or other waste material, can result in pollution and rarely offer a long-term solution.

Culvert construction and stream crossing • One of the major factors affecting fish movement, and therefore reproductive success in watercourses, is the ability of fish to pass upstream to reach spawning grounds. Even small structures such as weirs, dams, bridge aprons, culverts, elevated fords, log jams or gravel shoals built up at stream entrances can hinder fish movement. Concrete pans and culverts made of concrete pipes are usually completely inaccessible to fish, but even structures which delay fish until water levels rise can be critical to successful spawning - fish do not stop maturing just because they have stopped travelling.

Further reading

Environment Agency/BDB Associates (consultation draft 1999, final print due July 2000) Best Farming Practices: Profiting from a good environment. Environment Agency R&D publication 23

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook 10-POINT ACTION PLAN FOR INDIVIDUAL FARMS 2.3 FARMS AND WATER Detailed waste management plans and nutrient budgets are likely to remain the province of experts, but there is much to be gained by encouraging everyone involved in watercourse management, whether in an advisory or practical farming capacity, to think about watercourses in the widest possible context. Limiting advice to response to specific problems risks missing out on other opportunities to improve rivers and watercourses for the benefit of everyone concerned.

1 Start by taking an overall look at the farm. Review how individual enterprises and current farm management practices affect water quality, watercourses and riparian habitat. Aspects to consider include: • storage, use and application of fertilisers, slurry, manure and non-agricultural waste; • impact of livestock on water quality and watercourses - timing and stock density of grazing regimes, access to watercourses, watering points, crossing points, supplementary feeding practice, animal health issues; • cropping regimes and rotations; which soils/fields are most vulnerable to erosion? Are they winter or spring cropped? • silage storage and effluent disposal; • Irrigation. 2 Carry out a simple survey of watercourses, looking at the water margins, in-stream and riparian habitat - the checklist overleaf will help assess what is there already, the most valuable features and species, current management and scope for improvement. It will also help focus attention on the nature and extent of any problems, possible solutions and impacts elsewhere. Once completed, this checklist can save time and money by providing a useful aide-memoir as the basis for consultations with other authorities. 3 Highlight and endorse commendable aspects of existing management. 4 Identify on a map specific problems and opportunities for improvement. 5 Seek further specialist advice if necessary to confirm detailed recommendations. 6 Evaluate the costs and benefits (particularly cost savings) for both farming and conservation. 7 Check what grants or financial assistance might be available, eligibility criteria and amendments which might be required in order to qualify. 8 Concentrate efforts by identifying three priorities for immediate improvement and other significant opportunities for longer term improvement, including zero-cost options. 9 Consult with neighbours, statutory organisations and where appropriate riparian owners as required to confirm approval. 10 Assess success of agreed action at regular intervals, review and revise as necessary.

GOLDEN RULES FOR SORTING OUT RIVER MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

The following golden rules can help identify simple environmentally sound solutions to river management problems and avoid mistakes which can prove costly both financially and in terms of the impact on watercourse habitats, wildlife and the interests of downstream users.

1 Take as broad a view as possible, considering the site in relation to the overall catchment. 2 Go for the softest possible remedial option to reduce costs and minimise disturbance. 3 Long-term solutions are generally more cost effective than repeated short-term approaches. 4 Always consult with others (including neighbours) at an early stage, and certainly before any in-river work is carried out. There may be scope for a joint approach involving upstream, downstream and over the burn neighbours which could prove far more effective. 5 If in doubt, seek further advice.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Remember: Rivers are dynamic - any form of interference will provoke a response somewhere in the river system. If the natural balance is upset, weak areas will continue to suffer at the expense of stronger areas: in-channel islands will continue to grow only at the expense of river banks or other areas being eroded. KEY QUESTIONS

• Is there a problem? Try to identify the cause of a problem before tackling the symptoms. Remember to consider the problem and/or watercourse in perspective, both in relation to time and in relation to the overall farm and river system. Is this a recent problem or part of a long-term process of change? Is the problem unique to this farm or reach of the river? Are neighbours having similar problems? Would this problem be better tackled on a larger scale (extended reach or catchment scale)?

• What am I trying to achieve? 2.4 FARMS AND WATER Having a clear idea of exactly what you want to achieve is essential to plan and successfully carry out work.

• Is intervention necessary? Localised bank failures often settle down to a new profile and further erosion is unlikely for some time, provided of course the cause of the problem (such as intensive livestock grazing) has been removed.

• What is the most appropriate method? Choice of method, materials, siting and timing of operations will dictate success or otherwise of projects, and the level of undesirable impacts. Always aim for the method which will cause least disruption to the river and its banks, which is often also the least cost method. Avoid using machinery in the river wherever possible - working from the bank causes much less disruption.

• What are the farming implications? Consider impacts of intervention both to the farming system and to the river environment, and ensure that the consequences of different types of action are fully understood.

• What effect(s) might proposed work have elsewhere? Any work undertaken on one part of the river is likely to have an effect somewhere else on the river. Consider whether erosion protection on one bank may lead to increased erosion elsewhere. Discuss your plans with upstream, opposite bank and downstream neighbours if possible.

• When is the best time of year to undertake work? Generally, the best time to carry out in-river work is between June and September when water levels are low and impact on fish and other wildlife will be minimal. Critical timing for wildlife varies according to river and species (see table below). Wherever possible, it is worth surveying the reach of river in question to establish species and features vulnerable to disturbance or damage. Avoid times when flood water could wash away bare, unvegetated bank material or structures.

• Can I tackle this or is further specialist advice or help required? Do you feel competent to assess the root-cause of any problems or the potential consequences of proposed action? If the problem appears complex, and/or if any in-stream work is proposed, it is better by far to seek help from an expert than to wallow around out of your depth. Organisations with staff experienced in different aspects of river management are listed in the table at the end of this handbook. Contact the relevant experts at the earliest possible opportunity to clarify the likely physical and environmental impacts of proposed work. Consultation will also provide the opportunity to make amendments to plans before taking action - even a minor amendment such as changing the timing of in-stream works can sometimes be crucial in determining the level of impact on wildlife and its habitats.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook KEY SCOTTISH RIVER WILDLIFE -

BREEDING TIMES AND HABITAT PREFERENCES 2.5 FARMS AND WATER

The following table gives an indication of when a small selection of river-based species will be particularly vulnerable to disruption. The table is in no way comprehensive - there are many other species of wildlife, including plants, that may be seriously affected by river works. Fly larvae, for example, are likely to suffer from disturbance of river gravels, whereas work on crumbly earth banks may result in loss of habitat for bees. Wherever possible a survey of the relevant river reach should be carried out before starting any work to identify and protect valuable wildlife.

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION VULNERABLE TIMES OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS

Otter Throughout Scotland. Any time of year, but Otter holts built above and below particularly during spring/ ground on river banks or distant summer when more cubs born from water. Cubs first venture outside at 7 weeks, and swim at 3 months.

Water vole Increasingly rare. March-October Preferred habitat is slow-flowing Widely but patchily water of constant depth with distributed in lowland densely vegetated banks. Young waters and to 600m voles leave nest at 22 days. in uplands.

Kingfisher Mainly southern March-September Nest in tunnels excavated into Scotland. Rare/absent (peak April-May) banks. Riverside trees important in north and north-west. as perches. Feed on small fish.

Dipper Throughout Scotland Pair bonds in February-late Nest among exposed tree roots, to 1000m. March and construct nests. rocks or grass tussocks on banks Breeding season ends June. or on in-river features. Feed on aquatic invertebrates.

Sandmartin Throughout Scotland to Breeding season Nest in burrows excavated in 300m, but less common March-September. vertical eroding cliffs of sand or in north and north-west. fine gravel.

Trout Throughout Scotland, Spawning period Normally spawn in gravel. Eggs even in small tributaries. September-January remain in gravel until emergence. Fry hatch mid-March to early May. Require cover as juveniles and adults.

Atlantic Throughout Scotland. Normally spawn October- Spawning can occur wherever salmon January, peak November. Fry river bed is suitable from close to emerge from gravel beds the mouth of the river right into usually in early May. headwaters. Eggs remain in gravel until emergence.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Further reading

Northumberland Otter Project Restoring Land for Otters Northumberland Wildlife Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne

Strachan, R. (1998) Water Vole Conservation Handbook Wildlife Conservation Research Unit , Department of Zoology, University of Oxford

JNCC (1997) The Habitats Directive: Selection of Special Areas of Conservation in the UK JNCC, Peterborough 2.6 FARMS AND WATER

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook A BASIC RIVER SURVEY CHECKLIST 2.7 FARMS AND WATER

Location (approximate grid ref.) Within which main river catchment? Type of watercourse - Drainage ditch/tributary burn/ Main river channel Location within river reach - Above a bend/below a bend/on a bend / in a straight reach Substrate - Boulders>250mm / gravel / sand / silt Gradient and speed of flow Fast / medium / slow Channel characteristics Average width Straight/slight meanders/very meandering Presence of gravel islands and bars Approx % vegetation within channel Channel features - Riffles, glides, waterfalls, pools Vegetated island(s), Dams - debris/leafy/artificial Braided / side channels Stagnant standing water Water quality Clear/good / medium / poor/cloudy Obvious sources of pollution Water margins / bank characteristics - Profile (sketch) Material (describe) Stability - is the bank obviously stable or eroding? Flood banks? proximity to channel, level of flood intended to withhold Marginal vegetation - bog / carr / marsh / flush / fringing reed Trees - density, shading, overhanging boughs, exposed roots Notable nuisance plants e.g. hogweed, Japanese knotweed Livestock access? Evidence of recent management?

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Land use within 50 m of banktop Brief description Intensity of land use Any recent changes? Drainage outflows?

Evidence of recent channel change?

Positive influences on watercourse and riparian biodiversity

2.8 FARMS AND WATER Negative influences on watercourse and riparian biodiversity

Are there any specific problems? (describe)

Is the flow of the river: Unimpeded / directly approaching the problem area / parallel to the bank / being directed away from the area / being directed towards the problem area

Proposed action checklist:

➣ Is intervention necessary? What is the most appropriate method?

➣ What are the farming implications?

➣ What effect(s) might proposed work have elsewhere - upstream/downstream and for the wider catchment?

➣ When is the best time of year to undertake work?

➣ Who will implement the work?

➣ Is further specialist advice or help required?

➣ Who will consult relevant authorities and neighbouring land owners/managers?

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 3 WHAT TO AIM FOR A BLUEPRINT FOR WATERCOURSE MANAGEMENT 3.1 WHAT TO AIM FOR

Fishing is by no means the be all and end all when it comes to river management, but as a general rule of thumb, rivers which support a good salmonid (salmon and trout) population provide good examples of the state to aim for in many Scottish rivers. To successfully complete their life cycle, salmonids require a range of environmental conditions. If a salmonid population can thrive from birth to maturity, so too can many other species, above and below salmon or trout in the food chain. The notes below will help clarify what to aim for.

In-channel i.e. within the river or burn

The value of a watercourse for wildlife depends on three factors: water quality, water quantity physical structure

• Good quality water is generally clear and sediment free (unless in flood), with the exception of rivers and streams rising on peaty land. Water should be untainted and free of toxic chemicals, contain low concentrations of nutrients, and pH should reflect catchment geology. Adequate oxygen content is also important to support aquatic plants and insects. Vegetation is often a useful guide to a river’s health - for example mosses such as Fontinalis are indicators of reasonably pure water, whereas species such as blanketweed and sewage fungus are indicators of pollution.

• Water quantity - a high but steady flow is usually desirable, with seasonal variations maintaining increased habitat diversity, but with relatively gradual changes in peak flow absorbed by floodplains. Very low flows or sudden drops in water level, such as caused by abstraction or impoundments, should be avoided.

• Physical structure - from the uplands to the lowlands, a range of habitats, depths and speeds of water contributes to the landscape and biodiversity interest of Scottish rivers. Pools, riffles, glides, meanders, straight and braided sections, cliffs, sand and gravel deposits, islands, waterfalls and undercut banks are all natural features of the physical structure of our rivers, providing the building blocks on which habitats and species develop. These features, and the associated physical processes which create and destroy them, should be retained as far as possible in considering the need for river works.

Shallow water is vital for fish and other creatures such as freshwater shrimp and caddisfly larvae, and also supports invertebrates such as snails, beetles, water bugs (pond skaters and water boatmen), dragonflies and crustacea.

Deeper water is essential to fish such as brown trout, and also for frogs, toads, newts, eels, and sticklebacks, and may support otters and other mammals such as water voles. It is also important in providing constant/lower temperatures for species such as salmonids sensitive to temperature fluctuations.

Vegetation growing within the channel and at the margins of watercourses provides cover and food for fish, snails and other invertebrates, birds such as shoveler and moorhen, and small mammals such as water voles. It also provides breeding sites for dragonflies and damselflies, and resting sites for otters. By trapping silt, vegetation can also be instrumental in the formation of islands.

Adequate light reaching the water is essential to plant growth and flourishing insect populations, the ideal being a mixture of direct sunlight and dappled shade on the water’s surface.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Features of a diverse watercourse (RSPB, NRA and RSNC 1994)

embankment situated at backwater connected to a distance from main river mainstream at downstream fence prevents end only livestock access

intensive farming kept well back from continuously flowing watercourse side arm with floodplain pool floodplain

3.2 WHAT TO AIM FOR TO 3.2 WHAT flood wet grassland flows seasonally inundated ’floodplain’ eroding bankside wet woodland scrub cliff

buffer zone

bar feature pool

The river corridor

From a conservation perspective, the overall river corridor including river banks and adjacent land is as important as the river itself. The key features of a river corridor high in biodiversity are:-

• A variety of river-related features - e.g. terraces, old river channels, oxbow lakes and alluvial flood plains, to increase the range of habitats available for colonisation by aquatic and semi-aquatic species, including plants, mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates. Even dry ditches which carry water for only part of the year can be valuable in diversifying the insect life of agricultural land as they provide a damper and more sheltered environment than open fields.

• Relatively stable banks allow the development of vegetation and habitats for animals, result in less sedimentation in the river, which increases the chance of survival of invertebrates, fish eggs and fry. They also provide good habitat for other wildlife, including otters.

• Bankside vegetation is important in stabilising banks, provides food for insects such as bees, wasps and hoverflies, nesting sites for breeding birds such as redshank and whinchat, and feeding and sheltering sites for birds such as mallard and snipe. A strong turf over the bankside will help prevent erosion. Fish feed on insects falling into the water from overhanging vegetation, whilst leaf litter provides food for other in- stream animals.

• Riparian habitat - A mixture of trees, grasses, shrubs and other herbaceous vegetation will provide optimum habitat for the greatest number and variety of wildlife.

Grass margins, for example, support a multitude of invertebrates such as beetles and spiders, which are an important food source for game bird chicks; they provide ideal nesting sites for ground nesting birds, including skylarks, and support many small mammals such as field vole, which in turn support barn owls and other predators.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Hedges - Hedges can help reduce risk of run-off and soil erosion, and break up long slopes on steep ground. Effectively intermediate between woodland and grass or arable land, the shrubs which grow in hedges and flowering plants which flourish underneath provide food and nesting habitat for a wide range of wildlife, 3.3 WHAT TO AIM FOR including many insects, birds and small mammals. A ditch alongside a hedge can support twice as many bird species and in higher numbers than a ditch alone.

Trees and woodland - provide habitat for plants and animals, and songposts, food and nesting sites for birds. Roots help stabilise banks and protect fish and invertebrates from predators.

The overall biodiversity of a watercourse will be influenced by the characteristics of its entire catchment, and local problems or reduced biodiversity may be a result of activities occurring some way from the watercourse itself or upstream of the reach under consideration.

Wherever possible, the long-term aim is to allow a watercourse to exist in its natural state, which in most cases is one of relative stability with limited erosion, deposition and sediment transportation. Prevention through longer and stronger vegetation is a lot cheaper than engineering works.

Further reading

Tweed Foundation Streambank management for fish and other wildilfe

TREES AND SHRUBS ALONG RIVERS, DITCHES AND BURNS Benefits of trees and shrubs

• Roots help stabilise banks and protect fish and invertebrates from predators. • Provide food and shelter for many different insects, birds and mammals including providing cover for otters. • Cast shade across water which provides areas where temperatures will remain cool in summer and helps restrict growth of aquatic vegetation. • Leaf litter dropping into watercourses from overhanging trees and shrubs feeds many types of aquatic organisms. • Visually attractive.

Guidelines for management

• Maintain existing hedges, trees, pollards etc. wherever possible. • Consider coppicing or pollarding at 10-15 year intervals some of the trees which shade the ditch, rather than removing them (i.e. cutting to encourage regrowth from the stump). • Leave trees where they have fallen wherever this can be done without interfering with cropping or fencelines. The upended roots make good nest sites for kingfishers and the vegetation which grows through the branches forms sheltered sites for a range of wildlife. Branches and timber which accumulate can provide nest sites for moorhens, coots and swans.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Management guidelines for trees and shrubs along watercourses (Alan Scott)

consider coppicing rather than removing trees that shade the burn leave tres where they have fallen if possible maintain existing hedges, trees, pollards etc. wherever possible. never plant on flood embankments 3.4 WHAT TO AIM FOR TO 3.4 WHAT

avoid planting near drainage outfalls plant on alternate banks to protect access for maintenance

New tree planting

There is often scope for new tree planting in odd corners and to fill in bends in the river or burn. Tree planting along water margins or on adjacent land usually qualifies for grant aid.

• Linking new planting to existing woodland will considerably increase habitat value for wildilfe. • Avoid planting near drainage outfalls. • Never plant on flood embankments. • Plant on alternate banks to protect access for maintenance. • Plant only native species which look far more natural in the countryside and are of considerably more wildlife value than those introduced from abroad. Willow and alder are the two species most commonly found growing alongside water. • Areas of wetland used by breeding waders and other areas of high intrinsic conservation value, for example species-rich grassland, are better left unplanted. • Ensure adequate fencing and sufficient distance of newly planted trees and shrubs from the fenceline to prevent browsing damage.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 4 LEGISLATION 4.1 LEGISLATION

The abundant legislation surrounding the use and abuse of watercourses reflects the vulnerability of rivers and burns and their considerable value economically and environmentally. SEPA, who are responsible for implementing and upholding the legislation, can provide further details and guidance.

Primary Legislation relating to pollution of Scottish watercourses

1 Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) (Scotland) Act 1951 includes Secretary of State’s duty to promote cleanliness of waters and SEPA sampling powers 2 Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) (Scotland) Act 1965 includes further sampling provisions 3 Control of Pollution Act 1974 (as amended) includes main criminal offences in water pollution 4 Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 included control orders for irrigation and drought orders 5 Environment Act 1995 includes general matters which SEPA must take into account in consenting to discharges to water and its other functions, and amended the 1974 Act

Directives relevant to the management of rural watercourses in Scotland

The Nitrates Directive concerns protection of water against pollution from nitrates from agricultural sources. It addresses two concerns (i) high nitrate levels in drinking water, and (ii) eutrophication of watercourses by nitrogen compounds. The Directive has identified the Balmalcolm catchment in Fife and the Ythan in north- east Scotland as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ), for which government action plans have been produced.

The Habitats Directive identifies Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) in the UK, and their associated species. The species identified are considered to be under threat, and special protection measures exist for their conservation. Species relevant in Scotland include:-

Molluscs freshwater pearl mussel, Fish Atlantic salmon, sea lamprey, river lamprey and brook lamprey Mammals otter

Planning consent

In-stream and bankside works of a scale that constitute engineering operations will normally require planning permission. Examples are deepening of river channels, creation of pools, placing of large boulders, and removal of gravel. Consult with the relevant planning authority as soon as possible to determine if planning consent is required, and submit relevant applications if necessary.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 5 POLLUTION

The most common agricultural pollutants are fertilisers, pesticides, sheep dip, milk, slurry, silage effluent, oil and animal carcases. Although frequently omitted from the list, soil can be just as polluting as any of these, both due to the physical effects of sedimentation causing problems in watercourses, and because of its ability to transport into the river system other nutrients or pollutants bound to soil particles. In many areas, soil run-off is as much of a problem as pollution caused directly by fertiliser and other agro-chemicals. Insensitive irrigation practice compounds the problems of soil pollution. Two types of agricultural pollution are usually recognised: 5.1 POLLUTION Direct (or point source) pollution occurs where one or more specific sources of pollution can be pinpointed, for example a spill or leak.

Diffuse pollution occurs when pollutants seep into watercourses from a much larger area, for example fertiliser and pesticide pollution via ground water and surface run-off.

The effects of pollution from farming activities on water and the wildlife it supports include:

• Organic substances such as silage effluent and animal waste reduce the amount of oxygen available for aquatic plants and animals. • Contamination with nutrients can lead to algal blooms. • Certain pesticides can wipe out invertebrate populations, food for fish (e.g. trout) and birds (e.g. dipper). • Silt smothers gravel beds used by trout and salmon for spawning. It also reduces the habitat available for invertebrates which need gravelly beds in which to live. • Heavy loads of silt cause physical damage to fish.

In most cases, a little careful forethought is all that is required to prevent pollution of watercourses. Many practices which help prevent pollution equate to good farming practice, for example, correct use of agrochemicals by application at correct/minimal doses and at appropriate times of year.

Key points: • Identify potentially polluting waters coming from farm buildings, yards or draining off land. • Tackle pollution and run-off at source wherever possible. • Consider scope for creating buffer zones or other areas which could be used to intercept and buffer polluted water. • Observe product safety precautions and always follow guidelines • Turn off outer nozzles or boom sections to avoid spray drift • Load sprayers and spray out washings well away from watercourses or buffer strips • Use appropriate headland settings on fertiliser broadcasters or use a full-width spreader • Take account of wind direction on spread pattern when applying fertiliser

Further reading SERAD (1997) Prevention of Pollution from Agricultural Activity (PEPFAA) Code of Good Practice, SERAD, Edinburgh (copies available from local SERAD offices) - comprehensive guidelines on the protection of watercourses from agricultural pollutants.

Pollution prevention leaflets available from SEPA, SAC and the SNFU: Diffuse pollution and agriculture Pesticides Slurry Soil protection Application of non-agricultural waste to land Agricultural fuel oil and waste oil Silos and silage effluent Protecting river banks Disposal of agricultural waste products and animal carcases

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 6 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS 6.1 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS

Until recently, maximising production was the name of the game. Encouraged by agricultural policies, grants and public pressure, farmers have ploughed, cropped and grazed ever closer to rivers and burns. Within the last few years, the tables have turned. Production and profitable farming are still just as important, but increasing emphasis is placed on reducing the negative impacts of farming every last inch as intensively as possible, and on the benefits of taking some land out of production. Water margins - in other words the land adjacent to ditches, burns and rivers - should be high on the priority list for reassessment.

What’s the problem?

Cropping and grazing right up to the edge of rivers, burns and field drainage channels without leaving any kind of margin brings with it various problems:

• Destruction of river bank vegetation and consequent loss of wildlife. • Bankside erosion caused directly by heavy machines and poaching by livestock. • Turf weakened by heavy grazing breaks easily allowing flood water contact with underlying soil or gravel, which may initiate or accelerate bank erosion. • As erosion increases, the watercourse becomes wider and shallower, resulting in loss of valuable agricultural land and wildlife habitat, and increased sediment load in the river. • Increased direct and diffuse pollution from pesticides and nitrates. • Contamination from animal waste and sediment, particularly at watering points and around winter feeding sites. • Direct sedimentation as soil is washed off cultivated fields into rivers.

What are the solutions?

Management should aim to regenerate and maintain strong, stable native vegetation on banksides and in the riparian zone. This can be achieved by:

• Creation of buffer strips. • Reversion of arable land to permanent grass - particularly beneficial in reducing erosion on steep fields, may be eligible for grant aid. • Fencing off riverside areas to allow vegetation to regenerate naturally. • Controlled grazing i.e. allowing livestock access at certain times of year to graze off dominant vegetation will encourage a broader range of plant species and control development of unsightly rank vegetation or scrub (although in some places both may be desirable). Take particular care to avoid grazing when soils and vegetation are most susceptible to damage, e.g. during winter or other prolonged periods of wet weather. • Provision of specific watering points for livestock.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook BUFFER STRIPS

As their name implies, buffer strips provide an intermediate protection zone between cropped or grazed land and areas of conservation value. In an ideal world, all watercourses would be protected by buffer strips which were themselves of high conservation value.

Benefits of buffer strips • Put to good use the least productive and often most problematic areas of the farm. • Reduce risk of pollution by agrochemicals, including pesticides and nitrates. • Stabilise the banks of watercourses, helping prevent erosion and siltation from bank material. • Reduce frequency of ditch management through decreased rates of siltation and weed development.

Plan view of buffer strip (SAC, FWAG & SEPA)

use buffer strip to straighten irregular field edge buffer strip river bank

6.2 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS buffer strip

• Enhance crop management operations by straightening irregular field edges. • Control or prevent erosion of valuable top soil from fields into watercourses, so reducing contamination by silt and organic wastes. • Reduce effects of spray drift. • Trap and filter silt and associated pollutants (including contaminants bound to sediments). • Help reduce nitrate leaching by vegetation growing on the buffer strip absorbing nitrogen. • Provide access routes around the farm and machinery turning areas (not allowed under current agri- environment schemes). • If sown with perennial grasses and wildflowers, help control pernicious arable weeds such as cleavers and sterile brome, and support beneficial insects which can help control crop pests. • Provide nesting and feeding areas for many types of wildlife and game, including ground nesting birds such as partridge and skylark, and small mammals such as field vole. • Provide corridors for wildlife to move between different areas of habitat.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Drawbacks to buffer strips • Loss of productive land. 6.3 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS • Fencing costs where stock exclusion or control is needed. • Extra care will be needed with spraying and fertilising operations on adjacent land if the full environmental benefits of buffer strips are to be gained.

Key points • Buffer strips can be any width, but need to be a minimum of 2 metres wide to be effective, or more on steeper land. Many agro-chemicals cannot be used within 6 metres of watercourses in any case; some pesticides carry recommendations for a wider strip to be left untreated.

permanent vegetation arable crop

20m

• Suitably managed strips of permanent vegetation between a watercourse and crop edge may be eligible for set aside under the Arable Area Payments Scheme. Set-aside strips are particularly useful around vegetable crops which receive especially high and frequent inputs. A cereal buffer strip may help reduce pollution in vegetable production if set-aside cannot be fitted into the rotation. The minimum eligible width has been reduced to 10 metres, but at the time of writing, SERAD were still awaiting confirmation regarding precise definition of what constitutes a watercourse, so check for up to date details. • Wide grass margins and conservation headlands may attract compensatory payments under some conservation incentives (e.g. CPS). In areas which are particularly nitrate or pollution sensitive, buffer strips may also attract additional incentive payments, and indeed may become compulsory. • Avoid gaps in buffer strips, which reduce the effectiveness of pollution protection. • Buffer strips can help reduce adverse effects of farming operations on watercourses, but are not an overall panacea - good farm husbandry is still equally important. Herbicide, fertiliser or spray drift into buffer strips favours aggressive weeds and reduces value for wildlife and beneficial predators.

Grass strips • Grass buffer strips can be left to regenerate naturally, or can be created by direct drilling into stubbles, undersowing cereals (especially if the field is to be set-aside with grass cover) or sown with a suitable grass mix. • A mixture of creeping grasses such as red fescue and tussocky species such as cocksfoot provides ideal habitat for beetles and other crop pest predators, and increases nesting and feeding sites for wild partridge. • Sowing a grass-wildflower mix which includes species such as black knapweed, yarrow, ox-eye daisy, and tufted vetch may be more costly but has greatest environmental benefit - for example, adult hoverflies feed on nectar and their larvae feed on aphids. • Rough cutting every few years prevents development of scrub. Avoid cutting consecutive strips in the same year to ensure continuity of habitat for wildlife.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Trees and wooded buffer strips • Trees planted on buffer strips can be visually attractive, help stabilise banks, provide valuable wildlife habitat and contribute leaf litter to the watercourse, but bear in mind that areas of wetland used by breeding waders are better left unplanted. • Where planting or encouragement of natural regeneration is appropriate, species such as willow and alder which grow naturally in wet conditions are ideal.

Further reading

Davies DHK and Christal A Buffer Strips - A Review Crop Systems Department, SAC, Edinburgh

FENCING Key points • Observe river flow patterns, including when in flood, to help decide where fences are best located. • Locate fences parallel to the flow of water as far back from the watercourse as possible so as not to cause too great an obstruction at times of flooding - most damage occurs when fences form a barrier to debris being washed down rivers that are in flood. • Straight lines of fencing which do not attempt to follow each meander in the course of the river will minimise costs and create the most useful buffer area.

Locate fences as far back from the watercourse as possible, and above flood level 6.4 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS ✔ ✖

flood water flows into obstructing fence ✖

• The more stable the ground on which the fence is located, the longer it will last. • Remember to include provision to maintain drinking water supply for livestock - install troughs or limit stock access to just one or two points within the riparian zone, preferably at locations with a solid river bed and bank, to prevent excess puddling by livestock. • Include occasional gates to enable easy removal of stock that have got into the fenced area.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Include sections of under-railing if the terrain is sharply undulating to stop sheep getting underneath 6.5 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS

✔

• Take account of wildlife needs and potential to improve the area for conservation benefit without detriment to farming • Watergates will prevent livestock straying along burns. Careful siting can provide watering points and access between fields on either side of a watercourse. • Type of fencing will depend largely on livestock whose movement is to be controlled, but will also depend on risk of flooding. As many farmers know only too well, stock netting can be washed away on floodplain meadows, or equally serious, becomes clogged with debris when the watercourse is in spate, subsequently restricting drainage. Temporary fencing, possibly attached to permanent strainer posts, may be preferable on sites prone to flooding, or alternatively consider sections of breakaway fencing to reduce costs of replacing long lengths of strained netting or wire. • Careful thought regarding siting is the key to reducing visual impact, but using the lowest possible gauge of wire/ rylock can also help, provided there is no compromise on effectiveness at controlling livestock movement and cost-effectiveness of the fence, particularly in the longer-term. • Include and clearly mark stiles and/or bridle gates for anglers, walkers, cyclists and riders where appropriate to prevent damage by people climbing over fences. Alternatively, explore option for realigning paths. • Sensitive planting of native tree and shrub species (e.g. willows and alders) in the fenced area can increase habitat diversity and help to further stabilise river banks. Trees may provide shade and shelter to livestock, firewood or even timber if well-managed. Aim to leave half the watercourse in open sunlight, the other half in dappled shade. Avoid planting large areas of trees on or around wetland habitats where curlew, oystercatcher, redshank and lapwing breed. • Fencing off an area may lead to an invasion of aggressive species such as willow herb and ragwort. Control of undesirable species by cutting/hand removal will increase the diversity of other ground flora. • Fencing off significant areas may affect livestock subsidy eligibility including forage hectare and extensification payments.

Benefits of fencing: • Prevention of further bankside erosion means no further loss of grazing area. • Fencing is generally a much cheaper option than any engineering work. • If regularly checked and maintained, fences can be expected to have a twenty year life-span. • Prevention of further erosion means reduction of further unwanted sediment deposition in other areas. • Creates buffer strips which can reduce risk of direct and diffuse pollution. • Better control of stock movement. • Reduced risk of loss of stock during floods. • Better riverside vegetation creates nesting and cover for game species. • Fencing even small lengths of watercourse can yield worthwhile returns by reducing farm costs such as stock injury and lameness and time wasted rounding up stock who have strayed onto neighbouring land when river levels are low.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook • Stable banks reduce erosion and downstream deposition, so spawning and invertebrate habitats are safeguarded. • Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on the bank for many types of flora and fauna. • Payments under one of a range of environmental schemes may be available. 6.6 CROPPING AND GRAZING BESIDE RIVERS

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 7 BANK EROSION 7.1 BANK EROSION

Erosion is one of many natural river processes. The speed of erosion depends on river type. Not surprisingly, rivers with a bed of boulders or running over bedrock experience relatively little erosion, whereas watercourses running over gravel or finer substrates are typically subject to greater erosion. Problems arise where the rate of erosion is considered too rapid to be acceptable, or where valuable land is at risk, most commonly in the lowlands.

What is the problem?

Banks which are eroding can become steep and undercut, leading to further severe erosion losses. Confronted with a sudden dramatic section of eroded river bank or increased speed of erosion along a length of watercourse, many farmers are tempted to take immediate defensive action without first assessing the scale of the problem or setting it into a broader context. Inappropriate techniques and materials are unlikely to solve the problem long-term and are, at best, a waste of money. At worst, they can exacerbate the original problem. Attempts to reshape the river or shore up eroding sections by use of heavy machinery often disturb the natural regime of a watercourse, leading to further problems of erosion and deposition downstream. There may also even be compensation issues to consider if erosion is caused elsewhere as a result of badly-designed work at one site. Use of heavy machinery is also very damaging to aquatic and riparian vegetation, while careless use of the wrong materials (including builders’ rubble and corrugated iron sheets) can cause serious pollution, and could be considered illegal.

Benefits of erosion control

• Stabilisation of river banks reduces loss of agricultural land. • Reduces unwanted deposition in other areas. • Reduces excessive sedimentation within watercourses, which silts up gravel beds and destroys spawning and invertebrate habitat. • Reduces widening of the channel which results in shallow flows especially in summer, which can cause increases in water temperature and reductions in oxygen levels, leading to fish mortality. • Development of stable banksides creates habitat for mammals and birds as well as river bank vegetation. The more rapidly vegetation can be established on newly stabilised banks, the better.

CHECKLIST FOR ASSESSING EROSION PROBLEMS

Erosion can be a complex issue. Effective treatment depends on first understanding and identifying the relevant cause(s). A preliminary survey of the area, including upstream and downstream sections, will provide useful information on the possible causes of the problem. Remember, if in doubt, and always before attempting any intervention aimed at stabilising river and stream banks, seek specialist advice.

Where is the bank eroding? In many cases, erosion occurs at the toe of the riverbank on a bend - i.e. where the riverbed meets the bank, but it may also be eroding higher up the bank due to high velocity flows parallel to the bank. Any weakness - e.g. a fallen bankside tree - can be a focus for erosion and become a ‘nick point’ acting as a fulcrum between stable and unstable parts of the channel, leading to unprecedented problems. Always compare land management and bankside vegetation on other sections of the river to determine whether erosion is isolated or widespread.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Why is the bank eroding i.e. what is the cause of erosion? • Natural bank instability e.g. due to composition or structure of the bank. • Lack of vegetation to bind and cover soil. • Recent upstream works (either temporary or permanent) - e.g. channel widening or deepening, gravel extraction, culvert construction etc. • Changes in use and/or management of banks/catchment e.g. livestock pressure, cultivation. • Isolated incident - e.g. flash flood.

How long has the bank been eroding? • Is this a longstanding or relatively recent problem?

7.2 BANK EROSION • What else has happened in the area in the same period?

What is the solution?

Once the causes, scale and seriousness of the problem have been determined, the choice is then whether to leave the bank to reach its own natural state, or to take some type of remedial action. The first question should always be ‘is intervention really necessary’? Unless the erosion is causing a serious threat, it is generally advisable not to intervene with any type of engineering.

Key points

• If in doubt about cause(s) of erosion or the consequences of potential solutions, consult a geomorphologist or other suitable specialist with a sound understanding of river processes. • Resist the temptation to rush in and try everything possible to solve the problem all at once. Trying one thing at a time, starting with the minimum possible, will reveal what works and may save costs of unnecessary extra intervention measures. • Stabilising the river bank by encouraging natural vegetation and control of grazing (e.g. by creation of fenced buffer strips) is often the most cost-effective way to deal with the problem, and will provide many opportunities for both aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. Once banks have been stabilised, native vegetation including trees can be planted or encouraged to regenerate. Vertical (often unvegetated) banks provide nesting sites for birds such as the sandmartin and kingfisher. • Where intervention is considered necessary, the aim should be long-term stabilisation of eroding banks using the softest techniques possible to dissipate water flow around vulnerable areas, ensuring that work does not result in more problems downstream. • The key is often stabilising the ‘toe’ of the bank - i.e. the base of the bank at which the water level is at around its normal flow. • Avoid removing material from the bed of the river to rebuild banks as this can lead to instability and is rarely successful in protecting banks. • Any erosion control work should be inspected regularly, not just at the control site but also upstream and downstream. • There is a risk of revetment work being washed out during periods of heavy flooding, particularly for ‘softer’ options if flooding occurs soon after the work has been carried out. • Re-routing footpaths and access routes away from river banks can help reduce erosion problems and may also benefit the rich wildlife often associated with watercourses by reducing disturbance.

Choice of technique will depend on the physical characteristics of the river and surrounding land, and the nature and seriousness of the problem. Fuller details of the techniques most commonly used for erosion control follow. In some cases it may be possible to combine more than one technique.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook BUFFER STRIP/TREE PLANTING 7.3 BANK EROSION Buffer strips (see Section 6 - cropping and grazing beside rivers) are without doubt the simplest means of controlling erosion, and should always be considered before any other option. Tree planting (see section 3.3-3.4 - trees and shrubs along rivers, ditches and burns) may also be an option, possibly within the buffer strip.

SOFT REVETMENT TECHNIQUES

Vegetative revetment is the ‘softest’, and therefore best, intervention option. It will often be sufficient to slow natural erosion to an acceptable rate if combined with development of a good strong cover of bankside vegetation and/or combined with a buffer strip behind the area of the bank which has been reveted. Fencing is usually required to restrict livestock access. Vegetation should be sourced locally if possible.

Benefits

• ‘Soft’ techniques are much cheaper than hard engineering • Physical work is usually within most farmers’ capabilities, although specialist input may be required initially. • Stable banks reduce erosion and downstream deposition, so spawning and invertebrate habitats are safeguarded • Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on the banks for many types of flora and fauna

Techniques include:-

(a) Grasses, sedges and reeds planted along the eroding zone.

Rolls of native plants used for vegetative revetment

geotextile roll

reed clumpsclumps soilsoil stones 300 - 400400 mmmm wooden supporting stake

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook grass sown above sedge planted water level under geotextile

eroded bank infilled with material from local sources (other than watercourses) 7.4 BANK EROSION geotextile

(b) Live willow stakes are cut and driven into the toe of the eroding bank. Willow is particularly suitable because of its ability to root from cuttings and form a permanent source of protection. The willow needs to be coppiced from time-to-time, which yields further stakes and cuttings. Since the work is well within the capabilities of most farmers and cuttings can usually be taken or obtained free of charge, costs are minimal.

Spiling (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

willow poles stable vegetable bank (50 - 75mm diameter)

eroded bank infilled with material from local sources (not excavated from watercourses)

water level osiers woven around poles will sprout and strike roots to hold fill in the bank

(c) ‘spiling’ - a more sophisticated technique suitable for protection of steep or vertical banks. Willow shoots (withies) are woven horizontally around winter-cut willow stakes to create a living wall along the bank, which both protects the bank directly and also helps stabilise it in the longer term. Greater skill but less material is required than for faggoting. Spiling may be within the capabilities of some farmers, whereas others might prefer to buy in specialists. Contractors costs, including supply of materials, range up to £100/metre.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook (d ‘faggoting’, where branches of any tree species, but again preferably willow, are bundled together and 7.5 BANK EROSION then held at the base of the eroding bank by stakes. The bank is initially protected; debris also is trapped in the bundles of branches, forming substrate for stabilising plants to naturally seed into.

Faggoting (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

(e) Log and Christmas tree technique - This adaptation of faggoting has been used successfully in the Scottish Borders. Larch logs are laid horizontally along the eroding bank, with pins driven vertically through them into the river bed. Conifer tops are then attached to the logs, butt end upstream, with a 50% overlap to trap debris and sediment. Ideally plant willow stakes and/or establish a buffer zone behind the protected bank to further strengthen it. Estimated cost £22/metre including labour. Christmas trees may need replacing until other vegetation has stabilised the bank.

Log and Christmas tree technique (Tweed Foundation 1998)

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook HARD REVETMENT TECHNIQUES

In some circumstances, for example where necessary to protect roads, bridges and buildings, more substantial revetment may be required to control bankside erosion. Hard revetment can be softened by combining with re-vegetation and development of buffer zones, but any hard revetment work has the potential to cause significant problems, both on the site in question and elsewhere within the river system. The following notes are included as a summary of relevant techniques, but specialist advice should always be sought before considering any hard revetment work.

(a) Geotextiles - a range of synthetic or natural textiles are available to help stabilise banks while vegetation establishes. Regrade the eroding bank, sow with required vegetation and then secure geotextile using mesh size to allow plant penetration. If combined with vegetative revetment, this is a relatively soft, medium cost option, but if combined with harder engineering techniques (e.g. gabion baskets or rip rap), 7.6 BANK EROSION the downstream impact can be unpredictable. Some skill is required in design and installation to prevent subsequent destruction by floods.

(b) Gabions and gabion baskets (wire baskets filled with stone) can be used to protect badly eroding banks, but can look extremely unnatural unless vegetated, and the downstream impacts can be very unpredictable. Regular maintenance is required to avoid problems of undercutting, which adds to high initial costs. Not suitable for implementation by most farmers. A more effective alternative is short willow logs mixed with stones in the gabion.

reed clumps planted reed underclumps geotextile planted in gabion

geotextile top layer, soil underneath then stones wire meshmesh basket basket filled with stone

(c) Stone strengthening/rip rap - angular stone can be used to armour eroding banks. The bank may need to be regraded first. Use of local stone reduces visual impact, and addition of vegetation will help. This is a medium/high cost option, unsuitable for implementation by most farmers as careful placing of stone is essential, but in comparison to gabions, it is relatively easy to make adjustments if positioning does not prove exactly right first time. carefully placed angular rock armours bank

high velocity flowsflows at at toe toe of of bank absorbedbank dissipated by rocks by rocksand deflected downstream

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook BANK RESHAPING AND REPROFILING 7.7 BANK EROSION Reprofiling to lessen the slope of eroding banks may encourage stabilisation. Suitability will depend on type of river bank, but this type of erosion control is usually most suited to slow-flowing lowland rivers. The need to bring in experienced machinery operator(s) means that this is a medium-high cost option, and some habitat disturbance/destruction is inevitable as a result of heavy machinery, but if done well, it can provide a good environmentally friendly long-term solution.

However, simply reprofiling a steep bank or misjudging the profile of a new bank can increase erosion. Ideally, pressure will be taken off the eroding bank by widening the river channel on the opposite side, thereby spreading the river’s energy over a wider area. Of course, the ‘other side’ may be a neighbour’s land, which emphasises the importance of talking to neighbours at an early stage in the proceedings.

Widening opposite bank to take pressure off the eroding bank

eroding bank widen channel by removing inside bank

river energy marginal vegetation disipated expands

If this is not possible, then the height and slope of the eroding bank can be reshaped by a digger to lessen the speed of erosion.

Reprofiling the eroding bank to a shallower, more stable angle

eroding bank

reseed new bank to stabilise

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Benefits

• Flood-risk may be slightly reduced by well-designed reshaped banks. • Banks designed to have a very shallow gradient may provide cover for game birds. • Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on the bank for many types of flora and fauna. • A reshaped bank can create new habitats, including aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats.

Key points

• Re-shape upstream and downstream, to achieve gentle entry and exit but do no more than is necessary. 7.8 BANK EROSION • Work should only ever be undertaken on one bank at a time. • Gradient of the reshaped bank will depend on the angle of repose of the soil, but should be reduced to ideally around 35 degrees, and certainly no more than 45 degrees. • Aim for an asymmetric profile, with shelves and berms (shallow shelves created by excavating the toe of the bank) to create two-stage channels which will increase stability by slowing erosion at the toe of eroding banks, and increase habitat potential. • If not rapidly revegetated, soil run-off from the new bank will cause sedimentation in the watercourse. Scarify the cut surface before seeding/planting, using geotextiles if necessary to help stabilise banks. Fencing will be required if livestock graze the adjacent area. • Professional advice should be sought before any in-stream works of this nature are undertaken. The local District Salmon Fishery Board should also be contacted. • Estimated costs will depend on level of work required. A digger and driver would cost approximately £175- 200 per day. Further labour and machinery may also be required to dispose of topsoil. Additional costs may include seed and/or plants for revegetation, geotextiles and fencing if the area is to be grazed by livestock.

DEFLECTING WATER AWAY FROM THE ERODING BANK

Two techniques are occasionally used for deflecting the flow of water away from eroding banks:-

(a) Submerged ‘vanes’ and ‘hydrofoils’ - vertical structures (wood, rock or gabion baskets) placed on the river bed usually to a height of 20-50% of normal water depth . Although unobtrusive, vanes are only suitable in a limited range of situations and siting is critical, hence professional help is required. High cost option which can cause problems on opposite banks.

vertical structures placed at 100 - 200 to main flow

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook (b) Deflectors and spurs (sometimes called ‘croys’ or ‘groynes’) are widely used and are suitable in many situations. Hazel or heather hurdles are often as effective as stone, boulder or log extensions. The zones of slack water created behind them produce resting pools for migratory salmon. Location, size, angle and 7.9 BANK EROSION height are critical, as is direction - those pointing downstream as shown in the diagram below deflect flow away from the eroding bank. Elsewhere deflectors facing upstream have been used to reinforce the eroding bank by trapping sediment. Use of deflectors can result in serious erosion problems on the opposite bank or on the same bank further downstream. Professional advice is therefore essential.

erosion

deflectors

FURTHER READING

Cranfield University (1999) Waterway bank protection: a guide to erosion assessment and management. Environment Agency, Bristol.

Environment Agency (1998) Understanding Riverbank Erosion - an information booklet. Environment Agency, Bristol.

River Restoration Centre (1998). Revetment Techniques Used on the River Skerne Restoration Project. R&D Technical Report W83. WRc Information Resources, Swindon.

Thorne, C., Amarasinghe, I., Gardiner, J., Perala-Gardiner, C. and Sellin, R. (1998) Riverbank protection using willows. Environment Agency, Bristol.

University of Nottingham R & D Report 28 (1998) A Procedure for Assessing River Bank Erosion Problems and Solutions.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 8 FIELD DRAINAGE AND 8.1 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT DITCH MANAGEMENT

What is the problem?

Efficient drainage is essential to productive farming. Field drains must operate throughout the year, and when water levels are high in the receiving watercourse. To operate efficiently, drainage water must flow freely down a gradient to carry the water away from fields.

Natural watercourses do not need regular management, whereas artificial ditches usually require regular intervention to enable them to function efficiently and to maintain their wildlife interest. Provided care is taken in the way in which maintenance is carried out, periodic cutting or clearing of such artificial ditches is no bad thing. It can help avoid need for drastic work in future years, and help maintain a diverse range of conditions for wildlife by interrupting the process of natural succession to uniform reedbed. Problems arise when work is carried out without paying due regard to the implications for the river system or the many plants and animals which it supports, and when natural burns are subjected to unsympathetic often unnecessary management.

When drains start backing up or otherwise failing, the immediate reaction of the majority of farmers is to clean out or reprofile watercourses in the hope that the efficiency of their field drains will increase. Insensitive deepening and widening of watercourses to lower the water level or increase the gradient of flow and thus increase the efficiency of outflow from arterial and field drains can be highly damaging to wildlife. Equally important, dredging long reaches of watercourse or straightening rivers in an attempt to improve field drainage all too often eliminates the pools, riffles and other natural features essential to the conservation interest and efficient functioning of watercourses. Use of heavy machinery inevitably damages and destroys bankside vegetation, destabilises banks and disturbs the natural profile of the river bank. Severe erosion and deposition problems may occur at the dredging site, further downstream and even upstream. Habitat damage and destruction due to drainage is most commonly associated with lowland or improved land, where underground field drainage exists or is being installed. KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER IN RELATION TO DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT

• Ideally, underground field drains should stop short of watercourses allowing water to percolate through a floodplain, wetland or other natural vegetation which will provide a buffer zone before the water carried by the drains reaches the main river channel. The buffer zone will filter soil, silt and other material carried by the drainage water and so prevent siltation, and can also significantly reduce the concentrations of field nutrients and other pollutants running into burns and rivers. A vegetation buffer between drain outlet and watercourse should not impede drainage provided there is no direct obstruction at peak or low flow. • New grassed ditches can be useful to channel away intermittent run-off from vulnerable soils, can provide valuable wildlife habitat and may support beneficial predators of crop pests. • Exclude livestock from drainage out-falls and boggy areas. • Maintain land drain outfalls regularly. • Carry out dredging only as required rather than as an annual (often unnecessary) maintenance operation. An infrequent job well done (i.e. in line with these guidelines rather than to excess!) will be just as effective as annual dredging, and save considerable money. • Maintain ditches on a rotational basis leaving 30-50% of vegetation undisturbed, working short sections on alternate banks to minimise damage, maintain continuity and leave undisturbed areas as a source for recolonisation. Rotational clearing of only part of ditches on a less regular basis will also encourage settling out of sediments and recycling of nutrients through uptake by stream vegetation such as reeds and rushes.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook DREDGING AND CHANNEL WIDENING

The principles for dredging and channel widening are exactly the same for drainage ditches as for rivers and other large watercourses. There is no point in interfering without first establishing need for, or specific cause of, poor outflow - before bringing in machinery, consider the following:

• Is poor field drainage definitely an outflow problem? • Are the drains themselves in need of repair? • Will the problem definitely be solved by lowering the level of watercourses into which the drains feed? • How will improving drainage affect wetlands, floodplains and other areas of high nature conservation value? • Will improved drainage cause problems in dry periods?

Only if the level of the adjoining watercourse into which the drains discharge is too high is there any case for considering channel modification.

Key points

• Channel deepening and widening should only ever be considered as a last resort . • Digging and disturbance should be limited to the minimum possible both within the watercourse and on its banks. • Dredging should be only ever be ‘partial’ - i.e. maximum two-thirds of channel width to minimise disturbance and maintain the variety of conditions necessary for a wide range of aquatic plant and animal life.

8.2 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT 8.2 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH clear vegetation from one side of channel only

dredge short stretches from alternate banks

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook • Deepening a narrow part of the river bed to create a two-stage or compound channel can be just as effective in increasing the gradient, creating a faster run of water and providing necessary capacity for storms flows as dredging the full width of the channel, whilst maintaining sufficient depth in low flow periods to support 8.3 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT wildlife dependent on deeper water. This type of design also avoids major changes in channel behaviour, for example it allows retention of valuable meanders.

Compound ditch design (Alan Scott)

before

after storm flow

normal flow shallow slope extra shallow slope

• Creation of silt traps downstream of the main rechannelling work may help reduce the impact on the remainder of the watercourse. • Seek professional advice before undertaking any in-stream works. The local District Salmon Fishery Board must also be contacted.

Benefits of partial dredging

• Lowering the water table may improve productivity of affected farm land. • Successful partial dredging may increase river conveyance and reduce the risk of local flooding, although the impact of operations on land further downstream should never be ignored. • A well-planned partial dredging scheme can lead eventually to increased habitat diversity by creating deeper areas of water which provide habitat for bigger fish and mammals. • Dredging provides opportunity to reprofile bank slope on the area being worked. A carefully reshaped bank, once revegetated, will provide future habitat diversity. • Quicker and therefore cheaper than full-scale dredging. • Less spoil to be disposed of than full-scale dredging

Practical guidelines

• The angle to which the banks are cut will affect the speed of revegetation: less steep banks are more easily recolonised and less prone to erosion. Bank angle should rarely exceed 45 degrees from the horizontal. • Create or maintain a variety of bankside profiles to encourage as wide a range of species as possible.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Wide profile ditch (Alan Scott)

Offers two banks for vegetation and wildlife cover

slopes as shallow as possible

A suitable profile if space is limited (Alan Scott) the shallow slope should receive most sunlight (where possible)

slope as shallow as possible steep bank (south facing)

Alternative profile (Alan Scott)

shelf beneath drain outlet will remain waterlogged creating a valuable marshy area

8.4 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT 8.4 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH shallow bank drain outlet

• Leave as much marginal vegetation as possible to provide and retain a stable base to the bank without risking toe erosion and bank slumping. • Leave stable vertical faces in banks for kingfishers and sand martins to nest, but leave some banks with a gentle slope on the sunnier side to encourage flowering plants. • Retain existing trees, if at all possible. • Work against the direction of water flow to increase opportunity for colonisation of bare stretches by plants further upstream. • Ideally vegetation from in-stream dredging operations should be left temporarily close to the watercourse so that aquatic invertebrates can return to the stream or river. Spoil should never be dumped on banksides, in other parts of the watercourse, or in wet hollows which might be used by breeding waders and wildfowl or around trees. Wherever possible, spread on fields well away from areas of wildlife interest - weed seeds which germinate can easily be controlled during normal cultivation. • Time dredging to minimise impact on local plants, animals and aquatic species (see section 2). If possible, have a survey of the reach carried out to identify the species likely to be affected. • Revegetate banks as soon as possible once dredging is complete to reduce risk of erosion and speed up rehabilitation.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook CHEMICAL CONTROL OF VEGETATION 8.5 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT Aquatic herbicides are relatively quick, easy and cheap to use, and are therefore an attractive option to many farmers as a means of controlling vegetation. Spot treatment with specific herbicides may be preferable from a conservation viewpoint to some mechanical means of vegetation control. However, chemicals of any description can have a very significant effect on the biology of watercourses, even in minute quantities. Before using herbicides or any other chemicals in or near watercourses, carefully weigh up the drawbacks against the potential merits and economic savings.

Potential disadvantages • Algal blooms often result from nutrients released by decaying plant material. Once algae are established, a continuing and expensive herbicide programme may be necessary for control. • Broad-spectrum herbicides often kill off sensitive plants and open the ground for colonisation by competitive and aggressive species including noxious agricultural weeds, which in turn require further treatment. • Improper dosage may increase weed problems: some species regrow and spread rapidly after top kill. • Some aquatic herbicides are only effective in certain seasons and weather conditions. • Herbicides can be hazardous to humans and livestock as well as wildlife. Poisonous plants may become palatable but remain toxic so livestock must be excluded. • Aquatic fauna may be killed directly (e.g. snails by diquat) or indirectly through loss of food and shelter, deoxygenation or temporary changes in pH. The effect is worst in spring. • Habitat destruction is large-scale and rapid, but recovery slow as adjacent sources for recolonisation are often destroyed. • Herbicides and/or polluted water are readily washed downstream where it can adversely affect other users.

Checklist for use of herbicides • Use only selective herbicides rather than broad-spectrum, and choose whichever affects the least number of other species. • To lessen short-term deoxygenation effects, treat one-quarter to one third at a time, leaving two to three weeks before next treatment. • Read the label and follow manufacturers’ recommendations precisely. • Do not exceed recommended rate and note safe interval before use for irrigation, stock watering, grazing etc. • Spray in late July for most effective control of reeds and to protect nesting birds, unless directed otherwise by product recommendations. • Do not use herbicide on an SSSI or water flowing into one without approval of Scottish Natural Heritage. • Use of all chemicals in or near watercourses is strictly controlled by legislation. In line with the statutory MAFF code “Guidelines for the use of herbicides on weeds in or near watercourses and lakes”, SEPA expects to be consulted on, and its approval sought for, all direct non-aerial applications of herbicides into controlled waters. SEPA would also expect such consultation over all other non-aerial herbicide applications which pose a significant risk of contaminating ground and surface waters. Application forms are available from all SEPA regional offices. • Use only herbicides cleared for aquatic use. The following list of active ingredients is correct at the time of writing (January 2000) but the list of approved products for control of vegetation in or near watercourses is reviewed regularly. Product names also change. This list should not therefore be considered definitive - consult SEPA for advice and/or check with the current edition of the MAFF/HSE reference book 500, Pesticides.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook ACTIVE INGREDIENT EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT NAME(S) 2,4 D Amine Atlas 2,4-D; Dormone; MSS 2,4-D Amine Dalapon/dichlobenil mix Fydulan Dichlobenil Casoron G; Casoron GSR Diquat Reglone Diquat alginate Midstream Fosamine ammonium Krenite Glyphosate Barclay Gallup Amenity; Clayton Swath; Glyfonex; Glyphogan; Helosate; Roundup; Roundup A; Roundup Biactive; Roundup Biactive Dry; Roundup Pro; Roundup Pro Biactive; Spasor; Stetson Maleic hydrazide Regulox K; Royal MH 180 Terbutryn Clarosan 1FG; Algae kit; Blanc-kit

FURTHER READING

Nature Conservancy Council (1989) Nature Conservation and the Management of Drainage Channels. English Nature, Peterborough. 8.6 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH MANAGEMENT 8.6 FIELD DRAINAGE AND DITCH

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 9 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE 9.1 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE

What is the problem?

Deposition of fine sediments during past floods means that floodplains provide potentially rich agricultural land. Together with increasing pressures for agricultural intensification, this has resulted in many floodplains coming under intensive management. Rivers and burns allowed to flow naturally with scope to spill over in spate onto floodplains rarely cause catastrophic damage, but once high value crops and livestock are threatened, the intermittent flooding which was previously accepted as a fact of life - and is by definition a feature of floodplains - represents a problem. The most common reaction is to try to prevent or control flooding by measures such as river dredging, straightening or realignment to increase flow, or construction of embankments, often with unsuitable material. All these can lead to downstream problems of erosion and deposition, and can increase peak flows because floodplain storage is lost. Rich wildlife habitat is also lost, which is particularly serious for those plant and animal species which depend on periodic inundation, waterlogging and slow drying of floodplains.

What is the solution?

Choice of technique will be determined by the river gradient and existing channel pattern together with the availability of land in the riverside zone. Management options include:

1. MANAGED FLOODING The best approach from all points of view, and the only option which provides potential downstream benefits, is to accept occasional flooding and to adapt management of floodplain land to allow for this, which allows the river to maintain more gradual changes in levels and flow speed. Allowing the river to leave its channel at times of high flow reduces the river’s possible erosive power, and sediment is deposited rather than erosion being caused within the river channel. As restrictions on chemical use close to watercourses are tightened and financial incentives become more focused on conservation-oriented land management, less intensive agricultural management of floodplains becomes more attractive. Reversion to grass, which can be seasonally cut and/or grazed, spring cereal cropping (on land which floods mainly in winter) and planting up with woodland are all viable options. However, for most farmers, extensification requires a shift in attitudes away from maximising output towards rationalising costs per hectare.

Financial incentives for change in land-use intensity are controlled under IACS. At present these include non-rotational set-aside, and agri-environment scheme options for floodplain management, creation of wetlands and creation of species-rich grassland. Similar options are likely to be available within the rural stewardship scheme which will replace existing ESA and CPS schemes. In most cases, the approach to land management will be determined by the conditions of the subsidy and/or incentive regime being followed. For example, current CPS requirements for wetland creation include the need not just to allow flooding but to raise water levels so that the site is saturated for a significant part of the year. Conservation ideals - for example the use of native, species-rich grass and wildflower seed mixes - will have to be combined with agricultural realities such as the need for sufficient productive grassland on which to finish cattle. Guidelines on the management of land to meet SERAD requirements, to maintain some agricultural output, and benefit specific grassland and wetland species are available from SAC and FWAG advisers.

Additional flood storage can be created by the excavation of derelict (infilled) oxbows creating excellent wildlife and game habitat on a flood plain. Excavated material could be used to build set back floodbanks (see below). Any excavation carried out must be done sensitively to ensure that existing good habitats are not lost.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Benefits

• Greatly reduced risk of expensive losses caused by floods. • Land continues to be reasonably productive, although careful study of the IACS small print will be essential if whole-farm income is to be optimised. • Reduced inputs on land which is less intensively managed, including management input and variable costs. • May allow for a reduction in fixed costs if large enough areas are farmed less intensively. • Creation of habitats for sporting wildfowl. • Provision/protection of habitats for a wide range of species - plant and animal. • Stabilisation of banks by reduced intensity of land use reduces erosion. • A range of secondary habitats can be developed - e.g. trees and shrubs, depending on the farmer’s objectives. Drawbacks • Loss of farm income without sufficient adjustment to overall farm costs, particularly fixed costs. • Stocking density, duration and timing needs to be carefully monitored. Over-grazing all too easily destroys wildlife habitats and causes bankside erosion, but undergrazing can also lead to loss of species diversity by allowing rank vegetation to grow unchecked. • Wetter areas are prone to poaching by cattle when ground is waterlogged. 9.2 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE • Foot-rot can be a problem in sheep unable to withstand wet ground conditions. • Invasion of recently established grass swards on fertile land with aggressive arable weeds - limited options for herbicide control. • Reduced cropping options. • Although there are potentially very significant catchment scale benefits, these will not necessarily relate back to owners/managers of land on which flooding will be managed.

2. EMBANKMENTS AND FLOODBANKS

The traditional method of preventing flooding has long been to construct embankments adjacent to the river. If well-constructed, riverside embankments can be relatively effective in stopping water spilling over onto adjacent land, but in so doing, the natural floodplain is isolated from the river, flood storage capacity for the catchment is reduced, and valuable wildlife habitat is lost. More often than not, embankments are crudely made from spoil excavated from the river and its banks. Such spoil is often unstable and washed away at the first major flood. Any break in the embankments can lead to severe flash floods. Embankments immediately adjacent to watercourses should therefore be avoided if at all possible.

Conventional embankments (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

x y

x

y

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook 9.3 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE

Floodbanks set back from the watercourse are far more efficient in reducing risk of flood damage. They allow the development of a semi-natural floodplain, which can be used for grazing or forage conservation, and which has the potential to be extremely valuable in environmental terms.

Set-back floodbanks (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

Benefits of set-back embankments • Limitation of flooding to a known area of land. • Reduced risk of flooding elsewhere. • Relatively low cost of construction and maintenance. • Durability of floodbanks compared to frequent in-stream engineering work. • Floodplain area can be used for much of the year, and may provide a useful buffer zone, helping prevent pollution of watercourses by agro-chemicals or farm wastes used in nearby arable operations. Nutrient deposition in the form of river-borne sediments will help keep the area which floods fertile. • Opportunity to create valuable additional wildlife habitat, e.g. species-rich grassland or riparian woodland. • Potential financial support/encouragement from agri-environment schemes. Drawbacks of set-back embankments • Reduction in productivity of land within the floodbanks. • Restriction on intensity and type of farming activity that can be undertaken within floodbanks. • Set-back floodbanks may be difficult for individual landowners to adopt effectively, as it is best applied over long stretches of riverside land on both sides of the river.

3. PARTIAL DREDGING (see 8 - Drainage and ditches)

Deepening of channels to speed water flow is generally a short-term solution to a flooding problem. Dredging must be carried out with extreme care, and limited to the sections where it will have most effect. Where intervention is unavoidable, partial dredging is the preferred option.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook 4. CONSTRUCTION OF RELIEF CHANNELS

Relief channels allow flood water to by-pass land which needs to be protected in times of flood. They are environmentally favoured because the original watercourse is left relatively intact, while the relief channel creates new habitats. The result may be the loss of a large area of floodplain since land is needed for both the new channel and the existing watercourse. Whether dry, wet or permanent water, or a combination of all these along their length, relief channels should not be constructed without expert advice from an individual or organisation with a sound understanding and practical experience of channel management (see further information and advice).

Relief channel (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994) 9.4 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE

5. CHANNEL REALIGNMENT

Straightening of channels, for example by cutting off meanders, increases the local gradient and flow speed of the watercourse, and may alleviate local flooding. However, increasing the speed of flow will provoke greater erosion, with potentially serious impacts downstream. Channel realignment can also destroy in-stream and bankside vegetation. Channel realignment should therefore only ever be considered in exceptional circumstances, and only then after seeking specialist advice.

Further reading

Environment Agency (1996) Policy and practice for the protection of Floodplains, Environment Agency, Bristol

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 10 USING WATER WISELY 10.1 USING WATER WISELY

In much of Scotland, and in most years, rainfall supplies more than sufficient to meet the water needs of even the most thirsty land or crops. However, even a short period of water stress can have a significant impact on yield and quantity of high value vegetable crops (including potatoes) and soft fruit. These crops are typically grown in the east of Scotland on light, sandy free-draining soils with relatively low water-holding capacity, which are also subject to rapid run-off. On these farms, irrigation equipment is a worthwhile, if not essential, investment.

Abstraction by landowners with access to a watercourse is unregulated and unlimited for all watercourses in Scotland except for the West Peffer Burn in East Lothian, and the Ordie Burn in Perthshire, where control orders have been introduced to restrict abstraction.

Environmental problems arise if water abstraction occurs when river levels are already low - for example during hot, dry spells, when crop requirements are high. Upstream farmers are in a preferential position when overall supplies are limited, and burns may be very low or even sucked dry by the time they reach lower areas. As water is abstracted and river levels fall, aquatic and semi- aquatic plants and animals lose their habitat. Temperatures within the burns increase and dissolved oxygen levels are reduced, causing mortality to aquatic species. Furthermore, the run-off from the field crops may well contain both fertilisers and pesticides; these combined with other pollutants entering the watercourse (e.g. outflow from human water treatment plants) will be concentrated at high levels as less water is available in the watercourse for dilution.

GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WATER ABSTRACTION

Farmers using river water for irrigation can take a number of measures to reduce water use at times when rivers are already low, and hence limit environmental damage. A little forethought and careful planning will also help cut costs.

• Use stored water e.g. field reservoirs wherever possible. • Irrigate in the evenings or early morning to minimise evaporation losses and maximise uptake by plants. • Locate rain-guns so as to minimise wastage of water which misses target crops. • Match application rate and droplet size to soil and crop type. • Use soil moisture monitoring equipment and follow specific crop guidelines to avoid over-irrigating, capping of the soil surface and consequent wasted water, risk of run-off and soil erosion. • Co-operate with other farmers in same catchment - try to ensure that burns are not sucked completely dry, perhaps by drawing up a rota of irrigation times with neighbours. • Respect the needs of wildlife which depend on the river and associated habitat. If you are not sure what species exist in your local burn or river, and what their requirements are, seek advice from specialists. Consider having a survey carried out if information is not already available.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SECTION 11 GRAVEL EXTRACTION

Gravel is usually extracted from rivers and burns in an attempt to increase the flow of the river by deepening or widening the channel, to deepen shallow zones for fish movement, or simply to provide gravel for road or other building work. Movement of gravel within a river system is a vital natural process. Gravel extraction will therefore inevitably have knock-on effects and can be extremely damaging, resulting in increased erosion in other parts of the river and causing direct disturbance and damage to aquatic environments.

Upsetting the width:depth ratio of the watercourse will result in increased erosion elsewhere, both upstream and downstream. Areas from which gravel has been extracted rapidly refill as the river tries to restore its balance. Gravel also often constitutes the coarse ‘armouring’ layer of the river bed. Once removed, the fine sediments underneath may erode very rapidly, and then be deposited elsewhere

11.1 GRAVEL EXTRACTION GRAVEL 11.1 downstream. Release of fine sediment into watercourses can cause serious pollution. Fish are particularly affected, as their gills become clogged up with the sediment. The sediment can also damage invertebrate habitats and spawning beds.

Removal of gravel at any time may destroy spawning beds, and could wipe out a whole season’s potential young fish supply. Also, any emergent vegetation developing on the river bed will be lost, and recolonisation will be slowed by river deepening and loss of bed material.

GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING THE IMPACT OF GRAVEL EXTRACTION

• Always consult SEPA for pollution prevention advice and the local District Salmon Fishery Board for advice on protecting areas important for fish before extracting gravel.

• Consult local planning authority to determine any requirement for planning permission.

• Limit the quantity of gravel extracted to the absolute minimum required to achieve your desired objective.

• Extraction undertaken little and often is preferable to one major extraction event.

• Dry surface gravel (i.e. above the water-line) is preferable for extraction to layers of gravel laid down over time, disturbance of which can result in significant river-bed erosion problems.

• Carefully dug, shallow extraction areas with graded edges are preferable to deep pits with abrupt edges which are likely to increase risk of erosion.

• Think carefully before extracting gravel from rivers where salmon are present - removal of in-river gravel to surface farm roads and gateways can destroy fish eggs and deprive fish of spawning grounds. Take particular care to avoid extraction during salmonid spawning, egg incubation and hatching (late autumn to spring) and during fish activity.

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook GLOSSARY OF TERMS GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Abstraction removal of water from a watercourse, usually for irrigation Armour a coarse, stable surface layer of bed sediment Berm shallow marginal zone of a two-stage river channel above low-flow water level, created by bank excavation Biodiversity biological richness, including species, genetic and ecosystem variety Braided (watercourse) a watercourse where channels divide and recombine irregularly Buffer strip/zone area adjacent to the watercourse, left uncultivated - ideally fenced off Catchment the total area of land that drains into a river Channel the course of a river or burn, including the bed and banks CPS the Countryside Premium Scheme Corridor (river) the river bank and land immediately adjacent to it, including the floodplain Culvert artificial structure, often concrete, for carrying water underground or under bridges Debris dam coarse woody debris blocking the channel and causing water to pond back Deflector a structure projecting out into the channel to deflect the current. Emergent vegetation plants rooted below water or along the water’s edge Embankment artificial flood bank built for flood defence purposes, which can be flush with the channel or set back on the floodplain ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area Faggoting method of vegetative revetment using bundles of branches secured to eroding banks Flash flood sudden incident, with very rapid rise of water levels Floodplain area of land over which a watercourse will spill in spate, i.e. periodically inundated part of a river valley floor Gabion (basket) wire baskets filled with rocks, used to form bank protection structures Geotextile fabric membrane use for bank stabilisation Glide a narrow section of smooth flowing water Gravel bar deposit of coarse sediment ‘Hard’ engineering/ techniques involving heavy engineering and use of non-vegetative materials revetment Hydrofoil submerged structure used to deflect the current In-stream that part of the channel covered by water in normal flow conditions Marginal bed river bed at the edge of the watercourse, submerged in shallow water, may emerge at times of low flow Meander a bend in the river formed by natural river processes e.g erosion and deposition Metastable dynamic but stable, or always in a state of temporary equilibrium Mid-channel bars gravel or other shallow deposits in the middle of straight sections of watercourse Partial dredging dredging from one bank only, along only short sections of river reach. Poaching trampling by livestock Point bar gravel or other shallow sediment deposition on the inside of bends

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Pool discrete areas of deep water, typically formed on the outside of meanders Oxbow lake a depression in the land left when a meander is cut off by natural river processes. May be wet or dry, and may hold flood water Reach a length of an individual river which shows broadly similar physical characteristics Realignment reshaping a channel (often by straightening) to speed up flows and reduce flood risk Regime the natural condition of a river Relief channel adjoining the main channel, and linked to it at both ends, creating an extra route for flood water Reprofiling reshaping a bank to improve its stability and potential habitat value (usually by reducing the slope and making the shape asymmetric) Revetment bank strengthening Riffle a shallow, fast flowing section of water with a distinctly disturbed surface forming

GLOSSARY OF TERMS upstream-facing unbroken standing waves, usually over a gravel substrate Riparian or, or on, the banks of a river Rip rap angular stone placed to protect eroding banks River corridor land to either side of the main river channel, including associated floodplain(s) Salmonid the family of fish species that includes the salmon, trout and char Set back (distant) embankment which allows flooding over a limited area (e.g. three to six times the embankment width if the watercourse channel) Side bars gravel or other shallow deposits along the edges of straight sections of river channels ‘Soft’ (engineering/ environmentally friendly, often using vegetative material revetment) SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest Spiling method of vegetative revetment using willow branches woven horizontally around vertical willow stakes Spur a structure projecting out into the river channel to deflect the current. Toe (of the riverbank) where the riverbed meets the bank Vane a submerged structure used to deflect the current Vegetative revetment use of plant material (can be live or dead) for bank strengthening and protection

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook SOURCES OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE SOURCES OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

There are various voluntary schemes which offer financial encouragement to farmers to restore, improve and sympathetically manage river-related habitat. Levels of payment, and indeed availability of the schemes, are subject to ongoing review - at the time of writing, the main environmental subsidy schemes (ESAs and CPS) are due to be replaced by the new rural stewardship scheme. Although details have yet to be confirmed, it is highly likely that incentives will continue to be increasingly geared towards low-intensity land management, especially in areas where potential wildlife benefits are high. This invariably includes river corridor land. SAC, FWAG and SERAD can provide up to date details of all schemes on offer. Comprehensive details of IACS and implications of scheme entry for agricultural subsidies are available from SERAD.

Scheme and Area available Details Requirements Administering Body Countryside All Scotland except Discretionary capital and Whole farm scheme, 5-year Premium Scheme ESAs annual payments for creation minimum commitment. Keen (CPS) - due to and sympathetic management competition for very limited finish 2000 of wetlands, water margins funding means applications and flood plains. usually need to include work to satisfy all 5 local priorities Environmentally Designated areas Tier 1 hectarage payments 10-year commitment Sensitive Areas reward farmers for complying (ESAs) - due to with basic environmental finish 2000 conditions. Optional Tier 2 capital and hectarage payments offer additional reward to help offset costs of habitat creation and enhancement. Farm Woodland Forestry Authority Grants to encourage planting Applicants must be running an Premium Scheme of new woodland on arable agricultural business, planting or improved agricultural land, must be to Woodland Grant or unimproved land within Scheme standards. Land to be LFAs planted must have been in agricultural use for 3 years prior to application. Min. 1ha Landscape and All Scotland Discretionary capital Projects must fall into one of nature payments rarely exceeding SNH’s priority categories, which conservation grant 50% of total costs for habitat vary between time and regions (SNH local offices, enhancement work, including often in production of conservation conjunction with mgt. Plans local authorities) Local area Specific river Financial assistance towards Schemes must meet objectives initiatives e.g. catchments/ specified eligible works e.g. of funding body Tweed Foundation, project areas fencing and habitat Grampian Rivers improvement Project, Wild Rivers Demonstration and Advisory Project Rural Stewardship All Scotland Successor to CPS and ESAs Applicants must comply with basic (SERAD) - due for offering discretionary capital environmental conditions. 5-year introduction payments for range of habitat minimum commitment. summer 2000 creation and sympathetic management including wetlands, water margins and flood plains Woodland Grant Scotland wide Capital grants and annual Min. size 0.25 ha, must comply Scheme (Forestry payments for tree planting with Forestry Authority standards Authority) and woodland management

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook FURTHER INFORMATION AND ADVICE FURTHER INFORMATION AND ADVICE

The main organisations offering information and advice on different aspects of farm and watercourse management are listed below. Independent consultants may be listed under ‘Environmental Consultants’ in Yellow Pages.

Organisation Services/skills Contact details - note local offices listed in phone book Association of Salmon Local DSFBs for each salmon/sea Association of Salmon Fishery Fishery Boards trout river in Scotland provide free Boards advice and sites visits on protection Tel: 0131 343 2433 of fishing interests in watercourses Farming and Wildlife Advisory Specialist and general advice on FWAG Scotland, Group (FWAG) conservation, riparian habitats and The Rural Centre, agri-environmental issues. First visit West Mains, Ingliston, free, thereafter fees charged. Newbridge, Midlothian EH28 8NZ Tel: 0131 472 4080 Forestry Authority Offer grants for woodland Forestry Commission, planting and management Edinburgh EH12 7AT Tel: 0131 334 0303 Grampian FWAG Rivers Project Promotes pollution control and Alison Espie, offers advice on conservation work Grampian FWAG, directly linked to habitat protection Thainstone Business Centre, and enhancement alongside Inverurie AB51 5TB Rivers Dee, Deverson and Don and Tel: 01467 629338 their tributaries North East of Scotland Rivers Embryonic project working towards Julie Tuck, Project Officer Project offering advice on sustainable river Planning and Development, management, possibly with funding Aberdeenshire Council, Woodhill House, Westburn Road, Aberdeen AB16 5GB Tel: 01224 664722 River Restoration Centre Promotes and offers specialist Silsoe Campus, advice on benefits, concepts and Silsoe, practical aspects of river restoration Beds MK45 4DT as an integral part of sustainable Tel: 01525 863341 water management, both to subscribers and on fee basis. Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) Agricultural advice, including 23 advisory offices co-ordinated by: fertiliser management and soil erosion. Conservation and ecology SAC North Region, department specialise in surveys Drummondhill, and monitoring. Specialist Stratherrick Road, commercial advice on soil erosion, Inverness IV2 4JZ pollution control etc. available Tel: 01463 233266 from SAC Environmental. SAC South Region, 57 High Street, Lanark ML11 7LF Tel: 01555 662562 SAC Conservation and Ecology Department, Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW Tel: 01292 525294 SAC Environmental Tel: 0131 535 4000 or 01292 520331 SAC Conservation Services Specialist advice on conservation Manager: Gillian McKnight and agri-environment schemes. Tel: 01463 233266

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook Scottish Environment Protection Statutory pollution control authority National pollution hotline Agency (SEPA) in Scotland, undertakes surveys and 0800 807060 offers advice re. watercourse management, especially re. water Head Office: quality. Erskine Court, Castle Business Park, Stirling FK9 4TR Tel: 01786 457700 North Region HQ, Graesser House, Fodderty Way, Dingwall Business Park Dingwall IV15 9XB Tel: 01349 862021 East Region HQ, Clearwater House, Heriot Watt Research Park, Avenue North, Riccarton, Edinburgh EH14 4AP Tel: 0131 449 7296 West Region HQ, 5 Redwood Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PP Tel: 01535 574200 Scottish Executive Rural Affairs Responsibility for legal and technical Pentland House, Department (SERAD) matters relating to fisheries 47 Robb’s Loan, management, pollution control, Edinburgh EH14 1TY FURTHER INFORMATION AND ADVICE FURTHER INFORMATION flood defence, water supply and Tel: 0131 224 6227 sewarage. Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) Government’s statutory conservation 12 Hope Terrace, advisers in Scotland. Specialist free Edinburgh EH9 2AS advice on environmental aspects of Tel: 0131 447 4784 river engineering, main input usually limited to statutory role relating to designation and protection of SSSIs, SACs, NNRs and GCR sites Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) Scottish Wildlife Sites Action Cramond House, Programme has identified over 2000 Kirk Cramond, sites of conservation value, for which Cramond Glebe Road, advice is available free of charge with Edinburgh EH4 2NS the aim of improving conservation Tel: 0131 312 7765 status and management. River Valleys Officer advises on management River Valleys Officer - issues relating to major river systems. Peter Pollard Tel: 01224 488550 Tweed Foundation Charitable trust undertaking Duncan Glen, scientific research and management Tweed Foundation, of all freshwater fish within the Drygrange Steading, Melrose Tweed catchment. Tel: 01896 848271 Tweed Rivers Heritage Project Partnership of statutory and Tweed Forum, non-statutory bodies promoting wise Drygrange Steading, and sustainable use of natural, built Melrose TD6 9DJ and cultural heritage of River Tweed Tel: 01896 848271 and its tributaries through free advice on integrated management and planning. Wild Rivers Demonstration and Demonstration sites, events and Steven Bell, Advisory Project (WRDAP) free advice on natural river Rosewall Cottage, management in rural Stirling and Aberuthven, Tayside (note: current project Auchterarder PH3 1HB funding expires November 2000) Tel: 01764 664671 Worldwide Fund for Nature Encourages and facilitates 8 The Square, (WWF) Scotland development of environmentally Aberfeldy, friendly river management policy Perthshire PH15 2DD and practice in Scotland. Tel: 01887 820449

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook