Electronic Media and the Feminine in the National Security Regime
The Manchurian Candidate before and after 9/11
By Mark E. Wildermuth
Abstract: The 1962 and 2004 versions satire of McCarthyism and as a suc- gate the sexist epistemic informing those of The Manchurian Candidate, although cessful critique of the hypocritical cold states’ politics and thereby unwittingly critical of the oppressive national secu- war consensus that could not sustain a support the ideology informing regimes rity states of their times, fail to inter- lucid ideological distinction between that, as Iris Marion Young indicates, rogate the sexist epistemic informing the security regimes of the East and typify “a logic of masculinist protec- those states. They thereby unwittingly those of the West (see also Krajewski; tion” that reduces citizens to the roles of support the ideology informing regimes Rogin). However, in the wake of such helpless women and children (223–25). that, as Iris Marion Young indicates, studies as Robert Corber’s In the Name Both films revive a sexist trope that Lynn typify “a logic of masculinist protec- of National Security, which demonstrat- Spigel and Jeffrey Sconce identify in the tion” that reduces citizens to the roles ed how the cold war consensus linked postwar era; one that, as Sconce says, of helpless women and children. Both communism to internal security threats equates “femininity, electronic presence, films revive a sexist trope that as Jef- such as women, gays, and other under- and the televisual” with “oblivion” and frey Sconce says, equates “femininity, represented social groups, attention has a “loathsome passivity” associated with electronic presence, and the televisual” shifted to the film’s gender subtexts. brainwashing and control of the (irra- with “oblivion,” and a “loathsome pas- Hence, Tony Jackson’s 2000 study con- tional and feminized) masses (153–54). sivity” associated with brainwashing cludes that the film “imagines mascu- Both films argue that electronic media and control of the (feminized) masses. linized women and feminized men to are linked to the feminine as a dangerous By embedding itself in countercultur- be the real source of cultural failure” (6) subversive force that configures signs as al rhetorics that express concern for in concurrence with misogynistic cul- disembodied, self-referential icons that the impact of electronic media on the tural attitudes popularized after World can manipulate the subconscious minds masses, this trope disguises the militant War II by Philip Wylie and others. of the masses—using a feminized infor- antifeminist thrust of its logic and finds Likewise, Kevin Ohi’s 2005 queer stud- matics that stands in stark contrast to renewed life in visual representations ies approach to the film points to the masculinized norms of communication that are not as subversive as they seem. threatening nature of femininity and that link the sign with the objectified eroticism in this film that argues that referent. Keywords: 9/11, Cold War film, femi- even “heterosexual flirtation is [. . .] Although the misogynistic trope’s nism and the media, informatics, the potentially indistinguishable from mind vigor is evident in the first film, its posthuman, security regimes. control” (163). renewal and intensity are equally clear Indeed, the film reinforces sexist in the second—a product of a new ince its release in 1962, John tropes that denigrate the feminine and post–9/11 security regime culture that, Frankenheimer’s The Manchu- the feminization of mass culture, as does as James Berger says in a recent PMLA Srian Candidate has been hailed its successor, Jonathan Demme’s 2004 article, often denigrates multivalency by scholars such as Stephen Whitfield version of The Manchurian Candidate. in its postapocalyptic rhetoric in which and Margot Henrikson as an effective Both films, although critical of the poten- “the world of semantical and moral tially oppressive national security states ambiguity has [. . .] been swept away” Copyright © 2008 Heldref Publications of their respective times, fail to interro- because the “logic and desire of terror- 121 122 JPF&T—Journal of Popular Film and Television ism and antiterrorism” seek “to restore in the twentieth century. Spigel shows War II, the world consists of “increas- [. . .] perfect correspondence between that Wylie’s 1942 book Generation of ingly schizophrenic subjectivities. [. . .] word and thing” to assert cultural hege- Vipers indicated that “American society Where there was once ‘meaning,’ ‘his- mony (343). Moreover, as Berger argues was suffering from an ailment called tory,’ and a solid realm of ‘signifieds,’ in After the End, such postapocalyptic ‘momism’” [a cultural motif cited as there is now only a haunted world of cultural tropes also typically denigrate a major influence on The Manchurian vacant and shifting signifiers” where feminism and femininity: “post-apoca- Candidate by post-1980s film scholars] “‘the sign is everything but stands for lypse in fiction” sometimes “causes a in which “American women had become nothing’” (171; emphasis in original). reversion to a kind of natural aristoc- overbearing, domineering mothers who Thus, after the war, there emerged racy, in which such decadent luxuries turned their sons and husbands into large implications, epistemologically as feminism, democracy, and social weak-kneed fools” (51). Moreover, they and culturally, for the confusion of justice must be jettisoned in favor of “had somehow gained control of the air- electronic (mass-mediated) space and more natural values more suited to waves,” using radio to control the minds reality spaces, as well as the gendered survival” (8). Moreover, the “problem- of the now feminized masses (51). In the boundaries that were associated with atic position of [. . .] women’s sexuality 1955 edition of his book, Wylie claimed them, implications reflected in many is an enduring feature of apocalyptic a new menace, television, “would [. aspects of contemporary culture. The discourse,” for “there is an important . .] turn men into female-dominated blurring of electronic and reality spaces, strand of apocalyptic imagining that dupes” (52). It is therefore not surpris- plus the deconstruction of the public and seeks to destroy the world expressly ing that Wylie, as Michael Paul Rogin the private, have become major motifs in order to eliminate female sexuality” says, would eventually lay the blame of in the cultural schemas of postmodern- (11). Thus, this context helps explain McCarthyism at the feet of the momist ism. As Sconce shows, this is evident the survival of this misogynistic trope in televisual conspiracy (243). in Jean Baudrillard’s descriptions of our culture despite the feminist critique Wylie’s philosophy, however, as Spi- the implosive quality of social space of sexism in media. By embedding gel also shows, was only the tip of a in postmodern life, where the exterior itself in countercultural rhetorics that larger mediated cultural iceberg. It was and the interior no longer can be distin- express concern for the impact of media a widely held notion during the 1940s guished (182). This is also discernible on the masses, this trope disguises the and 1950s that the new electronic media, in postmodern conceptualizations of antifeminist thrust of its logic and finds and television in particular, “threatened informatics, as described by N. Kath- renewed life in visual representations to contaminate masculinity, to make erine Hayles. For Hayles, postmodern that are not as subversive as they seem. men sick with the ‘disease’ of feminin- informatics leads to the “denaturing” ity” (50–51). Linked to this “disease” of human subjects, the core of what she Misogyny and Mass Media in The is the larger cultural trope identified and others term the posthuman—the Manchurian Candidate (1962) by Huyssen that extended, according deconstruction of the human subject on Before the rise of the 9/11 regime’s to Spigel, into the postwar era: “Mass the grounds that the main elements of postapocalyptic culture, the misogynist amusements are thought to encourage human experience (language, context, trope was nurtured in earlier instan- passivity, and they have often been space, and time) are cultural constructs tiations of media cultures that similarly represented in terms of penetration, rather than natural creations (265). denigrated the masses and the feminine. consumption, and escape” (51). Hence, Baudrillard’s theory that human beings Andreas Huyssen argues that mass cul- “Broadcasting [. . .] was shown to now live in a culture of simulation, ture was often gendered as feminine in disrupt the normative patterns of patri- says Hayles, parallels similar posthu- the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth archal (high) culture and to turn ‘real man conceptualizations of space where centuries with the purpose of denigrat- men’ into passive homebodies” (51). “context is seen as a construction to ing the mass culture industry. Thus, As Sconce has shown, these con- be manipulated rather than a preexist- the “fear of the masses [. . .] is always cerns about the impact of the media ing condition” (274). “Like cyberspace, the fear of woman, a fear [. . .] of the on human behavior link cultural theory [Baudrillard’s conception of] the hyper- unconscious, of sexuality, of the loss with popular entertainment in the cul- real [simulation] presupposes a radical of identity, and stable ego boundaries tures of late-modern and postmodern erosion of context” leading to a dena- in the mass” (52). Nevertheless, with society. Sconce shows that the impact tured reconfiguration of spaces (275– the coming of postmodernism, “such of mass media (electronic presence) on 76). In short, a new anxiety emerges in notions belong to another age” for after our culture is enormous; indeed, “post- postwar informatics over the denaturing “the feminist critique of [. . .] sexism modern [cultural] theory is in itself of context, language, time, and space in television” and other media, and simply another in a long series of occult that adds to the isolation and alienation with the political and social successes fantasies inspired by electronic media.” of the human subject that must struggle of women, “the old rhetoric has lost its Hence where “there was once the ‘real,’ to cohere. As Hayles asks, what do persuasive power” (62). there is now only the electronic gen- these perceptions of our mediated age Be that as it may, the trope, as Spi- eration and circulation of almost super- tell us “if not that the disappearance of gel’s scholarship indicates, did survive natural simulations” (170). After World a stable, universal context is the context Electronic Media and the Feminine 123 for postmodern culture?” (272; empha- ence is sometimes composed of garden feminized media to exert control over sis in original). club ladies and sometimes Communist the masses. The scene pointedly illus- Anxiety over denaturing shapes the servicemen. It is the perfect place to trates the medium’s coercive tendencies paranoid sexist rhetoric of The Manchu- construct assassins—without contexts, as the Senator’s assault on the secretary rian Candidate. Its sexist trope that links without physically stable boundaries, is presented as a bizarre disruption of the feminine with mass media reflects a how can one define oneself as a sub- physical space. In the hearing room, fear that in such a mediated culture, ject, or resist? The American soldiers Johnny initially appears to be a small boundaries of public and private, real are oblivious to referents and contexts; figure among many as he assails the and unreal, masculine and feminine will they sit calmly while Yen-lo instructs secretary, but on the TV screen, in the disappear along with the now denatured Raymond Shaw (Laurence Harvey) to middle ground of the shot, he is the and similarly deconstructed figures of kill fellow soldiers before the audience only person visible in close-up, and he space, context, and identity. The film’s of totalitarian enemies disguised by clearly dominates the scene. The secre- conceptualization of women reflects the Yen-lo’s brainwashing techniques as tary is seen only in long shot on the TV denaturing process—as purveyors of the benign matriarchs attending a lecture screen from a higher angle that makes collapse of these distinctions, women on hydrangeas. him look impotent—his voice is barely “unnaturally” usurp the masculine pub- The brainwashing scenes show audible against Johnny, who is shouting lic sphere via a nonrepresentational how easily behavior can be manipu- into the microphone, “There will be no discourse that, like the brainwashing lated when the sign’s reference has been covering up,” addressing the mass audi- techniques of their Asiatic Commu- destroyed and, with it, meaning, in a ence via the electronic medium—unlike nist doubles, allows them to subvert denatured space among denatured sub- the secretary who still addresses only the consciousness by appealing to the jects where information and identity are the audience in the room. The entire subconscious mind. They replace mas- made infinitely malleable. Moreover, it presentation is schizoid: nothing on the culinized referential public discourse foreshadows the film’s examination of TV screen in the room looks like the with a demonized, posthuman semiotic television as a coercive medium. Brain- space of the hearing room itself. of mediated totalitarianism. The sign is washing and television are connect- A shot of Mrs. Iselin precedes this emptied of its meaning to serve the pur- ed when Yen-lo says that the “bizarre scene; she looms in the foreground, poses of a totalitarian code, a monopoly tobacco substitutes” in the American anticipating her husband’s carefully of meaning; as Baudrillard says, “The soldiers’ cigarettes make them effec- orchestrated words about Communist sign [. . .] approaches its true structural tive mind-control devices because they conspirators in the government and limit which is to refer back only to other “[t]aste good—like a cigarette should,” subsequently hustling him out of the signs. All reality then becomes the place an allusion to the then current commer- room. The point is clear: a medium that of [. . .] manipulation, of a structural cial for Winston cigarettes. The allusion denatures space, time, and context can simulation” (128). The self-referential to commercials is fitting because, as render information into something infi- sign becomes the basis of the misogy- Hayles says, commercial interruptions nitely malleable and thereby manipula- nist trope in The Manchurian Candi- and disjunctive information flow create tive because it exists independently of a date of 1962 that associates it with the the impression in the televisual realm physical referent, a stable frame of ref- denatured, oppressive informatics of that information exists independent of erence, and anything like an objective femininity and totalitarianism. any context stabilizing reference and truth. Images and the signs they medi- The trope appears throughout Fran- meaning. Yen-lo creates such a dena- ate have primacy over things; hence the kenheimer’s film, and its presence tured space where men such as Bennett danger. It all happens under the auspic- can be illustrated with select scenes Marco (Frank Sinatra) and Raymond es of Mrs. Iselin who is linked in several that establish the critique of feminized lose any capacity for rational thought or ways with the totalitarian menace. She media. It is evident in the brainwash- self-control under the influence of the has, after all, usurped the masculine ing scenes in Manchuria that link the seemingly benevolent maternal Com- space of public rational discourse with feminine, mass media, and mind control munists. the “unnatural” (or denatured) asser- via multiple cuts that show how men In a similarly significant scene later tion of her influence via television that can be manipulated when contexts can in the film, the feminized media’s role allows her to manipulate perception as be constructed and deconstructed at in deconstructing space and context deftly as Yen-lo manipulates the minds will as the conscious mind, identity, becomes even more evident when Ray- of her son and his comrades. In later and conscience are subverted through mond’s stepfather, Senator Johnny Iselin scenes, she scripts all of Johnny’s per- the mediated manipulation of the sub- (James Gregory), under the guidance of formances to manipulate the media and conscious. Nothing is stable in this his wife (Angela Lansbury), challenges the American people in preparation for denatured space created by the jarring the Secretary of Defense whom Ben her bid for power that she claims will cuts; Yen-lo of the Pavlov Institute, the now serves as liaison. Here, a frame- make “martial law look like anarchy” architect of this brainwashing, appears within-the-frame technique establishes when her brainwashed son kills the in both a lecture hall and in a hotel with the feminine menace even more clearly presidential candidate and Johnny takes a women’s garden club; here the audi- as Mrs. Iselin symbolizes the power of his place—after making the speech that 124 JPF&T—Journal of Popular Film and Television she says will rally a “nation of televi- of momism that Spigel describes: “the signs to strike back. Ben takes control; sion viewers into hysteria” that will threat of femininity could just as eas- holding a false deck before Raymond, sweep her and her husband into the ily be associated with the foreign [. . .] he seems to emphasize the emptiness of White House. threat of both European and American the feminized sign by underscoring its Even the female protagonists in the modern art” (279). cheap serialized quality, its utter lack of film are associated with brainwashing Indeed, both Rosie and Josie, Ray- substance. They are so many cue cards techniques and self-referential signs. mond’s lover (Leslie Parrish), are linked like the ones Johnny uses, the ones that This is made clear in the scene on to such mind-control motifs. Josie come into view after Ben remembers the train where Ben and Rosie (Janet temporarily undoes the control of the “that fat cat [Yen-lo] standin’ there Leigh) meet for the first time. Ben is mother, for example, by wearing a cos- like Fu Manchu” and says that the red in the dining car where Rosie observes tume of the red queen, which is associ- queen associated with the mother is the his nervous attempts to smoke a ciga- ated with the brainwashing technique “second key” to clearing the mechanism rette—which leads him to seek privacy involving his “dearly loved and dearly in Raymond’s mind. It is thus that Ben in a passageway between two train cars. hated mother,” as Yen-lo describes her. says “this is me, Marco talking,” and he But it is a strangely configured space; Nevertheless, these women are not seen and fifty-two queens are “tearin’ up the Ben presses himself up against a wall as menacing as the mother, as they do joint” and taking out all of the links via in the foreground, while in the back- help the male protagonists—but not this masculine discourse that puts these ground, the landscape is a furious blur because, as film critic Bruce Krajewski icons and their feminized controllers through another frame, a window. It is avers, they represent an alternative to into their place. Yes, the film suggests, as if we see an objective correlative of everyday discourse used to brainwash these men may live in a world of empty the turmoil of Ben’s inner being—as if them (228). It is not everyday discourse signs, but they can play along with it, this image within the image, like the that brainwashes men; rather, it is the using its own tactic of denatured simu- TV screen earlier, represents a window use of mediated icons and symbols to lation to resist. on two worlds, the inner and the outer, subvert reason through self-referential Thus, Raymond pretends in the end a violation of this man’s need to find semiotics that replace the icon’s capaci- to play the role of his mother’s dupe privacy and stability that cannot be real- ty to point unambiguously to things and and simulates conformity to her will, ized in this world where contexts are as ideas. Thus, Rosie and Josie help the but assassinates the Iselins instead of fluid as the landscape outside. male protagonists when they increase the presidential candidate. Afterward, Rosie casually invades this already Ben’s (and the audience’s) awareness of he calmly dons the Medal of Honor, deconstructed space as she steps into the self-referential semiotics of the sub- which he now has earned. He thereby the frame with Ben and associates her- conscious in a less threatening context reasserts the hegemony of the mascu- self with this denatured environment that later allows Ben—with the help of linist sign—the medal speaks the truth by positioning herself squarely in the an Army Intelligence psychiatrist—to now unambiguously; the sign reflects frame of the exterior world that is his analyze its methods and thus resist the heroic significance of his sacrifice interior, offering him a cigarette (a Win- the technique. Although both women realized in his suicide and eulogized ston?) and further violating the sanctity are brainwashers, they clearly accept a by Ben. But Ben’s speech raises ques- of space by pointing out “Maryland is more traditional role than Mrs. Iselin, tions about the long-term efficacy of a beautiful state” as the struggling, even though they physically resemble Raymond’s gesture. Ben loses control logocentric Ben says, “This is Dela- her, as if they were serialized signs in while delivering it, and, dissolving into ware.” She holds her denatured ground her feminized semiotic. They are the tears like a stereotypical woman, can and says, “Nevertheless, Maryland is a key to establishing how the links work give only irrational utterance of the beautiful state.” Her frequent puns (she via their playful, erotic invasion of the body as he sobs, “Hell, hell!” Ben and tells him anyone in railroads is really in male territorial space that does not lead Raymond have not erased the larger the “railway line”), non sequiturs (she to public hegemony as in Mrs. Iselin’s cultural threat; the mediated mecha- says she was one of the original Chinese effort to acquire power. She, in turn, nism of oppression can still be used laborers who worked on the railroad) can only be stopped by Ben’s efforts to to destroy men like Ben and Raymond and repetitions (used to brainwash him provide Raymond with a rationale and who are the only characters in the film into remembering her name, address, means to reestablish his masculine role that fully understand the nature of the and telephone number) all ally her with at the end of the film when he destroys evil they combated. the feminine menace, as does her pro- her and makes the icon of the Medal of fession. She is “production assistant Honor a true sign of masculine valor A New Security Regime Film for a man named Justin who had two and integrity rather than a self-referen- Revives the Trope hits last season,” and she lives near the tial figure enabling the enemy to deploy As if in rejoinder to this pessimistic “Museum of Modern Art—of which I Raymond as an assassin. ending, the 2004 remake reiterates the am a ‘Tea Privileges’ member.” This Thus, the male protagonists, Ray- misogynist trope in a context where the dialogue links her to the media culture mond and Ben, use what they learn only evident change is in the variety of industry (music) and another aspect about the empire of self-referential information technologies to be associ- Electronic Media and the Feminine 125 ated with the feminine. At the center of hero worship of Raymond. Amidst the its whirring landscape, create the same the maelstrom is once again, the moth- cacophony of images, two immediately bizarre, denaturing effect. Ben first sees er, now Senator Eleanor Prentiss Shaw stand out: a shot of Al holding a televi- not Rosie but the civilian contractor (Meryl Streep), who has not remarried sion with the image of his own head on who betrayed him in Iraq. The man but instead is free to dominate Raymond the screen; and images of Iraqi women, disappears, and Rosie, peeking from and the other men in her life with the one holding an enormous red tomato behind the train seats (and dressed in help of information systems that range and praising the “revolutionary science dark apparel recalling the Iraqi women from the televisual to the biogenetic, of biogenetics” and another holding in the dream sequences), seems almost as she collaborates with Manchurian a red human brain and saying, “note to take his place. She is briefly linked Global, the firm that is associated with the complexity of the frontal lobe,” to the brainwashing scenes when Ben a new but still feminized informatics of while others chant “bravest, warmest” imagines he sees blood pouring from domination. This time, she requires no in the background. The women wear her forehead like an American soldier red queen of diamonds to condition her traditional burkas but their faces are he was forced to shoot in Iraq. When son; merely the sound of her voice— covered in calligraphy rather than by she asks Ben, “Why not reach out and usually over a telephone—is enough to veils—echoing Al’s self-portrait. touch someone?”—alluding to the old trigger the conditioning that gives her The images set up the collusion among AT&T ad—she links herself with Elea- control not only over Raymond (Liev informatics, the feminine, and what nor’s tendency to use telephonic and Schreiber) but over Ben (Denzel Wash- Edward Said identified as the “Oriental electronic communications to control ington) as well. threat.”1 The bioengineering of Atticus people. Even more bizarrely, later in Raymond is controlled by the media Noyle, who began his work manipulat- her apartment, Rosie offers Ben a glass and his mother, which cultivates his ing genes in tomatoes in South Africa, of tomato juice. self-contempt and scorn for the masses. enabled the brainwashing. The tomato Perhaps she is a “red” herring—at He feels Ben should not envy him and the television in the scene are thus one point, it seems as if she is conduct- because he is not a real man; Raymond equated with manipulation of informa- ing surveillance for Manchurian Glob- sees himself “posing and grinning like a tion that creates the image of Raymond al—but the associations nevertheless goddam sock puppet” before the media as a hero. The Iraqi women, through reiterate the film’s take on questions of because his mother has taken his iden- their dress and manner, symbolize gender and informatics. This is espe- tity, the thing no one can see, “what enslavement to radical Islam. The cal- cially noticeable in the film’s climax my mother has made me—a Prentiss— ligraphy on their faces symbolizes the when Rosie cannot foil the assassination ferociously a Prentiss.” He speaks these veil of informatics used to manipulate plot—that is Ben’s job, man’s work— words after seeing a photo of an Iraqi belief just as the genes in the experi- and, more significantly, she shoots Ben woman in traditional black garb with ment are manipulated to control the just after he and Raymond have saved veil, her hand over her mouth. Ray- human subject, as if the boundaries of America. Moreover, she seems to col- mond then holds up a photo of himself identity were deconstructed—reinforc- lude in altering the videotapes of Ben and his mother on the cover of Fortune, ing the same hysterical drive for control so that it appears a Manchurian Global which features the phrase “Shaw and that possesses the Ayatollahs, greedy employee perpetrated the killing. This Shaw,” linking him to his mother in the Global Manchurian businessmen, and video doctoring is one of the film’s oppressive mediated milieu. moms who run for the Senate. most conflicted gestures, as the manipu- This dialogue connects to earlier As in the first film, other female lation of information via self-referential scenes in the film where the link between characters conform to the sexist ethos signs and images is equated with vil- the feminine and media is made horrify- informing the mother’s villainy. Josie lainous behavior until the end where ingly clear. Ben’s fellow serviceman is a mere cipher in this version, appear- the message is that using informat- Al Melvin shows him a scrapbook of ing in only two scenes (including the ics to distort reality and shape public images and diary entries—proof that one in which Raymond murders her), opinion is acceptable if good men, real they were brainwashed to think that and Rosie is configured in a conflicted men—like Raymond and Ben—do the Raymond was a hero. Al also reveals a fashion that underscores her association manipulation. self-portrait in which his face is covered with feminized informatics. Ostensi- In the end, the film suggests that with bizarre calligraphy, and his hair is bly an ally of Ben’s, she purportedly the solution is a masculinism associ- long and straight, giving him a feminine possesses a more contemporary style ated with unambiguous discourse, what appearance. of agency than the earlier Rosie as an Raymond calls the ability to distinguish The image begins to make sense only African American federal investigator. between “what is real and what is not.” when Ben, after watching Raymond on Nevertheless, she proves to be a char- This forms the basis of the mascu- TV and seeing another GI speak of him acter of ambiguous value. When Ben line bond between not only Ben and as the “kindest, bravest” man he has first meets her on a train, she engages in Raymond but also between Ben and ever known, mouths the same words the odd banter of the first film, and the Thomas Jordan, the senator that rushes and then dreams about the hallucino- visual treatment of her character, plus to their aid (Jon Voight). Thomas seems genic conditioning that prompted this the recurring image of the window with to trust Ben mainly because, as they 126 JPF&T—Journal of Popular Film and Television say in their conversation, both men value except confirmation that philoso- ism. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indi- know that battles are won “one bullet pher George Santayana was right when ana UP, 1986. at a time.” Similarly, Raymond tells his he said that those who forget history are Jackson, Tony. “The Manchurian Candi- date and the Gender of the Cold War.” mother that he trusts the paranoid Ben condemned to repeat it. The second film Literature/Film Quarterly 28.1 (2000) 20 because in battle, he learned “he was clearly offers something else: evidence May 2005