Wake Vortices of Landing Aircraft
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Wake Turbulence and Separation Standards
Tel: +267 3 6882 00 /3913236 Aeronautical Information Services Fax: +267 3913121 P O Box 250 AIC Email: [email protected] Gaborone AFS: FBHQYAYX BOTSWANA 06/11 01 MAR WAKE TURBULENCE AND SEPARATION STANDARDS INTRODUCTION The hazards associated with wake turbulance have long been demonstrated by a number of accidents and incidents. There is at the present time insufficient understanding of the correlation between turbulant wake theory and operational experience to state with an acceptable degree of certainty what weight classifications should be denoted and what separation should be applied between them. In the meantime ICAO has issued guidance material and this forms the basics of procedures being introduced in Botswana with immediate effect. CHARACTERISTICS Wake turbulence vortices are present behind every aircraft, but are particularly severe when generated by large and wide-bodied jet aircraft. These vortices are two counter- rotating cylindrical air masses trailing aft from the aircraft. The vortices are most dangerous to following aircraft during the take-off, initial climb, final approach and landing phases of flight. They tend to drift down, and when close to the ground move sideways from the track of the generating aircraft occasionally rebounding upwards. The characteristics of the wake vortex generated by an aircraft in flight are established initially by factors related to the aircraft gross weight, airspeed, configuration and wingspan. Subsequently, the vortices characteristics are altered and eventually dominated by interactions between the vortices and the ambient atmosphere. The wind,wind shear, turbulence and atmospheric stability affect the motion and decay of a vortex system. Vortex wake generation begins on rotation when the nose wheel lifts off the runway and ends when the nose wheel touches down on landing. -
Analysis of Flow Structures in Wake Flows for Train Aerodynamics Tomas W. Muld
Analysis of Flow Structures in Wake Flows for Train Aerodynamics by Tomas W. Muld May 2010 Technical Reports Royal Institute of Technology Department of Mechanics SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Akademisk avhandling som med tillst˚and av Kungliga Tekniska H¨ogskolan i Stockholm framl¨agges till offentlig granskning f¨or avl¨aggande av teknologie licentiatsexamen fredagen den 28 maj 2010 kl 13.15 i sal MWL74, Kungliga Tekniska H¨ogskolan, Teknikringen 8, Stockholm. c Tomas W. Muld 2010 Universitetsservice US–AB, Stockholm 2010 Till Mamma ♥ iii iv The Only Easy Day Was Yesterday Motto of the United States Navy SEALs Aerodynamics are for people who can’t build engines Enzo Ferrari v Analysis of Flow Structures in Wake Flows for Train Aero- dynamics Tomas W. Muld Linn´eFlow Centre, KTH Mechanics, Royal Institute of Technology SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Abstract Train transportation is a vital part of the transportation system of today and due to its safe and environmental friendly concept it will be even more impor- tant in the future. The speeds of trains have increased continuously and with higher speeds the aerodynamic effects become even more important. One aero- dynamic effect that is of vital importance for passengers’ and track workers’ safety is slipstream, i.e. the flow that is dragged by the train. Earlier ex- perimental studies have found that for high-speed passenger trains the largest slipstream velocities occur in the wake. Therefore the work in this thesis is devoted to wake flows. First a test case, a surface-mounted cube, is simulated to test the analysis methodology that is later applied to a train geometry, the Aerodynamic Train Model (ATM). -
A Review of Wind Turbine Wake Models and Future Directions
A Review of Wind Turbine Wake Models and Future Directions 2013 North American Wind Energy Academy (NAWEA) Symposium Matthew J. Churchfield Boulder, Colorado August 6, 2013 NREL/PR-5200-60208 NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC. Why Are Wind Turbine Wakes Important? Wind speed (m/s) • Wake effects impact: o Power production o Mechanical loads • High importance in wind- plant-level control strategies • Having a good wake model is a necessity in predicting plant performance and understanding fatigue Contours of instantaneous wind speed in simulated flow through loads the Lillgrund wind plant 2 What Does a Wake Look Like? Flow field generated from large-eddy simulation (velocity field minus mean shear) top view Characteristics: • Velocity deficit • Low-frequency meandering • Intermittent edge • Shear-layer-generated turbulence view from downstream Notice how many of the characteristics describe some sort of unsteadiness 3 Differing Needs in Wake Modeling • Power Prediction and Annual Energy Production (AEP) o Steady, time-averaged • Loads o Unsteady, time-accurate • Control Strategies o Steady and unsteady may both be needed • Basic Physics o As much fidelity as possible 4 Hierarchy of Wake Models Type Example Empirical -Jensen (1983)/Katíc (1986) (Park) Linearized -Ainslie (1985) (Eddy-viscosity) i Reynolds-averaged -Ott et al. (2011) (Fuga) ncreasing cost/fidelity Navier-Stokes (RANS) Other -Larsen et al. (2007) -
The Kelvin Wedge
The shape of ship wakes: The Kelvin wedge 1 1 o 2sin 3 38.9 Dr Andrew French. August 2013 1 Contents • Ship wakes and the Kelvin wedge • Theory of surface waves – Frequency – Wavenumber – Dispersion relationship – Phase and group velocity – Shallow and deep water waves – Minimum velocity of deep water ripples • Mathematical derivation of Kelvin wedge – Surf-riding condition – Stationary phase – Rabaud and Moisy’s model – Froude number • Minimum ship speed needed to generate a Kelvin wedge • Kelvin wedge via a geometrical method? – Mach’s construction • Further reading 2 A wake is an interference pattern of waves formed by the motion of a body through a fluid. Intriguingly, the angular width of the wake produced by ships (and ducks!) in deep water is the same (about 38.9o). A mathematical explanation for this phenomenon was first proposed by Lord Kelvin (1824-1907). The triangular envelope of the wake pattern has since been known as the Kelvin wedge. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake 3 Venetian water-craft and their associated Kelvin wedges Images from Google Maps (above) and Google Earth (right), (August 2013) 4 Still awake? 5 The Kelvin Wedge is clearly not the whole story, it merely describes the envelope of the wake. Other distinct features are highlighted below: Turbulent Within the Kelvin wedge we flow from bow see waves inclined at a wave and slightly wider angle propeller from the direction of travel of wash. * These the ship. (It turns effects will be out this is about 55o) * addressed in this presentation. The others Waves disperse within a ‘few will not! degrees’ of the Kelvin wedge. -
National Transportation Safety Board Aviation Accident Final Report
National Transportation Safety Board Aviation Accident Final Report Location: IRVINE, CA Accident Number: LAX97FA059 Date & Time: 11/30/1996, 1307 PST Registration: N2TE Aircraft: Morane-Saulnier MS760 II Aircraft Damage: Destroyed Defining Event: Injuries: 3 Fatal Flight Conducted Under: Part 91: General Aviation - Personal Analysis Shortly after takeoff, the pilot radioed the air traffic control tower declaring an emergency and stating his intent to return for landing. He stated that he had taken off with an external boarding ladder attached to the aircraft. Several witnesses reported that the aircraft's downwind leg was too close to the airport causing the aircraft to overshoot the turn to the final approach course, and that the pilot increased the aircraft's bank angle as he tried to align the aircraft with the landing runway. As the aircraft was intercepting the final approach course, it abruptly rolled inverted, the nose dropped, and the aircraft spiraled onto the roof of an industrial building. A Boeing 757 aircraft, landing on the same runway, had passed over the accident site 2 minutes and 17 seconds earlier. The B-757 was cleared to land before the accident aircraft received a takeoff clearance and was on the runway when the pilot declared the emergency and turned downwind. The local controller did not issue a wake turbulence advisory. Experienced MS760 pilots reported that the aircraft will exhibit no adverse performance or safety affects with the boarding ladder attached. Probable Cause and Findings The National Transportation Safety Board determines the probable cause(s) of this accident to be: The pilot's failure to maintain an adequate airspeed margin while maneuvering in a steep banked turn to the landing runway, which resulted in an inadvertent stall/spin. -
Easy Access Rules for Standardised European Rules of the Air (SERA)
Easy Access Rules for Standardised European Rules of the Air (SERA) EASA eRules: aviation rules for the 21st century Rules and regulations are the core of the European Union civil aviation system. The aim of the EASA eRules project is to make them accessible in an efficient and reliable way to stakeholders. EASA eRules will be a comprehensive, single system for the drafting, sharing and storing of rules. It will be the single source for all aviation safety rules applicable to European airspace users. It will offer easy (online) access to all rules and regulations as well as new and innovative applications such as rulemaking process automation, stakeholder consultation, cross-referencing, and comparison with ICAO and third countries’ standards. To achieve these ambitious objectives, the EASA eRules project is structured in ten modules to cover all aviation rules and innovative functionalities. The EASA eRules system is developed and implemented in close cooperation with Member States and aviation industry to ensure that all its capabilities are relevant and effective. Published December 20201 1 The published date represents the date when the consolidated version of the document was generated. Powered by EASA eRules Page 2 of 213| Dec 2020 Easy Access Rules for Standardised European Rules Disclaimer of the Air (SERA) DISCLAIMER This version is issued by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in order to provide its stakeholders with an updated and easy-to-read publication. It has been prepared by putting together the officially published regulations with the related acceptable means of compliance and guidance material (including the amendments) adopted so far. -
Air Traffic Management for Tiltrotors Questions and Answers
ASS. NAZ. ASSISTENTI E CONTROLLORI DELLA NAVIGAZIONE AEREA ITALIAN AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS’ ASSOCIATION MEMBER OF IFATCA INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS’ ASSOCIATIONS AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT FOR TILTROTORS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Issue 2 Introduction The history of aviation has seen many technologies developed and matured by the military prior to their introduction into commercial service such as jet propulsion, fly-by-wire flight controls and composite primary structures. Today tiltrotor technology follows a similar path, having been successfully demonstrated by the military for over 10 years in the Bell Boeing V-22, the Leonardo Helicopters AW609 is on the verge of civil certification for commercial use. As the speed, range, and VTOL capability of the V-22 tiltrotor has revolutionized military missions like combat search and rescue, medical evacuation, and long-range ship to shore transportation, so too will the AW609 in commercial SAR, EMS, and offshore oil and gas transportation. The AW609’s use in civil operations will enable true point to point travel and help reduce congestion at busy airports. As the technology and operational regulations are on the horizon1, some questions, remarks or concerns may arise within the Air Traffic Management (ATM) community on how to integrate tiltrotor activities into usual aircraft management and on how to interact with tiltrotor flights. This joint document between Leonardo Helicopters and the Italian Air Traffic Controllers Association ANACNA aims to provide answers to these points. From a Gate-to-Gate perspective this Q&A sheet is divided into the different flight phases: 1. Departure 2. In flight 3. Arrival 4. -
Waves and Structures
WAVES AND STRUCTURES By Dr M C Deo Professor of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai 400 076 Contact: [email protected]; (+91) 22 2572 2377 (Please refer as follows, if you use any part of this book: Deo M C (2013): Waves and Structures, http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~mcdeo/waves.html) (Suggestions to improve/modify contents are welcome) 1 Content Chapter 1: Introduction 4 Chapter 2: Wave Theories 18 Chapter 3: Random Waves 47 Chapter 4: Wave Propagation 80 Chapter 5: Numerical Modeling of Waves 110 Chapter 6: Design Water Depth 115 Chapter 7: Wave Forces on Shore-Based Structures 132 Chapter 8: Wave Force On Small Diameter Members 150 Chapter 9: Maximum Wave Force on the Entire Structure 173 Chapter 10: Wave Forces on Large Diameter Members 187 Chapter 11: Spectral and Statistical Analysis of Wave Forces 209 Chapter 12: Wave Run Up 221 Chapter 13: Pipeline Hydrodynamics 234 Chapter 14: Statics of Floating Bodies 241 Chapter 15: Vibrations 268 Chapter 16: Motions of Freely Floating Bodies 283 Chapter 17: Motion Response of Compliant Structures 315 2 Notations 338 References 342 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction The knowledge of magnitude and behavior of ocean waves at site is an essential prerequisite for almost all activities in the ocean including planning, design, construction and operation related to harbor, coastal and structures. The waves of major concern to a harbor engineer are generated by the action of wind. The wind creates a disturbance in the sea which is restored to its calm equilibrium position by the action of gravity and hence resulting waves are called wind generated gravity waves. -
RASG-MID/6-WP/25 18/05/2017 International Civil Aviation Organization Agenda Item 5
RASG-MID/6-WP/25 18/05/2017 International Civil Aviation Organization Regional Aviation Safety Group - Middle East Sixth Meeting (RASG-MID/6) (Bahrain, 26-28 September 2017) Agenda Item 5: Update from and Coordination with MIDANPIRG WAKE TURBULENCE SEPARATION IN RVSM AIRSPACE (Presented by the Secretariat) SUMMARY This paper presents an overview of the provisions related to Wake Turbulence Separation and addresses the incident that took place between an A380 and CL604 in the RVSM airspace, for the meeting consideration in order to agree on measures that would mitigate the safety risk associated with similar occurrences. Action by the meeting is at paragraph 3. REFERENCES - ATM SG/3 Report - CIR 331 - Doc 4444 - Doc 9426 - Interim Report BFU17-0024-2X 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The provisions related to Wake Turbulence Minima are contained in PANS-ATM (ICAO Doc 4444) and detailed characteristics of wake vortices and their effect on aircraft are contained in the Air Traffic Services Planning Manual (ICAO Doc 9426). 1.2 The term “wake turbulence” is used in this context to describe the effect of the rotating air masses generated behind the wing tips of large jet aircraft, in preference to the term “wake vortex” which describes the nature of the air masses. 1.3 Wake vortices are present behind every aircraft, but are particularly severe when generated by a large and wide-bodied jet aircraft. These vortices are two counter-rotating cylindrical air masses trailing aft from the aircraft. The vortices are most dangerous to following aircraft during the take-off, initial climb, final approach and landing phases of flight. -
Dynamics and Low-Dimensionality of a Turbulent Near Wake
J. Fluid Mech. (2000), vol. 410, pp. 29–65. Printed in the United Kingdom 29 c 2000 Cambridge University Press Dynamics and low-dimensionality of a turbulent near wake By X. M A , G.-S. KARAMANOS AND G. E. KARNIADAKIS Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA (Received 19 May 1998 and in revised form 12 November 1999) https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112099007934 . We investigate the dynamics of the near wake in turbulent flow past a circular cylinder up to ten cylinder diameters downstream. The very near wake (up to three diameters) is dominated by the shear layer dynamics and is very sensitive to disturbances and cylinder aspect ratio. We perform systematic spectral direct (DNS) and large-eddy simulations (LES) at Reynolds number (Re) between 500 and 5000 with resolution ranging from 200 000 to 100 000 000 degrees of freedom. In this paper, we analyse in detail results at Re = 3900 and compare them to several sets of experiments. Two converged states emerge that correspond to a U-shape and a V-shape mean velocity profile at about one diameter behind the cylinder. This finding is consistent with https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the experimental data and other published LES. Farther downstream, the flow is dominated by the vortex shedding dynamics and is not as sensitive to the aforemen- tioned factors. We also examine the development of a turbulent state and the inertial subrange of the corresponding energy spectrum in the near wake. We find that an inertial range exists that spans more than half a decade of wavenumber, in agreement with the experimental results. -
The Development of Wake Turbulence Re-Categorization in the United States
AIAA 2016-3434 AIAA Aviation 13-17 June 2016, Washington, D.C. 8th AIAA Atmospheric and Space Environments Conference The Development of Wake Turbulence Recategorization in the United States Jillian Cheng1 Engility Corporation, Washington, DC, 20024 and Jeffrey Tittsworth2, Wayne Gallo3, Ashley Awwad4 Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC, 20591 This paper describes the background information and provides a status update on a specific aspect of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) wake turbulence program known as RECAT (i.e., Recategorization). The fundamental premise of RECAT is that, instead of using the existing FAA Order JO 7110.65 categorical wake turbulence separation minima based on maximum takeoff weight, wake separation can be refined using a more complete set of wake related parameters. This process then leads to a safe reduction of wake turbulence separation minima over those specified in FAA Order JO 7110.65. This paper describes the overall three-phased approach of RECAT, with the ultimate goal of achieving dynamic pairwise separation. Currently, Phase II, or a static pairwise based wake turbulence separation is ready for implementation by the Federal Aviation Administration. The paper describes the analysis approach, including the data sources and severity metrics used in the development of RECAT Phase II. Nomenclature b = wingspan b0 = initial vortex separation Γ = circulation of vortex generated by leading aircraft Γ0 = initial circulation Γ* = non-dimensional circulation T0 = normalized wake age T* = non-dimensional age U = aircraft speed I. Introduction HE demand for safely increasing capacity and efficiency at congested airports increases every year. The main Downloaded by MASSACHUSETTS INST OF TECHNOLOGY on July 12, 2016 | http://arc.aiaa.org DOI: 10.2514/6.2016-3434 Tconstraint on airport throughput is the runway which accommodates only a limited number of flights per unit time. -
Flight-Test Techniques for Wake-Vortex Minimization Studies
FLIGHT-TEST TECHNIQUES FOR WAKE-VORTEX MINIMIZATION STUDIES Robert A. Jacobsen and M. R. Barber* Ames Research Center The flight-test techniques developed for use in the study of wake turbu- lence and used recently in flight studies of wake minimization methods are discussed. Flow visualization has been developed as a technique for qualita- tively assessing minimization methods and is required in flight-test proce- dures for making quantitative measurements. The quantitative techniques are the measurement of the upset dynamics of an aircraft encountering the wake and the measurement of the wake velocity profiles. Descriptions of the instrumen- tation and. the data reduction and correlation methods are given. INTRODUCTION Flight tests have played an important role in the coordinated research program to develop vortex-wake alleviation techniques. The contribution of flight testing to this program lies in three important areas: to verify that the more flexible and less expensive to operate, ground-based research facili- ties are suitable for the development of vortex alleviation devices and tech- niques; to identify, under full-scale conditions, shortcomings of any alleviation technique that might not have been evident in the small-scale test environment; and to assess the operational feasibility of the developed tech- niques. The operational feasibility phase has two facets. The first is the influence of the alleviation device on the operation of the generating air- craft, but this subject is outside the scope of this paper. The second facet is to demonstrate the level of alleviation attained in the oDerationa1 situation. Recent flight experience has emphasized the importance of flight tests in complementing and focusing the research efforts in the ground-based facilities.