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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! A"WORLD"WITHOUT"POVERTY:"" NEGOTIATING"THE"GLOBAL"DEVELOPMENT"AGENDA" ! ! Elham!Seyedsayamdost! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Submitted!in!partial!fulfillment!of!the! requirements!for!the!degree!of! Doctor!of!Philosophy! in!the!Graduate!School!of!Arts!and!Sciences! ! ! ! COLUMBIA"UNIVERSITY" " 2015" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " ©!2015! Elham!Seyedsayamdost! All!rights!reserved! ABSTRACT"

A"WORLD"WITHOUT"POVERTY:"" NEGOTIATING"THE"GLOBAL"DEVELOPMENT"AGENDA" " Elham!Seyedsayamdost! !

This!dissertation!examines!the!political!processes!that!gave!rise!to!the!antipoverty!norm;! the!moral!principle!that!abject!poverty!is!dehumanizing!and!must!be!eradicated.!I!trace!the! origins! of! this! norm! to! a! critical! juncture! in! the! 1990s! when! the! end! of! the! Cold! War! ushered! in! a! euphoric! moment! while,! at! the! same! time,! crises! loomed! large! on! the! international! stage,! where! governance! structures! of! an! earlier! era! seemed! like! ancient! relics!no!longer!capable!of!managing!problems!of!a!new!world!order.!As!the!World!Bank! and!IMF!were!attacked!for!their!conditionality!programs,!the!UN!was!overwhelmed!with! competing!peacekeeping!missions.!Declining!foreign!aid!and!increasing!conflicts!relegated! development!to!a!lower!rung!of!importance.!As!official!development!assistance!fell,!donor! countries!found!themselves!debating!the!future!of!development!assistance!and!their!role! within!it.!While!international!organizations!created!after!World!War!II!reflected!on!their! relevancy)in!a!changing!world,!they!found!in!poverty!a!strategic!response!to!their!varying! crises! of! relevancy.! Consequently,! towards! the! end! of! the! twentieth! century,! diverse! international! organizations! with! diverging! mandates,! including! IMF,! WB,! UN! and! OECD,! converged!on!the!central!goal!of!poverty!reduction.!!

The! constitution! of! the! antipoverty! norm—manifested! in! the! Millennium!

Development! Goals—was! in! turn! essential! to! its! consolidation.! The! multidimensional! definition!of!poverty!within!a!human!development!framework!offered!a!holistic!approach! to!poverty!reduction!that!fit!the!mandates!of!participating!development!organizations.!As! such,!poverty!reduction!created!an!arena!for!consensus!without!threatening!state!interests! or! organizational! agendas! while! at! the! same! time! accommodating! donors’! domestic! priorities.! Four! distinct! features! of! the! MDGs—ontological) freezing,) target) setting,) standardization,! and! quantification—induced! these! goals! to! dominate! the! international! development!agenda!within!a!short!time!period.!By!making!poverty!a!problem!internal!to! the! state! and! setting! standardized,! timeWbound,! and! quantifiable! targets! to! monitor! progress!on!countries’!poverty!reduction!priorities,!the!MDGs!became!part!of!development! discourse!and!practice.!Aid!recipients!used!the!MDGs!to!show!their!use!of!funds!to!reduce! poverty! in! their! countries,! while! donors! used! the! MDGs! as! performance! tools! to! demonstrate! the! effectiveness! of! aid! to! their! citizens.! This! iterative! process! of! data! collection,!analysis,!and!performance!evaluation!helped!solidify!the!use!of!the!MDGs!while! constructing! the! antipoverty! norm! as! the! ultimate! goal! of! global! development.! In! that! process,!instead!of!seriously!critiquing!and!reforming!extant!global!governance!structures,! the!convergence!on!poverty!reduction!resulted!in!a!reinvention!of!development!orthodoxy! and!maintenance!of!status)quo.!

! !! !

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES iii

ACRONYMS iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The Antipoverty Norm: A Puzzle? 8 1.2 Theoretical Framework in a Nutshell 19 1.3 Plan of Inquiry 25 1.4 Chapter Outline 29

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 34 2.1 Definitions 38 2.2 Literature on Norm Emergence 42 2.3 Global Convergence on Antipoverty Norm 56 2.4 Alternative Theories 61

PART I DEVELOPMENT AS END OF POVERTY 67

3 THE WORLD BANK: CONDITIONALITY AND RELEVANCY 75

4 THE UNITED NATIONS: POVERTY’S TRAJECTORY IN DEVELOPMENT 95 4.1 First UN Development Decade (1960s): Economic Growth 100 4.2 Second UN Development Decade (1970s): Basic Needs Approach 103 4.3 Third UN Development Decade (1980s): Adjustment with a Human Face 112 4.4 Fourth UN Development Decade (1990s): Human Development 119 4.5 Development at the United Nations 124

5 AID IN CRISIS: THE CASE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 127 5.1 Pergau Dam Affair and British Aid in Crisis 131

! i! !

PART II GLOBAL CONVERGENCE ON ANTIPOVERTY NORM 144

6 NEGOTIATING THE ANTIPOVERTY AGENDA 151 6.1 The Conferences and Summits of the 1990s 153 6.1.1 World Summit for Social Development (WSSD) 154 6.1.2 From a Discourse of Relevancy to a Discourse of Poverty 172 6.2 Contentious Convergence on A Better World for All 179 6.3 The Road to the Millennium Development Goals 187 6.3.1 We the Peoples 187 6.3.2 United Nations Millennium Declaration 195 6.3.3 Roadmap towards the Implementation of the UN Millennium Declaration 199

7 CONSTITUTION & CONSOLIDATION OF THE ANTIPOVERTY NORM 209 7.1 MDG Advocacy, Monitoring & Reporting 215 7.2 MDGs and their Features 230 7.3 Development Rules for the World 239

8 CONCLUSION 252 8.1 Argument in Brief 254 8.2 Applying Theoretical Framework to Other International Norms 258 8.3 The Road to the post-2015 Agenda 269

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 273

10 APPENDICES 295 9.1 United Nations Millennium Declaration 296 9.2 OECD/DAC International Development Goals 305 9.3 Millennium Development Goals Annex in the 306 Roadmap towards the Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration 9.4 Comparison of IDGs to MDGs 310 9.5 Tracing the Evolution of MDGs 311 9.6 Official List of MDG Targets and Indicators 312

! ii! !

FIGURES AND TABLES

! FIGURE 1. ODA – USD BILLION (2012 PRICES & EXCHANGE RATES) 57

FIGURE 2. ODA AS % OF GNI (2013) 57

FIGURE 3. HEADCOUNT INDICES OF POVERTY (% BELOW EACH LINE) 63

FIGURE 4. DONOR CONTRIBUTIONS TO UNDP (MILLION US $) 218

FIGURE 5. NUMBER OF NATIONAL MDG REPORTS 2001-2014 232

TABLE 1. RECONCILING THE IDGS AND THE MILLENNIUM DECLARATION GOALS 201

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! iii! !

ACRONYMS ! ACC Administrative Committee on Coordination BWfA Better World for All CCA Common Country Assessment CDF Comprehensive Development Framework CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessment DAC Development Assistance Committee DD Development Decade DESA Department for Economic and Social Affairs DFID Department for International Development ECA Economic Commission for Africa ECE Economic Commission for Europe ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean ECOSOC Economic and Social Council ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FSP Fragile State Principle HD Human Development HDR Human Development Report HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Country IAEG Inter-Agency Expert Group IDA International Development Association IDG International Development Goal ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IO International Organization LICUD Low-Income Countries Under Duress MCA Millennium Challenge Account MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation MD Millennium Declaration MDG Millennium Development Goal

! iv! !

MDGNet Millennium Development Goals Network MDGR Millennium Development Goals Report NHDR National Human Development Report NIEO New International Economic Order ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD/DAC Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Development Assistance Committee OWG Open Working Group PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RBM Results-based Management SAP Structural Adjustment Program SDG Sustainable Development Goal SG Secretary-General UK ODA United Kingdom Overseas Development Administration UN United Nations UNCT United Nations Country Team UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDG United Nations Development Group UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNGA United Nations General Assembly UNICEF United Nations Fund for Children UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development WB World Bank WDR World Development Report WFP World Food Programme WGI Worldwide Governance Indicator WSSD World Summit for Social Development WTO World Trade Organization

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The! completion! of! this! project! would! not! have! been! possible! without! the! encouragement! and! support! of! numerous! people.! To! begin,! I! would! like! to! express! my! deepest!gratitude!to!my!dissertation!advisors,!Michael!Doyle!and!Andrew!Nathan,!for!their! generous!time,!deep!insights,!and!constant!support!throughout!the!past!years.!Thanks!to!

Andy’s!careful!reading!of!my!chapters!and!his!detailed,!thoughtful,!and!incisive!comments,!I! was!able!to!ask!the!right!questions,!cut!through!the!complexity!of!my!project,!and!develop!a! convincing! argument.! Michael’s! deep! knowledge! of! my! dissertation! topic,! insightful! feedback!on!my!chapters,!and!many!hours!of!interview!on!the!politics!around!the!MDGs! contributed! tremendously! to! clarifying! my! theoretical! framework! while! enabling! me! to! weave! the! narrative! that! unfolds! in! these! pages.! Their! guidance! at! every! stage! of! this! project! has! been! invaluable,! and! the! completion! of! this! dissertation! would! have! been! unimaginable!without!it.!

I! am! also! grateful! to! the! other! members! of! my! dissertation! committee.! Alexander!

Cooley’s! enthusiasm! for! my! project! has! been! crucial! throughout,! especially! in! the! early! days!when!I!was!tossing!the!idea!of!researching!the!antipoverty!norm.!I!want!to!thank!him! for! supporting! my! dissertation! and! for! taking! time! to! read! some! of! my! chapters,! asking! important! questions,! and! guiding! me! in! the! right! direction.! I! am! indebted! to! Timothy!

Mitchell! for! having! taught! me! to! be! a! critical! thinker! and! to! question! things! we! take! for! granted.!Our!conversations!throughout!my!doctoral!studies!have!impacted!me!as!a!scholar! more! than! he! may! know.! I! would! also! like! to! thank! José! Antonio! Ocampo! for! having! graciously!agreed!to!read!my!dissertation!at!a!late!stage.!The!thoughts!expressed!in!this!

! vi! ! project!have!drawn!inspiration!from!the!works!of!all!these!distinguished!scholars,!whom!I! am!privileged!to!identify!as!members!of!my!dissertation!committee.!!!

Several!international!organizations!have!played!a!leading!role!in!my!dissertation.!I! am!enormously!grateful!to!various!current!and!former!employees!of!these!organizations! for!sharing!their!institutional!memory!and!insights!with!me.!Jan!Vandemoortele!has!been!a! fountain!of!knowledge,!and!I!would!like!to!thank!him!for!his!constant!support!and!timely! replies! to! my! many! questions! over! the! years.! I! am! grateful! to! Diana! Alarcon! for! her! unwavering! support! and! for! having! invited! me! to! the! first! UN! Expert! Group! Meeting! on! postN2015! Agenda! in! February! 2012,! which! kickNstarted! my! research.! Throughout! my! research,!I!was!fortunate!to!gain!insights!from!people,!who!generously!shared!their!time! and! experiences! with! me.! My! sincere! thanks! and! appreciations! go! to! the! following! individuals,!whose!knowledge!and!firstNhand!accounts!were!foundational!to!my!research:!

Caroline! Anstey,! Roberto! Bissio,! Stephen! Browne,! Joe! Colombano,! Stefan! Dercon,! Sakiko!

FukudaNParr,! Charles! Gore,! Brian! Hammond,! Douglas! Hellinger,! Eveline! Herfkens,! David!

Hulme,!Selim!Jahan,!Richard!Jolly,!John!Langmore,!Sarwar!Lateef,!Arturo!Lozano,!Richard!

Manning,! Mark! Malloch! Brown,! Terry! McKinley,! Amina! Mohamed,! Stanley! Meisler,!

Shantanu! Mukherjee,! Jan! Pronk,! Vijaya! Ramachandran,! Sarah! Renner,! Jo! Ritzen,! Bruce!

RossNLarson,!John!Ruggie,!Eric!Swanson,!Finn!Tarp,!Nic!van!de!Walle,!Eduardo!Zepeda,!and!

Sajjad!Zohir.!I!would!also!like!to!express!my!gratitude!to!several!interviewees,!whose!desire! to! remain! anonymous! does! not! allow! me! to! list! their! names;! they! know! who! they! are.!

Finally,!I!am!thankful!to!Chris!Blattman!for!introducing!me!to!some!of!my!sources.!

Further,!I!would!like!to!thank!the!institutions!whose!archival!records!helped!me!put! many!of!the!pieces!of!the!puzzle!together.!I!am!grateful!to!Amanda!Leinberger!and!Remi!

! vii! !

Dubuisson!of!the!United!Nations!Archives!and!Records!Management!Section!for!helping!me! navigate!the!wealth!of!information!accessible!through!UN!archives.!My!thanks!also!go!to! the!World!Bank’s!Access!to!Information!Team,!whom!I!never!met,!but!on!whose!reliability! and!timely!replies!to!my!archival!requests!I!could!always!count.!I!also!need!to!express!my! gratitude! to! Jean! Krasno,! whose! efforts! to! organize! and! publish! Kofi! Annan’s! public! and! declassified!private!papers!made!my!research!easier.!!

Despite!the!hardship,!the!doctoral!journey!has!been!a!most!rewarding!experience,! which! I! partially! owe! to! my! fellow! doctoral! friends’! support,! advice,! and! humor.! Hiroaki!

Abe!has!been!a!constant!source!of!support,!whose!intellectual!acumen!is!aweNinspiring.!I! have!been!fortunate!to!share!many!hours!discussing!various!projects!with!him,!including! my! dissertation,! and! am! grateful! to! Hiro! for! his! friendship! and! many! a! stimulating! conversation!over!lunch!at!Vine!or!drinks!in!the!Columbia!neighborhood.!KueiNmin!Chang! has!been!a!reliable!friend!throughout!the!years.!Whether!discussing!comparative!politics!or! looking! after! my! little! baby! so! I! could! talk! to! my! advisors,! Kuei’s! companionship! was! a! constant! in! a! sea! of! emotional! change.! Mostafa! Hefny! has! been! a! great! friend! whose! wonderful!humor!and!stories!kept!us!all!afloat.!I!am!thankful!to!Mostafa!for!his!contagious! enthusiasm!for!politics!and!for!always!finding!a!way!to!look!at!the!bright!side!of!things.!Last! but!not!least,!I!have!been!fortunate!to!share!the!ups!and!downs!of!the!PhD!with!Radhika!

Gore,!whose!similar!personal!circumstances!brought!us!together.!Radhika’s!work!initiative! and!productivity!have!been!a!source!of!inspiration!for!me.!I!am!grateful!to!her!for!the!long! chats,!her!continuous!moral!support,!and!helpful!advice!on!academia!and!life!at!large.!!

My! deepest! appreciation! is! owed! to! my! family! whose! unwavering! love! and! encouragement!have!sustained!me!throughout!this!journey.!It!is!to!my!late!father’s!love!of!

! viii! ! international!affairs!that!I!owe!my!passion!to!study!politics!and!work!in!the!international! realm.!My!mother,!Hamideh!Seraj!Anssari,!has!always!been!an!inspirational!figure,!without! whose! support! and! devotion,! especially! after! the! birth! of! my! son,! the! completion! of! this! project! would! not! have! been! conceivable.! Thanks! to! my! parents’! dedication! to! their! children’s!education,!I!have!been!fortunate!to!share!this!experience!with!my!siblings,!who! have!already!traveled!the!doctoral!road.!I!want!to!thank!my!sister!Nahid!for!her!love!and! support,!and!for!taking!time!to!read!and!comment!on!parts!of!my!dissertation.!Her!awardN winning!dissertation!has!been!a!source!of!pride!and!inspiration.!I!want!to!thank!my!brother!

Mohammad!Reza!for!always!being!there.!His!patience!with!retrieving!results!in!the!lab!and! his!insatiable!thirst!for!knowledge!have!been!enormously!inspiring.!I!am!deeply!grateful!to! my! brother! Hamid! Reza! for! having! read! and! commented! on! almost! all! my! chapters.! His! great! intellect! and! continuous! encouragement! have! been! the! perfect! combination! of! critique!and!support!that!any!sibling!could!wish!for.!My!brotherNinNlaw!Andrew!Lee!Butters! has!been!a!great!cheerleader,!and!I!am!thankful!to!him!for!his!enthusiasm!and!support.!!

! None!of!this!would!have!been!possible!without!the!constant!encouragement!of!my! husband!Cortlan!McManus.!His!great,!creative!mind!and!deep!intellect!have!given!rise!to! countless!stimulating!conversations!throughout!the!years,!even!planting!the!seeds!for!this! dissertation.!I!am!enormously!grateful!to!Cortlan!for!his!endless!love,!persistent!patience,! and!unshakable!belief!in!me,!and!for!selflessly!putting!his!career!on!hold,!so!that!I!could! fulfill!my!dream.!Our!son!Kian!has!brought!so!much!love!and!laughter!into!our!lives,!and!I! want!to!thank!him!for!being!so!understanding!and!patient!at!such!a!young!age.!!

This!dissertation!is!dedicated!to!Kian,!the!light!of!my!life.!!!

! !

! ix! !

Morality!is!the!product!of!power.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!E.H.!Carr,!The!Twenty!Years’!Crisis!!

! x! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 2!

! “We(will(spare(no(effort(to(free(our(fellow(men,(women(and(children(from(the(abject( and(dehumanizing(conditions(of(extreme(poverty,(to(which(more(than(a(billion(of(them( are( currently( subjected.( We( are( committed( to( making( the( right( to( development( a( reality(for(everyone(and(to(freeing(the(entire(human(race(from(want.( ( We(resolve(therefore(to(create(an(environment(–(at(the(national(and(global(levels(alike( –(which(is(conducive(to(development(and(to(the(elimination(of(poverty.”( ! ( ( United!Nations!Millennium!Declaration,!8!September!2000! ! ! On! September! 8,! 2000,! member! states! of! the! United! Nations! General! Assembly! unanimously! endorsed! the! Millennium! Declaration,! reaffirming! the! “collective! responsibility”! of! the! congregated! 189! heads! of! state! and! government! “to! uphold! the! principles! of! human! dignity,! equality! and! equity! at! the! global! level.”1!This! short! but! powerful!document!outlined!the!principles!and!objectives!of!the!international!agenda!for! the! 21st! century! pertaining! to! peace! and! security;! development! and! poverty! eradication;! environment;!and!human!rights,!democracy!and!good!governance.!A!year!later,!SecretaryL

General!(SG)!Kofi!Annan!submitted!his!report!titled!Roadmap(towards(the(Implementation( of(the(Millennium(Declaration(to!the!General!Assembly,!delineating!“potential!strategies!for! action! that! are! designed! to! meet! the! goals! and! commitments! made! [in! the! Millennium!

Declaration].”2!An! annex! to! the! Roadmap( included! the! Millennium! Development! Goals!

(MDGs),!a!collection!of!eight!goals,!eighteen!targets,!and!fortyLeight!indicators3!outlining!a! comprehensive! framework! for! reducing! global! poverty! by! the! year! 2015.! For! the! next! fifteen! years,! the! entire! development! community,! including! the! international! financial! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!United! Nations,! General! Assembly! resolution! 55/2,! United( Nations( Millennium( Declaration,! A/RES/55/2,! September!8,!2000,!accessed!March!7,!2012,!www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm.!

2!United!Nations,!General!Assembly,!Roadmap(towards(the(implementation(of(the(United(Nations(Millennium( Declaration:( report( of( the( SecretaryNGeneral,! A/56/326,! September! 6,! 2001,! accessed! March! 7,! 2012,! www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/56/a56326.pdf.!

3!Subsequent!revisions!increased!the!number!of!targets!to!21!and!the!number!of!indicators!to!60.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 3! institutions,!accepted!to!adhere!to!one!global!development!agenda!under!the!aegis!of!the!

MDGs!to!alleviate!extreme!poverty!in!its!multiple!dimensions!of!income,!hunger,!illiteracy,! and! disease,! while! promoting! gender! equality,! environmental! sustainability,! and! global! cooperation.!!

Of!course,!this!was!not!the!first!time!that!the!international!community!had!gathered! to!define!the!challenges!it!faced!and!to!set!up!a!global!agenda!to!overcome!those!challenges.!!

After! all,! the! UN! system! had! convened! dozens! of! world! conferences! since! its! creation! in!

1945.!In!fact,!the!last!decade!of!the!twentieth!century!alone!had!witnessed!twelve!world! summits! and! international! conferences,! some! of! which! were! followLups! to! previous! summits!on!such!diverse!topics!as!children,!environment,!food,!human!rights,!population,! social!development,!women,!and!so!on.4!Nonetheless,!the!Millennium!Summit!was!different! from!previous!conferences!on!several!grounds.!!!

First,!it!was!the!first!global!meeting!to!take!place!in!the!twentyLfirst!century.!This!

“accident!of!the!calendar,”5!as!Kofi!Annan!calls!it!in!his!autobiography,!was!indeed!crucial! to!the!vigor!and!enthusiasm!with!which!world!leaders!greeted!the!Millennium!Declaration.!!

In! fact,! the! Millennium! Summit! was! viewed! by! the! UN! leadership! as! an! opportunity! to! rectify!the!opportunity!missed!at!the!world!organization’s!50th!anniversary!in!1995!to!set!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!The!list!of!the!1990s!summits!and!conferences!includes:!World!Summit!for!Children!in!New!York!(1990),!UN! Conference!on!Environment!and!Development!in!Rio!(1992),!World!Conference!on!Human!Rights!in!Vienna! (1993),!International!Conference!on!Population!and!Development!in!Cairo!(1994),!World!Summit!for!Social! Development! in! Copenhagen! (1995),! Fourth! World! Conference! on! Women! in! Beijing! (1995),! Second! UN! Conference!on!Human!Settlements!in!Istanbul!(Habitat!II,!1996),!World!Food!Summit!in!Rome!(1996),!UN! Global! Conference! on! the! Sustainable! Development! of! Small! Island! Developing! States! in! Bridgetown,! Barbados! (1994),! International! Conference! on! Natural! Disaster! Reduction! in! Yokohama! (1994),! Ninth! UN! Congress! on! the! Prevention! of! Crime! and! the! Treatment! of! Offenders! in! Cairo! (1995),! and! Ninth! UN! Conference!on!Trade!and!Development!in!Midrand,!South!Africa!(UNCTAD!IX,!1996).!

5!Kofi!Annan,!Interventions:(A(Life(in(War(and(Peace((New!York:!The!Penguin!Press,!2012),!222.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 4! global!priorities.6!Archives!indicate!that!member!states!were!keen!not!to!see!a!repetition!of!

UN’s!anniversary!in!the!Millennium!Summit.!This!is!very!much!reflected!in!a!brief!paper! prepared!by!the!Permanent!Representatives!of!Guatemala!and!New!Zealand,!designated!by! the!President!of!the!General!Assembly!as!Coordinators!“to!assist!him!in!matters!related!to! the! Millennium! Assembly.”7!In! this! paper! they! stress,! “Virtually! all! delegations! wish! to! avoid! a! lengthy,! rhetorical,! allLembracing! declaration,! as! was! the! case! with! the! 50th!

Anniversary!event.”8!!

Second,!the!participation!of!147!world!leaders!was!a!landmark!in!and!of!itself,!as!no! other!global!meeting!had!seen!such!a!high!number!of!state!leaders!in!attendance.!This!not! only!indicated!the!importance!the!global!community!attached!to!this!UN!summit,!it!also!put! pressure!on!world!leaders!to!move!beyond!words!to!an!actionable!plan.!This!pressure!to! come!up!with!something!tangible!is!a!point!that!was!repeatedly!raised!in!correspondences! on! the! 38th! floor! of! the! UN.9!Echoing! this! sentiment,! Kishore! Mahbubani,! at! the! time!

Singapore’s! Ambassador! to! the! UN,! warned! in! a! letter! to! the! Deputy! SecretaryLGeneral!

Louise! Fréchette! that! “the! Millennium! Summit! [should]! be! more! than! a! forum! for! speeches.”10!Further,!the!historical!significance!of!the!summit!collecting!the!largest!number!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!Interview!with!Michael!Doyle,!September!13,!2012.!!

7 !“Reflections! on! the! Millennium! Summit”! written! by! Gert! Rosenthal! (Permanent! Representative! of! Guatemala)!and!Michael!J.!Powels!(Permanent!Representative!of!New!Zealand),!dated!August!27,!1999.!!

8!Ibid.!

9!This!is!the!executive!floor,!where!the!SecretaryLGeneral!has!his!office.!

10!In!this!letter,!dated!July!9,!1999,!Mahbubani!alludes!to!a!lunch!hosted!by!the!South!Korean!mission!on!June! 10!of!that!year,!in!which!the!DSG!briefed!“a!small!group!of!Ambassadors”!and!suggested!that!Mahbubani!write! her! a! short! note! on! the! group’s! “thoughts! and! perspectives! on! the! Millennium! Summit.”! Unfortunately,! Mahbubani! is! not! specific! about! who! attended! the! lunch,! however,! his! note! is! copied! to! Didier! B.! Opperti! (President!of!the!53rd!UN!General!Assembly),!Samuel!R.!Insanally!(Permanent!Representative!of!Guyana!to! the!UN!and!Chairman!of!the!Group!of!77!and!China),!Dumisani!S.!Kumalo!(Permanent!Representative!of!South! Africa! to! the! UN! and! Chairman! of! the! NonLAligned! Movement),! and! Michael! John! Powels! (Permanent! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 5! of!state!leaders!is!a!refrain!dancing!on!the!many!pages!of!correspondence!among!the!UN! staff!organizing!the!Millennium!Summit.!In!one!such!note,!Miles!Stoby,!the!Coordinator!of! the! Millennium! Assembly! conveys! his! excitement! to! Kofi! Annan’s! Chief! of! Staff,! S.! Iqbal!

Riza,! by! stating! “the! Millennium! Summit! should! turn! out! to! be! the! largest! gathering! of!

Heads!of!State/Government!ever!held.”11!!!

Third,!the!declaration!emerging!from!this!summit!was!based!on!the!UN!report!We( the(Peoples:(The(Role(of(the(United(Nations(in(the(21st(Century,!commonly!referred!to!as!the!

Millennium!Report,!which!had!been!circulated!among!UN!member!states!in!March!2000!to! foreshadow!the!Millennium!Declaration.!In!contrast!to!previous!reports!of!such!stature,!We( the(Peoples(was!authored!by!senior!staff!in!the!Office!of!the!SecretaryLGeneral,!under!the! leadership!of!John!Ruggie!and!Andrew!Mack,!“without!the!department!taking!any!formal! role!and!without!consultation!with!member!states.”12!As!a!result!of!this!internal!process,!

Kofi! Annan! had! ensured! that! the! report! would! not! be! a! wateredLdown,! politically! negotiated! document! like! so! many! others! emanating! from! previous! summits! and! international! conferences.! As! a! result,! the! report! drew! on! outcome! documents! of! the! conferences! in! the! 1990s! to! define! specific! goals! and! targets! for! the! international! community,!some!of!which!would!subsequently!translate!into!the!Millennium!Development!

Goals,!emphasizing!poverty!reduction!as!the!ultimate!goal!of!development.!!!

11!This!document!is!titled!“Note!to!Mr.!Riza!–!Attendance!at!the!Millennium!Summit,”!dated!June!23,!2000!and! signed!by!Miles!Stoby.!The!note!further!contains!an!attachment!of!the!names!of!participants.!!

12!Annan,!Interventions,!223.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 6!

Finally,!and!most!importantly,!the!Millennium!Summit!gave!rise!to!a!declaration!that! would!be!foundational!to!the!convergence!of!the!development!community!–!including!the!

UN!system!along!with!the!international!financial!institutions!(IFIs),!in!particular!the!World!

Bank,! the! International! Monetary! Fund! (IMF),! and! the! Organization! for! Economic! CoL operation! and! Development! (OECD,! representing! advanced! industrial! economies13)! –! on! the! antipoverty! norm.! In! fact,! the! original! Millennium! Development! Goals! took! much! of! their! text,! at! times! verbatim,! from! the! Millennium! Declaration.! Once! the! euphoria! of! the!

Millennium!Summit!subsided!and!the!possibility!of!reverting!to!business!as!usual!loomed! large,! technocrats! within! the! international! aid! community,! in! particular! the! UN! system,!

World! Bank,! IMF,! and! OECD! created! the! MDGs! in! order! to! “rescue! the! millennium! declaration!from!oblivion.”14!!

The! declaration! emerging! from! the! Millennium! Summit! was! a! tenLpage! document! that! reiterated! the! UN’s! values! and! principles! while! also! committing! world! leaders! to! measurable!and!timeLbound!goals!to!be!adapted!into!national!policies.!As!we!will!see!later,! the! wording! of! the! declaration! was! key! to! the! vision! defining! the! global! development! agenda,! literally! based! on! commitments! stated! in! chapter! III! under! the! heading!

“Development!and!Poverty!Eradication.”!In!particular,!in!paragraph!19!of!Resolution!55/2,! the!international!community!resolved:!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13!The!OECD!website!states,!“Today,!our!34!member!countries!span!the!globe,!from!North!and!South!America! to!Europe!and!the!AsiaLPacific!region.!They!include!many!of!the!world’s!most!advanced!countries!but!also! emerging!countries!like!Mexico,!Chile!and!Turkey.!We!also!work!closely!with!emerging!giants!like!China,!India! and!Brazil!and!developing!economies!in!Africa,!Asia,!Latin!America!and!the!Caribbean,”!accessed!November!6,! 2013! http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners.!In!the!year!2000,!however,!OECD!members!were! mainly!composed!of!donor!countries.!!

14!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!25,!2012.!! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 7!

• To!halve,!by!the!year!2015,!the!proportion!of!the!world’s!people!whose!income!is! less!than!one!dollar!a!day!and!the!proportion!of!people!who!suffer!from!hunger!and,! by!the!same!date,!to!halve!the!proportion!of!people!who!are!unable!to!reach!or!to! afford!safe!drinking!water.!! ! • To!ensure!that,!by!the!same!date,!children!everywhere,!boys!and!girls!alike,!will!be! able!to!complete!a!full!course!of!primary!schooling!and!that!girls!and!boys!will!have! equal!access!to!all!levels!of!education.!! ! • By!the!same!date,!to!have!reduced!maternal!mortality!by!three!quarters,!and!underL five!child!mortality!by!two!thirds,!of!their!current!rates.!! ! • To!have,!by!then,!halted,!and!begun!to!reverse,!the!spread!of!HIV/AIDS,!the!scourge! of!malaria!and!other!major!diseases!that!afflict!humanity.!! ! • To!provide!special!assistance!to!children!orphaned!by!HIV/AIDS.!! ! • By! 2020,! to! have! achieved! a! significant! improvement! in! the! lives! of! at! least! 100! million!slum!dwellers!as!proposed!in!the!"Cities!Without!Slums"!initiative.15!! ! ! The! fact! that! the! term! poverty! was! iterated! ten! times! in! ten! pages! illustrated! the! importance!of!this!issue!to!the!international!community!(or!at!the!very!least!to!the!drafters! of! the! declaration).! Only! two! other! terms! were! repeated! more! frequently:! peace! and! development.! It! is! clear! from! this! text! that! in! September! 2000,! poverty,! in! particular! absolute!poverty,!was!heralded!to!be!a!significant!challenge!in!need!of!eradication.!!!

! In!sum,!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium,!a!novel!development!could!be!observed!in!the! field!of!International!Development:!the!convergence!of!IMF,!OECD,!UN,!and!the!World!Bank! around!an!overarching!global!development!agenda!with!poverty!reduction!at!its!helm.!As!

John! Ruggie,! at! the! time! serving! as! Assistant! SecretaryLGeneral! for! Strategic! Planning,! noted,!“It!is!unprecedented!for!the!UN!and!its!agencies,!let!alone!also!the!Bretton!Woods! institutions,! to! align! their! operational! activities! behind! a! unifying! substantive!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!UN,!Millennium(Declaration((A/RES/55/2),!5.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 8! framework.”16!This! dissertation! problematizes! this! development,! which! has! come! to! be! taken!for!granted,!ignoring!the!longLstanding!rivalries!between!the!World!Bank!and!the!UN,! and!the!controversies!surrounding!the!emergence!of!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.!

While!poverty!reduction!had!been!part!of!development!discourse!and!practice!previously,! towards!the!end!of!the!1990s!it!came!to!be!equated!with!development.!This!dissertation! investigates! the! political! processes! that! led! to! this! unprecedented! shift! in! development! priorities! and! cemented! global! convergence! on! the! antipoverty! norm17—the! consensus! that! poverty! is! the! central! challenge! to! development! and! its! elimination! ought! to! be! the! overarching!goal!for!the!international!community.!

1.1 The Antipoverty Norm: A Puzzle? ! Focusing!on!state!interests!and!organizational!incentives,!this!dissertation!examines! the!political!processes!that!facilitated!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!Some!have! viewed!this!evolution!as!a!“grand!bargain”18!while!others!have!called!it!“the!world’s!biggest! promise.”19!Although! we! may! take! it! for! granted! that! poverty! reduction! has! come! to! dominate!the!global!development!agenda!and!may!call!it!“common!sense,”20!this!was!not!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16!John!Ruggie,!“The!United!Nations!and!Globalization:!Patterns!and!Limits!of!Institutional!Adaptation,”!Global( Governance(9,!no.!3!(JulLSep!2003):!305.!

17!I! follow! FukudaLParr! and! Hulme! in! calling! it! the! antipoverty! norm;! see! Sakiko! FukudaLParr! and! David! Hulme,!“International!Norm!Dynamics!and!the!“End!of!Poverty”:!Understanding!the!Millennium!Development! Goals,”!Global(Governance(17,!no.!1!(JanLMar!2011):!17L36.!

18!Interview!with!Mark!Malloch!Brown,!August!16,!2012.!!

19!David! Hulme,! The( Millennium( Development( Goals( (MDGs):( A( Short( History( of( the( World’s( Biggest( Promise,! Working!paper!no.!100!(Manchester:!Brooks!World!Poverty!Institute,!2009).!

20!Antonio! Gramsci! distinguished! between! things! that! create! consent! and! called! them! ‘common! sense,’! as! opposed!to!things!that!can!be!created!out!of!critical!reflection,!which!he!called!‘good!sense.’!In!his!own!words,! ‘common!sense’!“is!not!critical!and!coherent!but!disjointed!and!episodic.”!Yet,!it!draws!on!past!ideas,!evolves! to! solve! new! problems,! and! “is! not! something! rigid! and! immobile,! but! is! continually! transforming! itself.”!! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 9! always!the!case.!In!fact,!the!international!community’s!convergence!on!poverty!reduction! as!a!fundamental!issue!of!development!is!a!recent!phenomenon!dating!back!to!the!1990s! and!was!firmly!institutionalized!in!the!Millennium!Development!Goals!only!in!September!

2001.! The! conception! that! extreme! poverty! is! morally! wrong! and! must! be! “attacked,”!

“alleviated,”! “eradicated”! and! “reduced”! is! one! based! on! ethical! underpinnings! that! may! make!its!questioning!irrelevant.!After!all,!why!problematize!something!that!aims!to!reduce! suffering!and!improve!humanity?!Isn’t!poverty!reduction!as!a!global!goal!a!“noLbrainer”21! as!one!of!my!interviewees!put!it?!What!would!the!tracing!of!the!antipoverty!norm!teach!us! that!would!justify!it!as!an!object!of!study?!

There! are! several! reasons! for! why! studying! the! international! community’s! convergence!on!poverty!reduction!makes!“good!sense.”!First,!while!antipoverty!strategies! had! been! part! and! parcel! of! national! development! plans,! it! was! only! at! the! turn! of! the! millennium!that!consensus!emerged!among!donor!countries,!IFIs,!and!the!UN!system!that! reducing! and! eventually! eradicating! extreme! poverty! should! be! the! main! goal! of! development! initiatives.! Each! of! these! entities! had! originally! been! established! with! disparate!priorities:!IMF!was!mainly!concerned!with!financial!stabilization,!the!World!Bank! with!reconstruction!projects,!and!the!UN!with!peace!and!security!while!its!various!agencies! addressed!other!areas!pertaining!to!social,!economic,!and!environmental!issues.!Hence,!it! was! the! first! time! in! the! history! of! postLWorld! War! II! global! governance! that! diverse!

21!Interview!with!John!G.!Ruggie,!April!3,!2013.!! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 10! organizations! with! diverging! mandates! chose! to! have! the! same! development! focus,! prescribing!to!a!unified!global!agenda!with!set!targets.!!!

Second,! and! following! from! the! above,! this! was! the! first! instance! of! close! collaboration! between! the! World! Bank/IMF! and! the! UN! to! create! a! joint! agenda! and! to! work!towards!the!same!ends.!The!novelty!of!this!development!is!particularly!striking!when! we! juxtapose! this! collaboration! to! lack! of! any! substantial! contact! between! these! organizations!prior!to!the!end!of!the!Cold!War.!In!fact,!as!the!UN!Intellectual!History!Project! states,!“the!United!Nations!often!stood!in!sharp!contrast!to!the!reigning!orthodoxy!of!the! financially!wellLheeled!World!Bank!and!IMF.”22!In!light!of!liberal!proclamations!of!the!“end! of! history,”23!it! seems! important! to! understand! the! causes! of! this! convergence! and! any! practical!implications!it!may!have!had!on!development!theory!and!practice.!!

Third,!today!it!comes!to!us!as!natural!to!think!of!poverty!as!a!social!ill!and!to!aspire! to! a! world! free! from! poverty.! However,! this! understanding! of! poverty! is! a! rather! recent!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22!This!document!further!explains,!“Partly!this!reflected!the!different!political!base!of!the!two!institutions;!all! countries! are! equally! represented! at! the! UN! while! the! Bretton! Woods! institutions! have! a! voting! system! weighted!to!reflect!financial!contributors.!Not!surprisingly,!the!latter!have!tended!to!produce!analyses!and! policy!recommendations!that!reflected!the!interests!and!perspectives!of!developed!countries!while!the!UN! has! tended! in! the! opposite! direction! –! analyses,! ideas,! and! recommendations! more! in! tune! with! those! of! developing!countries!that!constitute!the!bulk!of!member!states.!This!range!of!alternative!views,!we!maintain,! is! an! essential! contribution! to! the! evolution! of! global! economic! governance.”! See! Thomas! G.! Weiss! and! Ramesh!Thakur,!Global(Governance(and(the(UN:(An(Unfinished(Journey!(Bloomington,!IN:!Indiana!University! Press,!2010),!160.(((

23!The!term!“end!of!history”!was!originally!posited!by!German!philosopher!Hegel,!who!believed!ideas!were!in! a! constant! dialectical! struggle,! which! generated! a! progression! of! history! with! a! final! endpoint.! Francis! Fukuyama!brought!this!term!back!to!life!after!the!fall!of!the!Berlin!Wall!and!the!disintegration!of!the!Soviet! Union!when!he!argued!that!liberalism!had!been!vindicated,!as!the!Western!liberal!ideology!had!stood!the!test! of!time!and!won!the!battle!of!ideas!between!capitalism!and!communism.!In!his!own!words,!“What!we!may!be! witnessing!is!not!just!the!end!of!the!Cold!War,!or!the!passing!of!a!particular!period!of!postLwar!history,!but! the!end!of!history!as!such:!that!is,!the!end!point!of!mankind’s!ideological!evolution!and!the!universalization!of! Western! liberal! democracy! as! the! final! form! of! human! government.”! See! Francis! Fukuyama,! “The! End! of! History?”!The(National(Interest(16!(Summer!1989).! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 11! phenomenon.!In!fact,!for!a!long!time,!economists!believed!in!the!“utility!of!poverty”24—the! conception!that!poverty!was!instrumentally!good!for!development!because!it!encouraged! people! to! work.! Until! the! early! 19th! century,! poverty! was! seen! as! either! concomitant! to! growth!or!a!necessary!incentive!to!boost!growth.!A!glance!at!economic!history!teaches!us! that!over!the!centuries!we!have!traveled!a!rather!far!distance!from!accepting!poverty!as!a! precondition! of! development,! to! viewing! poverty! as! an! effect! of! economic! growth,! to! regarding!poverty!as!a!constraint!not!only!to!socioeconomic!development!but!also!to!peace! and! security.! Thus,! it! is! important! to! understand! why! poverty! emerged! as! central! to! development!at!the!time!it!did.!

Finally,!by!questioning!the!centrality!of!poverty!reduction!to!the!global!development! agenda,!we!do!not!only!focus!on!what!is!kept!on!the!agenda!but!also!scrutinize!that,!which! has! been! excluded.! In! other! words,! while! economic! growth! was! the! ultimate! aim! of! development! for! decades,! its! replacement! with! poverty! reduction! at! the! behest! of! other! competing!normative!projects,!such!as!reduction!of!inequalities,!equality!of!opportunity!for! all,! or! redistribution! of! benefits! of! growth,! need! to! be! scrutinized! to! understand! the! motivations! of! the! actors! involved.! The! dominance! of! poverty! in! development! discourse! overshadowed! prevailing! debates,! replacing! discussions! around! economic! globalization! and! the! widening! disparities! between! the! Haves! and! HaveLnots! with! solutions! to! the! negative! effects! of! globalization,! including! poverty.! Subsequently,! competing! normative! claims! were! substituted! with! the! antipoverty! norm.! Thus,! it! is! important! to! understand! what!political!processes!led!to!that!outcome!and!whose!interests!that!outcome!served.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!For!a!detailed!discussion!of!the!history!of!antipoverty!policy!from!an!economist’s!perspective,!see!Martin! Ravallion,! The( Idea( of( Antipoverty( Policy,! Working! paper! no.! 19210! (Np:! National! Bureau! of! Economic! Research,(2013).! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 12!

As!the!examination!of!the!antipoverty!norm!suggests,!the!focus!on!poverty!emerged! at!a!time!when!globalization!and!its!effects!were!hotly!debated.!At!the!same!time!as!the!IMF! and! World! Bank! prescribed! and! promoted! blanket! policies! of! trade! and! capital! liberalization!irrespective!of!domestic!economic!patterns,!many!of!the!countries!following! this!advice!experienced!financial!crises!that!generated!unemployment!and!poverty!instead! of!the!promised!profits!and!prosperity.25!One!way!of!engaging!in!that!debate!would!have! been! to! investigate! what! made! globalization! beneficial! to! some! and! harmful! to! others.!

However,!that!type!of!debate!would!have!required!a!deep!introspective!reflection!on!the! structural! causes! of! globalization! and! the! types! of! power! asymmetries! that! produced! its! inequitable!benefits.!That!was!indeed!some!of!the!critique!that!emanated!from!civil!society! groups,! as! they! flagged! the! undemocratic! and! unaccountable! nature! of! international! institutions!to!be!at!the!heart!of!the!problem.!!

While!the!increasingly!humanitarian!and!moralistic!Zeitgeist!of!the!1990s26!required! a! response! to! the! increasing! crises! and! spreading! poverty! in! the! world,! the! menu! of! solutions! was! restricted.! As! the! inadequacies! of! a! purely! economic! approach! to! development! were! questioned,! the! solution! proposed! was! one! that! expanded! the! conceptual!definition!of!development!beyond!economic!growth!to!one!that!placed!people!at! the! center.! While! alternative! norms! existed! in! principle,! they! were! not! in! the! realm! of! possibilities! because! of! their! being! overly! valueLladen! and! embedded! within! certain! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25!Renowned!economist!Joseph!Stiglitz!is!perhaps!the!most!vocal!proponent!of!this!view.!See!Joseph!Stiglitz,! “The! Insider:! What! I! Learned! at! the! World! Economic! Crisis,”! The( New( Republic,! April! 17,! 2000,! accessed! March!12,!2015,!http://www.newrepublic.com/article/politics/theLinsider;!and!Joseph!Stiglitz,!Globalization( and(Its(Discontents((New!York:!W.W.!Norton!&!Company,!2002).!!!

26!Michael!Barnett!argues!that!while!we!witnessed!a!revival!in!humanitarianism!in!the!1990s!with!greater! collaboration!of!humanitarian!agencies!with!states,!this!pattern!was!not!unprecedented!and!had!existed!all! along.!See!Michael!Barnett,!Empire(of(Humanity:(A(History(of(Humanitarianism((Ithaca,!NY:!Cornell!University! Press,!2011).! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 13! ideological!tendencies.!Two!competing!norms,!in!particular,!were!advocated!by!actors!at! opposing! ends! of! the! ideological! development! spectrum.! On! one! end,! some! countries— primarily!from!the!Global!South!along!with!their!partners!in!the!North,!including!the!Nordic! countries—advocated! for! equality! of! opportunity! as! a! means! to! addressing! inequalities! among! and! within! nations.! In! their! view,! the! global! governance! system! itself! needed! to! undergo! reform! and! become! much! more! transparent.! The! Bretton! Woods! institutions! in! particular! were! blamed! for! much! of! the! inequitable! distribution! of! economic! benefits,! intensifying!growing!inequality.!On!the!other!end,!some!powerful!countries!from!the!North! believed!in!the!benefits!of!free!markets!and!democracy!and!advocated!for!good!governance.!

In! their! view,! the! main! challenge! was! lack! of! accountability! in! the! domestic! politics! of! developing!countries!themselves.!Thus,!while!those!advocating!for!equality!of!opportunity! identified! the! main! challenge! to! development! to! reside! in! existing! global! governance! structures,!those!advocating!for!good/democratic!governance!found!the!challenge!to!be!in! domestic!institutions!of!developing!countries!themselves.!A!brief!analysis!of!the!debates!at! the!time!demonstrates!the!advantage!of!the!antipoverty!norm!over!these!competing!norms.!

The!Millennium!Report!highlighted!“equity!and!solidarity”!as!one!of!the!six!values!of! the!UN!Charter.!Throughout!the!report,!inequality!was!highlighted!with!various!passages! referencing! that! “growth! is! a! necessary,! though! not! sufficient,! condition! for! reducing! poverty! and! income! inequality.”27!The! idea! that! the! inequitable! distribution! of! economic! benefits!needed!to!be!rectified!had!been!previously!pronounced!in!the!outcome!document! of!the!1995!World!Summit!for!Social!Development,!where!heads!of!state!had!affirmed!their!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27United!Nations,!We(the(Peoples:(The(Role(of(the(United(Nations(in(the(21st(Century((New!York:!United!Nations,! 2000),!23.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 14! commitment! to! create! a! framework! for! action! to! “promote! the! equitable! distribution! of! income! and! greater! access! to! resources! through! equity! and! equality! of! opportunity! for! all.”28!!

At! the! Copenhagen! summit,! all! participants! had! advocated! for! an! enabling! environment! for! social! development,! including! eradication! of! poverty,! productive! employment,! and! social! integration.! At! the! same! time,! some! governments,! including! the!

USA,!the!UK,!and!Germany!highlighted!individual!initiative,!free!markets,!and!international! trade! as! the! main! means! through! which! the! summit’s! objectives! could! be! achieved.! The! statements!of!the!IMF!and!the!World!Bank!echoed!the!same!sentiments,!emphasizing!the! importance!of!“sound!economic!policies,”29!“policy!reforms!to!help!open!up!markets,”30!and!

“liberalization!of!trade!and!investment.”31!Other!countries,!including!Norway!and!Sweden! as!well!as!many!developing!countries!such!as!Algeria,!Chile,!Indonesia,!and!Kenya,!among! others,!emphasized!the!importance!of!equality!of!opportunity!and!identified!the!solution!to! include! reforming! of! economic! global! governance! structures! and! international! redistributive! mechanisms.32!These! same! appeals! were! reflected! in! the! GL77! statement,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!United!Nations,!Report(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development,(A/CONF.166/9!(19!April!1995),!7.!

29!Sven! Sandstrom,! Managing! Director! of! the! World! Bank! addressing! the! WSSD! with! a! speech! titled,! “Economic! Reform! and! Investment! in! People:! The! Keys! to! Development,”! Copenhagen,! March! 10,! 1995,! accessed!March!11,!2015,!http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/una/950310143525.htm.!

30!Ibid.!!

31!Michel! Camdessus,! Managing! Director! of! the! International! Monetary! Fund,! Address! at! the! UN! World! Summit! for! Social! Development,! Copenhagen,! March! 7,! 1995,! accessed! March! 11,! 2015,! http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/una/950307063510.htm.!

32!For!example,!Gro!Harlem!Brundtland,!the!then!prime!minister!of!Norway!suggested,!“There!is!no!other!way! to! equity! and! social! justice! than! empowering! people,! –! men! and! women! –! allowing! democracy! to! work,! –! harnessing!market!forces,!–!taxing!surpluses!–!and!redistributing!the!proceeds…There!are!global!bills!which! are!truly!common…That!is!why!we!would!make!a!mistake!if!we!simply!dismiss!new!systems!of!international! taxation,!be!they!on!international!transactions!or!the!use!of!global!commons,!such!as!the!airspace.”!Statement! by!Norway,!World!Summit!for!Social!Development,!Copenhagen,!March!11,!1995,!accessed!March!11,!2015,! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 15! which! noted,! “The! Equality! of! opportunity! for! development! [was]! a! prerogative! both! of! nations! and! of! individuals! who! make! up! nations”! and! called! for! “transparency! and! accountability!in!international!economic!and!political!decisionLmaking.”33!In!other!words,! to! many! representatives! from! the! South! and! their! Northern! allies,! it! was! equality! of! opportunity! among! and! within! nations! that! needed! to! be! advanced.! The! socioeconomic! challenges! that! many! developing! countries! faced! were! attributed! to! a! global! governance! structure! that! unfairly! put! some! in! more! powerful! positions! with! stronger! bargaining! leverage.!!

However,!the!concepts!of!equality!and!equity!were!also!highly!contested!within!UN! debates.!The!end!of!the!Cold!War!had!been!largely!interpreted!as!the!victory!of!economic! and!political!liberalism,!with!competitiveness!as!a!key!criterion!for!growth.!Based!on!this! liberal!interpretation,!the!notion!of!the!benefits!of!economic!growth!not!being!distributed! equitably!didn’t!mean!that!the!game!was!rigged;!it!only!meant!that!some!were!better!at!the! game! than! others.! Hence,! the! conclusion! drawn! was! that! the! international! community! should!help!those!who!were!left!behind!by!providing!them!with!the!opportunities!to!better! play! the! game,! not! to! change! the! rules! of! the! game.! Even! the! focus! on! poverty! and! improvement!of!social!services!in!the!poorest!countries!was!seen!as!handouts!by!some,!in! particular!the!US!under!the!Bush!Administration,!as!will!be!discussed!below.!Hence,!as!the! chapters!in!this!dissertation!demonstrate,!any!project!to!promote!an!equality!norm!would! have! failed! because! powerful! states! and! international! organizations! within! which! they!

33!Statement!of!Dr.!Cielito!F.!Habito,!Secretary!of!Socioeconomic!Planning,!Republic!of!the!Philippines,!on! behalf!of!the!GL77,!Copenhagen,!March!6,!1995,!accessed!March!11,!2015,! http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/una/950306131100.htm.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 16! wielded!great!power!would!have!hindered!its!rise!to!prominence.!To!these!powerful!states,! the! main! obstacle! to! development! was! not! denied! equality! of! opportunity! because! of! an! unfairly!structured!global!governance!system,!but!unaccountable!national!governments.!

This!brings!us!to!the!other!competing!norm!that!was!on!the!rise!and!increasingly! resonated!with!some!states!and!international!organizations:!democratic!governance.!While! the!GL77!countries!and!their!allies!blamed!lack!of!transparency!in!global!decisionLmaking! processes! for! deteriorating! economic! and! social! conditions! in! their! countries! and! advocated! for! equality! of! opportunity,! financial! institutions! along! with! economic! powerhouses! from! the! North! argued! that! the! problem! was! lack! of! accountability! in! domestic!politics!of!developing!countries.!In!her!analysis!of!the!antiLcorruption!debates— one! aspect! of! the! broader! governance! agenda—Mlada! Bukovansky! shows! how! the! same! international! organizations! that! brought! the! antipoverty! norm! to! life,! i.e.! the! UN,! IMF,!

World! Bank,! OECD! (and! some! other! business! organizations! and! NGOs),! “brought! the! corruption! issue! to! the! forefront! of! their! agendas! and! began! to! lobby! for! measures! intended!to!curb!corruption.”34!Bukovansky!suggests!that!fundamental!questions!that!arise! from! any! antiLcorruption! agenda—advocating! changes! in! incentive! structures! without! addressing!conceptual!questions!of!political!agency,!authority,!and!legitimacy!to!reform!the! system—made!the!international!antiLcorruption!campaign!ring!hollow.!Her!study!traces!a! shift!in!emphasis!from!corruption!as!a!practice!existing!within!transnational!corporations! to! one! that! debilitates! the! public! sector! and! negatively! impacts! socioeconomic! development.! This! shift! in! emphasis! is! visible! in! the! various! UN! resolutions,! which!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34!Mlada! Bukovansky,! “The! Hollowness! of! the! AntiLCorruption! Discourse,”! Review( of( International( Political( Economy(13,!no.!2!(May!2006):!185.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 17!

“simultaneously! signal! a! normative! embrace! of! the! virtues! of! capitalism,! buffered! by! commitments!to!democratic!governance!–!an!attitude!consistent!with!ideological!tone!of! the!‘Washington!consensus’!of!the!late!1990s,!but!tempered!by!the!UN!General!Assembly’s! rhetorical! efforts! to! put! the! welfare! of! peoples! onto! the! international! governance! agenda.”35!

In!fact,!the!broader!governance!agenda!itself!entails!such!a!shift!where!a!questioning! of! adequacy! and! efficiency! of! global! governance! structures! is! replaced! with! one! that! focuses! on! domestic! politics,! in! particular! emphasizing! democratic! governance! and! the! notion! that! good( institutions! lead! to! economic! growth! and! development.36!Such! good! institutions! include! secure! property! rights,! rule! of! law,! effective! bureaucracy,! voice! and! accountability,! political! stability,! and! so! on. 37 !The! World! Bank! has! been! collecting! governance!indicators!over!the!past!two!decades!and!defines!governance!as!“the!traditions! and!institutions!by!which!authority!in!a!country!is!exercised,!and!includes!the!process!by! which!governments!are!selected,!monitored!and!replaced;!the!capacity!of!the!government! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!Ibid.,!187.!

36!This!is!essentially!a!reversal!of!the!causal!mechanisms!inherent!to!modernization!theory,!where!progress!in! social! and! economic! conditions! help! societies! transition! from! traditional! to! modern! societies,! ultimately! ending! on! free! market! economics! and! democratic! political! systems.! There! is! a! large! literature! that! has! reversed! the! causal! arrow! by! arguing! that! good! institutions! (many! of! which! are! inherent! to! democratic! political!systems)!lead!to!economic!growth!and!development.!The!literature!is!too!large!to!cite!here,!but!see,! for! example,! Douglass! C.! North,! Institutions,( Institutional( Change( and( Economic( Performance( (Cambridge:! Cambridge!University!Press,!1990);!Dani!Rodrik,!Arvind!Subramian,!and!Francesco!Trebbi,!“Institutions!Rule:! The!Primacy!of!Institutions!Over!Geography!and!Integration!in!Economic!Development,”!Journal(of(Economic( Growth(9,!no.!2!(2004):!131L165;!Benjamin!Jones,!and!Benjamin!Olken,!“Do!Leaders!Matter?!National!Leaders! and!Growth!Since!World!War!II,”!Quarterly(Journal(of(Economics(120,!no.!3!(August!2005):!835L864;!Daron! Acemoglu! and! James! Robinson,! Why(Nations(Fail:(The(Origins(of(Power,(Prosperity,(and(Poverty((New! York:! Crown!Business,!2012).!

37!The! World! Bank’s! Worldwide( Governance( Indicators( (WGI)( is! a! project! that! has! been! collecting! data! to! quantify!various!aspects!of!governance.!According!to!their!website,!“The!aggregate!indicators!combine!the! views!of!a!large!number!of!enterprise,!citizen!and!expert!survey!respondents!in!industrial!and!developing! countries.”!The!fact!that!these!indicators!are!based!on!perceptions!of!survey!respondents!has!been!a!point!of! controversy!in!the!studies!relying!on!WGI!to!evaluate!the!effect!of!institutions!on!economic!growth.!Accessed! December!21,!2014,!http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.aspx#home.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 18! to!effectively!formulate!and!implement!sound!policies;!and!the!respect!of!citizens!and!the! state!for!the!institutions!that!govern!economic!and!social!interactions!among!them.”38!As! this! definition! indicates,! any! agenda! focusing! on! governance! directly! addresses! political! questions!as!they!pertain!to!decisionLmaking!processes!and!power!dynamics!between!state! and! society.! More! importantly,! by! promoting! democratic! governance! along! with! such! institutions!as!private!property!rights,!the!governance!agenda!implicitly!advanced!a!liberal! agenda! to! which! not! all! countries! might! readily! subscribe.! Thus,! governance,! although! a! competing! norm! advocated! by! the! same! actors! during! the! same! time! as! the! antipoverty! norm,39!did!not!dominate!the!global!agenda!precisely!because!of!its!ideological!foundations! that! were! too! controversial! at! a! time! when! a! civilLsociety! organized! antiLglobalization! movement! was! also! emerging.! This! was! most! visible! at! the! 1999! protests! during! the! ministerial!meeting!of!the!World!Trade!Organization!(WTO)!in!Seattle.!!

Both! of! these! competing! norms! had! some! merits,! however,! they! were! too! ideologically! differentiated! to! generate! any! kind! of! consensus! among! the! international! community!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium.!The!antipoverty!norm,!however,!set!itself!apart! from!these!competing!norms!in!two!meaningful!ways.!First,!while!appealing!to!the!moral! mentalité!of!this!humanitarian!era,!it!did!not!engage!in!the!type!of!ideological!battles!that! inequality! and! democratic! governance! generated.! While! the! reduction! of! inequality! was! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38!Ibid.!

39!This!is!particularly!visible!in!the!creation!of!the!US!Millennium!Challenge!Account!(MCA)!in!March!2002,! when!then!US!president!George!W.!Bush!called!for!“a!new!compact!for!global!development,!defined!by!new! accountability!for!both!rich!and!poor!nations!alike.”!As!his!speech!on!March!14,!2002,!pointed!out,!the!goal!of! the!MCA!was!to!“reward!nations!that!root!out!corruption,!respect!human!rights,!and!adhere!to!the!rule!of! law…[and]! have! more! open! markets! and! sustainable! budget! policies,! nations! where! people! can! start! and! operate!a!small!business!without!the!gauntlets!of!bureaucracy!and!bribery.”!Thus,!the!MCA’s!emphasis!was!on! good! governance,! and! it! competed! with! the! MDGs! antipoverty! focus.! See! The! White! House! Archives,! Millennium( Challenge( Account,! accessed! February! 12,! 2015,! http://georgewbushL whitehouse.archives.gov/infocus/developingnations/millennium.html.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 19! perceived! as! socialism! by! some,! democratic! governance! was! seen! as! an! exercise! of! neoliberal! imperialism! by! others.! Instead,! poverty! was! something! that! everyone! could! relate! to.! There! were! (and! still! are)! poor! people! to! be! found! in! every! society,! and! the! proposal!that!something!needed!to!be!done!about!that!could!not!raise!any!controversies,! especially!when!the!strategies!to!reduce!poverty!were!left!out!of!the!global!agenda.!Second,! as! opposed! to! reducing! inequality! and! promoting! democratic! governance,! poverty! reduction!didn’t!threaten!existing!interests.!While!reducing!inequalities!conjured!the!image! of! wealth! redistribution,! democratic! governance! involved! power! redistribution.! Both! of! these! norms! implicated! changes! in! class! and! stateLsociety! relations,! while! poverty! reduction! aimed! at! improving! the! lots! of! the! poorest! segments! of! society! without! threatening! to! uproot! the! status( quo.! Hence,! the! antipoverty! norm! was! an! overarching! objective!that!all!could!agree!on!without!necessarily!jeopardizing!existing!interests!and!yet! acting!within!the!humanitarian!Zeitgeist!of!the!time.!

1.2 Theoretical Framework in a Nutshell ! This!study!draws!on!a!range!of!theoretical!traditions!in!International!Relations!(IR).!

There! has! been! a! growing! trend! in! this! field! to! synthesize! the! different! IR! approaches.!

Scholars! have! been! advocating! for! “analytical! eclecticism”40!in! an! attempt! to! break! the! paradigmatic!silos!in!pursuit!of!generation!of!knowledge.!This!research!project!follows!that! trend!by!proposing!a!theoretical!framework!that!supplements!constructivist!accounts!with! a!structural!dimension!while!arguing!that!ideas!interact!with!the!structural!environment!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!Rudra! Sil! and! Peter! J.! Katzenstein,! Beyond( Paradigms:( Analytic( Eclecticism( in( the( Study( of( World( Politics( (New!York:!Palgrave!MacMillan,!2010);!Emanuel!Adler,!“Constructivism!in!International!Relations:!Sources,! Contributions,! and! Debates,”! in! Handbook( of( International( Relations,( edited! by! Walter! Carlsnaes,! Thomas! Risse,!and!Beth!A.!Simmons!(Los!Angeles:!Sage,!2013).! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 20! generate!normative!frameworks.!To!that!end,!I!stress!the!importance!of!structures,!which! constrain,! enable,! and! generally! shape! actors’! choices! and! show! that! the! interaction! of! actors!with!their!structural!environment!offers!stronger!explanatory!power!for!normative! change! than! agents! or! structures! on! their! own.! In! fact,! it! is! in! this! interaction! between! agents! and! structures! that! power! dynamics! play! themselves! out.! As! such,! based! on! the! emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!I!demonstrate!that!norms!derive!from!underlying!state! interests!and!organizational!agendas!while!deploying!multidimensional!principles.!!

I!argue!that!three!factors!help!explain!how!the!antipoverty!norm!became!politically! salient!and!garnered!the!international!community’s!support.!First,!the!existing!ideational! framework,! which! was! based! on! neoliberal! policies41!in! pursuit! of! economic! growth! and! macroeconomic!stability,!came!widely!under!attack!and!opened!up!political!space!for!new! alternatives.! The! sources! for! this! dissatisfaction! with! the! existing! normative! framework,! which! promoted! economic! growth! above! anything! else,! were! twofold,! though! they! both! generated! the! same! result.! On! the! one! hand,! conditionality! in! the! form! of! IFI! structural! adjustment! had! created! changing! material! conditions! reflected! in! increasing! poverty! as! well!as!debt!and!financial!crises!for!some!developing!countries.!On!the!other!hand,!the!end! of!the!Cold!War!had!shifted!power!relations!and!transformed!the!bipolar!world!order!into!a! unipolar!one,!thereby!bringing!to!an!end!the!decadesLlong!competition!between!the!US!and!

USSR.!A!direct!consequence!of!this!was!the!reduction!of!foreign!aid!and!the!diversion!of! funds! to! Eastern! European! countries.! Subsequently,! the! international! community! witnessed!a!series!of!crises!resulting!from!policies!enacted!by!international!organizations!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41!The!term!“neoliberal”(refers!to!economic!ideas!that!favor!the!private!sector!and!the!market!over!the!public! sector! and! the! state.! Proponents! of! neoliberalism! associate! these! ideas! with! liberty,! choice! and! efficiency,! while!associating!the!state!with!intervention,!limited!possibilities!and!bureaucracy.!!! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 21! and! their! member! states,! which! led! to! selfLreflective! deliberations! in! these! global! governance!structures.!At!the!same!time,!the!negative!repercussions!of!these!crises,!in!the! form! of! increasing! unemployment,! poverty! and! food! prices,! led! to! protests! and! riots! mobilizing! civil! society! to! call! for! change.! This! sense! of! urgency! for! change! in! an! environment! that! questioned! the! relevancy! of! extant! global! governance! structures! had! normative! and! programmatic! impact! on! the! international! community’s! development! agenda.!!

Second,!while!policy!failure!and!disillusion!with!the!existing!normative!framework! explain! the! search! for! an! alternative,! it! is! not! readily! clear! how! the! international! community!was!able!to!find!common!ground.!Neither!is!it!clear!why!that!consensus!should! revolve! around! the! reduction! of! poverty! and! not! some! other! norm,! for! example! the! reduction!of!inequalities!or!improving!governance.!In!the!norms!literature,!the!agency!and! political!skills!of!leading!actors—individuals!and!international!organizations—take!pride!of! place!in!explaining!how!old!norms!are!replaced,!but!less!attention!is!paid!to!institutional! structures.!Yet,!in!a!multilateral!world,!decisionLmaking!is!primarily!done!by!states,!which! face!political!constraints.!I!argue!that!developments!at!two!interLrelated!levels!of!analysis! impacted!the!focus!on!poverty.!!

At!the!international!level,!member!states!had!to!agree!on!a!unified!agenda,!working! within! organizational! rules! and! procedures.! Those! rules! required! a! broad! consensus! among! member! states! on! key! goals! for! development.! To! achieve! consensus,! the! global! agenda! would! need! to! resonate! with! all,! irrespective! of! their! ideological! tendencies.!

Everyone!could!agree!that!abject!poverty!needed!to!be!eradicated!nationally!and!globally,! but!not!all!member!states!would!have!endorsed!a!plan!of!action!calling!for!democratization! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 22! of!national!political!processes,!not!least!because!of!its!infringement!of!the!most!persistent! norm!within!the!realm!of!international!relations:!the!sovereignty!of!the!state.!Similarly,!not! every! member! state! would! have! been! on! board! with! an! agenda! that! sought! to! reduce! inequality,! whether! that! meant! changing! global! governance! structures! that! have! been! privileging! some! over! others! or! increasing! the! role! of! the! government! to! redistribute! resources!through!taxation,!cash!transfers,!or!any!other!means.!

At!the!national!level,!domestic!political!shifts!in!the!1990s!led!to!the!replacement!of! conservative!governments!by!leftLofLcenter!governments,!thereby!impacting!the!foreign!aid! politics!of!key!donor!countries,!as!they!negotiated!the!terms!of!cooperation!internationally! while! simultaneously! catering! to! their! domestic! constituents. 42 !This! was! particularly! relevant!to!the!donor!countries!that!sat!on!the!Development!Assistance!Committee!(DAC)43! within! OECD,! as! they! debated! the! way! forward! in! a! context! of! declining! foreign! aid! and! domestic!political!shifts.!Here,!therefore,!is!a!clear!instance!of!domestic!sources!of!foreign! policy.!In!this!context,!I!focus!on!the!domestic!politics!of!the!UK,!which!played!a!leading!role! in!making!poverty!central!to!the!global!development!agenda.44!This!discussion!illustrates!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42!This!conceptualization!draws!on!Robert!Putnam’s!“twoLlevel!game”!theory!based!on!the!acknowledgement! that! a! purely! domestic! or! purely! international! analysis! is! not! sufficient! by! itself! to! explain! international! cooperation,! as! is! the! case! in! the! antipoverty! consensus.! See! Robert! D.! Putnam,! “Diplomacy! and! Domestic! Politics:!The!Logic!of!TwoLLevel!Games,”!International(Organization(42,!no.!3!(Summer!1988):!427L460.!

43!The! OECD! Development! Assistance! Committee! includes! many! of! the! largest! funders! of! aid! and! has! the! mandate! to! “promote! development! coLoperation! and! other! policies! so! as! to! contribute! to! sustainable! development,! including! proLpoor! economic! growth,! poverty! reduction,! improvement! of! living! standards! in! developing!countries,!and!a!future!in!which!no!country!will!depend!on!aid.”!While!all!DAC!members!are!part! of!OECD,!not!all!OECD!members!sit!on!the!DAC!board.!Currently,!DAC!is!composed!of!29!members,!including! Australia,! Austria,! Belgium,! Canada,! Czech! Republic,! Denmark,! European! Union,! Finland,! France,! Germany,! Greece,! Iceland,! Ireland,! Italy,! Japan,! Korea,! Luxembourg,! The! Netherlands,! New! Zealand,! Norway,! Poland,! Portugal,!Slovak!Republic,!Slovenia,!Spain,!Sweden,!Switzerland,!United!Kingdom,!and!United!States.!The!IMF,! UNDP,! and! the! World! Bank! participate! in! DAC! meetings! as! observers.! See! OECD! website! http://www.oecd.org/dac/thedevelopmentassistancecommitteesmandate.htm.!

44!This!finding!can!be!extended!to!other!countries!as!well.!The!case!of!the!US!is!an!interesting!one,!since!the! Clinton! administration! had! been! supportive! of! the! Millennium! Declaration! and! its! targets,! but! the! Bush! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 23! how!states!can!shape!development!policy!at!the!international!level!while!catering!to!their! own!domestic!constituencies.!!

The! third! factor! relates! to! the! content! and! form! of! a! norm,! which! was! key! to! the! successful!consolidation!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!The!literature!on!transnational!advocacy! networks!(TANs)!has!argued!and!shown!that!clearly!defined!norms!are!more!conducive!to! flourish! and! generate! cooperative! behavior.! While! not! disagreeing! with! that! finding! in! principle,! I! argue! that! clear! and! specific! norms! can! be! vessels! carrying! complex! norm! structures,!which!I!call!a!“norm!complex”!and!define!as!multidimensional!norms!that!are! embedded!in!a!clear!normative!principle.!In!the!case!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!the!specific! goal!of!halving!extreme!poverty!(i.e.!the!proportion!of!those!living!on!less!than!$1!a!day)!by!

2015! as! a! moral! enterprise! was! built! on! the! concept! of! human! development! (HD).! HD,! however,!was!based!on!the!broad!and!multidimensional!conception!that!“development!is!a! process!of!enlarging!people’s!choices,”45!ranging!from!living!long!and!healthy!lives,!to!being! educated,!to!having!access!to!health!care!and!resources,!etc.!!

This!multidimensional!definition!of!poverty!motivated!the!broad!support!that!this! norm!was!able!to!garner.!As!such,!the!antipoverty!norm!within!an!HD!framework!offered!a! holistic!approach!to!poverty!reduction!that!fit!the!mandates!of!participating!UN!agencies,! which!had!been!debating!the!social!costs!of!growthLoriented!IFI!policies.!At!the!same!time,! the! multiLdimensionality! of! the! norm! afforded! each! organization! the! liberty! to! pick! and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! administration—both!suspicious!of!the!UN!and!embroiled!in!the!September!11!tragedy—was!dismissive!of! the!MDGs!and!set!up!its!own!Millennium!Challenge!Account!to!offer!aid!to!lowLincome!countries!under!the! condition!that!they!can!prove!(based!on!16!quantitative!indicators)!that!they!“govern!justly,!invest!in!their! people! and! encourage! economic! freedom.”! See! Remarks! by! President! George! W.! Bush! at! United! Nations! Financing! for! Development! Conference! at! Monterrey,! Mexico,! March! 22,! 2002,! accessed! March! 14,! 2015,! http://georgewbushLwhitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020322L1.html.!!

45 !United! Nations! Development! Programme! (UNDP),! Human( Development( Report( 1990:( Concept( and( Measurement(of(Human(Development!(New!York!and!Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!1990),!1.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 24! choose!targets!based!on!their!sectoral!area!of!expertise,!thereby!making!this!a!participatory! project! for! the! development! actors! involved.! As! a! result,! poverty! reduction! created! an! arena! for! consensus! without! threatening! state! or! organizational! interests! while! simultaneously!accommodating!donors’!domestic!priorities.!At!the!same!time,!the!form!and! content! of! the! antipoverty! norm! as! embodied! in! the! timeLbound,! standardized! and! quantitative!targets!and!indicators!helped!its!consolidation!within!a!relatively!short!period! of!time.!This!is!indeed!important,!as!we!find!that!while!previously!norm!emergence!could! take!several!decades!if!not!centuries—as!for!instance!in!the!antiLslavery!or!antiLapartheid! norms—these!particular!characteristics!of!a!norm!complex!enable!the!norm!to!solidify!in!a! shorter!span!of!time.!As!the!concluding!chapter!argues,!this!is!potentially!a!finding!that!can! be!generalized!to!other!such!norm!complexes,!such!as!the!norm!of!democratic!governance! being!good!or!failed!states!being!dangerous.!!!!

In!sum,!while!global!governance!structures!and!the!increasing!proliferation!of!nonL state!actors!have!focused!much!of!our!attention!within!IR!on!nonLstate!actors,!this!project! illustrates—based! on! the! antipoverty! norm—the! key! role! state! interests! and! organizational! agendas! play! in! shaping! the! global! normative! agenda.! This! dissertation! focuses!on!the!antipoverty!norm!as!embodied!within!the!MDGs!because!it!is!an!important! norm! of! the! international! development! agenda! impacting! foreign! aid! and! interLstate! relations.!But!my!framework!can!apply!to!other!normative!concepts!such!as!failed!states!or! good! governance.! In! each! of! these! instances,! the! argument! can! be! made! that! powerful! states! and! the! international! organizations! that! represent! them,! finding! themselves! in! a! moment!of!crisis,!played!an!important!role!in!creating!an!international!normative!agenda! whose! acceptance! was! made! possible! through! the! multidimensionality! of! the! normative! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 25! principle!at!hand.!I!will!elaborate!on!how!my!framework!can!extend!to!these!norms!in!the! concluding!chapter.!

This!dissertation!takes!the!IR!literature!on!norm!entrepreneurs!as!an!entry!point!to! examining!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!However,!by!focusing!on!state!interests! and!organizational!incentives!while!treading!the!world!of!development,!it!is!also!immersed! in! crossLdisciplinary! research! covering! the! fields! of! development! and! international! institutions.! As! such,! it! contributes! to! the! literatures! on! norm! emergence,! development! studies,! and! multilateral! diplomacy.! Based! on! research! that! spans! these! diverse! fields! of! inquiry,!my!main!finding!is!that!norms!are!the!product!of!state!interests!and!institutional! agendas!crafted!within!multilateral!settings.!!

1.3 Plan of Inquiry ! As! the! aim! of! my! project! was! to! understand! the! political! processes! and! varying! actors’! motivations! in! promoting! and! endorsing! poverty! reduction! as! the! overarching! objective! of! the! global! development! agenda,! I! used! qualitative! methods! to! gather! data.!

Although! consulting! quantitative! data! on! socioeconomic! indicators! was! key! to! understanding!certain!trends!and!highlighting!the!weakness!of!alternative!theories!(some! of! which! were! translated! into! visual! graphs! and! included! in! the! chapters),! the! primary! methods!used!to!explain!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm!are!qualitative!in!nature! and!include!archival!research!at!the!UN!and!the!World!Bank,!document!analysis,!and!inL depth!interviews!with!fifty!highLranking!nonLgovernmental!and!governmental!officials.!!

I!started!my!research!in!February!2012!as!an!observer!of!the!first!“Experts!Group!

Meeting!to!Support!the!Advancement!of!the!PostL2015!Development!Agenda”!held!in!New! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 26!

York.! SecretaryLGeneral! Ban! KiLmoon! had! asked! the! UN’s! Department! of! Economic! and!

Social!Affairs!(DESA)!and!United!Nations!Development!Programme!(UNDP)!to!initiate!this! twoLday!conference!“to!lead!systemLwide!preparations!for!the!postL2015!UN!development! agenda,! with! support! from! all! UN! agencies! and! in! consultation! with! relevant! stakeholders.”46!Conversations! with! various! participants! at! this! event,! including! veteran! development!practitioners!and!UN!personnel!who!had!been!engaged!in!one!way!or!another! in!the!MDG!process!and!were!now!advising!the!next!global!agenda,!helped!me!form!some!of! my!initial!ideas.!Following!this!meeting,!I!visited!the!UN!Archives!and!Records!Management!

Section! (UNARMS)! and! studied! documents! pertaining! to! the! preparations! leading! to! the!

Millennium!Summit.!These!two!experiences!provided!me!with!the!preliminary!information! to!identify!and!solicit!participants!while!outlining!my!research!design.!!

In!addition,!I!drew!on!my!previous!professional!experience!on!MDGLrelated!issues! while! working! at! the! United! Nations! Development! Programme! (UNDP)! and! the! World!

Bank.! This! experience! had! provided! me! with! a! network! of! former! colleagues,! who! generously!put!me!in!touch!with!other!individuals!to!participate!in!my!study.!Drawing!on! this! network! as! well! as! the! document! analysis! conducted! at! the! UN! Archives,! I! used! purposive!sampling!to!select!the!first!set!of!participants!in!my!study.!The!selection!criteria! included! the! individuals’! specialist! knowledge! of! the! research! area,! their! willingness! to! participate!in!the!research,!and!coverage!of!the!different!actors!involved.!In!order!both!to! increase! the! range! of! data! exposed! and! to! create! a! balanced! inclusion! of! multiple! perspectives,! I! incorporated!in! the! study!individuals! who! worked! for! the! United! Nations!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46!This! was! a! closedLdoor! meeting,! which! I! was! privileged! to! attend! as! an! observer,! primarily! due! to! my! previous!affiliation!with!UNDP.!! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 27! and!its!varying!agencies,!in!particular!UNDP!and!UNICEF!(United!Nations!Children’s!Fund),! as!well!as!staff!at!the!World!Bank!and!OECD.!Acknowledging!the!inclusion!of!mostly!highL ranking! officials! who! were! affiliated! with! various! international! organizations,! in! my! application! to! the! Institutional! Review! Board,! I! asked! for! a! waiver! of! documentation! of! informed! consent,! as! it! did! not! seem! to! be! culturally! appropriate! to! ask! these! highLlevel! officials!to!sign!a!consent!form.!This!exemption!facilitated!the!conduct!of!interviews,!most! of!which!were!longLdistance,!done!via!telephone!or!Skype.!My!geographical!vicinity!to!the!

United!Nations!did,!however,!allow!me!to!meet!some!of!the!officials!and!to!interview!them! in!person!(several!of!them!on!multiple!occasions).!

Due!to!the!inductive!nature!of!this!study,!I!was!aware!that!my!theory!would!evolve! as! I! collected! and! analyzed! the! data.! Thus,! the! initial! list! of! participants! was! expanded! throughout! the! study,! as! the! “experiential! relevance” 47 !of! the! participants! saturated! particular!concepts!under!study,!thus!requiring!that!I!extend!the!sample!to!include!other! individuals.!This!process!helped!me!identify!additional!actors!whose!perspectives!led!to!a! balancing!and!refinement!of!my!theoretical!framework.!!

Although!my!dissertation!proposal!had!been!based!on!a!review!of!literature!that!I! had!found!less!satisfying!in!explaining!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!I!originally! only!had!some!theoretical!intuitions.!These!initially!helped!in!formulating!the!questions!for! the! interviews,! which! were! semiLstructured! and! lasted! anywhere! between! 30! to! 90! minutes.! Several! participants! kindly! agreed! to! meet! with! me! for! a! second! or! third! time,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47!Strauss!and!Corbin!suggest!that!different!sampling!types!are!required!for!different!stages!of!a!study.!In!my! case,!I!started!with!a!list!of!several!international!organizations,!but!in!the!process!of!data!collection!learned! the! names! of! various! other! actors! who! were! key! to! my! better! understanding! of! the! antipoverty! norm! construction,!whom!I!contacted!subsequently!and!added!to!my!study!participants.!See!Anselm!Strauss!and! Juliet! Corbin,! Basics( of( Qualitative( Research( Techniques( and( Procedures( for( Developing( Grounded( Theory( (London:!Sage!Publications,!1998).! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 28! while! some! corresponded! in! email! to! answer! followLup! questions.! In! almost! all! the! interviews,! participants! allowed! me! to! use! a! recording! device,! although! in! some! cases,! I! was!asked!to!use!the!information!anonymously.!The!systematic!recording!and!transcribing! of!data!was!crucial!to!the!continuous!refining!of!my!theoretical!framework.!

To!validate!the!reported!observations!and!shared!experiences,!I!ensured!to!check! multiple!sources!of!data!such!as!other!reports,!analyses,!media!representations,!and!so!on.!

Additionally,! I! often! returned! to! previously! interviewed! participants! to! validate! newly! acquired! data.! In! fact,! triangulation! was! a! key! method! I! used! in! order! to! corroborate! evidence.!!

Bennett! and! Elman! have! highlighted! the! importance! of! qualitative! methods! in! IR! because!of!their!advantages!in!examining!complex!phenomena,!noting,!“Some!of!the!most! prominent! subjects! of! study,! for! example! wars! and! the! formation! of! new! international! security! and! economic! systems,! often! involve! interaction! effects! among! many! structural! and! agentLbased! variables,! path! dependencies,! and! strategic! interaction! among! large! numbers!of!actors!across!multiple!levels!of!analysis!with!private!information!and!strong! incentives! to! bluff! or! deceive! other! actors.” 48 !To! that! effect,! this! dissertation! uses! qualitative! methods! to! examine! the! emergence! of! a! complex! social! phenomenon:! the! convergence! of! diverse! actors! on! the! antipoverty! norm.! As! the! chapters! elucidate,! the! methods!used!offered!considerable!advantages!in!demonstrating!the!strategic!interactions! between!agentLbased!and!structural!variables!at!multiple!levels!of!analysis,!seeking!moral! and! material! ends.! Thanks! to! the! experiential! expertise! offered! by! study! participants,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!Andrew!Bennett!and!Colin!Elman,!“Case!Study!Methods!in!International!Relations!Subfield,”!Comparative( Political(Studies(40,!no.!2!(February!2007):!171.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 29! corroborated! with! archival! research! and! document! analyses,! the! complex! process! of! antipoverty! norm! construction! could! be! broken! down! and! woven! together.! That! story! unfolds!in!the!pages!of!this!dissertation.!!

1.4 Chapter Outline ! ! This!introductory!chapter!is!followed!by!Chapter!2,!which!reviews!the!literature!and! outlines!the!theoretical!framework!used!to!explain!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!

The! literature! review! suggests! that! constructivism! has! been! dominating! explanations! pertaining! to! norm! emergence.! Although! more! recent! studies! have! been! bridging! the!

“constructivistLrealist”! divide,! their! focus! has! either! been! predominantly! on! specific! organizations!(primarily!the!World!Bank)!or!on!other!issue!areas,!but!not!the!antipoverty! norm.!As!such,!this!dissertation!makes!two!primary!contributions!to!the!IR!literature!on! norms.! First,! by! adding! a! structural! dimension! to! constructivist! accounts! of! norm! emergence,! it! offers! a! theoretical! framework! that! emphasizes! the! importance! of! state! interests! and! organizational! incentives.! Second,! by! tracing! the! construction! of! the! antipoverty!norm!and!creation!of!international!consensus!around!this!norm,!it!offers!a!case! study!of!a!normative!agenda!that!has!received!less!attention!in!the!literature.!

The!rest!of!the!dissertation!is!composed!of!two!main!parts.!The! rationale! for! this! way! of! organizing! the! dissertation! may! be! best! explained! by! drawing! on! Waltz,! whose! distinction!between!“permissive”!and!“efficient”!causes!offers!a!good!heuristic!device!for! this! discussion.49!The! former! constitute! background! conditions,! while! the! latter! refer! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!In!his!Man,(the(State,(and(War,(Waltz!categorized!causes!of!war!into!two!groups:!“efficient”!causes,!which! make!a!particular!war!occur,!and!“permissive”!causes,!without!which!war!cannot!occur.!Although!I!am!tracing! the!evolution!of!a!normative!agenda!that!is!antithetical!to!war,!I!find!these!categories!to!offer!a!useful!way!of! organizing!my!dissertation!chapters.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 30! immediate! causes.! Part! I! of! this! dissertation! focuses! on! the! permissive! causes! or! background!conditions!that!created!an!environment!amenable! to! the!construction! of! the! antipoverty!norm,!and!consists!of!three!chapters.!Part!II,!in!turn,!examines!the!efficient!or! immediate! causes! that! led! to! the! international! community’s! convergence! on! the! antipoverty! norm! and! its! consolidation! in! the! new! millennium;! this! part! consists! of! two! chapters.!!

Part!I!analyzes!organizational!incentives!and!state!interests!to!argue!that!during!the!

1980s!and!1990s,!three!parallel!processes!took!place!that!set!the!stage!for!the!emergence! and!wide!acceptance!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!First,!the!end!of!the!Cold!War!put!an!end!to! the!race!for!the!hearts!and!minds.!The!erasure!of!the!Communist!threat!to!the!“free!world”! was!accompanied!with!a!reduction!in!foreign!aid!to!the!“Third!World.”50!The!vindication!of! liberal! values! of! democracy! and! free! markets! meant! that! despite! increasing! criticism! of! economic! policies! rooted! in! neoLclassical! economics! that! privileged! economic! growth! above! and! beyond! other! measures! of! progress! and! human! development,! economic! and! political! liberalism! gained! the! upper! hand.! Second,! in! light! of! wide! discontent! with! the!

World! Bank! and! IMF! structural! adjustment! policies,! the! 1990s! also! witnessed! a! proliferation!of!NGOs!and!civil!society!groups!who!opposed!those!policies!and!advocated! for!social!justice!and!equality.!Third,!while!the!United!Nations!had!been!hostage!to!USLUSSR! rivalries!throughout!the!Cold!War!era,!in!the!1990s!the!UN!saw!its!power!increasing.!But! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 50!Many! scholars! have! examined! the! history! of! development,! for! example,! Frederick! Cooper! and! Randall! Packard,! eds.! International( Development( and( the( Social( Sciences( (Berkeley:! University! of! California! Press,! 1997);! Nick! Cullather,! “Development?! It’s! History,”! Diplomatic( History( 24,! no.! 4! (2000):! 641L! 653;! Arturo! Escobar,! Encountering( Development:( The( Making( and( Unmaking( of( the( Third( World( (Princeton:! Princeton! University!Press,!1995);!Gilbert!Rist,!The(History(of(Development:(From(Western(Origins(to(Global(Faith.(3rd!ed.! (London:!Zed!Books,!2009);!Wolfgang!Sachs,!ed.,!The(Development(Dictionary:(A(Guide(to(Knowledge(as(Power( (London:!Zed!Books,!1992).!!

! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 31! the!liberty!to!act!more!freely!was!not!necessarily!accompanied!with!the!required!capacity! to!engage!in!the!increasing!wars!and!conflicts!that!inflicted!the!world.!!

Thus,! in! spite! of! “end! of! history”! narratives,! by! the! midL1990s,! crises! in! global! governance!institutions!loomed!large,!from!declining!foreign!aid!to!the!newly!liberated!UN! mired!in!controversies!of!wars!in!Somalia,!Bosnia,!and!Rwanda,!to!the!Fifty(Years(is(Enough! campaign!protesting!the!socially!destructive!policies!of!the!World!Bank!and!the!IMF.!These! developments! composed! the! background! conditions! within! which! the! antipoverty! norm! emerged,!and!are!detailed!in!Chapters!3!and!4.!!

Chapter!5!examines!state!interests!by!highlighting!the!shift!in!the!internal!politics!of! key!OECD!countries,!including!Germany,!the!Netherlands,!UK,!and!US,!where!leftLofLcenter! parties! replaced! conservative! governments! in! the! 1990s.! These! political! shifts! had! real! foreign! policy! implications.! The! chapter! examines! the! politics! of! the! United! Kingdom! to! emphasize!the!important!role!that!states!play!in!global!normative!agenda!setting.!The!shift! from!the!long!rule!by!Tories!to!New!Labour,!in!conjunction!with!the!British!involvement!in! the! biggest! foreign! aid! scandal! in! its! history,! generated! changes! in! the! UK! foreign! aid! architecture.! These! developments! impacted! the! moral! and! strategic! rationale! behind!

British!initiatives!to!make!poverty!central!to!development,!and!are!explored!in!more!detail! in!Chapter!5.!

While! Part! I! explores! the! background! conditions! that! led! to! the! opening! up! of! a! political! space! to! further! development! debates,! Part! II! examines! the! conditions! that! enabled! the! antipoverty! norm! to! fill! that! space.! In! examining! the! years! leading! to! and! following! the! 2000! Millennium! Summit,! Chapters! 6! and! 7,! respectively,! offer! a! political! analysis!that!relays!the!variegated!perspectives!from!the!UN,!World!Bank,!OECD!as!well!as! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 32! the! NGO! community.! In! an! attempt! to! interrogate! state! interests! and! organizational! incentives! to! converge! on! poverty! reduction,! Chapter! 6! focuses! on! specific! moments! of! norm!articulation:!the!UN!World!Summit!for!Social!Development!(WSSD)!in!March!1995,!

WSSD+5!in!June!2000,!and!the!Millennium!Summit!in!September!2000.!Based!on!a!detailed! analysis! of! the! processes! that! generated! the! Millennium! Development! Goals,! I! show! the! interaction! of! ideational! and! material! factors! that! gave! rise! to! the! convergence! on! the! antipoverty! norm.! In! particular,! I! demonstrate! that! the! MDGs! were! initially,! in! their! IDG! formulation!a!construct!of!the!donor!community,!who!looked!for!ways!to!make!aid!relevant! and!to!justify!development!assistance!to!their!citizens.!However,!with!the!inclusion!of!goal!

8! on! global! cooperation! for! development,! the! right! ingredients! were! added! to! make! this! agenda!palatable!to!the!international!community!at!large.!!

Chapter!7!argues!that!the!multidimensional!character!of!poverty!embedded!within! the!formulation!of!the!MDGs!was!both!morally!and!strategically!important!for!soliciting!the! approval!of!key!agencies!and!gaining!the!endorsement!of!member!states.!In!analyzing!the! uptake! of! the! MDGs! immediately! following! their! introduction! in! September! 2001,! the! chapter!first!elaborates!on!the!mechanisms!that!were!set!in!place!to!make!the!antipoverty! norm! and! the! MDGs! part! of! national! debates.! In! particular,! it! focuses! on! the! role! of! the!

UNDP! in! that! process! as! the! “scorekeeper”! and! “campaign! manager”! of! the! development! agenda.!I!argue!that!while!the!uptake!was!not!immediate,!nevertheless,!the!consolidation!of! the!antipoverty!norm!has!been!successful!based!on!the!persistence!of!the!MDGs!within!the! global!development!agenda!for!the!past!15!years.!I!attribute!that!success!to!the!constitution! of! the! antipoverty! norm! and! show! that! the! setting! of! quantitative! targets! and! standardization!of!poverty!played!an!important!role!in!consolidating!the!antipoverty!norm.! Chapter(1.(INTRODUCTION( 33!

This! was! primarily! accomplished! through! the! initial! focus! on! monitoring! and! reporting,! which! required! technical! discussions! of! MDG! indicators! and! ways! to! make! them! meaningful!within!national!contexts.!!

Together,!the!chapters!make!three!main!contributions!to!the!literature.!First,!I!argue! and!demonstrate!that!in!the!construction!of!the!global!development!agenda!at!the!turn!of! the! millennium,! structural! constraints! impacted! the! range! of! possible! collaborative! outcomes! thereby! privileging! the! antipoverty! norm! over! other! potentially! competing! norms.!Second,!while!norm!entrepreneurs!and!transnational!advocacy!networks!have!been! overly! emphasized! as! the! underlying! mechanisms! for! norm! emergence,! my! dissertation! shows! the! important! role! of! states! in! constructing! the! antipoverty! norm.! In! fact,! states! themselves! can! be! norm! entrepreneurs,! strategically! advancing! certain! normative! principles! beyond! others.! Third,! I! draw! attention! to! the! multidimensional! nature! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! arguing! that! a! new! type! of! norm—a! norm( complex—is! increasingly! dominating! the! normative! scene.! These! norm! complexes! are! on! the! face! of! it! clear,! commonsensical,! and! specifically! defined.! However,! they! embody! a! composite! and! interdependent! set! of! normative! claims,! which! can! be! tracked! based! on! measurable! indicators!that!obscure!the!multifaceted!nature!of!these!norms.!And!yet,!this!constitution!of! these! norm! complexes! facilitates! their! consolidation,! as! difficult! concepts! and! controversies! around! the! norms! themselves! are! replaced! with! technical! discussions! on! how! to! measure! and! attain! the! individual! targets.! It! is! the! multidimensional! property! of! such!norm!complexes!that!helps!explain!the!consolidation!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!! !

Chapter 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK !

! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 35!

! ! This!dissertation!examines!the!politics!surrounding!the!international!community’s! convergence!on!poverty!reduction!as!the!ultimate!goal!of!development.!While!poverty!had! been!part!of!development!debates!in!the!past!and!its!elimination!had!come!to!constitute! one! of! the! many! commitments! expressed! in! international! conferences,! in! particular! the!

World! Summit! for! Social! Development! in! 1995,! the! understanding! that! the! reduction! of! extreme!poverty!should!be!the!overarching!goal!of!the!international!development!agenda! emerged! later.! In! fact,! the! focus! on! reducing! extreme! poverty! first! emerged! in! the!

International! Development! Goals! (IDGs)! heralded! by! the! donor! club! in! 1996,! was! later! integrated! into! the! project! planning! of! the! international! financial! institutions! (IFIs)—in! particular! the! World! Bank! and! IMF—through! the! Poverty! Reduction! Strategy! Papers!

(PRSPs),! and! was! finally! institutionalized! within! the! international! realm! through! the!

Millennium!Development!Goals!(MDGs)!in!2001.!!

This!convergence!was!a!break!from!the!past.!Throughout!the!20th!century,!varying! international!organizations!had!held!different!perspectives!on!development!with!largely!a! clear!division!between!the!Bretton!Woods!institutions!(BWIs)!and!the!UN!agencies.!While! the!former!were!representative!of!Northern!countries!and!focused!on!the!financial!sector! emphasizing!projects!pertaining!to!infrastructure,!the!latter!were!more!representative!of! the! Global! South! focusing! on! social! inequalities.1!These! differences! were! bridged! and! a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!This!binary!opposition!of!the!North!and!the!South!is!a!simplification!and!does!not!reflect!the!reality!on!the! ground.! There! were! and! still! are! some! countries! in! the! North,! notably! the! Scandinavian! countries! and! the! Netherlands,! that! empathized! and! supported! calls! from! the! South! for! greater! independence! and! decisionV! making,! just! as! there! were! states! and! statesmen! in! the! South! supporting! the! policies! emanating! from! the! North.!However,!heuristically,!the!binary!distinctions!between!the!North!and!the!South,!West!and!the!Rest,! developed! and! developing! countries,! are! useful,! and! I! continue! using! them! throughout! this! dissertation! because!of!their!widespread!usage!and!in!order!to!maintain!consistency!with!existing!language.!I!also!do!not! delve!into!a!debate!about!the!terms!that!are!used!to!differentiate!between!countries!in!terms!of!economic,! political,!or!social!development.!Development!itself!is!a!highly!contested!term,!but!that!debate!is!beyond!the! scope!of!this!project.!!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 36!

! ! unified! agenda! was! born! at! the! turn! of! the! millennium.! However,! while! the! agenda! was! adopted! unanimously! in! the! form! of! the! Millennium! Declaration! by! all! the! UN! member! states,! the! specific! goals,! targets! and! indicators! were! broached! by! experts! hailing! from! diverse!multilateral!institutions.!How!did!various!international!organizations,!in!particular! the! UN,! the! World! Bank,! IMF,! and! OECD! come! to! converge! on! poverty! reduction! as! the! ultimate!aim!of!development?!Why!did!they!converge!on!poverty!reduction!and!not!some! other!normative!goal,!such!as!reducing!inequality!or!promoting!governance?!What!political! forces!and!motivations!made!convergence!possible?!!

These!questions!have!been!largely!omitted!in!scholarly!and!policy!works,!where!the! main!focus!has!been!on!the!impact!of!this!compromise!rather!than!its!origins.!Those!that! have!looked!into!its!origins!fall!into!two!categories.!One!group!of!scholars!and!practitioners! has!offered!descriptive!accounts!outlining!diverse!organizational!perspectives.2!These!are! detailed!and!insightful!documents!that!help!us!see!the!politics!behind!the!process!that!led! to!the!creation!of!the!MDGs,!however,!they!neither!attempt!to!offer!a!holistic!picture!nor!do! they! base! their! narratives! on! any! specific! theories.! The! other! group! of! scholars! has! primarily! relied! on! conventional! constructivist! theory,! emphasizing! the! role! of! agency,! contingency,!and!transnational!networks.!As!I!discuss!below,!constructivist!accounts!are!a! welcome! change! to! previously! dominant! strands! of! rationalist! “regimes”! literature! that! ignored! the! normative! foundations! of! cooperative! outcomes! by! focusing! on! functionalist! analyses!to!explain!the!creation!of!institutions!as!solutions!to!collective!action!problems.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!See! Jan! Vandemoortele,! “The! MDG! Story:! Intention! Denied,”! Development!and!Change!42.1! (2011):! 1V21;! David!Hulme,!“The!Millennium!Development!Goals!(MDGs):!A!Short!History!of!the!World’s!Biggest!Promise,”! Working! paper! no.! 100! (Manchester:! Brooks! World! Poverty! Institute,! 2009);! Richard! Manning,! Using! Indicators!to!Encourage!Development:!Lessons!from!the!Millennium!Development!Goals,!DIIS!Report!2009:01! (Copenhagen:!Danish!Institute!for!International!Studies,!2009).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 37!

! ! While!rational!functionalism!addressed!important!questions!on!creation!and!effectiveness! of! international! institutions,! by! taking! interests! and! preferences! as! given,! it! neglected! to! critically!examine!why!certain!institutions!came!to!dominate!the!global!governance!agenda! and! not! others.! Constructivism! offered! insightful! theories! that! have! contributed! to! our! better!understanding!of!institutional!change,!but!it!also!has!its!own!shortcomings,!including! overemphasis!on!agency!and!contingency,!which!this!study!aims!to!address.!

To! answer! the! questions! of! why! convergence! and! why! convergence! on! poverty! reduction,! I! use! the! distinction! International! Relations! (IR)! scholar! Robert! Cox! makes! between!“critical!theory,”!which!is!“concerned!with!how!the!existing!order!came!into!being! and!what!the!possibilities!are!for!change!in!that!order,”!as!opposed!to!“problem!solving”! theory,!which!“takes!the!world!as!given!and!provides!guidance!to!correct!dysfunctions!or! specific! problems! that! arise! within! this! existing! order.”3 !As! this! examination! of! the! antipoverty!norm!suggests,!the!focus!on!poverty!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium!constituted!a!

“problem! solving”! approach! that! tried! to! correct! for! and! improve! on! the! “negative! externalities”!of!economic!globalization,!which!had!resulted!in!increasing!gaps!between!the! poor!and!the!rich,!both!at!national!and!international!levels.!There!were!other!competing! norms!that!fit!the!historical!Zeitgeist!of!humanitarianism.!The!most!prominent!competing! norms! were! those! of! inequality! and! governance.! However,! as! Chapter! 1! explained,!these! terms! were! associated! with! transfer! of! wealth! and! redistribution! of! power,! thus! making! their!deployment!unlikely!as!they!threatened!existing!interests.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!Interestingly,!what!we!see!with!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm!and!in!particular!the!MDGs!is!a!kind! of! problemVsolving! theory! in! action.! Rather! than! exploring! the! underlying! foundations! and! institutional! structures,!rules!and!procedures!that!have!created!inequalities!and!led!to!subVoptimal!development!progress,! the!MDGs!focus!on!the!“dysfunctions”!arising!from!neoliberal!policy!making!and!try!to!improve!on!them.!See! Robert! Cox,! “Critical! Political! Economy,”! in! International!Political!Economy:!Understanding!Global!Disorder,! edited!by!Bjorn!Hettne!(London!and!New!Jersey:!Zed!Books,!1995),!32.!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 38!

! ! This! chapter! outlines! the! theoretical! framework! underpinning! the! subsequent! analysis! of! the! emergence! of! antipoverty! norm.! It! consists! of! four! parts.! First,! some! definitions!are!offered!to!clarify!terms.!Second,!I!examine!the!literature!pertaining!to!norm! emergence!and!highlight!its!emphasis!on!ideas!and!identities!and!its!underVspecification!of! structural!factors.!The!discussion!draws!on!the!norms!literature!broadly,!but!focuses!on!the! rare! treatments! of! the! antipoverty! norm.! In! the! third! part,! I! offer! a! template! that! supplements! existing! constructivist! analyses! by! examining! the! interaction! of! actors! and! their! structural! environment! while! focusing! on! political! constraints! that! made! the! convergence! on! poverty! possible.! To! do! that! I! analyze! the! organizational! structures! that! enabled! this! consensus! while! highlighting! the! link! between! domestic! politics! and! international!cooperation.!I!further!emphasize!the!important!role!of!the!form!and!content! of!antipoverty!norm!in!its!broad!acceptance.!Finally,!I!briefly!review!alternative!hypotheses! of! the! antipoverty! convergence! and! discuss! why! the! theoretical! framework! suggested! in! these!pages!better!explains!norm!emergence.!!

2.1 Definitions

At!the!outset,!some!terms!require!definition.!As!I!examine!the!processes!that!led!to! the! emergence! of! the! antipoverty! norm,!it! seems! logical! to! first! define! norms.! Following!

Katzenstein’s!definition,!a!norm!describes!“a!standard!of!appropriate!behavior!for!actors! with!a!given!identity.”4!I!define!antipoverty!norm!as!a!standard!behavior!towards!poverty! as!something!that!is!morally!wrong!and!must!be!eradicated.!As!suggested!earlier,!the!MDGs!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!See!Peter!J.!Katzenstein,!ed.,!The!Culture!of!National!Security:!Norms!and!Identity!in!World!Politics!(New!York:! Columbia!University!Press,!1996),!3;!Martha!Finnemore!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!“International!Norm!Dynamics! and!Political!Change,”!International!Organization!52,!no.!4!(Autumn!1998):!891.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 39!

! ! in! that! sense! might! be! considered! a! “norm! complex,”! as! the! goals! and! targets! are! all! directed!at!achieving!a!reduction!in!poverty!while!each!specific!goal!focuses!on!particular! moral! claims! such! as! the! right! to! education,! to! adequate! health! services,! to! equality! of! genders,! etc.! I! further! draw! on! Katzenstein’s! distinction! between! “constitutive! norms,”! which! define! the! identity! of! an! actor! and! “regulative! norms”! that! identify! standards! of! proper!behavior.!The!antipoverty!norm,!in!that!respect,!is!both!constitutive!and!regulative! in! that! it! constitutes! the! poor! (those! living! on! less! than! $1.25! a! day5)! and! prescribes! behavior! that! is! necessary! in! order! to! help! the! poor! out! of! poverty! (by! investing! in! provision!of!social!services!such!as!health!and!education).!!

! I!also!make!a!distinction!between!institutions!and!international!organizations.!In!IR! literature!these!terms!are!often!used!interchangeably,!which!can!lead!to!some!confusion.!

Lisa! Martin! and! Beth! Simmons! have! convincingly! advocated! the! utility! of! differentiating! between! international! institutions! and! international! organizations! so! as! to! keep! rules! separate! from! the! organizations! that! create,! endorse,! follow! or! break! them.6!Although! it! might! seem! strange! to! use! a! definition! offered! by! a! scholar! who! doesn’t! believe! in! institutions,! nevertheless,! I! follow! them! in! using! John! Mearsheimer’s! definition! of! institutions!as!“sets!of!rules!that!stipulate!the!ways!in!which!states!should!cooperate!and! compete! with! each! other.”7!I! have! conscientiously! chosen! this! definition! because! of! its!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!Initially,! the! poverty! line! was! set! at! $1! a! day! at! 1981! purchasing! power! parity! (or! PPP)! calculations,! however,! in! 2008! economists! updated! this! number! to! take! account! of! better! consumption! and! price! data,! based! on! a! comparable! basket! of! goods! across! countries.! See! Shaohua! Chen! and! Martin! Ravallion,! The! Developing! World! Is! Poorer! Than! We! Thought,! But! No! Less! Successful! in! the! Fight! against! Poverty,! Policy! Research!Working!paper!no.!4703!(Washington,!DC:!The!World!Bank,!2008).!

6 !Lisa! Martin! and! Beth! A.! Simmons,! “International! Organizations! and! Institutions,”! in! Handbook! of! International!Relations,!edited!by!Walter!Carlsnaes,!Thomas!Risse,!and!Beth!A.!Simmons!(Los!Angeles:!Sage! Publications,!2013).!

7!John!Mearsheimer,!in!turn,!was!inspired!by!the!definition!of!institutions!offered!by!Douglas!C.!North!and!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 40!

! ! clarity.! Rules! can! be! procedural! and! normative.! Based! on! this! definition! the! Millennium!

Development! Goals! are! institutions! embodying! the! antipoverty! norm.! I! reserve! the! term!

“institutions”!for!rules!only,!such!as!social!customs!and!moral!beliefs.!!

International! organizations! (IOs),! on! the! other! hand,! are! “associations! of! actors,! typically!states”8!such!as!the!UN!and!the!World!Bank.!Generally,!states!create!IOs!because! they!help!them!overcome!collective!action!problems!by!collecting!information,!monitoring! agreements,! establishing! credible! commitment,! and! providing! public! goods.! As! Michael!

Barnett!and!Martha!Finnemore!have!demonstrated,!IOs!can!also!act!as!autonomous!entities! to!develop!interests!independent!of!their!member!states!and!to!construct!the!social!world! in! which! cooperation! and! competition! takes! place.9!In! contrast! to! their! focus! on! IOs’! potential!to!exhibit!pathologies!such!as!inefficiencies!and!unaccountability,!I!focus!instead! on!IOs’!strength!and!perseverance!when!faced!with!existential!threats.!!

! Another!term!in!need!of!definition!is!poverty.!The!Millennium!Development!Goals! define!extreme!poverty!as!a!condition!attributed!to!those!who!live!on!less!than!$1.25!at!

2005!calculations!of!purchasing!power!parity!(PPP).10!This!technical!definition—originally!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Robert!P.!Thomas,!as!he!cites!them!in!his!article.!Nevertheless,!considering!that!Mearsheimer!concludes!in! this!article!that!international!institutions!have!little!to!no!influence!on!state!behavior,!it!might!seem!strange!to! use!his!definition.!Having!said!that,!I!find!his!to!be!the!most!succinct!and!clear!definition!I!have!come!across! and! have! decided! to! use! it! in! this! study.! See! John! J.! Mearsheimer,! “The! False! Promise! of! International! Institutions,”!International!Security!19,!no.!3!(Winter!1994):!8.!!

8!Martin!and!Simmons,!“International!Organizations!and!Institutions,”!194.!

9!Michael! Barnett! and! Martha! Finnemore,! Rules!for!the!World:!International!Organizations!in!Global!Politics! (Ithaca:!Cornell!University!Press,!2004).!!

10!PPP! or! purchasing! power! parity! is! the! rate! of! currency! conversion,! indicating! the! rate! at! which! the! currency!of!a!country!would!have!to!be!converted!into!another!country’s!currency!in!order!to!purchase!the! same! basket! of! goods! and! services.! PPPs! equalize! the! purchasing! power! of! different! currencies! to! make! comparison! across! nations! possible.! For! more! information,! see! for! example,! Alan! M.! Taylor! and! Mark! P.! Taylor,!“The!Purchasing!Power!Parity!Debate,”!Journal!of!Economic!Perspectives!18,!no.!4!(Fall!2004):!135V 158.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 41!

! ! as!$1!a!day—was!created!by!the!World!Bank!in!1993!and!has!made!it!possible!to!measure,! monitor,!and!compare!poverty!rates!across!countries.!However,!it!has!also!been!a!point!of! contention!among!economists!and!political!philosophers,!giving!rise!to!quite!a!controversy! in!academic!and!policy!circles.11!Several!factors!have!given!rise!to!this!debate,!including!the! arbitrary! nature! of! this! definition,! its! selective! applicability! to! the! extreme! poor! in! developing! countries,! and! its! exclusion! of! the! extreme! poor! in! the! more! developed! countries.!

It! is! beyond! the! scope! of! this! dissertation! to! delve! into! the! technical! debate! on! poverty! measurement,! but! it! is! more! important! to! note! that! the! MDGs! have! advocated! poverty!as!a!multidimensional!concept!in!line!with!the!capabilities!approach!inherent!to! human!development.!In!fact,!in!order!to!complement!monetary!measures!of!poverty,!a!new! measurement!called!multidimensional!poverty!index!(MPI)!has!been!created!based!on!the!

Human! Development! Index! (HDI).! Irrespective! of! the! various! techniques! devised! to! measure!poverty,!as!a!relational!concept,!poverty!may!only!make!sense!and!have!meaning! in!its!own!socioeconomic!context!and!in!relation!to!other!members!of!society.!This!explains! why! rather! than! focusing! on! poverty,! the! international! community! chose! to! focus! on! extreme! poverty! originally! measured! as! $1! a! day,! which! irrespective! of! geographical! location!indicated!a!marginal!existence.!By!defining!poverty!in!human!development!terms! of!opportunities!and!capabilities,!poverty!rests!on!a!multidimensional!concept!that!is!key!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11!For!example,!Sanjay!Reddy!and!Thomas!Pogge!have!been!some!of!the!most!vocal!critics!of!the!$1!a!day! poverty!line,!arguing!that!this!international!poverty!line!is!arbitrary,!that!its!concept!of!purchasing!power! parity!is!illVdefined,!and!that!it!relies!on!limited!data!to!generate!estimates!that!mask!the!high!probable!error.! Martin! Ravallion! has! responded! to! these! criticisms! in! defense! of! the! $1/day.! But! more! importantly,! many! books! and! articles! have! dedicated! themselves! to! a! discussion! of! poverty! and! its! measurement.! See! for! example,!Sudhir!Anand,!Paul!Segal,!and!Joseph!E.!Stiglitz,!eds.,!Debates!on!the!Measurement!of!Global!Poverty! (Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!2010).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 42!

! ! its!functioning!as!a!unifying!theme.!In!other!words,!the!multidimensionality!inherent!to!this! definition!of!poverty!enables!actors!to!draw!on!different!factors!(such!as!lack!of!access!to! education,! water! and! sanitation,! etc.)! while! advocating! for! the! overall! goal! of! reducing! poverty.! As! this! dissertation! demonstrates! in! the! final! chapter,! this! specific! form! and! content! of! the! antipoverty! norm! is! indeed! key! to! the! successful! consolidation! of! the! antipoverty!norm!and!its!centrality!to!the!global!development!agenda.!!

2.2 Literature on Norm Emergence

A! large! literature! in! International! Relations! has! looked! into! questions! of! norm! emergence.!Constructivist!scholars12!have!pioneered!this!field,!so!much!that!in!the!span!of! two!decades!“constructivism!has!become!firmly!established!in!mainstream!IR!theory,!both! in!North!America!and!around!the!world.”13!Constructivism!of!course!emerged!in!response! to! perceived! shortcomings! in! realist! and! liberal! theories,! whose! rationalist! ontology! and! epistemology!were!blamed!for!the!failure!to!predict!the!collapse!of!the!Soviet!Union.!While! constructivists! focused! on! values! of! cooperative! behavior! and! how! that! behavior! led! to! creation!of!norms,!previously!IR!scholars!had!been!relying!on!rationalist!methodology!to! study! international! institutions.! Traditional! realists! had! argued! that! international! organizations! and! institutions! were! epiphenomenal! to! state! interests! and! power,! noting! that!they!were!either!dominated!by!powerful!states!or!created!in!a!way!as!to!be!irrelevant!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 !Although! constructivists! themselves! are! not! a! homogenous! group,! here! I! focus! on! their! common! characteristics!for!purposes!of!critique!rather!than!differentiate!between!the!various!strands!that!emphasize! certain!factors!over!others.!!

13 !Emanuel! Adler,! “Constructivism! in! International! Relations:! Sources,! Contributions,! and! Debates,”! in! Handbook!of!International!Relations,!edited! by! Walter! Carlsnaes,! Thomas! Risse,! and! Beth! A.! Simmons! (Los! Angeles:!Sage!Publications,!2013),!112.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 43!

! ! to! international! affairs.14!In! addition,! realist! assumptions! of! state! of! anarchy! and! states’! desire! to! survive! in! a! selfVhelp! system! dictated! that! international! cooperation! would! be! rare.!If!realists!were!right,!what!then!explained!the!creation!of!multilateral!organizations! through!which!states!pursued!cooperation!on!international!issues?!

Liberal!institutionalists!had!a!different!response.!Although!they!built!their!theories! on!the!same!premises!of!anarchy!and!primacy!of!states,!they!focused!on!how!international! regimes! emerged! to! promote! cooperation.! The! “international! regimes”! literature! argued! that! in! an! attempt! to! produce! public! goods,! selfVinterested! states! voluntarily! created! multilateral! organizations! to! reduce! collective! action! problems.! Defining! regimes! as!

“principles,! norms,! rules,! and! decisionVmaking! procedures! around! which! actors’! expectations! converge! in! a! given! area! of! international! relations,”15 !they! argued! that! regimes! institutionalized! reciprocity,! lowered! transaction! costs,! reduced! informational! uncertainties,!extended!the!shadow!of!the!future,!and!generally!enabled!domestic!elites!to! achieve! their! goals.! Thus,! relying! on! functionalist! logic,! these! scholars! explained! the! creation!of!international!institutions!and!organizations!as!a!means!to!focus!expectations!on! a!cooperative!solution,!leaving!limited!role!for!ideational!factors.!Even!scholars!that!took! the!influence!of!ideas!on!policy!outcomes!seriously!focused!on!the!act!and!outcome!but!less! on!the!actor!and!the!structural!conditions!and!social!relationships!that!constitute!them.16!!

Constructivists!criticized!functionalist!explanations!on!several!grounds.!In!specific,! they!attacked!two!central!rationalist!premises:!that!states!were!treated!as!the!main!actors!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14!See,!for!example,!John!J.!Mearsheimer,!“The!False!Promise!of!International!Institutions,”!5V49.!

15!Stephen!D.!Krasner,!International!Regimes!(Ithaca,!NY:!Cornell!University!Press,!1983),!2.!!

16!Judith!Goldstein!and!Robert!O.!Keohane,!Ideas!and!Foreign!Policy:!Beliefs,!Institutions,!and!Political!Change! (Ithaca,!NY:!Cornell!University!Press,!1993).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 44!

! ! and!that!states’!preferences!were!given.!Constructivists!argued!that!emphasis!on!states!had! detracted! from! the! important! role! of! nonVstate! actors! and! maintained! that! not! only! did! both! agency! and! structure! matter,! but! further! their! relationship! was! reflexive! such! that! agents’!conceptions!shaped!their!world!while!these!conceptions!themselves!were!shaped! by!the!social!environment!and!the!intersubjective!structures!that!they!created.!In!addition,! they!argued!that!ideational!factors!had!been!key!to!the!change!in!international!relations! and! that! to! understand! change! one! had! to! theorize! the! construction! of! identities! and! interests.!Naturally,!because!of!its!dialogical!interaction!with!neorealism!and!neoliberalism,! constructivism! built! its! research! around! areas! in! which! it! could! show! that! social! factors! determined! material! interests,! that! states! were! not! the! only! actors! on! the! international! scene,! and! that! international! organizations! themselves! were! autonomous! actors! and! not! merely!tools!of!states.!!

As! a! result! of! problematizing! interests,! preferences! and! identities,! constructivists! focused!on!other!causal!mechanisms!to!explain!change.!Finnemore!and!Sikkink!identified!

“persuasion! by! norm! entrepreneurs”! as! the! “characteristic! mechanism”! behind! norm! emergence.17!Norm! entrepreneurs,! according! to! this! interpretation,! are! purposive! agents! whose!discontent!with!existing!norms!leads!to!their!collaboration!in!an!attempt!to!change! status!quo.!Ideational!commitment,!altruism!and!empathy!are!some!of!the!reasons!that!lead! these! entrepreneurs! to! use! organizational! platforms! to! persuade! their! governments! to! adopt! new! norms.! Finnemore! and! Sikkink! introduced! the! concept! of! a! norm! “life! cycle”! consisting! of! three! stages.! Norm! entrepreneurs! play! a! key! role! in! the! first! stage! as! they!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17!Martha!Finnemore!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!“International!Norm!Dynamics!and!Political!Change,”!International! Organization!52,!no.!4!(1998):!895.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 45!

! ! persuade!a!few!critical!actors!in!the!system!to!embrace!a!new!norm.!This!leads!to!a!norm! cascade! when! the! initial! norm! leaders! socialize! other! states! through! “a! combination! of! pressure! for! conformity,! desire! to! enhance! international! legitimation,! and! the! desire! of! state!leaders!to!enhance!their!selfVesteem.”18!The!final!stage!is!“norm!internalization”!when! the! new! norm! becomes! a! legitimate! form! of! behavior! and! is! taken! for! granted.! In! sum,!

Finnemore! and! Sikkink! base! the! successful! construction! of! new! norms! on! “norm! entrepreneurs!and!organizational!platforms!from!which!entrepreneurs!act.”19!!

Norm!entrepreneurs!play!a!catalytic!role!because!of!their!ability!to!“frame”!issues!in! such!a!way!that!they!resonate!with!the!wider!public.!But!they!will!not!be!effective!if!they!do! not!have!some!kind!of!an!organizational!platform!that!makes!it!possible!for!them!to!make! their! ideas! heard.! Thus,! nonVstate! actors! such! as! nonVgovernmental! organizations! at! the! national! and! international! levels! are! key! to! the! creation! of! new! norms.! Sometimes! new! platforms!are!created!in!pursuit!of!a!specific!norm,!such!as!in!the!case!of!the!Red!Cross!to! promote! the! norm! of! not! harming! medical! personnel! and! those! wounded! in! wars.! But! existing! international! organizations,! such! as! the! United! Nations! or! the! World! Bank,! may! also! be! used! as! a! platform! to! create! new! norms.! This! line! of! analysis! focusing! on! norm! entrepreneurs! and! their! organizational! platforms! has! been! extended! to! myriad! subjects,! such! as! human! rights,20!humanitarian! intervention,21!gender! violence! and! reproductive! rights,22!and!children!in!armed!conflict,23!among!others.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!Ibid.!

19!Ibid.,!896.!

20!Thomas!Risse,!Stephen!C.!Ropp!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!The!Power!of!Human!Rights:!International!Norms!and! Domestic!Change!(Cambridge!and!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1999);!Clifford!Bob,!The!Marketing! of!Rebellion:!Insurgents,!Media,!and!International!Activism!(Cambridge!and!New!York:!Cambridge!University! Press,!2005).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 46!

! ! That!individuals!and!international!organizations!played!a!key!role!in!advocating!the! antipoverty! agenda! cannot! be! denied.! Based! on! the! various! accounts! that! reflect! organizational! perspectives! on! the! MDGs,! we! can! pinpoint! at! least! four! IOs! and! several! individuals!whose!engagement!was!crucial!to!the!construction!of!the!antipoverty!norm!and! creation!of!the!MDGs.!Nevertheless,!these!actors!had!to!act!in!sociopolitical!environments! constrained! by! organizational! and! political! constraints! without! the! analysis! of! which! the! emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm!and!the!form!it!took!cannot!be!understood.!!

Another!mechanism!that!has!gained!attention!in!the!literature!constitutes!epistemic! communities,! networks! of! “professionals! with! recognized! expertise! and! competence! in! a! particular! domain! and! an! authoritative! claim! to! policyVrelevant! knowledge! within! that! domain! or! issueVarea.” 24 !These! communities! arise! in! response! to! demand! for! their! expertise! in! order! to! help! policymakers! identify! their! interests,! frame! the! policy! debate,! and! propose! specific! policies! to! solve! the! collective! problem.! Based! on! this! conceptualization! of! epistemic! communities,! they! emerge! when! there! is! a! problem! and! provide!solutions!to!that!problem.!While!epistemic!communities!are!indeed!crucial!to!the! emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!as!networks!of!economists!and!statisticians!primarily!

22Jutta!M.!Joachim,!Agenda!Setting,!The!UN!and!NGOs:!Gender!Violence!and!Reproductive!Rights!(Washington,! DC:!Georgetown!University!Press,!2007);!Sally!E.!Merry,!Human!Rights!and!Gender!Violence:!Translating! International!Law!into!Local!Justice!(Chicago:!The!University!of!Chicago!Press,!2006).!

23!R.!Charli!Carpenter,!“Governing!the!Global!Agenda:!“Gatekeepers”!and!“Issue!Adoption”!in!Transnational! Advocacy!Networks,”!in!Who!Governs!the!Globe?,!edited!by!Deborah!D.!Avant,!Martha!Finnemore!and!Susan!K.! Sell!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2010).!!

24!Peter!M.!Haas,!“Introduction:!Epistemic!Communities!and!International!Policy!Coordination,”!Knowledge,! Power,!and!International!Policy,!special!issue,!International!Organization!46,!no.!1!(Winter!1992):!3.!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 47!

! ! conceptualized!the!MDGs,!how!that!community!is!assembled!and!why!it!contains!certain! types!of!experts!over!others!is!just!as!important.!Hence,!an!explanation!of!norm!emergence! based! on! epistemic! communities! and! their! knowledge! base! overemphasizes! the! actors! above!the!politics!and!institutional!interests!that!help!form!and!maintain!these!networks!of! experts.!!!

As! to! why! certain! international! norms! are! promoted! over! others,! the! form! and! substance!of!the!norm!play!an!important!role.!In!terms!of!the!form!of!the!norm,!some!have! argued!that!the!clarity!and!specificity!of!the!norm!makes!it!effective,!such!that!norms!that! are! ambiguous! and! complex! are! less! likely! to! be! influential.25!In! this! study,! I! make! the! argument! that! the! multidimensional! definition! of! antipoverty! norm! as! a! norm! complex! goes! a! long! way! to! explaining! its! influence.! In! terms! of! the! substance! or! content! of! the! norm,! scholars! have! advanced! several! propositions.! First,! specific! attributes! of! some! problems! might! more! easily! lend! themselves! to! international! advocacy,! such! as! vulnerability!to!bodily!harm!or!violation!of!equal!rights.26!Second,!it!might!be!more!likely! for!a!new!moral!standard!to!succeed!if!its!content!can!be!linked!to!preVexisting!norms.27!

Third,! issues! that! have! strong! public! visibility,! attract! donor! interest,! or! are! central! to! organizational! mandate! might! pressure! transnational! advocates! to! address! them.28!Of! course,! the! focus! on! the! substance! of! the! norm! should! not! derail! our! attention! from! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 !Jeffrey! W.! Legro,! “Which! Norms! Matter?! Revisiting! the! “Failure”! of! Internationalism,”! International! Organization!51,!no.!1!(Winter!1997):!31V63.!

26!Margaret!E.!Keck!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!Activists!Beyond!Borders:!Advocacy!Networks!in!International!Politics! (Ithaca!and!London:!Cornell!University!Press,!1998).!

27!Carpenter,!“Governing!the!Global!Agenda:!“Gatekeepers”!and!“Issue!Adoption”!in!Transnational!Advocacy! Networks,”!2010.!!

28 !Clifford! Bob,! The! Marketing! of! Rebellion:! Insurgents,! Media,! and! International! Activism! (New! York:! Cambridge!University!Press,!2005).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 48!

! ! crucial! role! of! “gatekeepers”29!in! international! organizations,! as! they! have! the! power! to! control!what!enters!the!transnational!agenda.!These!propositions!find!confirmation!in!the! substance! of! the! antipoverty! norm;! however,! I! emphasize! and! show! that! the! multidimensional! definition! of! poverty! as! conceptualized! within! the! MDGs! attracted! and! strategically!served!the!interests!of!powerful!states!and!international!organizations.!!

Based! on! the! foregoing! discussion,! the! main! actors! in! the! process! of! norm! emergence! are! norm! entrepreneurs,! epistemic! communities,! and! their! organizational! platforms!(primarily!nonVstate!actors!consisting!either!of!nonVgovernmental!organizations! or!multilateral!institutions!such!as!the!UN!or!the!World!Bank).!As!such,!constructivists!have! expanded! scholars’! analytical! repertoire! by! incorporating! new! actors! beyond! states! and! focusing!attention!on!ideas!and!identities!beyond!material!factors.!However,!this!focus!has! come! at! the! cost! of! overemphasizing! identity! and! contingency! over! structures,! state! interests,!and!organizational!incentives.30!This!is!especially!evident!in!scholarly!work!that! has!convincingly!demonstrated!that!the!distinctive!features!of!these!organizations!such!as! their! organizational! structure,! their! mission,! the! profile! of! their! employees,! their! relationship!with!member!states!as!well!as!the!way!in!which!they!are!funded!influence!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!A!term!that!Carpenter!(2010)!borrows!from!Bob’s!(2005)!study!on!human!rights,!but!defines!as!“any!global! actor!densely!connected!to!a!particular!issue!network!and!thereby!possessing!particular!influence!over!the! issue! agenda! within! the! network.! These! can! include! thinkVtanks,! international! organizations,! and! governmental! agencies,! as! well! as! leading! NGOs.”! See! Carpenter,! “Governing! the! Global! Agenda:! “Gatekeepers”!and!“Issue!Adoption”!in!Transnational!Advocacy!Networks,”!205.!!

30!It!is!important!to!distinguish!between!“conventional”!and!“critical”!constructivists.!While!the!former!argue! that!ideas!and!norms!are!an!“independent!causal!force”!in!international!relations,!the!latter!draw!on!critical! social!theory,!in!particular!Anthony!Giddens’s!“structuration!theory,”!Juergen!Habermas’s!“discourse!theory”! and!Michel!Foucault’s!“power/knowledge”!conceptualization!to!argue!that!the!construction!of!reality!reflects! relations!of!power.!In!other!words,!not!all!actors!are!equally!engaged!in!the!process!of!social!construction!in! terms!of!their!access!to!power!and!privilege.!From!this!it!follows!that!ideas!are!critically!linked!to!relations!of! material! power! such! that! ideational! structures! themselves! need! to! be! interrogated.! See! Roxanne! Doty,! Imperial! Encounters:! The! Politics! of! Representation! in! NorthVSouth! Relations! (Minneapolis:! University! of! Minnesota!Press,!1996);!Richard!Price!and!Christian!ReusVSmit,!“Dangerous!Liaisons?!Critical!International! Theory!and!Constructivism,”!European!Journal!of!International!Relations!4,!no.!3!(1998):!259V294.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 49!

! ! types!of!norms!they!promote.31!Focusing!on!the!form!and!content!of!the!norm!goes!to!the! heart! of! the! types! of! ideas! that! attract! multilateral! institutions.! This! has! been! largely! discussed! in! the! literature! by! advocates! of! critical! theory,! who! drawing! on! Gramsci’s! concept! of! hegemony! show! how! powerful! states! and! institutions! steer! the! debate! by!

“framing”32—an! act! ascribed! to! powerful! actors! that! have! the! capacity! and! resources! to! identify!an!issue!as!a!problem!and!through!its!definition!determine!its!solutions.!

The! focus! on! norm! entrepreneurs,! epistemic! communities,! and! transnational! advocacy! networks! (TANs)! has! been! extended! to! the! few! studies! that! have! analyzed! the! evolution!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!In!analyzing!“the!emergence!of!a!broad!consensus!on! ending! poverty! as! the! overarching! objective! of! development,”33!FukudaVParr! and! Hulme! extend! Finnemore! and! Sikkink’s! international! norm! dynamics! cycle.! As! a! result,! they! emphasize!the!role!of!agency,!even!though!they!distinguish!between!“norm!entrepreneurs”! and! “message! entrepreneurs.”! The! authors! argue! to! have! found! confirmation! for! “the! centrality!of!altruistically!motivated!individuals!as!norm!entrepreneurs”!and!find!that!they! were!motivated!to!change!the!behavior!of!policy!makers!based!on!their!belief!that!existing! policies! impeded! poverty! eradication! while! message! entrepreneurs! were! motivated! to! avoid! controversies! with! the! goal! of! achieving! “a! pragmatic! consensus! to! increase!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Robert! Wade,! “Japan,! the! World! Bank,! and! the! Art! of! Paradigm! Maintenance:! The! East! Asian! Miracle! in! Political!Perspective,”!New!Left!Review!I,!no.!217!(MayVJune!1996);!Morten!Bøås!and!Desmond!McNeill,!Global! Institutions!and!Development:!Framing!the!World?!(New!York:!Routledge,!2004);!also!see!Martha!Finnemore,! “Constructing!Norms!of!Humanitarian!Intervention,”!1996,!and!Robert!Cox,!“Critical!Political!Economy,”!1996.!!

32!Peter!Utting,!ed.!Reclaiming!Development!Agendas:!Knowledge,!Power!and!International!Policy!Making!(New! York:!Palgrave!MacMillan,!2006).!

33 !Sakiko! FukudaVParr! and! David! Hulme,! “International! Norm! Dynamics! and! the! “End! of! Poverty”:! Understanding!the!Millennium!Development!Goals,”!Global!Governance!17,!no.!1!(JanVMar!2011):!17V36.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 50!

! ! resources! and! efforts! for! poverty! reduction.”34!Nevertheless,! their! emphasis! remains! on! ideas,!individuals!and!their!institutional!support,!neglecting!institutional!interests!as!well! as!the!important!role!of!the!state!in!norm!construction.!In!fact,!in!their!conclusion,!FukudaV

Parr!and!Hulme!suggest!in!passing!that!“[A]!realist!analytical!perspective!must!lie!alongside! our! constructivist! approach,” 35 !but! it’s! more! of! an! afterthought! without! a! serious! engagement!of!the!interests!and!motivations!that!constitute!the!underpinning!foundations! of!the!antipoverty!norm.!!

Although!Hulme!in!other!publications36!refers!to!the!important!role!the!UK!played!in! poverty! discussions! or! the! ways! in! which! the! economic,! technological! and! material! capabilities!of!the!US!conditioned!the!negotiations!before!and!after!the!MDGs,!he!does!not! take!those!very!variables!into!account!in!this!rendition!of!the!antipoverty!norm!formation.!

By! privileging! agency! over! structure! thereby! undermining! the! role! of! material! interests,! domestic! incentives! and! organizational! agendas,! these! authors’! analysis! deprives! the! reader!of!the!reality!of!declining!aid!after!the!Cold!War,!the!increasing!inequalities!among! and! within! states,! crucial! political! shifts! within! key! donor! countries,! and! the! power! dynamics! created,! sustained! and! oftentimes! contested! through! such! international! organizations!as!the!World!Bank!and!the!United!Nations.!

Other!notable!studies!that!have!identified!the!rise!of!poverty!reduction!as!central!to! development! have! focused! on! specific! organizations.! The! World! Bank! has! been! a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34!Ibid.,!32.!!

35!Ibid.!

36!David! Hulme,! The! Millennium! Development! Goals! (MDGs):! A! Short! History!of!the!World’s!Biggest!Promise,! Working!paper!no.!100!(Manchester:!Brooks!World!Poverty!Institute,!2009);!David!Hulme!and!James!Scott,! The!Political!Economy!of!the!MDGs:!Retrospect!and!Prospect!for!the!World’s!Biggest!Promise,!Working!paper!no.! 110!(Manchester:!Brooks!World!Poverty!Institute,!2010).!!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 51!

! ! particularly! alluring! site! for! this! kind! of! analysis.! Almost! two! decades! ago,! Martha!

Finnemore!examined!poverty!alleviation’s!centrality!to!development!policy!and!planning!in! the!1970s.!Employing!constructivist!analysis,!she!emphasized!the!role!of!the!then!World!

Bank!president!McNamara!acting!as!a!moral!entrepreneur!and!the!Bank!diffusing!the!norm! as! a! transnational! advocacy! network.! By! arguing! that! neither! states! nor! epistemic! communities! were! responsible! for! this! shift! to! poverty,! Finnemore! crucially! undermined! the! political! incentives! and! domestic! politics! of! powerful! states! and! argued,! “domestic! politics! and! local! conditions! cannot! explain! many! of! the! interests! articulated! and! policy! choices! made.”37!This! way,! Finnemore! conveniently! ignored! the! context! of! the! Cold! War! and!the!threat!of!communism,!within!which!Kennedy!had!acted!to!gain!public!support!for! increasing!foreign!aid.!Various!analyses!since!then!have!shown!that!this!was!made!possible! through!the!refocusing!of!aid!activities!on!poverty!alleviation.38!Several!authors!have!also! argued! that! the! poverty! alleviation! focus! reflected! NorthVSouth! relations! and! was! instrumental! in! detracting! from! developing! countries’! demands! for! a! New! International!

Economic! Order! that! sought! to! level! the! playing! field! among! states! by! pursuing! redistribution!of!resources.39!!

Scholars!that!have!studied!the!World!Bank’s!more!recent!role!in!poverty!alleviation! have!chosen!to!synthesize!different!IR!paradigms!for!stronger!explanatory!power.!A!special! issue!of!Global!Governance!dedicated!an!entire!volume!to!this!topic!examining!the!World!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37!Martha!Finnemore,!National!Interests!in!International!Society,!2.!!

38!Laura! K.! Landolt,! “(Mis)Constructing! the! Third! World?! Constructivist! Analysis! of! Norm! Diffusion,”! Third! World!Quarterly!25,!no.!3!(2004):!583.!

39!Gilbert!Rist,!The!History!of!Development!(New!York:!Zed!Books,!2009),!164;!Landolt,!“(Mis)Constructing!the! Third!World?!Constructivist!Analysis!of!Norm!Diffusion”:!583V584.!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 52!

! ! Bank,! “the! preeminent! international! development! aid! agency! whose! core! mission! is! the! alleviation!of!poverty!and!the!promotion!of!human!development!and!economic!growth.”40!

The!theoretical!pieces!in!this!volume!combine!rationalist!and!constructivist!methodology! to!argue!that!an!integrated!analysis!of!external!politics!of!the!World!Bank!and!its!internal! politics! relating! to! its! bureaucracy! and! culture! explain! the! evolution! of! thought! and! practice!within!that!organization.!This!perspective!builds!on!earlier!studies!by!Nielsen!et!al.! that!have!tried!to!bridge!the!“realistVconstructivist”!divide!by!integrating!a!principalVagent!

(PA)! model! with! sociological! constructivism.41!Examining! World! Bank! policy! shifts! more! broadly,!these!scholars!find!that!the!PA!model!with!its!emphasis!on!actors’!preferences!and! formal!authority!cannot!explain!variation!in!reform!outcomes!at!the!World!Bank!without! taking! into! account! organizational! culture.! Crucially,! they! find! that! any! reforms! initiated! internally! by! “change! entrepreneurs”! have! succeeded! only! when! the! outcomes! were! measurable! and! the! proposed! reforms! fit! within! the! existing! culture.! This! culture,! they! argue,!consists!of!“neoliberal!economic!theory,!a!technocratic!approach!to!problems,!and! apolitical! norms! that! shape! the! way! the! Bank! staff! collectively! think!about! development!

(emphasis! in! the! original).” 42 !Although! they! examine! policy! change! within! one! international! organization! rather! than! norm! emergence! on! the! international! stage,! their! conclusion!is!instructive,!as!the!authors!find!that!agents!and!their!actions!by!themselves!do!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!Catherine! Weaver! and! Susan! Park,! “The! Role! of! the! World! Bank! in! Poverty! Alleviation! and! Human! Development!in!the!TwentyVFirst!Century:!An!Introduction,”!Global!Governance!13!(2007):!461.!

41!Daniel! L.! Nielson,! Michael! J.! Tierney! and! Catherine! E.! Weaver,! “Bridging! the! RationalistVConstructivist! Divide:!ReVengineering!the!Culture!of!the!World!Bank,”!Journal!of!International!Relations!and!Development!9! (2006):!107V139.!

42!Ibid.,!109.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 53!

! ! not! explain! institutional! reform! but! must! be! understood! within! their! organizational! culture.43!!!

In!her!analysis!of!the!role!of!poverty!in!the!World!Bank,!Alice!Sindzingre!similarly! examines!factors!“inside!and!outside!of!the!institution,”44!although!she!is!more!mindful!of! the!role!power!dynamics!play—among!countries!inside!and!outside!the!World!Bank!as!well! as!among!staff!and!divisions!within!this!organization.!She!takes!into!account!several!factors! that! help! explain! change! of! ideas! within! the! Bank.! Inside! the! World! Bank,! staff! and! the! twentyVfour!executive!directors!sitting!on!the!Board!are!central!to!the!kinds!of!ideas!that! are! elaborated! and! disseminated.! In! addition,! views! on! issue! areas! vary! from! country! to! country,!and!there!are!particular!power!relationships!between!member!countries!based!on! their!interests!more!broadly.!In!particular,!board!members’!domestic!policies!can!impact! the!types!of!policies!they!favor!within!the!World!Bank.!At!the!same!time,!having!been!given! the!overall!mandate!of!economic!development!without!taking!political!considerations!into! account,! “the! Bank! is! trapped! in! a! paradox:! it! is! a! political! institution,! it! cannot! avoid! getting! involved! in! politics,! its! projects! are! the! outcome! of! political! bargaining,! but! its! legitimacy! stems! from! political! neutrality! and! technical! competence.”45!By! combining!

“cognitive! and! institutional! constraints,”! Sindzingre! synthesizes! constructivist! and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 43!Nielson! et! al.! define! organizational! culture! as! “shared! ideologies,! norms,! and! routines! that! shape! staff! members’!expectations!about!how!agendas!are!set,!mandates!are!operationalized,!projects!are!implemented! and! evaluated,! and! what! staff! behavior! will! be! rewarded! or! punished! in! promotions! and! demotions.! Organizational! culture! also! influences! the! worldview! of! Bank! staff,! shaping! the! way! they! understand! the! meaning! of! ‘development’! and! the! role! or! identity! of! the! Bank! in! promoting! development.! Likewise,! organizational!culture!affects!how!Bank!staff!responds!to!or!proactively!engage!the!demands!and!pressures!in! their!external!authorizing!and!task!environment.”!See!Nielson!et!al.!“Bridging!the!RationalistVConstructivist! Divide,”!109.!

44!Alice!Sindzingre,!“The!Evolution!of!the!Concept!of!Poverty!in!Multilateral!Financial!Institutions:!The!Case!of! the! World! Bank,”! in! Global! Institutions! and! Development:! Framing! the! World?,! edited! by! Morten! Bøås! and! Desmond!McNeill!(New!York:!Routledge,!2004),!164.!

45!Ibid.,!172.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 54!

! ! institutionalist! factors! thereby! considering! how! individual! and! collective! actors! pursue! their! ideational! and! material! interests! within! the! structural! environment! of! the! Bank.!

Ultimately,!Sindzingre!argues!that!because!of!its!rigid!organization!and!large!staff,!change! in!the!World!Bank!is!marginal!and!hard!to!implement.!Her!conclusion!further!adds!to!the! puzzle!of!the!World!Bank’s!participation!in!the!global!convergence!on!poverty!reduction,! unless!this!evolution!is!viewed!as!a!continuation!of!previous!policies!or!merely!a!marginal! change!in!its!policy!and!operations.!!

Jacqueline! Best! also! traces! how! the! World! Bank! has! historically! defined! and! managed!poverty,!examining!how!poverty!came!to!be!defined!as!risk!and!vulnerability!in! the!first!decade!of!the!21st!century.!She!argues!that!the!relationship!between!poverty!and! economic! development! has! been! founded! on! three! different! logics,! where! poverty! reduction!was!first!seen!as!deriving!from!growth,!then!it!was!perceived!to!be!marginal!to! growth,!and!finally!it!was!seen!as!a!central!issue!to!be!integrated!into!broader!development! issues.!To!understand!how!the!varying!conceptions!of!poverty!came!about,!Best!suggests! that! we! focus! on! “broad! macroVprinciples! of! liberal! governance! and! [on]! the! specific! dynamics!of!expert!debates!and!institutional!negotiations.”46!In!specific,!catalyzing!events! in!the!external!environment,!in!particular!the!financial!crises!and!increasing!poverty!in!the!

1990s,!led!to!internal!reflection!and!rethinking!of! policies.!As!a!result,!a!series!of!expert! debates!took!place!on!not!only!how!to!reduce!poverty!but!how!to!define!and!count!it.!Best! argues! that! new! institutional! economics! was! key! to! redefining! poverty! as! market! failure! and!suggesting!that!its!reduction!be!essential!to!any!development!efforts.!This!definition!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46!Jacqueline! Best,! “Redefining! Poverty! as! Risk! and! Vulnerability:! Shifting! Strategies! of! Liberal! Economic! Governance,”!Third!World!Quarterly!34,!no.!1!(2013):!124.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 55!

! ! poverty!reduction!resonates!with!principles!of!liberal!governance,!as!it!assumes!that!any! initiative! to! manage! poverty! helps! restore! the! market.! In! addition,! making! poverty! a! project!in!which!poor!people!are!active!participants!in!lifting!themselves!out!of!poverty!is! founded! on! liberal! principles! of! individual! freedom.! As! Best! argues,! “poverty! as! market! failure!legitimizes!povertyVreduction!efforts!as!central!to!broader!economic!development:! making!markets!work!better!for!poor!people!also!ensures!that!markets!work.”47!She!also! stresses!that!internal!institutional!dynamics!in!terms!of!microVincentives!of!employees!and! tensions! within! different! units! of! the! organization! have! contributed! to! the! varying! definitions! of! poverty! within! the! World! Bank.! In! this! analysis,! interests! are! much! more! clearly! delineated,! but! Best! is! mostly! interested! in! the! evolution! of! poverty! as! a! concept! within! the! World! Bank! rather! than! the! global! consensus! on! poverty! as! the! ultimate! challenge!of!humanity!in!need!of!eradication.!!!

Thus,!there!seems!to!be!a!divide!in!the!literature!where!those!who!have!focused!on! the! antipoverty! consensus! created! by! various! actors! have! largely! relied! on! conventional! constructivist!accounts.!On!the!other!side!of!the!divide,!those!scholars!examining!specific! international!organizations!have!explained!the!poverty!focus!by!integrating!ideational!and! material! factors,! but! they! are! more! concerned! with! the! evolution! of! poverty! within! one! organization—in! particular,! the! World! Bank—rather! than! the! evolving! global! consensus! that! is! the! focus! of! this! study.! I! extend! this! integrated! approach! to! explain! the! rise! of! antipoverty!norm!within!the!global!community.!In!other!words,!while!I!agree!that!identities! and!institutional!platforms!are!crucial,!I!argue!that!ideational!approaches!overemphasize! ideas! and! identities! over! material,! organizational,! and! state! interests.! Ideas! cannot! be!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47!Ibid.,!116.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 56!

! ! independent!from!underlying!interests!and!institutional!structures,!and!this!is!evident!in! the!elevation!of!poverty!reduction!to!the!top!of!the!global!development!agenda.!Rather!than! focusing!on!agents!or!structures,!I!analyze!sites!of!interaction!between!them!where!ideas! and!interests!converge.!!

2.3 Global Convergence on Antipoverty Norm

Building!on!this!literature,!this!dissertation!advances!a!theoretical!framework!that! complements!constructivism!by!shifting!the!focus!from!the!actors!to!their!interaction!with! the! institutional! environment! within! which! they! act.! By! viewing! epistemic! communities! and!transnational!advocacy!networks!as!homogenous!entities!and!the!ultimate!drivers!of! norm!creation,!constructivists!have!paid!less!attention!to!the!multilateral!settings!within! which!norms!emerge!and!member!states’!crucial!interactions!take!place.!In!this!multilateral! setting,! member! states! play! a! pivotal! role,! as! they! are! the! ultimate! actors! endorsing! the! emergence! and! diffusion! of! norms.! And! these! actors! face! political! constraints! both! domestically!and!internationally,!which!in!turn!impact!their!preference!formation.!!

I! argue! that! the! antipoverty! norm! came! about! in! response! to! material! changes! emanating!from!an!existing!ideological!framework.!Neoliberal!ideology!encompassing!such! policies! as! trade! liberalization,! privatization! of! stateVowned! enterprises,! deregulation! of! capital!controls!and!financial!markets,!and!so!on,!was!espoused!by!the!IFIs!as!well!as!the! powerful!states!in!the!international!community!and!initially!seemed!to!hold!an!answer!to! the!debt!crises!of!the!developing!countries.!However,!these!policies!had!not!translated!into! economic! growth! or! better! living! standards.! Instead,! the! 1990s! witnessed! economic! downturns,!financial!crises,!increasing!unemployment,!as!well!as!declining!foreign!aid.!!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 57!

! ! !

Figure'1.'ODA'–'USD'Billion'(2012'Prices'&'Exchange'Rates)'

! !!!!Source:!OECD!Data!–!Aid!Statistics!2013! ! !

Figure! 1! shows! that! the! DAC! member! countries’! official! development! assistance! declined!from!less!than!53!billion!US$!in!1990!to!an!allVtime!low!of!less!than!48!billion!US$! in!1997.!More!importantly,!ODA!as!a!percentage!of!Gross!National!Income!(GNI)!declined! from!0.32%!in!1990!to!0.22%!in!2000.!This!is!particularly!significant!in!light!of!the!fact!that! in! earlier! international! fora! developed! countries! had! committed! to! disburse! 1%! of! their! national!income!to!development!assistance!(a!percentage!that!was!later!reduced!to!0.7%! although!historically!it!has!mostly!hovered!around!0.3%!of!GNI,!as!can!be!seen!in!Figure!2).!

Figure'2.'ODA'as'%'of'GNI'(2013)'

! !!!!Source:!OECD!Data!–!Aid!Statistics!2013!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 58!

! ! When! disillusionment! set! in! and! riots! started! to! unfold! in! diverse! countries,! powerful!actors!had!to!go!back!to!the!drawing!board!to!come!up!with!an!alternative.!That! alternative! solution! had! to! resonate! with! the! existing! social! structure,! as! institutional! constraints!within!multilateral!organizations!limited!the!range!of!possibilities.!As!Kathryn!

Sikkink!has!argued,!“New!ideas!do!not!enter!an!ideological!vacuum.!They!are!inserted!into! a! political! space! already! occupied! by! historically! formed! ideologies.! Whether! or! not! consolidation!occurs!often!depends!on!the!degree!to!which!the!new!model!fits!with!existing! ideologies.” 48 !Peter! Hall! corroborated! Sikkink’s! argument! with! his! case! study! of!

Keynesianism!stating,!“If!the!Keynesian!case!demonstrates!that!ideas!have!a!real!power!in! the!political!world,!it!also!confirms!that!they!do!not!acquire!political!force!independently!of! the! constellation! of! institutions! and! interests! already! present! there.”49!Hence,! the! way! in! which!the!emerging!ideas!interacted!with!the!existing!institutional!environment!was!key!to! the! success! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! precisely! because! institutions! are! not! politically! neutral!and!impose!constraints!on!policy!makers.!To!help!overcome!those!constraints,!the! pluralist! meaning! of! poverty! was! crucial,! as! it! offered! something! for! every! actor! to! hold! onto.!!

Thus,!the!trigger!for!norm!emergence!was!the!negative!experience!with!neoliberal! policy! and! the! resultant! failure! in! increasing! economic! growth! and! development,! which! called! into! question! the! validity! of! extant! policies! as! well! as! the! relevancy! of! the! international! development! institutions! prescribing! them.! The! discontent! with! existing! institutional!structures!and!the!ensuing!crisis!opened!up!political!space!to!search!for!new! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48Kathryn! Sikkink,! Ideas! and! Institutions:! Developmentalism! in! Argentina! and! Brazil! (Ithaca,! NY:! Cornell! University!Press,!1991),!2.!!!

49!Peter!A.!Hall,!ed.!The!Political!Power!of!Economic!Ideas!(Princeton:!Princeton!University!Press,!1989),!390.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 59!

! ! alternatives.!Hence,!debates!about!the!relevancy!of!organizations!and!their!adaptability!in! times!of!change!spread.!These!were!not!views!expressed!by!critics!alone.!Also,!staff!within! these!IOs!questioned!the!relevancy!of!their!organizations.!These!debates!were!held!within! the!World!Bank!as!well!as!the!OECD.!Similar!discussions!could!also!be!heard!within!the!UN.!

That! discontent! with! existing! policies! of! privatization,! liberalization! and! deregulation,! however,! coincided! with! the! victory! of! liberal! ideals! of! democracy! and! market! freedom! established! with! the! collapse! of! the! Soviet! Union.! Hence,! in! addition! to! institutional! constraints!limiting!the!range!of!choices,!this!ideational!change!in!the!international!realm! prescribed! the! range! of! possibilities! as! the! development! community! was! searching! for! solutions.! This! is! particularly! evident! in! the! debates! at! the! World! Summit! for! Social!

Development!where!talks!of!eradicating!poverty!and!creating!a!more!enabling!environment! for!social!aspects!of!development!were!overshadowed!by!principles!of!liberal!governance,! which!dictated!that!the!solution!be!formulated!within!the!given!context!so!as!not!to!deviate! too!much!from!the!ideology!of!the!moment.!As!has!been!argued,!new!norms!interact!with!a! system! of! institutionalized! norms! that! have! already! been! legitimated.! Hence! new! norms! are!introduced!into!an!environment!that!already!houses!certain!principles!that!we!take!for! granted.! These! “social! facts” 50 !limited! the! range! of! possible! norms,! because! of! the! legitimacy!afforded!to!certain!principles!over!others.!That!partially!explains!why!the!focus! was!on!poverty!and!not!inequality,!a!point!that!was!raised!invariably!by!my!interviewees.!

As! such,! while! poverty! reduction! had! been! selected! as! one! of! many! international! goals! in! the! UN! summits! and! conferences,! its! centrality! to! development! was! initially! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 50!John!Ruggie,!following!Durkheim,!coined!“social!facts”!as!those!understandings!that!states!collectively!hold.! In!his!book,!Ruggie!refers!to!John!Searle’s!1995!definition!of!social!facts!“as!those!facts!that!are!produced!by! virtue!of!all!the!relevant!actors!agreeing!that!they!exist.”!See!John!G.!Ruggie,!Constructing!the!World!Polity:! Essays!on!International!Institutionalization!(London!and!New!York:!Routledge,!1998),!12V13.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 60!

! ! constructed! within! the! OECD’s! Development! Assistance! Committee! (DAC).! As! the! donor! forum! of! the! OECD,! DAC! generally! reflects! the! positions! of! bilateral! agencies! with! the! overall! objective! of! “increasing! the! volume! and! efficiency! of! member! countries’! aid.”51!

Importantly,! as! the! DAC! delegates! are! highVlevel! government! officials,! they! clearly! represent!their!respective!government’s!political!goals.!At!the!same!time,!those!within!the!

OECD/DAC! also! compose! the! more! powerful! actors! within! the! World! Bank! based! on! weighted!voting!rules!of!the!executive!board,!which!privileges!member!states!with!more! economic!power.!Thus,!the!focus!on!poverty!succeeded!because!it!found!legitimacy!in!the!

OECD! and! the! World! Bank! where! donors! hold! more! sway.! However,! in! light! of! policy! failures! associated! with! the! economic! prescriptions! emanating! from! these! organizations,! poverty!had!to!be!linked!to!other!organizations!to!broaden!the!debate!beyond!the!donor! club.!The!UN,!where!similar!debates!were!taking!place,!was!an!obvious!choice.!!

Here,!the!multidimensional!definition!of!poverty!helped!its!broad!acceptance!by!the! international! community.! The! plurality! of! meanings! attached! to! poverty! in! conjunction! with! the! diverse! solutions! found! to! its! reduction,! made! poverty! a! consensual! device.!

Nobody!would!object!to!the!normative!conclusion!that!we!live!in!a!globalized!world!with! the! resources! to! lift! millions! out! of! poverty.! However,! the! means! to! do! that! are! open! to! interpretation.! Thus,! by! deploying! poverty! as! a! technique! to! advance! development,! the! leading!powers!of!the!international!community!did!not!change!the!ultimate!liberal!goal!of! economic!growth;!however,!the!means!to!achieving!it!were!expanded!to!incorporate!other! social! variables! such! as! human! development.52 !This! confirms! AnneVMarie! Slaughter’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51!Ken! Masujima,! “Good! Governance! and! the! DAC,”! in! Global! Institutions! and! Development:! Framing! the! World?,!ed.!Morten!Bøås!and!Desmond!McNeill!(New!York:!Routledge,!2004),!152.!

52!A!similar!process!seems!to!be!taking!place!in!the!antiVcorruption!consensus.!See!Mlada!Bukovansky,!“The!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 61!

! ! observation! of! a! broader! trend! characterized! by! “the! growth! of! a! comprehensive! governance! agenda! within! international! institutions! and! across! a! broader! swath! of! nonV governmental! and! transVgovernmental! networks,! wherein! the! structure! and! implementation! of! domestic! institutions! and! laws! within! sovereign! states! is! increasingly! subjected! to! external! pressure! to! align! with! ‘universal’! norms.”53!This! is! reflected! in! the!

Millennium! Development! Goals! and! their! underlying! antipoverty! norm,! which! has! been! viewed!as!a!universal!norm!to!guide!development!projects.!!

2.4 Alternative Theories

There!are!contending!hypotheses!that!might!offer!different!explanations!as!to!why! there! has! been! a! convergence! on! poverty! reduction! in! the! international! development! agenda.!First,!one!might!argue!that!material!factors!entirely!explain!the!emergence!of!the! antipoverty!norm.!In!the!aftermath!of!structural!adjustment!policies,!poverty!was!on!the! rise!in!some!countries!and!the!emergence!of!newly!independent!states!as!a!result!of!the! breakVup! of! the! Soviet! Union! in! conjunction! with! “shock! therapy”54!further! led! to! rising! poverty! in! Eastern! Europe.! In! addition,! economic! globalization! was! increasingly! marginalizing!some!segments!of!societies!and!elevating!the!number!of!the!poor!such!that!

53!AnneVMarie!Slaughter,!“The!Real!New!World!Order,”!Foreign!Affairs!76,!no.!5!(1997):!183V197.!

54!This!term!signifies!sudden!changes!in!the!domestic!economy!of!a!country!required!to!transform!a!stateV controlled!economy!into!a!freeVmarket!economy.!The!sudden!infusion!of!policies!associated!with!economic! liberalism,!including!deregulation!of!price!controls,!liberalization!of!trade!and!capital,!privatization!of!stateV owned! enterprises,! has! been! used! to! jump! start! economic! production! and! reduce! unemployment.! Shock! therapy!is!primarily!associated!with!Jeffrey!Sachs,!who!developed!such!plans!for!postVcommunist!countries,! in! particular! Poland! and! Russia,! with! mixed! results.! See,! for! example,! William! Easterly,! The! White! Man’s! Burden:! Why! the! West’s! Efforts! to! Aid! the! Rest! Have! Done! So! Much! Ill! and! So! Little! Good! (New! York:! The! Penguin!Press,!2006).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 62!

! ! inevitably!the!international!community!would!have!had!to!address!it.!This!rising!poverty!in! conjunction! with! increased! visibility! of! the! poor! due! to! more! rapid! and! wider! access! to! information,!may!have!made!poverty!a!more!pressing!issue!as!manifested!in!global!riots! linked!with!financial!crises!around!the!globe!including!Mexico!(1994),!Asia!(1997),!Russia!

(1998),!and!Argentina!(1999).!!

Alternative!Hypothesis!1:!Material!conditions!alone,!in!particular!the!worsening! global!poverty,!explain!the!emergence!of!antipoverty!norm.! ! While!it!is!true!that!globalization!has!had!many!negative!effects!and!that!poverty!has! been!found!by!some!to!be!directly!related!to!globalization55!(while!other!scholars!dispute! this),!data!does!not!support!the!hypothesis!of!rising!poverty!causing!the!focus!on!poverty! reduction.! In! fact,! poverty! defined! in! terms! of! perVcapita! GDP! growth! seems! to! have! decreased! over! the! last! two! decades! of! the! 20th! century.! Moreover,! the! first! goal! of! the!

MDGs! was! an! extrapolation! of! the! pace! at! which! extreme! poverty! had! been! declining,! therefore!projecting!that!decline!to!lead!to!extreme!poverty!being!halved!from!its!1990!rate! by!the!year!2015.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55!There! is! a! very! large! literature! analyzing! the! effects! of! globalization.! See,! for! example,! Joseph! Stiglitz,! Globalization!and!Its!Discontents!(New!York:!W.!W.!Norton!&!Company,!2003);!Jagdish!Bhagwati,!In!Defense!of! Globalization!(Oxford!and!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2004);!Dani!Rodrik,!The!Globalization!Paradox:! Democracy!and!the!Future!of!the!World!Economy!(New!York:!W.!W.!Norton!&!Company,!2012).!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 63!

! ! Figure'3.'Headcount'Indices'of'Poverty'(%'below'each'line)'

! Source:!Chena!and!Ravallion!(August!2008),!aggregate!for!developing!world,!using!2005!ICP.! ! ! As! Chen! and! Ravallion! have! shown! (Figure! 3),! the! number! of! those! living! on! less! than!US$1!a!day!decreased!from!close!to!1.5!billion!in!1981!to!almost!1!billion!in!2004.56!In! other!words,!global!poverty!declined!from!more!than!40%!of!the!world’s!population!to!less! than!20%!in!a!23Vyear!period.!This!decrease!wasn’t!uniform!across!regions!with!much!of!it! taking!place!in!China,!while!SubVSaharan!Africa!actually!saw!a!rise!in!poverty!during!that! same! time! period.! Nevertheless,! globally,! poverty! was! on! the! decline.! But! even! if! one! doubts!the!reliability!of!poverty!data!and!assumes!that!poverty!was!on!the!rise,!one!would! have!to!explain!why!rising!poverty!should!be!viewed!as!a!threat!to!the!developed!countries.!

Something! else! beyond! the! worsening! material! conditions! of! the! people! would! have! to! explain!the!coming!together!of!powerful!actors!to!address!this!problem.!One!would!have!to! look!beyond!instant!needs!to!the!donors’!identification!of!fighting!poverty!not!only!as!“a! moral! imperative”! but! “a! necessity! for! a! stable! world” 57 !to! understand! why! this!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!Shaoua!Chen!and!Martin!Ravallion,!“Absolute!Poverty!Measures!for!the!Developing!World:!1981V2004,”! World!Bank!Development!Research!Group!(March!2007),!accessed!March!2,!2014,! http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Attach/Capacity/Uganda/Chen%20&%20Ravallion%20%28200 7%29.pdf.!!

57!The! report! of! the! Multilateral! Development! Banks! and! IMF! to! the! GV8! summit! in! Okinawa! in! July! 2000! focused!on!this!link!between!poverty!and!provision!of!global!public!goods,!in!particular!the!economy!and!the!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 64!

! ! convergence! came! about! at! the! time! it! did! and! took! the! form! of! the! Millennium!

Development!Goals.!!

A! purely! actorVoriented! hypothesis! would! suggest! that! the! increasing! number! of! intellectuals!and!celebrities,!who!have!been!advocating!on!behalf!of!the!poor,!may!explain! the!focus!on!poverty!in!policy!circles.!In!particular,!this!narrative!would!emphasize!the!role! of!scholars!such!as!Amartya!Sen!and!Jeffrey!Sachs,!as!well!as!the!campaigning!on!behalf!of! the!poor!by!celebrities!such!as!Bono!and!Bob!Geldof.!!

Alternative!Hypothesis!2:!Increasing!calls!by!intellectuals!and!celebrities!to! “make!poverty!history”!mobilized!civil!society!and!ultimately!generated!the! emergence!of!antipoverty!norm.! ! However,! even! though! there! has! not! been! a! shortage! in! campaigns! advancing! the! cause! of! poor! people! around! the! world,! the! timing! and! circumstances! must! be! right! in! order!for!these!calls!to!not!fall!on!deaf!ears.!The!institutional!crises!of!the!Bretton!Woods! institutions!in!the!aftermath!of!the!structural!adjustment!programs!and!antiVglobalization! movements! offered! a! favorable! environment! for! the! reception! of! the! antiVpoverty! norm.!

Thus,!while!these!actors!certainly!played!a!major!role!in!focusing!attention!on!the!plight!of! the!poor,!they!by!themselves!cannot!explain!the!antipoverty!consensus!without!taking!into! account!their!sociopolitical!environment.!!

A!third!hypothesis!falls!into!the!institutionalist!camp!and!suggests!that!the!renewed! interest!in!poverty!was!a!result!of!the!many!UN!summits!and!conferences!during!the!first! half! of! the! 1990s.! These! conferences! raised! awareness! of! the! increasing! numbers! of! the! poor!and!advocated!for!their!reduction.!This!has!been!a!key!argument!proposed!by!Hulme!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 65!

! ! and!FukudaVParr!in!their!explanation!for!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!As!they! maintain,! “Though! each! event! had! specific! origins! and! purposes,! a! common! theme! that! emerged!by!the!midV1990s!was!an!agenda!for!inclusive!globalization!and!ending!poverty! and! promoting! equality.”58!These! authors! are! not! alone! in! attributing! the! creation! of! the!

Millennium!Declaration!and!MDGs!to!the!conferences!of!the!1990s.!!

Alternative!Hypothesis!3:!The!summits!and!conferences!of!the!1990s!raised! awareness!of!the!extent!of!poverty!and!mobilized!for!its!reduction,!generating! the!emergence!of!antipoverty!norm.! ! However,!one!would!first!have!to!explain!the!reasons!behind!the!proliferation!of!UN! summitry! in! the! early! 1990s.! As! later! chapters! show,! the! end! of! the! Cold! War! and! the! revitalization!of!the!UN!highlight!some!of!the!structural!changes!that!generated!the!spate!of!

UN!conferences!in!the!last!decade!of!the!20th!century.!Moreover,!those!conferences!covered! many! different! topics,! among! others,! calling! for! an! enabling! environment! for! social! development,!equity,!social!justice,!poverty!eradication,!and!so!on.!Indeed,!the!Millennium!

Declaration! itself! was! a! much! broader! document! with! only! one! part! dedicated! to! development.!In!other!words,!while!the!consensus!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium!may!have! come!about!(partly)!as!a!result!of!the!goals!emanating!from!these!international!gatherings,! it!is!not!clear!why!donor!countries!would!have!focused!on!poverty!reduction!and!created! the!international!development!targets!within!the!OECD!prior!to!the!Millennium!Summit.!!

A! final! hypothesis! might! draw! on! neoVGramscian! theory! that! powerful! states! and! institutions! have! the! capacity! to! take! up! progressive! concepts! and! agendas! as! part! of! a! hegemonic! project! that! is! quite! capable! of! accommodating! oppositional! views.! More!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58!FukudaVParr! and! Hulme,! “International! Norm! Dynamics! and! the! “End! of! Poverty”:! Understanding! the! Millennium!Development!Goals,”!19.!

! ! ! Chapter!2.!THEORETICAL!FRAMEWORK! 66!

! ! specifically,! the! argument! would! be! that! the! international! division! of! labor! creates! a! dominant!class,!which!stands!to!benefit!from!the!international!order.!Any!ideas!and!norms! that!emerge!reflect!the!interests!of!that!class,!which!creates!international!organizations!to! advance! those! very! interests.! A! stronger! version! of! this! argument! would! suggest,! “The!

‘official’! neoliberal! dogma! creates! its! own! ‘counterVparadigm’! embodying! a! highly! moral! and! ethical! discourse.”59!In! other! words,! by! focusing! on! poverty,! a! counterVideology! was! created! in! order! not! to! seriously! challenge! neoliberal! policy! but! instead! to! offer! complimentary!policies.!

Alternative!Hypothesis!4:!The!convergence!on!antipoverty!norm!was!a!political! tool!for!powerful!states!to!exert!control!over!domestic!policies!of!developing! countries.! ! Although!my!argument!does!not!contradict!this!hypothesis,!it!varies!from!it!in!as!far! as!I!don’t!contend!that!purely!economic!structural!factors!can!explain!the!emergence!of!the! antipoverty!norm!because!of!the!evidence!that!moral!claims!played!a!role.!It!would!indeed! be!highly!cynical!to!see!the!antipoverty!norm!only!as!a!strategic!response!or!a!political!tool! by! the! powerful! states! and! their! representative! institutions! to! control! developing! countries.!In!fact,!it!would!deny!agency!to!developing!countries,!which,!as!we!will!see,!have! been! proVactive! contributors! to! the! development! debate.! Moreover,! this! hypothesis! does! not! clarify! the! particular! political! processes! that! enabled! the! convergence! on! the! antipoverty!norm.!Instead,!I!demonstrate!the!political!processes!that!made!the!consensus! around!antipoverty!norm!possible,!while!simultaneously!deploying!poverty!as!a!strategic! response!to!institutional!interests!and!keeping!with!the!humanitarian!Zeitgeist!of!the!time.!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59!Michel! Chossudovsky,! The! Globalization! of! Poverty! and! the! New! World! Order! (Canada:! Global! Research,! 2003),!32.!

! ! !

PART I

DEVELOPMENT AS END OF POVERTY

! ! ! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 68!

% ! ! “The!crisis!of!development!lies!in!the!poverty!of!the!masses!of!the!Third!World,!as! well!as!that!of!others,!whose!needs,!even!the!most!basic—food,!habitat,!health,!education— are!not!met;!it!lies,!in!a!large!part!of!the!world,!in!the!alienation,!whether!in!misery!or!in! affluence,!of!the!masses,!deprived!of!the!means!to!understand!and!master!their!social!and! political!environment;!it!lies!in!the!growing!feelings!of!frustration!that!are!disturbing!the! industrialized! societies.! The! international! crisis! is! that! of! a! system! of! unequal! economic! relations!between!a!few!dominant!countries!and!the!majority!of!dominated!countries.”1! ! ! “We!are!all!here!because!we!share!a!deep!concern!about!the!plight!of!poverty!and! deprivation!in!the!world.!We!are!all!here!because!we!believe!this!poverty!to!be!intolerable! in!a!world!of!plenty.!And!we!are!all!here!because!we!are!convinced—indeed!we!know— that!this!poverty!can!be!ended!in!our!lifetime,!with!our!own!hands,!with!our!own!minds.! We!know!that!the!global!dilemma!of!squalor!amid!splendor!is!a!creature!of!human!agency,! and!that!it!can!be!reversed!by!human!agency.”2! ! !

A!quick!reading!of!the!quotes!above!might!lead!one!to!believe!that!they!were!written! in!the!same!time!period,!as!they!both!emphasize!poverty!as!a!“crisis”!or!“deep!concern”!of! development.!A!closer!reading,!however,!indicates!the!differences!in!wording—such!as!the!

“Third!World,”!“alienation,”!or!“a!system!of!unequal!economic!relations”!in!the!first!quote! versus!“poverty…in!a!world!of!plenty”!and!“human!agency”!in!the!second!quote.!In!fact,!the! first! quote! appeared! in! a! 1975! report,! titled! What% Now?,! and! was! prepared! by! the! Dag!

Hammarskjold! Foundation3!on! the! occasion! of! the! Seventh! Special! Session! of! the! UN!

General! Assembly,! which! was! dedicated! to! “Development! and! International! Economic!

Cooperation.”4!The! second! quote! stems! from! a! speech! former! SecretaryXGeneral! Kofi!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!The!Hammarskjold!Foundation,!What%Now?%Another%Development,%The!1975!Dag!Hammarskjold!Report!on! Development!and!International!Cooperation!(Sweden:!Motala!Grafiska!AB,!1982),!5.%!

2!Speech!delivered!by!Kofi!Annan!to!the!World!Bank!conference!“Global!Knowledge!’97,”!in!Toronto,!EOSG,! SG/SM/6268,!June!22,!1997.!

3!The! Dag! Hammarskjold! Foundation! is! a! nonXgovernmental! organization! established! in! 1962! in! honor! of! former!UN!SecretaryXGeneral!Dag!Hammarskjold,!who!lost!his!life!in!a!plane!crash!during!a!peace!negotiation! mission!to!Northern!Rhodesia!(now!Zambia).!According!to!their!website,!DHF!is!an!autonomous!organization! with!an!international!board!of!trustees.!See!http://www.daghammarskjold.se/.!

4!The!7th!Special!Session!was!requested!and!convened!by!the!General!Assembly!in!September!1975.!According! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 69!

% Annan!delivered!two!decades!later!in!Toronto!at!a!World!Bank!Conference,!titled!“Global!

Knowledge!’97.”!Clearly,!both!these!quotes!represent!development!challenges,!as!they!were! perceived! in! their! day,! and! the! language! that! was! used! to! express! them.! However,! the! different!ways!in!which!they!were!framed—the!former!focusing!on!structural!causes!and! the!latter!on!agency—reflect!the!evolving!dynamics!between!states,!very!much!embedded! in!the!global!economic!contexts!of!their!times.!!

The!contexts!that!gave!rise!to!these!quotes!are!important.!In!the!1970s,!the!balance! of!power!seemed!to!be!shifting!as!the!1973!oil!crisis!gave!at!least!the!OPEC!countries!some! leverage,!emboldening!the!South!to!advocate!for!a!New!International!Economic!Order—a! set! of! proposals! submitted! by! developing! countries! with! a! view! to! revising! the! international!economic!system!to!more!fairly!reflect!their!interests.!Hence,!by!outlining!the! contours! of! “Another! Development”! that! favored! an! endogenous,! selfXreliant! and! environmentally! sustainable! development,! the! 1975! Dag! Hammarskjold! report! vocalized! the! voices! of! the! South! and! those! sympathetic! to! their! cause.! This! is! reflected! in! the! resolutions!emerging!from!the!Seventh!Special!Session,!which!declared!a!determination!to!

“eliminate! injustice! and! inequality”! and! listed! a! series! of! measures! with! the! aim! to!

“increase!the!capacity!of!developing!countries,!individually!and!collectively,!to!pursue!their! development.”5!With! structural! transformation! as! the! overarching! theme! of! the! meeting,! issues! under! consideration! included! international! trade,! international! monetary! reform,! science! and! technology,! industrialization,! food! and! agriculture,! and! restructuring! UN’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! to!official!records,!in!particular!the!document!on!resolutions!adopted!by!the!Special!Session!(A/10301),!the! aim!was!to!take!concrete!measures,!“which!would!make!a!decisive!impact!on!further!negotiations!within!the! United! Nations,! as! well! as! in! other! international! forums,! for! the! establishment! of! a! new! international! economic!order.”!See!United!Nations,!General!Assembly!resolution!A/10301,!September!1X16,!1975.!!

5!Ibid.!! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 70!

% economic! and! social! sectors.! Yet,! nowhere! are! there! the! words! “poverty! reduction”! or!

“absolute!poverty”!to!be!found.!!

Kofi!Annan’s!speech,!on!the!other!hand,!points!to!an!understanding!that!the!benefits! of!globalization!are!not!trickling!down!and!that!poverty!itself!is!the!problem!to!be!tackled.!

In!fact,!the!understanding!that!globalization!and!the!global!economy!were!overwhelmingly! disadvantageous!to!developing!countries!was!repeated!in!the!various!speeches!delivered! by!the!Secretary!General!during!his!tenure.6!A!concomitant!theme!in!his!speeches!was!the! international! community’s! responsibility! to! help! minimize! those! negative! consequences,! while! the! main! responsibility! lied! with! the! developing! countries! themselves.! As! a! result,!

Annan’s! speeches! highlight! an! increasing! focus! on! poverty! reduction! and! the! agency! of! developing!countries!(but!in!partnership!with!developed!countries)!in!that!endeavor.!This! is!indeed!a!significant!change!in!rhetoric,!which!eventually!crystalized!into!the!Millennium!

Declaration!and!the!subsequent!Millennium!Development!Goals.!

!Clearly!between!1975!and!1997,!two!tumultuous!decades!passed,!which!impacted! world!politics!and!shifted!the!global!balance!of!power.!What!political!processes!facilitated! this!shift!in!development!focus?!What!triggered!this!rethinking!of!development?!What!was! there! before?! To! answer! these! questions,! we! first! need! to! establish! that! there! was! a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!I!have!reviewed!Kofi!Annan’s!speeches,!which!have!been!compiled!by!Dr.!Jean!Krasno!as!a!project!within!the! Colin!Powell!Center!at!City!College,!CUNY.!When!I!visited!Dr.!Krasno!at!City!College!on!April!16,!2013,!the! volumes!could!be!viewed!in!her!office!only,!and!at!the!time!there!were!no!other!copies!available.!According!to! the!UN!History!Project,!“The!papers!are!organized!in!chronological!order.!Some!documents!include!a!brief! historical!background!explanation,!for!example,!to!explain!to!whom!a!letter!was!written,!if!identical!letters! were!also!sent!to!others,!and!to!explain!attached!documents!to!the!letters.”!There!is!also!an!index!page,!which! facilitates!the!finding!of!documents!as!they!relate!to!particular!topics,!such!as!“poverty”!or!“development.”!UN! History! Project,! accessed! January! 21,! 2015,! http://unhistoryproject.org/research/research_experiencesX krasno.html.! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 71!

% different!focus!in!international!development!before!the!antipoverty!norm!emerged.!Second,! we!need!to!investigate!the!context!that!enabled!the!emergence!of!this!norm.!!

For!conceptual!reasons,!the!discussion!in!Part!I!distinguishes!between!two!arenas!of! politics.!Chapters!3!and!4!highlight!the!institutional!crises!taking!place!at!the!international! level!by!discussing!the!types!of!debates!held!within!the!World!Bank!and!the!United!Nations.!

In!Chapter!5,!I!focus!on!the!role!of!domestic!politics!by!illuminating!the!extent!to!which!the! replacement! of! “the! right”! by! leftXofXcenter! governments! across! a! series! of! Western! countries!in!the!1990s!impacted!the!foreign!policy!objectives!of!these!countries.!Although! this! development! took! place! in! several! countries,! I! emphasize! the! case! of! the! United!

Kingdom,!which!not!only!presents!a!convincing!account!of!the!link!between!domestic!and! foreign!policy!in!the!construction!of!antipoverty!norm,!but!also!illustrates!power!politics!at! its!height,!focusing!on!the!role!of!a!powerful!member!of!the!international!community!with!a! lot!of!leverage!in!various!international!organizations.!!

On!the!international!level,!two!institutional!crises!in!particular!help!shed!light!on!the! forces! favoring! the! elevation! of! antipoverty! norm! to! the! moral! pedestal! of! humanitarianism.!First,!1994!marked!a!watershed!year!in!the!World!Bank,!which!after!over! a! decade! of! structural! adjustment! programs! was! attacked! by! civil! society! groups! in! a! campaign!called!Fifty%Years%is%Enough.!As!a!result,!the!Bank’s!dwindling!legitimacy!in!light! of!global!demonstrations!against!World!Bank!and!IMF!policies!led!it!to!rethink!its!status!in! the!world!and!to!consider!ways!to!reinvent!itself.!The!year!1994!was!also!a!watershed!year! for!the!UN,!whose!efficacy!was!questioned!in!particular!in!light!of!its!involvement!in!Bosnia,!

Somalia!and!Rwanda.!Although!the!end!of!the!Cold!War!had!liberated!the!UN!from!EastX

West!rivalries!and!revitalized!this!world!organization,!it!had!also!led!to!increasing!conflicts! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 72!

% and! security! dilemmas! that! tarnished! the! UN’s! image! because! of! its! less! efficient! way! of! managing!them.!For!example,!the!organization’s!failure!to!stop!the!genocide!in!Rwanda!in!

1994!“caused!lasting!damage!to!UN!ideals!and!credibility.”7!This!sense!of!crisis!and!the!urge! to! legitimate! the! UN! is! reflected! in! Kishore! Mahbubani’s! correspondence! to! then! Deputy!

SecretaryXGeneral! Louise! Fréchette! in! preparation! for! the! Millennium! Summit,! when! he! wrote,!“the!key!question!that!the!UN!faces!in!the!21st!century!is!whether!it!is!a!sunrise!or! sunset!institution.”8!Kofi!Annan!himself!noted!in!his!statement!to!the!General!Assembly!on! the!Millennium!Assembly!and!the!Millennium!Summit!that!“Many!commentators!see!our! organization! as! being! gradually! marginalized.”9!These! institutional! crises! at! the! World!

Bank!and!the!United!Nations!are!examined!in!Chapters!3!and!4,!respectively.!

On! the! domestic! level,! the! aid! community! of! individual! donor! countries! was! similarly!confronted!with!its!own!problems.!The!end!of!the!Cold!War!ushered!in!a!period!of! decline!in!aid!dubbed!as!“donor!fatigue.”!There!were!various!explanations!for!this!decline! in!aid,!with!some!arguing!that!the!political!and!security!rationale!had!disappeared!with!the! disintegration!of!the!former!Soviet!Union,!while!others!argued!that!donor!countries!were! preXoccupied!with!their!own!domestic!problems.10!In!the!US,!this!was!mostly!related!to!the! desire!to!reduce!fiscal!deficit!while!in!Europe!it!was!a!result!of!the!Maastricht!Treaty!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7Sam!Daws!and!Thomas!G.!Weiss,!eds.%The%Oxford%Handbook%on%the%United%Nations%(Oxford:!Oxford!University! Press,!2008),!8.!!

8!“Letter! from! Kishore! Mahbubani,! Permanent! Representative! of! the! Republic! of! Singapore! to! the! UN! to! Louise!Fréchette,!Deputy!SecretaryXGeneral!of!the!UN,”!July!9,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

9!“The!SecretaryXGeneral!Talking!Points!for!Statement!to!the!General!Assembly!on!the!Millennium!Assembly! and!Millennium!Summit,”!New!York,!March!22,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

10!A! large! literature! debates! the! causes! and! consequences! of! “donor! fatigue.”! Peter! Burnell! offers! a! good! summary!in!an!article!titled:!“Foreign!Aid:!Down!but!Not!Out”!published!by!WIDER%Angle%Newsletter!January! 2009,! accessed! July! 2,! 2013,! http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/newsletter/articles/en_GB/16X01X featureXarticle/.! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 73!

% the! necessity! to! reassess! government! expenditure! to! be! guaranteed! eligibility! into! the!

European! Union.! Politically,! there! was! a! shift! in! the! internal! politics! of! key! OECD! donor! countries,! including! the! US,! UK,! Germany,! and! Netherlands,! among! others,! where! conservative!governments!were!replaced!by!social!democratic!and!labor!parties!with!real! foreign!policy!implications.!!

Although! this! domestic! political! shift! is! important! in! all! these! countries,! one! country’s! push! for! poverty! reduction! stands! out! in! the! archival! records:! that! of! the! UK.!!

There!are!personal!notes!from!Clare!Short,!at!the!time!the!UK!Secretary!for!International!

Development! in! Tony! Blair’s! cabinet,! to! Kofi! Annan! about! the! importance! of! poverty! reduction!to!the!British!government!and!the!resuscitation!of!aid!in!development!projects.11!!

This! observation! led! me! to! further! poke! and! interview! several! DFID! (Department! for!

International! Development)! personnel.! In! the! process,! I! learned! that! 1994! was! also! a! watershed!year!for!UK’s!development!ministry,!as!the!UK!found!itself!in!a!deep!aid!crisis! when! the! “aid! for! arms”! scandal! surrounding! the! Pergau! Dam! construction! in! Malaysia! surfaced!and!eventually!led!to!a!complete!overhaul!of!the!aid!infrastructure!in!that!country.!

Hence,!the!British!government!was!vested!in!saving!its!reputation!by!reprioritizing!foreign! aid!as!part!of!its!foreign!policy!tool.!This!case!will!be!further!elaborated!in!Chapter!5.!!!!

! As! already! mentioned,! Part! I! covers! the! “permissive”! causes! or! background! conditions!that!opened!up!space!for!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!and!proceeds! as!follows.!First,!I!show!how!the!rise!of!the!antipoverty!norm!was!contextualized!within! this!critical!juncture!in!the!history!of!development!assistance.!To!that!effect,!I!examine!each! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11!Letter!from!Clare!Short,!UK’s!Secretary!of!State!for!International!Development!from!1997!to!2003,!to!Kofi! Annan,!in!response!to!having!received!the!report!We%the%Peoples:%The%Role%of%the%UN%in%the%21st%Century,!which! was!ratified!unanimously!at!the!UN!Millennium!Summit!in!September!2000,!April!18,!2000,!United!Nations! Archives.!!! PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 74!

% of!the!three!crises!highlighted!in!this!introduction!in!more!detail!and!show!how!discontent! with! existing! development! approaches! opened! up! space! for! alternatives.! But! the! history! traced!in!these!pages!indicates!that!not!all!alternatives!were!up!for!negotiation,!and!that! the!solution!was!to!be!found!in!a!commonly!agreeable!theme!in!a!multilateral!setting.!As!

Part!I!will!demonstrate,!to!understand!the!emergence!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!the!analysis! needs! to! extend! beyond! norm! entrepreneurs! and! transnational! advocacy! networks! to! include!state!interests!and!organizational!incentives.!!

Chapter 3

THE WORLD BANK: CONDITIONALITY AND RELEVANCY ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 76!

! It!is!now!well!known!that!during!the!1990s,!as!a!result!of!its!structural!adjustment! programs! (SAPs),! the! World! Bank! was! barraged! with! scathing! criticism.! SAPs! were! economic!and!structural!policies!designed!to!solve!macroeconomic!problems!of!developing! countries! through! reducing! government! intervention! in! the! economy! and! correcting! the! borrowing!countries’!deficits.!In!response!to!the!severe!debt!crisis!that!many!developing! countries!were!facing!in!the!1980s,!the!World!Bank!decided!to!continue!offering!loans,!but! only! to! those! countries! that! were! willing! to! take! the! Bank’s! advice! and! reform! their! economies.! These! structural! adjustment! loans! came! with! heavyKhanded! policy! directives! that! essentially! enforced! liberalization! of! trade,! privatization! of! state! companies,! and! deregulation! of! financial! markets! through! fiscal! discipline,! a! reordering! of! public! expenditure! priorities,! tax! reform,! reducing! subsidies,! and! advancing! property! rights.1!

These! were! supposed! to! be! quick! and! shortKterm! infusions! of! money! with! a! life! span! of! three!to!five!years.!However,!the!loans!were!converted!into!programs!extending!austerity! measures!that,!instead!of!strengthening!economic!growth,!had!devastating!effects!on!the! economies! of! recipient! countries.! People’s! deteriorating! living! standards! led! to! riots! and! demonstrations!across!the!developing!world,!which!were!broadcast!widely!and!showed!a! general! sense! of! discontent! with! IMF! and! World! Bank! policies,! coined! “Washington!

Consensus.”2!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!John! Williamson,! “A! Short! History! of! the! Washington! Consensus,”! Fundación! CIDOB! (2004),! accessed! January!25,!2014,!http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/williamson0904K2.pdf.!!

2!The!term!“Washington!Consensus”!refers!to!a!list!of!policies!that!put!great!importance!on!macroeconomic! stability! and! states’! integration! into! the! international! economy! while! focusing! on! fiscal! discipline,! a! reordering! of! public! expenditure! priorities,! tax! reform,! property! rights,! deregulation,! privatization,! and! liberalization!of!trade,!interest!rates,!and!foreign!direct!investment.!John!Williamson!first!coined!this!term! and!has!argued!that!these!were!not!his!policy!prescriptions!rather!policies!that!“I!claimed!were!widely!held!in! Washington!to!be!widely!desirable!in!Latin!America….the!second!half!of!1989.”!See!John!Williamson,!“The! Washington!Consensus!as!Policy!Prescription!for!Development”!(lecture,!The!World!Bank,!Washington,!DC,! January!13,!2004).!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 77!

! In!defense,!proponents!of!SAPs!argued!that!it!was!the!inadequate!implementation!of! these! policies! that! led! to! their! failures! and! blamed! receiving! states! and! their! illiberal! institutions.3!Opponents,! on! the! other! hand,! criticized! the! universal! “oneKsizeKfitsKall”! application! of! the! policies! that! treated! different! problems! with! the! same! remedy! while! ignoring!structural!roots!of!development!problems!faced!in!different!settings.4!Irrespective! of!whether!the!policies!themselves!or!their!improper!implementation!were!to!be!blamed,! reductions!in!government!spending!and!subsidies!led!to!cuts!in!health,!education!and!social! care!programs!and!hikes!in!food!prices.!As!a!result,!from!the!midK1980s!to!the!midK1990s,! riots! unfolded! in! an! increasing! number! of! countries,! including,! among! others,! Algeria,!

Benin,! Bolivia,! Jordan,! Mexico,! Russia,! and! Venezuela.! These! demonstrations! against! IMF! and! World! Bank! policies! were! not! without! impact.! By! the! time! the! World! Bank! was! celebrating! its! 50th! anniversary! in! 1994,! its! legitimacy! was! in! deep! crisis! with! many! demanding! that! “the! Bank! simply! be! shut! down,”5!and! senior! staff! describing! it! as! “an! institution!under!siege.”6!!!

It!goes!beyond!the!scope!of!this!chapter!to!detail!the!variety!of!reasons!that!led!to! this! condemnation! of! the! World! Bank.! Indeed,! a! large! literature! has! dedicated! itself! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!See!for!example,!Jagdish!Bhagwati,!In(Defense(of(Globalization((New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2004);( Lawrence! H.! Summers! and! Lant! H.! Pritchett,! “The! StructuralKAdjustment! Debate,”! The(American(Economic( Review( 83,! no.! 2( (May! 1993):! 383K389;( Morris! Goldstein,! IMF( Structural( Programs! (Chicago:! Chicago! University!Press,!2003),!accessed!January!24,!2015,!www.nber.org/chapters/c9778.pdf.((

4!See!for!example,!Joseph!E.!Stiglitz,!Globalization(and(Its(Discontents((New!York:!W.!W.!Norton!&!Company,! 2002);! William! Easterly,! “What! Did! Structural! Adjustment! Adjust?! The! Association! of! Policies! and! Growth! with!Repeated!IMF!and!World!Bank!Adjustment!Loans,”!Journal(of(Development(Economics(76,!no.!1!(February! 2005):!1K22.!!!

5!Kathleen! Schalch,! “Wolfensohn! Refocused! World! Bank’s! Mission,”! National( Public( Radio,( May! 31,! 2005,! accessed!October!1,!2013,!http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4673546.!

6!Ruth! Kagia,! Balancing( the( Development( Agenda:( The( Transformation( of( the( World( Bank( under( James( D.( Wolfensohn,(1995W2005((Washington,!DC:!The!World!Bank,!2005),!2.!(

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 78!

! analyzing! the! policies! of! this! international! organization! throughout! the! 1980s! and! early!

1990s,!and!the!extent!to!which!that!particular!experience!with!structural!adjustment!loans! created!the!dilemma!that!the!World!Bank!faced!in!1994.7!The!focus!here!is!instead!on!the! ways! in! which! the! World! Bank! resolved! this! situation.! Despite! the! many! protests! in! developing!countries!and!the!massive!Fifty(Years(is(Enough!campaign!taking!place!around! the!world,!how!did!the!Bank!manage!to!respond!to!the!critique?!Did!it!come!up!with!a!new! development! agenda?! Did! it! shift! its! priorities?! Did! it! scale! back! its! interventions! in! developing!countries?!

In!this!moment!of!crisis,!the!World!Bank!revived!its!poverty!agenda,!which!dated! back!to!the!1970s.!Even!though!the!Bank’s!mission!statement!begins!with!“Our!dream!is!a! world!free!of!poverty,”! this!organization!didn’t! initially!focus! on! poverty!and!its!impacts! until! Robert! McNamara,! the! Bank’s! president! from! 1968K81! “turn[ed]! the! Bank! into! an! instrument! of! social! change.”8!Before! McNamara,! “the! Bank! had! a! strong! tendency! to! equate! development! with! growth,” 9 !and! while! that! remained! the! main! operational! objective,!McNamara!was!the!first!president!to!define!development!as!an!ethical!issue!and! declared! the! World! Bank’s! ultimate! goal! to! be! one! of! creating! “a! political,! social! and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!See,!for!example,!Narcis!Serra!and!Joseph!E.!Stiglitz,!The(Washington(Consensus(Reconsidered:(Towards(a(New( Global(Governance((New! York,! NY:! Oxford! University! Press,! 2008);! Toby! Carroll,! Delusions(of(Development:( The( World( Bank( and( the( PostWWashington( Consensus( in( Southeast( Asia( (London,! UK:! Palgrave! MacMillan,! 2010);! David! Moore,! ed.,! The( World( Bank:( Development,( Poverty,( Hegemony.( (South! Africa:! University! of! KwazuluKNatal!Press,!2007).!!

8!In!her!historical!account!of!the!World!Bank’s!evolution,!Catherine!Caufield!shows!that!while!McNamara!is! credited!with!being!the!first!president!to!focus!on!poverty,!his!predecessor!George!Woods!was!the!one!who! planted! the! seed! of! “social! lending”! in! the! Bank,! as! he! believed! that! infrastructure! projects! by! themselves! were!not!enough!to!help!countries!develop,!and!that!investments!in!social!areas!such!as!education!and!health! were!also!necessary.!See!Catherine!Caufield,!Masters(of(Illusion:(The(World(Bank(and(the(Poverty(of(Nations( (New!York,!NY:!Henry!Holt!and!Company,!Inc.,!1997).!Also!see!Robert!W.!Oliver,!George(Woods(and(the(World( Bank((Boulder,!CO:!Lynne!Rienner!Publishers,!1995).!

9!Robert!L.!Ayres,!Banking(on(the(Poor((Cambridge,!MA!and!London,!England:!The!MIT!Press,!1983).!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 79!

! economic!environment!in!which!individual!men!and!women!can!more!freely!develop!their! own!higher!potential.”10!One!fascinating!aspect!of!the!new!poverty!focus!in!the!1990s,!and! the! terminology! associated! with! it,! is! the! resemblance! to! McNamara’s! crusade! against! poverty.!McNamara!made!“Redistribution!with!Growth”11!the!Bank’s!new!slogan,!and!in!a! language!mirrored!in!today’s!poverty!rhetoric,!!

“McNamara!spoke!passionately!about!the!nearly!800!million!people!who!had! to! survive! on! 30! cents! a! day.! He! termed! this! group,! which! constituted! 40! percent! of! the! population! of! the! developing! world,! the! “absolute! poor”! –! defining! absolute! poverty! as! “a! condition! of! life! so! degraded! by! disease,! illiteracy,! malnutrition,! and! squalor! as! to! deny! its! victims! basic! human! necessities…! The! answer,! he! decided,! was! a! frontal! assault! on! poverty,! a! concentrated!effort!to!see!that!the!basic!needs!of!the!people!were!met.”12!! ! I!wanted!to!fully!quote!this!passage!because!of!its!eerie!similarities!to!the!current! poverty!discourse.!Today’s!global!development!agenda!also!focuses!on!the!“extreme!poor”! and!defines!them!as!the!proportion!of!those!living!below!$1.25!a!day!(although!the!initial! indicator! was! the! catchier! $1! a! day! that! Martin! Ravallion,! a! prominent! Economist! at! the!

World!Bank,!had!‘discovered’13).!Similar!to!that!previous!era,!today’s!agenda!adapts!a!basic! needs! approach! focusing! on! those! essential! elements! that! everyone! requires! in! order! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!Caufield,!Masters(of(Illusion:(The(World(Bank(and(the(Poverty(of(Nations,(97.!

11!Hollis!Chenery!was!McNamara’s!Chief!Economist!and!Vice!President!for!Development!Economics!Research.! Interestingly,!this!report!was!written!because!of!the!concern!in!the!early!1970s!that!despite!strong!economic! growth,!poverty!had!not!been!adequately!reduced.!The!study!broadly!argued!that!growth!should!be!combined! with! varying! measures! of! redistribution! in! order! to! reduce! poverty! and! achieve! more! equitable! income! distribution.! See! Hollis! Chenery,! Montek! S.! Ahluwalia,! C.! L.! G.! Bell,! John! H.! Duloy,! and! Richard! Jolly,! Redistribution(with(Growth((Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!1974).!

12!Ibid.,!99.!!

13!One!of!my!interviewees!from!the!OECD!shared!a!BBC!article!with!me!that!recounts!the!origins!of!the!$1!a! day!statistic.!!According!to!this!article,!WB!economists!realized!that!a!number!of!developing!countries!drew! their! poverty! lines! at! an! annual! income! of! $370.! Martin! Ravallion! was! one! of! those! economists,! and! at! a! dinner!with!his!wife,!he!had!the!“epiphany”!that!$370!over!365!days!translated!into!a!bit!more!than!$1!a!day.!! Et(voilà:!the!birth!of!the!$1!a!day!!See!Ruth!Alexander,!“Dollar!Benchmark:!The!Rise!of!the!$1KaKday!Statistic,”! BBC(News,(March!9,!2012,!accessed!November!11,!2013,!http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazineK17312819.!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 80!

! have!the!capability!to!be!a!productive!member!of!society.!Furthermore,!just!as!McNamara’s! interest!in!numbers!geared!the!Bank!towards!becoming!an!enormous!mine!of!statistics,!it! continues!to!source!many!reports!produced!by!departments!inside!and!outside!the!World!

Bank.!!

During! his! presidency,! McNamara! established! two! Independent! Commissions! on!

International! Development! a! decade! apart! from! each! other:! the! Pearson! Commission! in!

1968! and! the! Brandt! Commission! in! 1977.! It! is! instructive! to! compare! these! two! commissions’!reports,!mainly!to!trace!the!evolution!of!development!thought!throughout!a! crucial!decade!in!the!1970s.!These!two!reports!are!great!signposts!for!the!turn!from!a!focus! on! economic! growth! to! structural! change! as! the! main! means! of! poverty! reduction.! The!

Pearson!Commission!was!formed!in!1968!under!the!leadership!of!former!Canadian!Prime!

Minister!and!Nobel!Prize!winner,!Lester!B.!Pearson,!with!the!mandate!to!review!the!Bank’s! development! assistance! from! 1948! to! 1968! to! assess! the! results! and! to! make! future! recommendations.! The! fellow! commissioners! of! the! report! were! exclusively! from! developed! countries,! including! the! UK,! US,! Germany,! France,! Japan,! and! exceptionally,!

Arthur!Lewis!of!Jamaica,!an!economics!professor!and!later!recipient!of!the!Nobel!Prize!in! economics.! The! Pearson! Report! was! considered! the! most! comprehensive! analysis! of! international! development! at! the! time! and! proposed! “a! new! basis! for! international! coK operation!and!spell[t]!out!the!responsibilities!of!both!donor!and!recipient!countries.”14!

The! initiative! for! the! commission! in! the! late! 1960s! came! at! a! time! when! aid! was! declining!and!rich!countries!were!less!enthusiastic!to!provide!resources!for!international!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14!Peter!M.!Kilburn,!a!Commission!Staff!Assistant,!in!an!article!in!the!December!1969!issue!of!"International! Bank!Notes,"!Pages(from(World(Bank(History:(The(Pearson(Commission,!World!Bank!Archives.!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 81!

! development.! As! the! report! itself! stated,! “Too! often,! particularly! in! the! larger! donor! countries,! the! prevalent! attitude! is! one! of! weariness,! disillusion,! and! even! rejection.!

Recipient! countries! also! have! increasing! doubts! about! some! aspects! of! foreign! assistance…Too! many! in! both! developed! and! developing! countries! are! becoming! cynical,! not!only!about!the!effectiveness!of!the!aid!effect,!but!about!the!validity!of!the!very!concept! of!aid.”15!Echoing!a!sentiment!often!vocalized!in!aid!debates,!the!report!argued,!“The!fact!is! that! we! are! reaching! a! point! of! decision,! even! of! crisis,! in! the! history! of! this! novel—and! noble—adventure! in! international! cooperation! (emphasis! added).” 16 !Hence,! having! highlighted!the!crisis!of!declining!aid,!the!report!asked,!“Why!aid!at!all?”!which!it!answered! with,!first,!a!moral,!and!second,!a!strategic!response.!“Every!accepted!system!of!values!in! the! world! proclaims! the! duty! of! the! rich! and! the! privileged! to! help! the! poor! and! the! deprived,”! the! report! asserted;! however,! “Of! equal—to! some! people! of! greater— importance! are! the! requirements,! indeed! the! compulsions,! of! an! increasingly! close! and! interdependent! world! community.”17!Thus,! the! moral! and! strategic! rationales! we! find! in! the!later!revival!of!the!antipoverty!debate!were!echoed!in!the!Pearson!Report,!even!though! the!suggestions!it!made—in!line!with!the!thinking!of!the!time—were!grounded!in!economic! policies,!including!trade,!foreign!investment,!economic!growth,!volume!of!aid,!debt!relief,! aid!administration,!technical!assistance,!and!multilateral!aid.!Although!population!control! and! aid! to! education! and! research! were! also! mentioned,! they! did! not! reflect! later! conceptualizations! of! human! development,! but! rather! focused! on! the! importance! of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!Lester! B.! Pearson,! Partners( in( Development:( Report( of( the( Commission( on( International( Development( (Washington,!DC:!The!World!Bank,!1969),!7.!

16!Ibid.!!

17!Ibid.,!12.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 82!

! technology!and!scientific!knowledge!for!developing!countries.!

The! report! concluded! that! development! aid! had! contributed! significantly! to! the! economic!development!of!poorer!countries!over!the!past!two!decades.!Both!for!moral!and!

“enlightened!national!interest”18!reasons,!it!was!important!to!continue!this!“partnership!in! development.”19!Taking!its!lead!from!the!second!UNCTAD!meeting!in!New!Delhi!in!1968,! where!many!developed!countries!had!agreed!to!contribute!0.75%!of!their!gross!national! product!(GNP)!to!official!aid,!the!Pearson!Report!suggested!that!ODA!“be!raised!to!0.70%!of! donor! GNP! by! 1975,! and! in! no! case! later! than! 1980.”20!While! slightly! lower! than! the! agreement! in! New! Delhi,! 0.70%! was! still! twice! as! much! as! the! then! 0.33%.! Perhaps,! the! most!important!contribution!of!the!report!was!based!on!a!recommendation!from!Arthur!

Lewis,! who—espousing! another! suggestion! from! the! 1968! UNCTAD! conference—argued! that! the! International! Development! Association! (IDA),! the! World! Bank! arm! that! offers! concessional!loans!and!grants!to!the!poorest!developing!countries,!“should!have!a!povertyK oriented!program”!and!therefore!be!separated!from!the!Bank!so!that!“proposals!for!action! among! the! poorest! countries! [could! be! separated]! from! proposal! for! action! among! the! more!wealthy!countries.”21!While!the!IDA!proposal!went!into!effect,!the!Pearson!Report!did! not!have!any!further!impact!on!development!policy.!!

The! second! Independent! Commission! on! International! Development! was! initiated! under! the! leadership! of! former! German! Chancellor! Willy! Brandt.! Similar! to! the! Pearson!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!James!Wolfensohn!later!used!this!term!as!a!rationale!for!putting!poverty!at!the!center!of!development.!

19!Ibid.,!18.!

20!Ibid.!!

21!George!Oliver,(Woods(and(the(World(Bank,(233.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 83!

! report!of!1969,!the!idea!to!create!an!independent!commission!that!would!help!the!North! and! South! through! their! impasse! in! negotiations! on! development! came! from! the! World!

Bank!president!Robert!McNamara!in!January!1977.!However,!it!differed!from!the!Pearson!

Commission!on!several!grounds.!First,!the!Brandt!Commission!was!composed!of!members! representing!the!South!and!North,!with!a!view!to!creating!a!team!that!would!not!be!met! with!opposition.!Second,!the!report’s!recommendations!incorporated!demands!expressed! for!a!new!international!economic!order!into!a!new!framework,!“which!emphasized!a!dual! relationship:!the!northern!nations!depended!on!the!poor!countries!for!their!wealth,!and!the! poor!countries!depended!on!the!North!for!their!development.”22!When!it!was!published!in!

1980,! the! report! highlighted! the! failures! of! the! world! economic! system! that! had! created! great!chasm!between!the!developed!and!developing!countries,!and!suggested!that!a!summit! of! eminent! persons! soon! be! held! to! discuss! the! development! problems! faced! by! the! majority!of!the!world.!!!

The! Brandt! report! did! not! only! focus! on! the! disparities! between! the! North! and!

South.!It!accomplished!several!important!objectives,!one!of!which!is!particularly!important! for!the!purposes!of!this!project,!and!that!reflects!its!impact!on!the!antipoverty!norm.!Willy!

Brandt! started! his! introduction! to! the! report! by! conveying! the! encouraging! words! of! a! distinguished! African! leader! to! him! that! the! Brandt! Commission! had! the! potential! to!

“contribute!to!the!development!of!worldwide!moral!values.”23!Some!have!argued!that!while! the!report!did!not!have!the!impact!it!had!hoped!for,!“the!Millennium!Declaration!and!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22James!Bernard!Quilligan,!“The!Brandt!Equation:!21st!Century!Blueprint!for!the!New!Global!Economy,”!Center( for( Global( Negotiations! (2002),! accessed! February! 10,! 2014,! http://www.brandt21forum.info/About_BrandtCommission.htm.!

23!Independent!Commission!on!International!Development!Issues,!Willy!Brandt,!NorthWSouth:(A(Programme( for(Survival((Cambridge,!MA:!MIT!Press,!1980),!7.!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 84!

! Millennium!Development!Goals!represented!the!world’s!first!systematic!response,!twenty! years!later,!to!the!challenges!described!in!the!Brandt!Report.”24!!

This! report! suggested! a! restructuring! of! the! global! economic! regime,! building! on! proposals!emanating!from!the!1970s!NIEO!debate!at!the!UN.!In!particular,!the!Commission! defined!its!main!task!to!be!the!promotion!of!“adequate!solutions!to!the!problems!involved! in!development!and!in!attacking!absolute!poverty,”25!and!suggested!an!emergency!plan!for! the!years!1980!to!1985!consisting!of!four!critical!elements:!largeKscale!transfer!of!resources! to! developing! nationKstates,! global! energy! policy,! international! food! program,! and! restructuring! the! international! economic! order.26!In! reality,! the! Brandt! Report! did! not! impact!development!policy!in!the!anticipated!manner,!but!it!was!reviewed!and!analyzed!by!! many! eminent! scholars,! so! much! that! one! author! argued,! “Few! books! throughout! the! history! of! the! social! sciences! have! attracted! such! a! high! level! of! attention,! and! few! have! generated! such! contradictory! assessments.” 27 !And! even! if! its! proposals! were! not! implemented! and! it! was! critiqued! for! having! failed! to! influence! development! policy,! nevertheless,!the!Brandt!Report!impacted!development!history!by!proposing!policies!that! today!are!back!on!the!table!as!the!postK2015!agenda!is!being!discussed.!!

The! differences! between! the! Pearson! and! Brandt! Commissions! particularly! shed! light!on!how!far!development!thought!had!changed!from!the!beginning!to!the!end!of!the!

1970s,! as! a! result! of! shifting! political! realities! on! the! ground.! First,! the! Pearson! report’s! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24Jean!Philippe!Thérien,!“The!Brandt!Commission:!The!End!of!an!Era!in!NorthKSouth!Politics,”!in!International( Commissions(and(the(Power(of(Ideas,(edited!by!Ramesh!Thakur,!Andrew!F.!Cooper,!and!John!English!(Tokyo:! United!Nations!University!Press,!2005),!41.(

25!Brandt!Commission,!NorthWSouth:(A(Programme(for(Survival,(8.!

26!Ibid.!!

27!Thérien,!“The!Brandt!Commission:!The!End!of!an!Era!in!NorthKSouth!Politics,”!35.!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 85!

! proposal!on!how!to!reduce!poverty!hinged!on!economic!growth,!trade,!and!an!optimistic! view!of!the!existing!economic!order!and!the!potential!to!help!the!poor!countries!through! foreign!investment,!trade,!education,!and!technology.!The!Brandt!report,!on!the!other!hand,! was!skeptical!of!the!link!between!economic!growth!and!poverty!reduction,!and!proposed! instead! major! structural! changes! to! the! international! economic! system.! The! second! difference!is!with!regards!to!the!concept!of!“mutual!interest”!and!the!idea!promoted!in!the!

Brandt!report!that!it!was!not!only!in!the!interest!of!the!poor!countries!but!also!in!that!of!the! rich!that!poverty!be!reduced,!because!of!the!close!linkages!between!poverty!and!peace.!As! the!Brandt!commission!stated,!“He!who!wants!to!ban!war!must!also!ban!mass!poverty.”28!A! scholar! of! IR! and! Development! at! the! time! captured! the! differences! by! arguing! that! the!

“Brandt!Commission!accepts!that!there!must!be!major!structural!changes!in!the!operation! of! national! economies! and! the! international! economic! order;! that! the! persistence! of! massive! poverty! in! the! South! threatens! the! stability! and! welfare! of! the! North;! and! that! there!is!an!immediate!crisis!in!the!operation!of!the!international!economic!systems!which! must!be!met!or!the!economies!of!both!North!and!South!will!suffer!severely.”29!!

What!might!be!perhaps!the!most!interesting!insight!emanating!from!a!comparison! of!these!two!reports!is!that!they!were!technical!exercises!carried!out!by!former!highKlevel! political!officials!that!attempted!to!put!the!development!problem!in!perspective!within!the! contexts! of! their! time! and! came! up! with! proposals! that! focused! on! poverty! as! a! characteristic!and!problem!of!the!state.!Indeed,!the!1970s!saw!a!surge!in!projects!dedicated! to!reducing!poverty.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!Brandt!Commission,!NorthWSouth:(A(Programme(for(Survival,!16.!

29!Cranford! Pratt,! “From! Pearson! to! Brandt:! Evolving! Perceptions! Concerning! International! Development,”! International(Journal(35,!no.!4!(1980):!633.!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 86!

! Interestingly,!although!McNamara!came!to!be!associated!with!the!period!at!the!Bank! when!fighting!poverty!was!central!to!its!mission,!in!reality,!less!than!ten!percent!of!the!$77! billion! worth! of! loans! during! that! time! went! to! social! sector! projects! with! the! majority! spent!on!“industrialization!through!traditional!infrastructure!projects:!highways,!dams,!gas! pipelines,! ports,! cargoKhandling! facilities,! and! the! like.”30!But,! it! wasn’t! the! impact! of! this! focus!on!poverty!that!was!the!motivating!factor!for!its!revival!two!decades!later—initially! under!the!leadership!of!former!World!Bank!president!Barber!Conable,!but!more!vigorously! with! the! presidency! and! excellent! marketing! skills! of! James! Wolfensohn.! Some! have! suggested! that! with! its! focus! on! poverty,! “the! Bank! was! in! part! responding! to! political! change! in! the! United! States,! the! views! of! other! donors! and! successful! campaigning! pressures! from! (mainly! Northern)! NGOs.”31!But! presidential! elections! didn’t! take! place! until! late! 1992! with! President! Clinton! taking! over! in! January! 1993.! In! addition,! the!

Congress! had! a! democratic! majority! from! 1988! to! early! 1995;! hence,! it! is! not! clear! how! political!change!in!the!US!could!explain!the!shift!in!World!Bank!policy!emphasis!in!1990.!

Donors’!views!and!pressures!from!NGOs!could!be!a!plausible!explanation,!however,!it!is!not! clear! how! those! pressures! would! have! increased! so! drastically! in! 1990! so! as! to! change!

Bank! policy.! Rather,! the! turn! to! poverty! resulted! from! a! combination! of! growing! dissatisfaction! with! structural! adjustment! lending! (including! increasing! critique! from! diverse!corners!that!the!conditionalities!attached!to!World!Bank!loans!had!not!improved! lives! but! rather! impoverished! more! people! in! developing! countries)! and! organizational!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!Caufield,!Masters(of(Illusion:(The(World(Bank(and(the(Poverty(of(Nations,(106.!

31!Ibid.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 87!

! incentives! to! maintain! relevancy! in! light! of! postKCold! War! changes.! Two! concrete! developments!in!that!respect!stand!out.!!

First,!there!was!widespread!acknowledgement!that!SAPs!had!been!trying!to!adjust! the! economies! of! recipient! countries! without! paying! due! attention! to! societal! effects.! As! resistance! to! adjustment! started! to! take! the! form! of! riots! and! demonstrations,! UNICEF! published! its! report! Adjustment( with( a( Human( Face( in! 1987,! reporting! on! the! many! negative! consequences! of! the! SAPs,! including! increasing! poverty,! rising! food! prices,! and! declining! wages.32!UNICEF! argued! that! adjustment! had! to! be! more! gradual! with! greater! attention! to! social! indicators,! in! order! to! protect! the! poor! and! vulnerable.! Indeed,! many! experts!and!practitioners!chimed!in,!such!that!an!array!of!articles,!reports,!and!books!were! published!in!assessing!SAPs.!For!example,!Aid(and(Power,33(which!was!published!in!1991,! evaluated!the!World!Bank’s!experience!with!structural!adjustment!from!1980!to!1988,!and! concluded! that! little! attention! had! been! paid! to! poverty.! As! its! authors! explained! in! the! preface!to!the!second!edition,!at!the!time,!“the!Bank!did!not!have!poverty!reduction!as!a! major! aim! of! adjustment! lending.”34!Hence,! various! external! sources! were! calling! for! an!

“adjustment”!to!structural!adjustment.!!

These! softer! external! critics! were! supplemented! with! louder! and! stronger! civil! society! actors,! who! didn’t! only! call! for! an! adjustment! to! SAPs! but! their! revamping.! The! argument!broadly!was!that!the!World!Bank!had!done!enough!damage!with!its!structural!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!Giovanni!Andrea!Cornia,!Richard!Jolly,!and!Frances!Stewart,!eds.!Adjustment(with(a(Human(Face:(Protecting( the(Vulnerable(and(Promoting(Growth!(New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!1987).((

33!Paul!Mosley,!Jane!Harrigan,!and!John!Toye,!Aid(and(Power:(the(World(Bank(and(PolicyWbased(Lending,(vol.!1( of(Analysis(and(Policy(Proposals!(London:!Routledge,!1991).!!

34!Ibid.,!xx.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 88!

! adjustment!loans,!and!that!the!world!would!be!better!off!without!its!bank.!The!broadest! movement!was!housed!under!the!50(Years(Is(Enough!campaign,!a!coalition!of!development! and! environmental! nonKgovernmental! organizations! that! joined! forces! to! protest! the! activities! of! the! World! Bank! around! the! globe.! As! Doug! Hellinger,! the! coKfounder! and!

Executive! Director! of! The! Development! Gap! explained,! the! 50(Years(is(Enough! campaign! had! its! origins! in! a! 1992! forum! that! took! place! simultaneous! with! the! WB/IMF! Annual!

Meetings!and!brought!together!representatives!from!100!nonKgovernmental!organizations.!

“The!main!message!of!the!50(Years!was!that!this!was!the!wrong!type!of!development!–!the! imposed,! corporateKled! development.! We! were! not! naïve! to! think! that! these! institutions! would!be!abolished.”35!The!campaign!was!initiated!and!led!by!Northern!NGOs,!however,!it! took!its!cue!from!Southern!NGOs!and!responded!to!the!complaints!received!from!the!field! about!the!disastrous!consequences!of!adjustment!policy.!!

Second,!the!criticism!was!not!exclusive!to!UNICEF!and!civil!society!actors.!Internal!

World!Bank!reports!echoed!a!similar!sentiment.!The!first!formal!statement!on!the!social! costs!of!adjustment!was!presented!at!the!1987!IMF/World!Bank!Annual!Meeting!in!a!paper,! titled!“Protecting!the!Poor!during!Periods!of!Adjustment,”36!which!discussed!solutions!to! reduce! the! transitional! costs! of! adjustment! and! to! protect! the! poor.! However,! archives! indicate!that!already!as!early!as!in!1983,!reports!within!the!World!Bank!recommended!that! the! Bank! strengthen! its! approach! to! poverty! and! include! it! in! its! policy! dialogue! with!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!Interview!with!Doug!Hellinger,!January!4,!2014.!

36!World! Bank,! Protecting( the( Poor( during( Periods( of( Adjustment,! Development! Committee! Pamphlet! 13! (Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1987).!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 89!

! borrowing!countries.37!In!1988,!a!task!force!on!poverty!alleviation!recommended!even!that! alleviating! extreme! poverty! become! a! primary! objective! of! the! Bank’s! policies.38!Hence,! early!on,!some!segments!within!the!World!Bank!were!alarmed!by!the!detrimental!effects!of! structural!adjustment!on!the!poor!and!advocated!that!poverty!should!be!addressed!directly! in!the!Bank’s!programs.!!

The!first!internal!evaluation!of!SAPs!was!published!at!the!end!of!1988!in!a!report! titled! “Adjustment! Lending:! An! Evaluation! of! Ten! Years! of! Experience.”! The! report! acknowledged!that,!“The!introduction!of!adjustment!lending!and!its!expansion!have!elicited! concerns! and! criticisms! from! within! the! Bank,! from! governments,! and! from! critics! in! recipient!and!other!countries.”39!The!report!found!that!average!performance!of!countries! that! had! received! adjustment! loans! was! better! than! that! of! the! countries! that! had! not,! although!it!highlighted!several!areas!that!needed!greater!attention,!including!social!costs!of! adjustment.!While!recommending!that!SAPs!continue!to!constitute!a!major!form!of!Bank! assistance,!it!also!warned,!“Adjustment!lending,!however,!is!both!a!potentially!high!payKoff! and!high!risk!instrument.”40!While!several!other!reports!were!published!during!this!time,41! the!Wapenhans!Report,!which!was!carried!out!in!1992,!was!the!most!critical,!noting!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37!World!Bank,!Focus(on(Poverty:(A(Report(by(a(Task(Force(of(the(World(Bank((Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,! 1983).!

38!World! Bank,! Report(of(the(Task(Force(on(Poverty(Alleviation,(Report! 8409((Washington,! DC:! World! Bank,! 1988).!

39!World! Bank,! Adjustment(Lending:(An(Evaluation(of(Ten(Years(of(Experience,(Policy! and! Research! Series! 1! (Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1988),!1.!

40!Ibid.!!

41!Vinod! Thomas! and! Ajay! Chhibber,! eds.! Adjustment(Lending:(How(It(Has(Worked,(How(It(Can(Be(Improved! (Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1989);!World!Bank,!Adjustment(Lending(Policies(for(Sustainable(Growth,(Policy! and!Research!Series,!no.!14((Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1990);!Vittorio!Corbo,!Stanley!Fischer,!and!Steven! B.!Webb,!eds.!Adjustment(Lending(Revisited:(Policies(to(Restore(Growth!(Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1992).!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 90!

! between! 1981! and! 1991,! the! share! of! projects! deemed! to! have! “major! problems”! had! increased!from!11!to!20!percent;!these!problematic!projects!were!mostly!concentrated!in!

Africa.42!The!same!report!found!that!Bank!personnel!assessed!more!than!oneKthird!of!their!

1991! projects! to! be! ineffective.! Thus,! the! Wapenhans! Report! expressed! a! sentiment! that! had! been! broadly! put! on! display! internationally:! World! Bank! projects! were! problematic! and!needed!to!be!revisited.!

The!first!sign!of!the!World!Bank!considering!advice!received!from!its!own!internal! evaluations!(as!well!as!external!critics)!was!the!publication!of!the!1990(World(Development(

Report((WDR).!Dedicating!WDR’s!thirteenth!edition!to!poverty,!the!report!agreed!that!SAPs! had!incurred!social!costs!that!had!not!been!predicted.!In!specific,!it!argued!that!while!the! world!had!made!great!strides!in!terms!of!socioeconomic!indicators!in!the!past!few!decades,! still!more!than!one!billion!people!lived!in!poverty,!defined!as!“the!number!of!people!who! are!struggling!to!survive!on!less!than!$370!a!year,”!and!wondered!“what!might!be!achieved! if!governments!in!rich!and!poor!countries!alike!made!it!their!goal!to!attack!poverty!in!this! closing!decade!of!the!twentieth!century?”43!Indeed,!various!sources!date!the!interest!of!the!

World!Bank!in!poverty!reduction!to!1990!manifested!in!the!publication!of!that!year’s!World!

Development!Report,!which!“had!a!powerful!impact!in!signaling!to!the!wider!development! community! that,! from! a! position! of! relative! neglect! in! the! 1980s,! structural! poverty!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42!Willi!Wapenhans!was!a!former!World!Bank!vice!president,!who!was!tasked!by!then!WB!president!Preston! to!carry!out!a!portfolio!management!review.!!This!gave!rise!to!the!now!known!Wapenhans!report,!which!is! officially!titled!Effective(Implementation:(Key(to(Development(Impact,!(Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1992).!!

43!World!Bank,!World(Development(Report(1990,!1.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 91!

! reduction! had! reKemerged! as! the! central! objective! of! development! coKoperation! in! the!

1990s.”44!!!

Eveline!Herfkens,!the!then!Dutch!Development!Minister!who!was!on!the!Board!of!

Executive!Directors!in!the!World!Bank!Group!from!1990!to!1996,!confirmed!that!the!focus! on!poverty!emerged!thanks!to!“a!big!change!in!the!thinking!in!the!early!90s!that!coincided! with! the! conclusion! that! adjustment! hadn’t! worked! and! made! a! lot! of! people! much! poorer.”45!Herfkens!argued!that!for!Nordic!donors!poverty!reduction!had!always!been!“the! most! important! objective! of! development! cooperation”46!because! that! was! the! only! way! they!could!explain!to!their!constituencies!why!their!taxes!had!to!be!spent!on!people!abroad.!

However,!her!account!assigns!greater!weight!to!the!role!of!donors!than!external!critiques,! as!she!argued,!“poverty!reduction!came!back!to!the!World!Bank!in!the!early!1990s,!partly! pushed!by!donors,!because!the!Bank!depends!on!bilateral!donors!for!IDA!(or!International!

Development! Association)! contributions,”47!which! target! the! poorest! countries! and! offer! loans!on!concessional!terms.!She!also!credited!the!1990!WDR!on!poverty!as!the!first!trigger! and!highlighted!her!own!role!in!pushing!for!poverty!to!take!center!stage!by!suggesting,!“I! became!a!member!of!the!Board!with!solely!one!point!on!my!agenda:!to!make!that!report!the! base!of!the!operational!practices!of!the!World!Bank.”48!

The! above! accounts! suggest! that! the! experience! with! structural! adjustment! programs,! their! failure! to! bring! about! the! expected! results! of! increased! growth! and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44!Mosley!et!al.,!Aid(and(Power,!xxiii.!

45!Interview!with!Eveline!Herfkens,!December!16,!2013.!

46!Ibid.!!

47!Ibid.!!

48!Ibid.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 92!

! reduced!deficits,!the!resistance!exhibited!by!developing!countries!to!structural!adjustment,! as!well!as!donors’!push!to!focus!on!poverty!influenced!World!Bank’s!thinking.!They!also! suggest! that! poverty’s! emergence! as! an! important! programmatic! topic! within! the! World!

Bank!preceded!James!Wolfensohn’s!presidency.!Although!the!50(Years(is(Enough(campaign! and! the! birthday! celebrations! of! the! World! Bank! and! IMF! took! place! a! year! before!

Wolfensohn! assumed! office,! when! he! took! over! he! was! under! intense! pressure! to! resuscitate!the!World!Bank’s!reputation!and!demonstrate!that!the!Bank!was!still!relevant.!

Caroline! Anstey,! Wolfensohn’s! assistant! and! speechwriter! in! the! early! years! of! his! presidency,! explained! that! the! Bank! had! tried! to! demonstrate! its! relevance! “by! reK launching!important!issues!on!which!it![had]!been!working!for!years!or!even!decades!with! no!dramatic!success.”49!Anstey!argued!that!in!the!1990s!there!was!a!feeling!that!the!private! sector! would! take! over! the! infrastructure! aspect! of! the! World! Bank,! so! there! would! no! longer! be! that! rationale! for! the! Bank! to! continue! its! operations.! In! addition,! “Jim!

Wolfensohn!himself!believed!that!the!Bank!should!decentralize!and!be!closer!to!its!clients! and!also!take!the!social!aspects!of!development!more!seriously!(emphasis!added).”50!!

Based!on!these!accounts,!it!seems!that!there!was!primarily!a!necessity!to!shift!focus! because!of!the!perception!that!the!Bank!would!be!replaced!by!the!private!sector.!This!was! particularly!reflected!in!the!explosion!of!private!capital!flows!to!developing!countries!that! in! 1995! were! at! $206! billion:! almost! tenfold! the! $22.5! billion! in! Bank! loans.51 !But!

Wolfensohn!was!clearly!also!responding!to!the!critique!that!the!Bank’s!policies!had!been! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!Interview!with!Caroline!Anstey,!December!12,!2013.!

50!Mosley!et!al.,!Aid(and(Power,!308.!

51!Sebastian!Mallaby,!The(World’s(Banker:(A(Story(of(Failed(States,(Financial(Crises,(and(the(Wealth(and(Poverty( of(Nations((New!York:!The!Penguin!Press,!2004),!72.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 93!

! harmful,! as! he! wanted! to! decentralize! the! operations! of! this! institution! to! make! it! more! responsive!to!developing!countries.!At!his!first!press!conference,!Wolfensohn!declared!the! centrality!of!poverty!to!Bank!operations!by!stating,!“Poverty!alleviation!is!the!single!most! important!problem”!in!the!world.52!!

! Following! the! footsteps! of! his! idol,! Robert! McNamara,! who! had! on! occasion! commissioned! reports! throughout! his! presidency—such! as! the! previously! mentioned!

Pearson!and!Brandt!Reports—in!the!fall!of!1996,!Wolfensohn!invited!Amartya!Sen!to!give!a! series!of!lectures!at!the!World!Bank,!the!collection!of!which!was!later!published!under!the! title!Development(As(Freedom.(Thus,!Wolfensohn!showed!a!clear!commitment!in!wanting!to! rethink!and!change!the!direction!that!the!Bank!had!taken!during!the!past!decade!and!a!half.!

This! was! reflected! in! the! change! in! rhetoric! as! well! as! the! increased! focus! on! human! development!concepts!in!line!with!Sen’s!conceptualization!of!development.!!

Eric!Swanson,!a!former!employee!of!the!World!Bank!who!was!closely!engaged!in!the! creation! of! the! Millennium! Development! Goals,! relayed! to! me! that! while! Wolfensohn! clearly! had! also! moral! grounds! for! the! shift! in! focus! on! poverty! reduction,! “he! and! his! advisors! were! trying! to! find! a! way! to! redefine! the! Bank’s! program! that! would! gain! the! public’s!sympathy…one!of!the!things!that!has!always!driven!the!presidents!of!the!Bank!is! how!to!persuade!donors!to!put!money!into!IDA53…so!you!need!to!have!a!story!that!makes!it!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52!Ibid.,!88.!!

53!IDA!stands!for!International!Development!Association,!which!is!the!institution!within!the!World!Bank! providing!development!financing!for!the!world’s!poorest!countries!through!grants!and!concessional!loans.! Since!its!launch!in!1960,!IDA!has!issued!grants!and!loans!in!the!amount!of!USD!240!billion!and!is!considered! the!largest!provider!of!funds!for!projects!focusing!on!poverty!reduction!and!human!development.!For!more! information,!visit!http://www.worldbank.org/ida/.!!

! Chapter(3.(THE(WORLD(BANK:(CONDITIONALITY(AND(RELEVANCY( 94!

! compelling.”54!Wolfensohn! had! found! that! compelling! story! to! be! rooted! in! the! ultimate! goal!of!reducing!poverty!in!the!developing!world.!To!do!that!convincingly,!the!World!Bank! needed!to!partner!with!other!actors!that!had!more!credibility!in!the!eyes!of!their!“clients.”!

As!Chapter!4!demonstrates,!the!United!Nations!under!the!leadership!of!Kofi!Annan!would! become!an!invaluable!“asset”!in!that!endeavor.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54!Interview!with!Eric!Swanson,!November!21,!2013.!

Chapter 4

THE UNITED NATIONS: POVERTY’S TRAJECTORY IN DEVELOPMENT!! ! Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 96#

As#the#World#Bank#struggled#with#its#own#questions#of#relevancy,#and#deliberated# how# to# focus# its# operations# on# goals# that# deflected# from# its# association# with# structural# adjustment#programs#and#illustrated#to#the#world#its#effectiveness#in#developing#the#poorer# nations,#the#United#Nations#found#itself#in#a#previously#unknown#position#of#strength.#In# other#words,#the#Bank’s#increasing#weakness#in#light#of#the#SAPs#and#global#riots#against# conditionality#took#place#against#the#backdrop#of#a#United#Nations#that#gained#strength#and# more# importance# with# the# fall# of# the# Berlin# Wall.# In# fact,# “the# Cold# War’s# end# found# the#

United#Nations#in#greater#demand#than#ever#before#to#deal#with#peace#and#security#issues# as# well# as# environment# and# development# issues,# population# growth,# humanitarian# disasters,#and#other#problems.”1#This#gave#the#UN#a#new#kind#of#confidence#in#its#mission#to# ensure#peace#and#security.#However,#the#end#of#the#Cold#War#also#led#to#fragmentation#in# the# former# Soviet# Union# and# increasing# conflicts# within# the# newly# independent# states.#

Ethnic,#religious#and#regional#differences#that#had#been#kept#at#bay#by#brute#force#of#the#

Soviet#empire#now#played#themselves#out#openly#and#led#to#a#rise#in#intrastate#conflicts#and# civil#wars.##

The#UN,#unshackled#from#previous#EastNWest#competitions,#found#itself#liberated#to# act# more# independently,# at# the# same# time# as# it# confronted# new# security# dilemmas# that# intensified#its#engagement#in#peacekeeping#operations#around#the#world.#This#strained#the# world# organization’s# capacity,# and# although# it# had# a# strong# and# independent# Secretary#

General#in#Boutros#BoutrosNGhali,#internal#US#politics#finally#impacted#UN#leadership#and# the#decision#not#to#extend#him#for#a#second#term.#Before#discussing#the#politics#unfolding#in#

######################################################## 1#Karen# A.# Mingst# and# Margaret# P.# Karns,# The(United(Nations(in(the(Post(Cold(War(Era:(Dilemmas(in(World( Politics((Boulder,#CO:#Westview#Press,#2000).#

2#Louis# Emmerij,# Richard# Jolly# and# Thomas# G.# Weiss,# Ahead( of( the( Curve?( UN( Ideas( and( Global( Challenges( Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 97# the# 1990s,# we# need# to# look# at# the# evolution# of# development# thought# and# the# place# of# poverty#within#this#organization#that#the#UN#Intellectual#History#authors#have#argued#to#be#

“ahead#of#the#curve.”2###

According#to#the#UN#Charter,#one#of#the#core#functions#of#this#world#organization#is#

“to# promote# social# progress# and# better# standards# of# life# in# larger# freedom.”3#In# fact,# the#

Economic#and#Social#Council#was#created#with#the#goal#to#be#the#main#international#body#in# charge#of#socioeconomic#issues,#however,#Cold#War#rivalries#created#political#impediments# to#any#feasible#collaboration#around#development#issues.#As#Brian#Urquhart,#the#longNterm# international#civil#servant#who#worked#in#various#highNlevel#capacities#at#the#UN#from#1945# to#1986,#has#relayed,##

“We#assumed#that#the#Economic#and#Social#Council#(ECOSOC)#and#its#various# commissions# would# be# paramount,# and# that# the# World# Bank# and# the# International#Monetary#Fund#and#the#International#Trade#Organization#(ITO),# …#would#be#useful#colleagues,#and#helpful#to#the#central#economic#and#social# organ.# The# Economic# and# Social# Council# was# supposed# to# be# on# the# same# level#as#the#Security#Council.#It#was#supposed#to#be#the#primary#international# organ# in# the# economic# and# social# field,# and# its# commissions—the# Employment#Commission#and#the#Human#Rights#Commission#and#the#Social# Commission#and#so#on—were#supposed#to#be#active#operational#bodies.#But# the#Cold#War#came#and#the#Soviet#Union#was#not#in#the#Bank#and#the#Fund.# The#ITO#was#never#set#up.#The#services#weren't#in#the#GATT.#So,#the#United# States# and# the# western# countries# put# their# support# behind# those# organizations#and#more#or#less#left#the#Economic#and#Social#Council#to#wither# on#the#vine.”4# # Hence,# Cold# War# mentality# and# the# division# of# the# world# into# the# two# diverging# ideologies#of#capitalism#and#communism#weakened#the#UN’s#incipient#role#in#development.#

######################################################## 2#Louis# Emmerij,# Richard# Jolly# and# Thomas# G.# Weiss,# Ahead( of( the( Curve?( UN( Ideas( and( Global( Challenges( (Bloomington,#IN:#Indiana#University#Press,#2001).#

3#United# Nations,# Charter(of(the(United(Nations,# 1# UNTS# XVI,# October# 24,# 1945,# accessed# January# 15,# 2014,# http://www.unwebsite.com/charter.#

4Brian#Urquhart,#interview#by#Thomas#G.#Weiss,#UN(Intellectual(History(Project,(January#6,#2000.### Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 98#

And# although# the# United# States# chose# to# rely# on# the# Bretton# Woods# institutions—its#

“western# United# StatesNoriented# specialized# agencies”5—for# development# work,# it# chose# the# United# Nations# as# the# venue# to# declare# the# 1960s# as# the# UN# Development# Decade.6#

Almost#a#dozen#years#after#President#Truman’s#Point#IV#speech#of#1949,#in#which#he#had# acknowledged# that# “More# than# half# the# people# of# the# world# are# living# in# conditions# approaching#misery,”#and#proposed#“we#must#embark#on#a#bold#new#program#for#making# the# benefits# of# our# scientific# advances# and# industrial# progress# available# for# the# improvement# and# growth# of# underdeveloped# areas,”7#John# F.# Kennedy# reinvigorated# the# development#debate#in#his#1961#address#to#the#General#Assembly.#Having#just#discussed# security#issues#in#the#outer#space,#Kennedy#stated,#

“But#the#mysteries#of#outer#space#must#not#divert#our#eyes#or#our#energies# from#the#harsh#realities#that#face#our#fellow#men.#Political#sovereignty#is#but# a#mockery#without#the#means#of#meeting#poverty#and#literacy#and#disease.# SelfNdetermination#is#but#a#slogan#if#the#future#holds#no#hope.#That#is#why#my# Nation,#which#has#freely#shared#its#capital#and#its#technology#to#help#others# help# themselves,# now# proposes# officially# designating# this# decade# of# the# 1960's#as#the#United#Nations#Decade#of#Development.#Under#the#framework# of#that#Resolution,#the#United#Nations'#existing#efforts#in#promoting#economic# growth# can# be# expanded# and# coordinated.# Regional# surveys# and# training# institutes# can# now# pool# the# talents# of# many.# New# research,# technical# assistance#and#pilot#projects#can#unlock#the#wealth#of#less#developed# lands# and#untapped#waters.#And#development#can#become#a#cooperative#and#not#a# competitive# enterprise# N# to# enable# all# nations,# however# diverse# in# their# systems# and# beliefs,# to# become# in# fact# as# well# as# in# law# free# and# equal# nations.”8 # ######################################################## 5#Ibid.#

6Olav#Stokke,#The(UN(and(Development:(From(Aid(to(Cooperation((Bloomington,#IN:#Indiana#University#Press,# 2009),#137.#

7#Harry# S.# Truman,# “Inaugural# Address,”# Harry(S.(Truman(Library(and(Museum,# January# 20,# 1949,# accessed# January#20,#2014,#http://www.trumanlibrary.org/calendar/viewpapers.php?pid=1030.#

8#John# F.# Kennedy,# “Address# to# the# UN# General# Assembly,”# US( Department( of( State,# September# 21,# 1961,# accessed#January#20,#2014,#http://www.state.gov/p/io/potusunga/207241.htm.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 99#

The#decolonization#movement#and#the#“birth”#of#the#“Third#World”#gradually#moved# development# issues# up# the# global# agenda,# but# President# Kennedy’s# speech# placed# development#as#an#issue#central#to#the#work#of#the#UN#and#its#member#states.#In#line#with# the#trends#at#the#time,#Kennedy#equated#development#with#economic#growth,#singling#out# technocratic# tools# such# as# surveys,# research,# and# technical# assistance# as# the# means# to# enable#development#in#“underdeveloped”#areas.#There#have#been#various#explanations#as# to#why#Kennedy#would#have#chosen#the#UN#to#declare#the#1960s#a#development#decade,# and#the#UNIHP#has#convincingly#argued#that#the#US#took#up#the#position#of#the#moral#leader# when# it# saw# its# power# in# the# General# Assembly# dwindling# in# light# of# the# decolonization# movement#and#the#increasing#number#of#member#states.9##

And# thus# began# four# decades# of# continuous# declarations,# each# building# on# the# previous#one,#all#along#acknowledging#the#increasing#income#gap#between#developed#and# developing#states#while#setting#various#goals#for#the#international#community#in#order#to# overcome#these#disparities.#An#analysis#of#these#development#decades#(DD)#highlights#the# evolution# of# development# thought# throughout# the# latter# part# of# the# 20th# century.# To# foreground#the#analysis#that#follows,#poverty#was#not#necessarily#central#to#development# debates#throughout.#While#initially#the#newly#decolonized#countries#aimed#to#catch#up#with# the# more# developed# countries# through# modernization# and# industrialization,# towards# the# end# of# the# century# the# focus# shifted# to# finding# remedies# to# financial# crises# and# more# equitably#distributing#the#benefits#of#globalization.#Poverty#dominated#the#debates#in#the#

1970s#because#of#the#realization#that#high#growth#rates#had#not#necessarily#translated#into# better# opportunities# for# all.# Similarly,# when# globalization# failed# to# translate# into# more# ######################################################## 9#Stokke,#The(UN(and(Development,#2009.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 100# equitable#benefits#for#all,#poverty#emerged#as#the#primary#focus#of#development#projects#in# the# 1990s.# However,# the# terms# on# which# poverty# was# resuscitated# in# the# 1990s# were# distinctly#different,#as#the#focus#was#on#human#development#rather#than#a#transformation# of#the#international#economic#order.#Hence,#poverty’s#centrality#to#development#prevailed# at#the#turn#of#the#millennium#because#it#focused#on#individuals#within#states#rather#than# institutions#within#the#international#realm.###

4.1 First UN Development Decade (1960s): Economic Growth # The# First# Development# Decade# (DD1)# gave# rise# to# the# first# declaration# to# set# a# specific,# quantitative# and# timeNbound# target# for# all# nationNstates.# As# the# declaration# affirmed,#“Member#States#and#their#peoples#will#intensify#their#efforts#to#mobilize#and#to# sustain#support#for#the#measures#required#on#the#part#of#both#developed#and#developing# countries# to# accelerate# progress# towards# selfNsustaining# growth# of# the# economy# of# the# individual# nations# and# their# social# advancement# so# as# to# attain# in# each# underNdeveloped# country# a# substantial# increase# in# the# rate# of# growth,# with# each# country# setting# its# own# target,# taking# as# the# objective# a# minimum# annual# rate# of# growth# of# aggregate# national# income#of#5#percent#at#the#end#of#the#Decade.”10##

Although# it# was# a# short# document,# it# conveyed# a# few# simple# messages# that# established#three#foundations,#whose#modifications#constituted#the#strategies#identified#in# subsequent# development# decades# throughout# the# rest# of# the# 20th# century.# First,# development# was# identified# as# economic# growth.# Second,# the# responsibility# for#

######################################################## 10#United# Nations,# General# Assembly# resolution,# “United# Nations# Development# Decade,# A# Programme# for# International#Economic#CoNoperation#(I),”#A/RES/1710#(XVI),#December#19,#1961,#accessed#January#14,#2014,# http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1710%20%28XVI%29.## Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 101# development# was# jointly# assigned# to# the# developing# countries# and# developed# countries,# which#were#asked#to#help#in#this#endeavor#by#offering#financial#and#technical#assistance.#

Third,#and#importantly,#it#set#the#first#global#target#to#be#that#of#reaching#5%#annual#growth# rate#by#the#end#of#the#decade.###

Thus,# the# 1960s# saw# the# outlines# of# a# first# collective# effort# to# improve# economic# development#of#the#poorer#countries.#In#addition,#political#changes#and#the#emergence#of# new# states# resulting# from# decolonization# led# to# novel# alliances.# Significantly,# “the# newly# independent#states#of#Africa#and#Asia#joined#with#Latin#American#states#to#form#a#cohesive# voting# bloc# in# the# assembly# and# other# UN# bodies.”11#This# bloc# was# officially# anointed# through# the# “Joint# Declaration# of# the# SeventyNSeven# Developing# Countries# Made# at# the#

Conclusion# of# the# United# Nations# Conference# on# Trade# and# Development”12#on# June# 15,#

1964#in#Geneva,#and#came#to#be#known#as#the#Group#of#77#or#GN77.#This#group#of#countries# played#an#important#role#in#expanding#UN#economic#and#social#activities,#in#particular#by#

######################################################## 11#Mingst#and#Karns,#The(United(Nations(in(the(PostRCold(War(Era,#25.#

12#This#declaration#was#adopted#by#the#following#77#countries:#Afghanistan,#Algeria,#Argentina,#Bolivia,#Brazil,# Burma,# Burundi,# Cambodia,# Cameroon,# Central# African# Republic,# Ceylon,# Chad,# Chile,# Colombia,# Congo# (Brazzaville),#Congo#(Leopoldville),#Costa#Rica,#Cyprus,#Dahomey,#Dominican#Republic,#Ecuador,#El#Salvador,# Ethiopia,# Gabon,# Ghana,# Guatemala,# Guinea,# Haiti,# Honduras,# India,# Indonesia,# Iran,# Iraq,# Jamaica,# Jordan,# Kenya,#Kuwait,#Laos,#Lebanon,#Liberia,#Libya,#Madagascar,#Malaysia,#Mali,#Mauritania,#Mexico,#Morocco,#Nepal,# Nicaragua,#Niger,#Nigeria,#Pakistan,#Panama,#Paraguay,#Peru,#Philippines,#Republic#of#Korea,#Republic#of#VietN Nam,# Rwanda,# Saudi# Arabia,# Senegal,# Sierra# Leone,# Somalia,# Sudan,# Syria,# Thailand,# Togo,# Trinidad# and# Tobago,# Tunisia,# Uganda,# United# Arab# Republic,# United# Republic# of# Tanganyika# and# Zanzibar,# Upper# Volta,# Uruguay,# Venezuela,# Yemen# and# Yugoslavia.# The# first# paragraph# of# the# declaration# reads,# “The# developing# countries#named#above#recognize#the#United#Nations#Conference#on#Trade#and#Development#as#a#significant# step#towards#creating#a#new#and#just#world#economic#order.”#Referring#to#earlier#declarations,#the#second# paragraph# lists# the# basic# premises# of# the# new# economic# order# to# include# “a# new# international# division# of# labour#oriented#towards#the#accelerated#industrialization#of#developing#countries.#The#efforts#of#developing# countries#to#raise#the#living#standards#of#their#peoples,#which#are#now#being#made#under#adverse#external# conditions,# should# be# supplemented# and# strengthened# by# constructive# international# action.# Such# action# should# establish# a# new# framework# of# international# trade# that# is# wholly# consistent# with# the# needs# of# accelerated# development.”# These# themes# are# taken# up# later# in# the# “Programme# of# Action# on# the# Establishment# of# a# New# International# Economic# Order.”# GN77,# “Joint# Declaration# of# the# SeventyNSeven# Developing#Countries#Made#at#the#Conclusion#of#the#United#Nations#Conference#on#Trade#and#Development,”# Geneva,#June#15,#1964,#accessed#January#17,#2014,#http://www.g77.org/doc/Joint%20Declaration.html.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 102# creating# the# United# Nations# Conference# on# Trade# and# Development# (UNCTAD)# in# 1964.#

This# was# the# Third# World’s# response# to# the# WB# and# IMF# and# focused# on# the# disparities# between#the#rich#North#and#the#poor#South.##

This# change# in# economic# worldview# was# propagated# mainly# by# Raul# Prebisch,# a# development#economist#at#the#Economic#Commission#for#Latin#America,#who#opposed#the#

Bretton#Woods#institutions’#view#of#development#as#a#purely#economic#issue,#and#instead# argued# that# development# was# highly# political.# Prebisch# asserted# that# postNcolonial# states# had# less# developed# economic# conditions# as# a# direct# result# of# colonial# times# and# power# politics.# The# attribution# of# the# imbalance# in# economic# relations# to# discriminatory# governance# structures# was# termed# “dependency# theory”# which# suggested,# “Developing# states#were#placed#at#a#structural#disadvantage#as#their#exports#were#discriminated#against# while#at#the#same#time#they#were#forced#to#abide#by#liberal#trade#rules#for#manufactured# goods.”13#Prebisch#became#the#first#Secretary#General#of#UNCTAD#in#1964.#

It#is#partly#a#result#of#this#evolution#that#progress#reports#on#the#accomplishments#of#

DD1#highlighted#the#role#of#development#aid#and#argued#that#it#was#in#the#unwillingness#of# the# Western# donors# that# one# would# have# to# look# for# the# failures# of# development.# These# evaluations# formed# the# basis# for# the# strategy# to# be# followed# during# the# Second#

Development#Decade.#One#of#the#main#achievements#of#DD1#was#quite#instrumental#to#the# evolution# of# development# thought# and# practice:# “It# identified# economic# and# social# development,# particularly# economic# development# in# developing# countries,# as# a# joint# responsibility# of# developed# and# developing# countries….and# provided# a# framework# for# a#

######################################################## 13#Thomas# G.# Weiss,# et# al.# The( United( Nations( and( Changing( World( Politics,( 6th# ed.# (Boulder,# CO:# Westview# Press,#2009),#261.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 103# process#where#planning,#setting#targets#and#overall#objectives,#coordinating#activities,#and# evaluating# the# results# achieved# could# be# improved# and# carried# further# multilaterally.”14#

This# exercise# gave# the# international# community# a# taste# for# collective# planning# around# development# objectives,# such# that# the# UN# found# itself# more# seriously# and# vigorously# discussing#the#next#development#decade#in#the#second#half#of#the#1960s.##

4.2 Second UN Development Decade (1970s): Basic Needs Approach # When# the# International# Development# Strategy# for# the# Second# United# Nations#

Development#Decade#(DD2)#was#adopted#by#the#General#Assembly#on#October#24,#1970,#in# contrast#to#its#forerunner#that#was#barely#two#pages#long,#this#document#was#ten#pages#of# structured# analysis# of# the# global# development# situation# with# sections# dedicated# to# goals# and# policy# measures# as# well# as# specific# themes# in# need# of# further# attention# by# the# international# community.# It# differed# from# DD1# in# several# important# respects.# First,# it# stressed# that# “The# primary# responsibility# for# the# development# of# developing# countries# rests# upon# themselves,”# nevertheless,# it# emphasized# the# role# of# the# wealthier# nations# by# stating,# “however# great# their# own# efforts,# these# will# not# be# sufficient# to# enable# them# to# achieve# the# desired# development# goals# as# expeditiously# as# they# must# unless# they# are# assisted# through# increased# financial# resources# and# more# favourable# economic# and# commercial# policies# on# the# part# of# developed# countries.”15#Second,# and# in# line# with# the# previous# point,# DD2# expanded# its# goals# and# objectives# beyond# annual# GDP# growth# to#

######################################################## 14#Stokke,#The(UN(and(Development,(156.#

15#United#Nations,#General#Assembly#resolution,#“International#Development#Strategy#for#the#Second#United# Nations# Development# Decade,”# A/RES/25/2626# (XXV),# October# 24,# 1970,# accessed# January# 14,# 2014,# http://www.unNdocuments.net/a25r2626.htm.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 104# include#a#target#on#availability#of#financial#resources#for#development#according#to#which,#

“Each# economically# advanced# country# should# endeavor# to# provide# by# 1972# annually# to# developing#countries#financial#resource#transfers#of#a#minimum#net#amount#of#1#percent#of# its#gross#national#product#at#market#prices#in#terms#of#actual#disbursements.”16#Third,#while# the# first# development# decade# focused# almost# exclusively# on# economic# growth,# DD2# acknowledged#that,#“qualitative#and#structural#changes#in#the#society#must#go#hand#in#hand# with#rapid#economic#growth,”#and#listed#literacy,#education,#health,#housing,#nutrition,#and# wellbeing#of#children,#youth#and#women#among#areas#that#needed#particular#attention.#As# such,# already# in# the# early# 1970s,# there# was# a# shift# in# development# thought,# as# economic# growth#was#being#supplemented#with#social#aspects.#A#final#major#difference#between#the# two#development#strategies#was#in#the#ways#in#which#it#was#conceived#and#received#by#the# international#community.#DD1#was#primarily#a#US#initiative,#and#the#strategy#was#adopted# at#the#eve#of#decolonization#movements.#DD2,#on#the#other#hand,#was#adopted#at#the#end#of# a#decade#that#had#not#only#witnessed#a#growing#Third#World#presence#at#the#UN#but#also#a# weakening#US#in#light#of#the#Vietnam#War.#This#was#very#much#reflected#in#the#text#of#DD2# as# well# as# in# the# broad# confirmation# that# the# document# received# from# the# developing# countries# visNàNvis# the# reservations# emanating# from# the# Western# countries,# including#

France,#UK,#and#US.#

Hence,# the# 1960s,# as# a# result# of# decolonization# movements# and# increasing# membership#by#developing#countries#in#the#United#Nations#tipped#the#UN#agenda#towards# economic# development# and# NorthNSouth# relations.# The# second# development# decade# reflects#the#increasing#importance#of#socioeconomic#issues#to#UN#member#states,#who#in# ######################################################## 16#Ibid.,#para.#42.## Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 105# the# first# half# of# the# 1970s# found# strength# in# their# solidarity# to# express# their# frustrations# with# the# existing# international# economic# order.# As# a# result# of# debates# among# scholars# representing#the#North#and#the#South,#the#strategy#for#the#second#development#decade#was# more#varied#than#its#forerunner.#While#still#not#as#holistic#as#it#would#come#to#be#under#the# concept#of#human#development#two#decades#later,#the#seeds#for#an#integrated#approach#to# development#were#planted#in#the#1970s.##

One# important# development# was# the# conception# of# the# idea# of# a# “basic# needs”# approach.#Although#growth#in#the#developing#countries#had#reached#5#percent#in#the#1960s,# the# benefits# of# that# growth# had# not# been# distributed# equitably.# Why# should# growth# be# viewed# as# the# primary# development# objective,# if# it# had# not# translated# into# better# opportunities#for#all?#Gradually,#the#idea#of#paying#more#attention#to#the#poorer#segments# of# society# became# more# attractive,# and# the# ILO# discussed# the# feasibility# of# a# minimum# income# threshold# in# its# World# Employment# Conference# in# 1976.# The# introduction# to# the# conference#document#stated,#“contrary#to#earlier#expectations,#the#experience#of#the#past# two# decades# has# shown# that# rapid# growth# of# aggregate# output# does# not# by# itself# reduce# poverty#and#inequality”#and#that#“it#is#no#longer#acceptable#in#human#terms#or#responsible# in# political# terms# to# wait# several# generations# for# the# benefits# of# development# to# trickle# down#until#they#finally#reach#the#poorest#groups.”17#Very#similar#language#would#be#used#a# quarter# of# a# century# later# to# introduce# poverty# reduction# as# the# ultimate# objective# of# development#at#the#dawn#of#a#new#century.#

The#document#asked#the#conference#to#recommend#“the#adoption#by#each#country#of# a#basicNneeds#approach,#aiming#at#the#achievement#of#a#certain#minimum#standard#of#living# ######################################################## 17#ILO,#Employment,(Growth(and(Basic(Needs:(A(One(World(Problem#(Geneva:#ILO,#1976).# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 106# before# the# end# of# the# century”# defining# basic# needs# as# “the# minimum# standard# of# living# which# a# society# should# set# for# the# poorest# groups# of# its# people,”#covering#“the#minimum# requirements#of#a#family#for#personal#consumption:#food,#shelter,#clothing,”#but#also#“access# to# essential# services,# such# as# safe# drinking# water,# sanitation,# transport,# health# and# education”#and#an#“adequately#remunerated#job#for#everyone#willing#to#work.”18#

However,# by# the# time# the# basic# needs# approach# had# been# conceived# and# popularized,#there#were#other#currents#and#ideas#on#development#that#seemed#to#be#more# appealing#to#the#developing#countries.#There#is#a#suggestion#within#the#studies#of#that#era# that# the# shift# to# social# objectives# of# development# as# well# as# the# advocacy# of# poverty# reduction#and#a#basic#needs#approach#were#mainly#supported#by#the#countries#of#the#North# and# found# little# support# by# the# South.# As# one# scholar# put# it,# the# Third# World# saw# “basic# needs# fulfillment# as# being# at# the# expense# of# growth,# at# the# expense,# therefore,# of# the# assertion# of# national# strength# they# seek—a# denial,# in# other# words,# of# their# quest# for# equality#in#the#comity#of#nations.”19#Making#a#similar#argument,#another#explanation#for#the# rejection# of# “the# basicNneeds# strategy…by# Third# World# spokesmen# was# that# they# considered#it#unlikely#to#promote,#and#possibly#to#impede,#what#to#most#of#them#were#more# important#aspirations—modernization#at#home#and#a#New#International#Economic#Order# abroad.”20##

Simultaneously,# a# series# of# conferences# during# the# first# half# of# the# 1970s# had# culminated# in# the# adoption# of# a# “Programme# of# Action# on# the# Establishment# of# a# New# ######################################################## 18#Ibid.##

19#Ronald#Dore,#“Scholars#and#Preachers,”#IDS(Bulletin(9,#no.#4#(June#1978):#14.##

20#H.W.# Arndt,# Economic(Development:(The(History(of(an(Idea# (Chicago:# University# of# Chicago# Press,# 1987),# 111.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 107#

International#Economic#Order#(NIEO)”#in#May#1974,#primarily#supported#by#the#GN77.#The#

NIEO#was#launched#within#the#framework#of#the#NonNAligned#Movement#(NAM),#at#a#time# when#Algeria—during#the#presidency#of#Houari#Boumédienne#and#Abdelaziz#Bouteflika#as# foreign#minister—held#both#the#chairmanship#of#NAM#as#well#as#the#presidency#of#the#UN#

General# Assembly.# It# was# the# Algerian# president,# who# in# early# 1974# called# for# a# Special#

Session#at#the#UN#General#Assembly,#initiating#the#negotiations#on#a#set#of#issues#that#would# later#percolate#into#the#NIEO#action#plan.#Don#Mills,#the#Jamaican#ambassador#chairing#the#

GN77# in# the# 1970s# argued# that# the# entire# proposal# emanating# from# Algeria# “was# seen# by# some#as#a#very#radical#set#of#proposals,#introduced#under#the#chairmanship#of#a#country# with#a#particular#image,#which#added#to#the#anxiety#by#many#in#industrialized#countries.”21#

When# Boumédienne# delivered# the# speech# that# outlined# the# NIEO# in# the# Sixth# Special#

Session#of#the#GA#in#April#1974,#he#reportedly#received#a#long#standing#ovation.22##

The# premise# of# this# new# economic# order# was# to# be# “equity,# sovereign# equality,# interdependence,#common#interest#and#cooperation#among#all#States,#irrespective#of#their# economic# and# social# systems# which# shall# correct# inequalities# and# redress# existing# injustices,#make#it#possible#to#eliminate#the#widening#gap#between#the#developed#and#the# developing# countries# and# ensure# steadily# accelerating# economic# and# social# development# and# peace# and# justice.”23#The# NIEO# addressed# deep# structural# issues# emanating# from# traditional#power#relationships#as#the#source#of#development#problems#faced#by#the#South.#

######################################################## 21#Thomas#G.#Weiss#and#Tatiana#Carayannis,(eds.#UN(Voices:(The(Struggle(for(Development(and(Social(Justice( (Bloomington,#IN:#Indiana#University#Press,#2005),#226.#

22#Ibid.#

23#United#Nations,#General#Assembly#resolution,#“Declaration#on#the#Establishment#of#the#New#International# Economic# Order,”# A/RES/SN6/3201# (SNVI),# May# 1,# 1974,# accessed# January# 14,# 2014,# http://www.unN documents.net/s6r3201.htm.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 108#

The#solution#was#found#in#a#redistribution#of#power#and#resources#in#order#to#somewhat# level# the# field# for# the# developing# countries.# The# UN# Intellectual# History# Project# presents# this# era# as# one# of# pioneering# conferences# and# integration# of# various# aspects# of# human# development,# which# distanced# the# world# from# viewing# development# as# only# economic# growth.#It#further#contrasts#“the#consensus#of#these#global#conferences#and#the#substantive# ideas#coming#out#of#them”#with#“fireworks”#emanating#form#the#special#sessions#of#the#GA# in# 1974# and# 1975,# which# responded# “to# Third# World# calls# for# a# New# International#

Economic# Order.”24#Importantly,# while# the# GN77# and# many# of# the# Northern# countries# supported#the#declaration,#only#few,#though#powerful,#states,#in#particular#the#US,#UK#and#

Germany,#had#significant#reservations.#Examining#the#UN’s#annual#books#and#archives,#one# is#constantly#reminded#of#the#weight#that#certain#states#have#carried#and#continue#to#carry# because#of#their#economic#might.##

A#closer#analysis#of#the#NIEO#principles#offers#an#insight#into#the#reservations#that# the#US#and#other#Western#countries#raised#when#it#came#to#adopting#them#in#the#GA.#In# terms# of# trade# and# development,# the# South# asked# that# the# power# of# multinational# corporations# be# curbed,# that# the# authority# over# their# natural# resources# be# returned# to# them,#that#developing#countries#producing#raw#materials#benefit#from#the#value#added#as#a# result#of#their#processing,#that#terms#of#trade#be#improved,#and#tariffs#and#quotas#limiting# their#access#to#markets#in#developed#countries#be#lifted,#and#so#on.#But#the#terms#of#NIEO# were# not# limited# to# trade# and# development;# they# also# included# revisions# to# the# international# monetary# system# and# financing# of# development# in# developing# countries,#

######################################################## 24Richard#Jolly,#Louis#Emmerij,#and#Thomas#G.#Weiss,#The(Power(of(UN(Ideas:(Lessons(from(the(First(60(Years( (New#York:#UN#Intellectual#History#Project,#2005),#11.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 109# improved# access# to# modern# technology,# and# promotion# of# SouthNSouth# cooperation.#

Importantly,#NIEO#called#for#the#adoption#of#the#Charter#of#Economic#Rights#and#Duties#of#

States,#which#later#that#year#was#adopted#by#a#vote#of#114#to#3#with#11#abstentions.25#While# hailed# “a# landmark# in# international# relations,”26 #several# Western# countries,# including#

Germany,# the# Netherlands# and# UK# pointed# out# that# the# content# of# the# document# lacked# wide#consensus#and#hence#should#not#be#put#into#effect.##

The#proclamations#of#the#NIEO#principles#have#been#considered#by#some#scholars#to# be# “a# historic# break# with# the# past# and# reflected# a# major# realignment# of# power# in# the# world.”27#It#primarily#called#for#a#restructuring#of#the#global#political#economy,#as#many#of# the#newly#emerging#states#that#joined#the#UN#found#themselves#in#disadvantage#in#terms#of# commercial# relations# with# the# industrialized# countries.# The# argument# for# a# new# international# economic# order# rested# in# the# perception# (and# actual# realization)# of# postN colonial#states#that#their#economic#development#was#a#result#of#colonial#relations#and#that# their# dependence# on# an# inequitable# system# of# trade# and# finance# put# them# in# a# disadvantageous# position# to# spur# development.# In# short,# the# NIEO# attempted# to# change# extant#power#relations#within#international#economic#affairs#with#a#view#to#curtailing#the# dependence# of# developing# countries.# This# explains# why# NIEO# was# never# achieved# within# the# UN# system# after# close# to# two# decades# of# pursuit# by# GN77# and# other# developing# and# developed# countries.# In# line# with# the# thesis# of# this# dissertation,# it# is# perhaps# hardly#

######################################################## 25#The#three#countries#that#voted#against#the#adoption#of#the#Charter#included#Germany,#UK#and#USA,#while# the#abstentions#emanated#from#Belgium,#Canada,#Denmark,#France,#Ireland,#Israel,#Italy,#Japan,#Luxembourg,# the#Netherlands,#and#Spain.##See#UN(Year(Book(1975.(

26#United#Nations#General#Assembly,#“Charter#of#Economic#Rights#and#Duties#of#States,”#UN(Year(Book#(1975),# 389.#

27#Stokke,#The(UN(and(Development,(172.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 110# surprising# that# an# agenda# threatening# existing# state# interests# through# redistributional# means#would#not#have#taken#hold.#As#John#Ruggie#explains#confirming#this#point,#

“It#[NIEO]#represented#the#extension#into#the#international#realm#of#what#a# lot#of#these#countries#thought#they#were#trying#to#do#domestically,#which#is#to# pursue#relatively#statist#policies.#They#were#trying#to#construct#a#particular# international#political#framework#within#which#the#global#economy#would#be# forced#to#operate.#It#was#largely#a#nonstarter.#And#of#course,#it#was#abetted#by# a#couple#of#factors.#One#was#the#Soviets,#who#had#a#very#strong#interest—an# ideological# interest,# if# no# other—in# seeing# this# work,# because# it# reflected# their#approach#to#things.#.#.#The#other#was#the#oil#shock,#which#gave#the#South# a#false#belief#that#natural#resource#power#could#be#manipulated#to#bring#the# negotiations#around#in#their#favor.#The#only#problem#with#all#of#that#was#that# it#didn’t#reflect#the#laws#of#supply#and#demand#and#didn’t#make#any#economic# sense.#It#ended#suddenly.”28# ### By# the# end# of# the# 1970s,# the# Declaration# and# Programme# of# Action# on# the#

Establishment#of#a#New#International#Economic#Order#along#with#the#Charter#for#Economic#

Rights# and# Duties# of# States# were# the# principal# sources# of# international# cooperation# for# development,# promoting# structural# changes# in# the# international# system# with# a# view# to# creating# more# just# and# equitable# relations# among# states# that# would# facilitate# socioeconomic# development# of# developing# countries.# In# an# effort# to# ensure# the# implementation#of#these#resolutions,#the#General#Assembly#in#December#1977#set#up#the#

Committee# of# the# Whole# whose# main# goal# was# to# monitor# progress# in# achieving# the# objectives#of#the#charter#and#programme#of#action.#In#their#report#at#the#end#of#the#decade,# the#preparatory#committee#found#there#to#be#some#agreement#on#the#development#strategy# to# guide# the# third# development# decade,# however,# international# cooperation# for# development#in#the#form#of#a#new#international#economic#order#soon#ceased#to#exist.##

Representatives# from# developing# countries# put# the# blame# on# the# industrialized#

######################################################## 28#Weiss#and#Carayannis,#UN(Voices,#227N28.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 111# nations# and# their# lacking# political# will# to# change# the# unbalanced# relationship# between# developed# and# developing# countries.# In# reviewing# the# achievements# of# the# second# development#decade,#some#argued#that#by#ignoring#structural#challenges,#these#strategies#

“had#not#only#failed#to#address#the#need#for#structural#reform,#but#tended#to#perpetuate#the# dependency# relationships# of# the# developing# countries.”29#Developed# countries,# in# turn,# acknowledged#the#severity#of#the#economic#situation#but#also#argued#that#“ultimately#it#was# up#to#the#developing#countries#themselves#to#be#responsible#for#their#own#development#by# creating#conditions#that#would#attract#private#external#resources.”30#Thus,#the#premises#of# the# debate# were# distinctly# different# depending# on# the# characteristics# of# the# state.# While# developing# countries# blamed# existing# power# relations# for# their# lack# of# development,# developed#countries#assigned#responsibility#to#the#instability#and#domestic#problems#that# made#investment#difficult#in#developed#countries.#In#other#words,#the#South#identified#the# problem# of# lacking# development# to# be# a# structural# one# pertinent# to# the# international# political#economy,#while#the#North#identified#it#as#a#domestic#economicNinstitutional#one.31##

This#latter#point#very#much#set#the#tone#and#reflected#the#development#ideology#of# the#time,#but#would#be#revived#later#during#the#discussions#giving#rise#to#the#millennium# development#agenda.#While#developed#countries#had#been#cementing#the#conception#that# developing#countries#were#responsible#for#their#own#development,#they#expanded#on#that# point# and# argued# that# developing# countries# had# to# create# better# conditions# for# foreign#

######################################################## 29 #United# Nations# General# Assembly,# “Questions# Concerning# Development# and# International# Economic# Cooperation#and#the#Establishment#of#A#New#International#Economic#Order,”#UN(Year(Book#(1980),#493.##

30#Ibid.,#494.#

31#This#is#very#similar#to#the#debate#two#decades#later,#differentiating#between#global#governance#structures# (rules#of#the#international#game)#vs.#democratic/good#governance#(rules#of#the#national#game)#being#the#root# of#the#problem.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 112# investment#and#open#up#their#economies#for#“free#flows#of#world#trade.”32#But#this#did#not# mean#that#the#developed#countries#were#united#in#their#views#on#development#cooperation.#

Northern#allies#of#developing#countries,#such#as#the#Netherlands#and#the#Nordic#countries,# had#a#different#perspective,#as#reflected#in#the#Brandt#Report#discussed#in#Chapter#3.##

Hence,#the#1970s#were#a#particularly#interesting#decade#for#development#because#of# the# intellectual# vitality# in# multilateral# institutions,# such# as# UNCTAD,# ECLA,# and# ILO,# with# scholars# and# practitioners# trying# hard# to# find# alternative# strategies# to# enable# alternative# futures#for#developing#countries.#The#search#for#alternative#strategies#was#also#taking#place# outside#of#the#UN#system,#in#such#venues#as#the#Society#for#International#Development#and# the#Dag#Hammarskjold#Foundation.#By#this#time,#eminent#economists#such#as#Hans#Singer,#

Dudley# Seers,# and# Mahbub# ul# Haq,# among# others,# were# quite# vocal# about# the# fallacious# equivocation# of# economic# development# with# growth.# As# Singer# famously# stated,#

“development#is#growth#plus#change”#and#“change#is#not#only#economic#but#also#social#and# cultural#change.”33##

4.3 Third UN Development Decade (1980s): Adjustment with a Human Face # The#Brandt#report#was#sympathetic#to#the#NIEO#principles,#but#its#timing#fell#at#the# beginning# of# an# era# ushering# a# new# development# ideology# dominated# by# neoclassical# economics#and#free#market#ideologues.#In#fact,#the#International#Development#Strategy#for#

######################################################## 32#This#point#was#made#by#the#US#delegation#as#a#suggestion#in#terms#of#how#developing#countries#could#help# themselves# in# their# development# objectives.# See# United# Nations# General# Assembly,# “Questions# Concerning# Development# and# International# Economic# Cooperation# and# the# Establishment# of# A# New# International# Economic#Order,”#UN(Year(Book#(1980),#495.##

33Hans#W.#Singer,#“Social#Development:#Key#Growth#Sector,”#International(Development(Review(7,#no.#1(1965):# 3N8.#Cited#in#Michele#Alacevich,#“The#Changing#Meaning#of#Development:#SID’s#First#Decades,”#Development( 50,#no.#S1#(2007):#59N65.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 113# the#Third#United#Nations#Development#Decade#met#the#same#fate#as#the#Brandt#report.#DD3# declared# in# its# preamble# governments’# “determination# to# establish# a# new# international# economic# order.” 34 #It# specifically# highlighted# the# “inequities# and# imbalances”# in# international# economic# relations# to# be# the# main# causes# “widening# the# gap# between# developed#and#developing#countries”#and#inhibiting#development#of#the#South.#Further,#it# set#out#“the#reduction#and#elimination#of#poverty#and#a#fair#distribution#of#the#benefits#of# development#[as]#primary#objectives#for#the#international#community#during#the#Decade.”35##

Thus,#institutional#and#structural#changes#were#highlighted#to#be#at#the#heart#of#the# development#problems#that#the#developing#countries#faced,#and#when#the#Committee#for#

Development#Planning#met#to#discuss#the#contours#of#the#third#development#decade,#there# was#agreement#that#this#agenda#should#focus#on#those#broader#issues.##Hence,#DD3,#while# modeled# on# the# objectives# and# strategies# of# DD2,# placed# much# more# emphasis# on# institutional# reform.# It# went# so# far# as# to# call# DD3# “an# integral# part# of# the# efforts# of# the# international#community#to#establish#a#new#international#economic#order”#and#called#for#

“institutional# and# structural# changes# in# international# economic# relations.”36#Further,# the#

Strategy#set#out#to#promote#economic#and#social#development#in#order#to#reduce#disparities# between#developed#and#developing#countries#“as#well#as#the#early#eradication#of#poverty# and#dependency.”37##The#third#development#decade#explicitly#stated#that#development#was#

“an#integral#process,#embodying#both#economic#and#social#objectives”#and#set#out#specific# ######################################################## 34#United# Nations,# General# Assembly# resolution,# “International# Development# Strategy# for# the# Third# United# Nations#Development#Decade,”#A/RES/35/36,#December#5,#1980,#accessed#January#17,#2014,#http://www.unN documents.net/a35r56.htm.##

35#Ibid.#

36#Ibid.,#para.#17.#

37#Ibid.,#para.#7.## Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 114# targets#mirrored#20#years#later#in#the#MDGs,#including#the#“possible#realization#of#universal# primary#enrolment#by#the#year#2000,”38#“attainment#by#the#year#2000#of#a#level#of#health#

…to# lead# a# socially# and# economically# productive# life,”39#provision# of# “[S]afe# water# and# adequate#sanitary#facilities#…by#1990,”40#and#reduction#of#infant#mortality#to#“reach#50#per#

1,000#live#births,#as#a#maximum,#by#the#year#2000,”41#among#others.#Most#importantly,#the#

Strategy# set# out# “The# reduction# and# elimination# of# poverty# and# a# fair# distribution# of# the# benefits# of# development# [as]# primary# objectives# for# the# international# community# during# the#Decade.”42#Even#some#of#the#NIEO#principles#that#emphasized#the#promotion#of#greater# autonomy#and#independence#of#developing#countries#were#incorporated#into#the#text#of#the# third# development# decade# strategy,# however,# the# proposal# for# a# restructuring# of# the# international# economic# order# was# postponed# throughout# the# decade# and# finally# disappeared#from#the#agenda#entirely.##

Once#again,#the#geopolitics#of#the#time#put#the#third#development#decade#in#jeopardy# before#it#was#even#adopted.#Not#only#did#the#second#oil#crisis#of#1979#intensify#the#global# economic# recession# thereby# impacting# development# assistance# and# heightening# the# debt# burden,# but# the# election# of# Margaret# Thatcher# in# the# UK# and# Ronald# Reagan# in# the# US# solidified# neoliberal# policy# within# their# governments# and# by# extension# in# their# policies# within# international# organizations.# The# optimism# and# hope# for# a# restructured# global# economy#that#had#reigned#during#the#1970s#along#with#the#basic#needs#approach#that#had# ######################################################## 38#Ibid.,#para.#46.#

39#Ibid.,#para.#48.#

40#Ibid.#

41#Ibid.##

42#Ibid.,#para.#43.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 115# emanated#from#the#debates#in#development#circles#came#to#an#end.#The#1980s#ushered#in# an# era# in# which# the# World# Bank# and# IMF# took# on# a# much# stronger# role# in# questions# pertaining#to#development,#relegating#the#UN#“to#take#on#the#role#of#constructive#dissent.”43#

UNICEF# under# the# leadership# of# Jolly# was# key# to# this# dissent,# captured# in# the# already# mentioned# 1987# report# Adjustment( with( a( Human( Face,# which# rather# than# opposing# the# structural#adjustment#programs#of#the#Bretton#Woods#institutions#on#the#whole#opted#to# point#out#the#social#destruction#of#these#policies.##

Hence,# the# first# three# development# decades# saw# a# progression# of# definitions# that# initially# equated# development# with# economic# growth,# but# gradually# incorporated# social# factors# and# basic# needs.# The# changing# political# environment# was# key# to# the# evolving# understanding#of#development#as#something#more#than#just#economic#growth,#however,#so# was#the#experience#with#policies#that,#contra#expectation,#did#not#result#in#the#anticipated# growth#or#development.##

As#the#third#development#decade#came#to#an#end,#a#major#milestone#in#the#evolution# of#development#was#achieved:#the#establishment#of#the#Human#Development#Office#and#the# promotion# of# the# concept# that# “The# basic# purpose# of# development# is# to# enlarge# people’s# choices.”44#Not#only#were#people#to#be#put#at#the#center#of#development,#but#development# itself#was#to#be#about#“the#richness#of#human#life,#rather#than#the#richness#of#the#economy# in#which#human#beings#live,#which#is#only#a#part#of#it.”45#As#it#is#well#known#by#now,#it#was#

######################################################## 43#Jolly#et#al.,#The(Power(of(UN(Ideas,#11.#

44#UNDP,#Human(Development(Report(1990((Oxford:#Oxford#University#Press,#1990),#1.#

45#Amartya#Sen,#“Amartya#Sen:#A#More#Human#Theory#of#Development,”#interview#by#Nermeen#Shaikh,#Asia( Society,# December# 6,# 2004,# accessed# January# 11,# 2014,# http://asiasociety.org/business/development/amartyaNsenNmoreNhumanNtheoryNdevelopment.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 116# the#visionary#economist,#Mahbub#ul#Haq,#who#in#the#1970s#had#worked#closely#with#Robert#

McNamara# at# the# World# Bank,# that# was# behind# the# concept# of# human# development.# In# bringing# this# concept# to# life# within# a# policy# framework,# he# collaborated# with# the# 1998#

Nobel# Laureate# Amartya# Sen# to# create# the# Human# Development# Index# (HDI).# This# was# a# great# break# from# the# utilitarian# approach# that# neoclassical# economists# had# taken# to# development,#where#development#had#been#understood#as#increasing#economic#growth.#As# the#UNIHP#stresses,#“Human#development#built#on#the#priorities#of#basic#needs#thinking#in# the#1970s#but#went#substantively#beyond#them#by#adopting#Sen’s#framework#of#capabilities# and#freedom.#In#addition,#human#development#provided#a#frame#of#analysis#that#brought# human#rights#and#development#closer#together.”46#

As#has#been#illustrated#in#the#preceding#pages,#human#development#was#a#concept# that#found#a#wide#audience#both#through#the#Sen#lectures#at#the#World#Bank#as#well#as#ul#

Haq’s#initiation#of#the#Human#Development#Report#at#UNDP.#Thus,#in#the#1990s,#the#same# conceptual#ideas#about#development#were#circulated#by#academics#and#policy#makers,#and# favorably#viewed#by#both#the#IFIs#as#well#as#the#UN#development#institutions.#This#certainly# impacted# the# positive# light# in# which# human# development# was# conceived# in# disparate# circles.#Further,#the#view#that#development#was#a#multidimensional#process#that#required# attention#on#different#fronts#and#not#just#in#the#economic#realm#was#an#enticing#concept# that#attracted#the#many#actors#engaged#in#the#field#of#international#development.##

Two# remarkable# publications# in# 1990# definitively# placed# emphasis# on# the# multidimensionality# of# development# with# poverty# reduction# at# its# helm:# UNDP’s# Human#

Development# Report# and# World# Bank’s# World# Development# Report.# First,# 1990# saw# the# ######################################################## 46#Jolly#et#al.,#The(Power(of(UN(Ideas,(32.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 117# publication#of#UNDP’s#first#Human#Development#Report#under#the#leadership#of#Mahbub#ul#

Haq,#in#conjunction#with#the#intellectual#authority#of#Amartya#Sen.#These#two#economists,# whose#ties#dated#to#their#college#years#at#Cambridge#University,#had#created#the#HDI#in#an# effort#to#deNemphasize#the#central#role#that#economic#growth#had#taken#on#over#the#years# in# development# rankings.# The# HDI# was# an# index# based# on# three# indicators# measuring# economic# growth,# literacy,# and# life# expectancy.# It# was# a# highly# controversial# topic# at# the# time#of#publication,#not#only#because#the#UN#had#created#an#index#that#enabled#it#to#rank# countries’# development# performance# by# focusing# on# factors# that# dealt# with# government# policies# and# priorities,# but# also# because# the# ranking# put# countries# in# some# kind# of# a# competition.# Methodological# problems# and# lack# of# data# also# contributed# to# HDI# rankings# being#disputed#by#states,#nevertheless,#the#HDRs#expanded#the#definition#of#development#to# the#multifarious#dimensions#that#composed#wellbeing.##

Most# importantly,# as# then# UNDP# Administrator# William# H.# Draper# stated# in# the# foreword#to#the#first#HDR,#the#aim#of#this#report#and#the#subsequent#ones#was#to#put#people# at#the#center#of#development#and#to#view#access#to#income#as#only#one#of#the#many#options# that#development#should#offer#to#people#along#with#the#possibility#for#a#long#life,#access#to# knowledge,# political# freedoms,# etc.# Draper# noted,# “The# central# message# of# this# Human(

Development( Report( is# that# while# growth# in# national# production# (GDP)# is# absolutely# necessary#to#meet#all#essential#human#objectives,#what#is#important#is#to#study#how#this# growth#translates—or#fails#to#translate—into#human#development#in#various#societies.”47##

Within#a#month#of#the#first#HDR’s#publication,#the#World#Bank#dedicated#its#1990#

World#Development#Report#to#poverty,#thereby#not#only#acknowledging#and#indicating#a# ######################################################## 47#UNDP,#Human(Development(Report(1990,(iii.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 118# shift#in#its#own#thinking,#but#also#aligning#itself#more#closely#with#developments#at#the#UN.#

In#its#foreword,#WB#president#Barber#B.#Conable#stated#the#purpose#of#the#report#was#to# address#“the#most#pressing#issue#now#facing#the#development#community:#how#to#reduce# poverty.”48#The#report#informed#the#reader#that#as#of#1985#over#one#billion#people,#or#more# than# 20# percent# of# the# world# population,# lived# on# an# annual# income# less# than# $370# per# capita.# It# then# suggested# a# twoNpronged# approach# pursuing# “a# pattern# of# growth# that# ensures# productive# use# of# the# poor’s# most# abundant# asset—labor”# and# “widespread# provision#to#the#poor#of#basic#social#services,#especially#primary#education,#primary#health# care,# and# family# planning.”49#The# main# obstacle# to# achieving# a# reduction# in# poverty# was#

“not# the# availability# of# resources,# but# the# willingness# of# governments# in# both# developing# and#developed#countries#to#commit#themselves”#to#goals#that#would#help#increase#growth# rates# and# improve# social# indicators.50#Calling# this# a# basic# twoNpart# strategy# to# reducing# poverty,# the# report# argued# that# a# comprehensive# approach# required# “a# program# of# wellN targeted# transfers# and# safety# nets# as# an# essential# complement”# because# many# would# continue#to#experience#setback#and#deprivations#in#the#meantime.51##

Thus,# HDR# spoke# about# development# as# a# multidimensional# “process# of# enlarging# people’s# choices,”# the# most# critical# being# the# possibility# of# living# a# long# and# healthy# life,# having# access# to# education# as# well# as# other# resources# that# would# enable# them# to# have# a#

“decent#standard#of#living.”52#The#WDR#of#that#year#similarly#emphasized#the#importance#of#

######################################################## 48#World#Bank,#World(Development(Report(1990:(Poverty((Oxford:#Oxford#University#Press,#1990),(iii.##

49#Ibid.##

50#Ibid.,#iv.##

51#Ibid.,#3.##

52#UNDP,#Human(Development(Report(1990,#1.## Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 119# merging# policies# that# addressed# economic# and# social# aspects# of# development,# and# called# the#goal#of#reducing#global#poverty#as#the#highest#priority#for#the#world’s#policymakers.53#

The#seeds#of#convergence#were#thus#laid#very#early#on#in#the#last#decade#of#the#20th#century,# when#poverty#reduction#was#held#to#be#“within#reach#by#the#end#of#the#century.”54#

4.4 Fourth UN Development Decade (1990s): Human Development # With#these#developments,#the#fourth#development#decade#started#in#1990#with#the# lament#that#the#goals#and#objectives#of#DD3#had#not#been#attained#and#that#the#gap#between# rich#and#poor#countries#had#continued#to#widen.#The#strategy#document#for#DD4#warned,#

“in# the# absence# of# major# changes# in# policies,# the# coming# decade# will# be# much# like# the# previous#one,”55#which#had#been#marred#by#recession,#debt#crisis,#natural#and#manNmade# disasters,#as#well#as#political#tensions#and#conflicts.#Further,#it#emphasized#that#the#“erosion# of# living# standards# and# social# services# brought# mounting# political# unrest# to# many# countries,”56#underlined# the# interdependence# of# countries# beyond# trade# and# finance,# and# asserted# that# the# “reactivation# and# acceleration# of# the# development# process# is# in# the# interest# of# all# countries.” 57 #It# proposed# that# to# enhance# development# of# developing# countries,# interrelated# goals# had# to# be# met;# in# essence# DD4# suggested# that# development# required# a# strategy# that# built# on# economic,# social# and# environmental# needs# of# societies#

######################################################## 53#World#Bank,#World(Development(Report(1990,#5.#

54#Ibid.,#6.##

55#United#Nations,#General#Assembly#resolution,#“International#Development#Strategy#for#the#Fourth#United# Nations# Development# Decade,”# A/RES/45/199,# December# 21,# 1990,# accessed# January# 17,# 2014,# http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/45/a45r199.htm.#

56#Ibid.,#para.#5.#

57#Ibid.,#para.#7.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 120# while# integrating# “political# freedom,# respect# for# human# rights,# justice# and# equity”# as#

“essential# and# relevant# to# growth# and# development.”58#In# particular,# it# listed# its# priority# areas#as#eradication#of#poverty#and#hunger,#human#resource#and#institutional#development,# population# policy,# and# environment.# The# strategy# was# to# focus# on# the# link# between# economic# growth# and# human# welfare,# which,# as# the# declaration# urged,# required# national# efforts#as#well#as#the#international#community’s#support.##

Although# DD4# did# not# set# as# many# quantifiable# targets# as# previous# strategies,# it# placed# poverty# eradication# as# its# top# priority,# singled# out# employment# and# income# generation#as#the#main#means,#and#identified#women#and#children#as#the#main#vulnerable# groups# in# need# of# extra# care.# The# second# priority# was# human# resource# and# institutional# development# with# a# focus# on# access# to# basic# education,# primary# health# care# and# disease# prevention#as#well#as#improvement#in#nutrition.#The#third#priority#was#population#policy#by# providing# family# planning# services,# educating# women,# as# well# as# improving# child# and# maternity#care.#The#final#priority#was#the#environment#whereby#developed#countries#were# flagged#as#the#main#sources#of#pollution#and#assigned#responsibility#to#act#urgently#while# also#helping#developing#countries#to#gain#access#to#environmentally#friendly#technologies.#

The# main# achievement# of# DD4# was# its# establishment# of# poverty# reduction# as# the# central# development#priority,#which#a#decade#later#came#to#dominate#the#first#development#agenda# of#the#new#millennium.#

While# the# previous# development# decades# had# sustained# the# development# debate# and# witnessed# the# evolution# of# this# concept,# the# end# of# the# Cold# War# and# the# increasing# prominence# of# a# revitalized# UN# brought# about# a# second# wave# of# global# summits# and# ######################################################## 58#Ibid.,#para.#15.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 121# conferences# (fashioned# after# those# two# decades# earlier# in# the# 1970s).# By# the# time# 1996# rolled# around# the# corner,# the# UN# had# organized# global# gatherings# to# discuss# children,# environment# and# development,# human# rights,# population# and# development,# natural# disaster# reduction,# sustainable# development# of# small# island# developing# states,# crime# prevention,# social# development,# women,# human# settlements,# food,# and# trade# and# development.#Development#was#perceived#as#a#multidimensional#process#that#required#a# much#more#integrated#approach.#In#1994,#Boutros#BoutrosNGhali,#launched#his#report,#An(

Agenda( for( Development,( which# reiterated,# “Development# is# a# fundamental# human# right”# and#“the#most#secure#basis#for#peace.”59#

The# report# highlighted# the# achievements# the# development# community# had# made# and#also#warned#of#the#declining#attention#given#to#this#area#because#of#increasing#conflicts,##

“The# concept# of# development,# and# decades# of# effort# to# reduce# poverty,# illiteracy,#disease#and#mortality#rates,#are#great#achievements#of#this#century.# But#development#as#a#common#cause#is#in#danger#of#fading#from#the#forefront# of#our#agenda.#The#competition#for#influence#during#the#cold#war#stimulated# interest# in# development.# The# motives# were# not# always# altruistic,# but# countries# seeking# to# develop# could# benefit# from# that# interest.# Today,# the# competition#to#bring#development#to#the#poorest#countries#has#ended.#Many# donors# have# grown# weary# of# the# task.# Many# of# the# poor# are# dispirited.# Development(is(in(crisis((emphasis#added).”60## # #The#report#continued#to#outline#the#five#dimensions#of#development#to#consist#of#

“peace#as#the#foundation,”#“economy#as#the#engine#of#progress,”#“environment#as#a#basis#for# sustainability,”# “justice# as# a# pillar# of# society”# and# “democracy# as# good# governance.”# In# addition#to#linking#development#and#security,#the#report#called#for#sustainable#growth#that# promoted# full# employment# and# reduced# poverty# while# improving# income# distribution.# It# ######################################################## 59#United#Nations,#General#Assembly#resolution,#“An#Agenda#for#Development,”#A/RES/48/166,#December#21,# 1993,#accessed#January#17,#2014,#http://www.unNdocuments.net/a48r166.htm.#

60#Ibid.,#para.#5.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 122# also#clearly#stressed#the#link#between#social#inputs#and#development#outcomes#by#stating,#

“Apart# from# being# desirable# goals# in# themselves,# education,# health# and# shelter# are# all# essential# to# a# productive# workforce# and# hence# to# economic# growth.”61#Further,# while# highlighting#the#proliferation#of#actors#in#the#development#realm,#BoutrosNGhali#suggested,#

“the#individual#State#is#no#longer#the#sole#actor#in#development,”#and#listed#the#multifarious# actors# involved,# including# the# UN,# its# programs,# funds# and# agencies,# Bretton# Woods# institutions,# regional# organizations,# NGOs,# academic# communities# as# well# as# grassroots# groups.#Development#thinking#in#terms#of#goals#and#actors#had#started#to#shift.#

Then,#in#March#1995,#the#UN#World#Summit#for#Social#Development#in#Copenhagen# placed#the#social#dimension#of#development#firmly#on#the#agenda;#fighting#poverty#became# the# overall# theme.# The# agenda# called# for# the# creation# of# an# environment# that# enabled# people# to# improve# their# lives# by# eradicating# poverty# and# promoting# full# employment.#

Foregrounding#the#MDGs,#it#singled#out#education#and#health#as#strategically#important#for# achieving# development# and# fighting# poverty,# while# calling# out# for# ODA# to# be# given# high# priority#in#poverty#eradication.#Importantly,#the#summit#produced#the#“20:20#agreement,”# according# to# which# developing# countries# were# to# allocate# 20# percent# of# their# public# expenditure# for# basic# social# programs# while# donors# were# to# allocate# 20# percent# of# their#

ODA#for#these#same#purposes.#This#focus#on#provision#of#social#services,#in#particular#health# and#education,#was#primarily#a#response#to#the#reduced#expenditure#in#those#sectors#as#a# result#of#structural#adjustment#policies#that#stipulated#budget#cuts.#It#is#also#thanks#to#the#

Copenhagen#Summit#that#1996#was#declared#the#International#Year#for#the#Eradication#of#

Poverty.# ######################################################## 61#Ibid,.#para.#45.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 123#

The#resolution#adopted#by#the#UN#GA#on#observing#1996#as#the#International#Year# for#the#Eradication#of#Poverty#emphasized#that#all#governments#needed#to#address#the#root# causes#of#poverty,#provide#for#basic#needs#of#all#people,#enable#the#poor#to#become#partners# in# development,# and# to# focus# on# the# poorest# countries# in# Africa# and# least# developed# countries#(LDCs)#as#well#as#the#poorest#strata#of#society#that#overwhelmingly#happen#to#be# women.# Two# paragraphs# stand# out# in# this# resolution,# which# point# out# to# simultaneous# ruminations#and#processes#taking#place#within#the#donor#countries#and#UN#agencies.#First,# the#resolution#noted#the#importance#of#the#GN7#summit#in#Halifax,#Canada#on#June#15N17,#

1995#“in#considering#measures#towards#the#eradication#of#poverty.”62#Second,#it#noted#the#

“decision#95/22#of#16#June#1995#of#the#Executive#Board#of#the#United#Nations#Development#

Programme#and#of#the#United#Nations#Population#Fund,#in#which#the#Board#decided#to#give# poverty#elimination#the#overriding#priority#in#Programme#activities#and#to#concentrate#its# programmes# on# the# most# needy# regions# and# countries,# in# particular# the# least# developed# countries,# especially# in# Africa.”63#Furthermore,# the# document# continuously# drew# on# the# various#conferences#that#had#taken#place#during#the#first#decade#of#the#1990s,#in#particular# the# Copenhagen# Summit# on# Social# Development,# and# the# consensus# that# had# emerged# in# the#international#community#to#commit#itself#to#poverty#eradication.#Its#recommendation# towards# the# end# of# the# document# that# “donor# countries# give# greater# priority# to# the# eradication#of#poverty#in#their#assistance#programmes#and#budgets,#on#either#a#bilateral#or#

######################################################## 62#United#Nations,#General#Assembly#resolution,#“Observance#of#the#International#Year#for#the#Eradication#of# Poverty#and#Proclamation#of#the#First#United#Nations#Decade#for#the#Eradication#of#Poverty,”#A/RES/50/107,# December#20,#1995,#accessed#January#17,#2014,#http://www.unNdocuments.net/a50r107.htm.#

63#Ibid.,#para.#11.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 124# multilateral#basis”64#is#perhaps#the#strongest#proof#that#by#the#time#the#second#series#of#UN# conferences#had#come#to#an#end,#a#consensus#had#emerged#to#put#poverty#front#and#center# of#development.##

4.5 Development At the United Nations # As# this# brief# historiography# of# development# thought# illustrates,# development# was# initially# equated# with# economic# growth# throughout# the# 1960s# but# expanded# to# include# social# aspects# in# the# 1970s# while# also# calling# out# for# an# overhauling# of# the# international# economic#system#by#the#end#of#that#decade.#But#the#proposed#NIEO#stipulated#policies#that# could# not# have# established# a# common# ground# because# of# the# varying# perspectives# on# development.# Instead,# the# debt# crises# and# their# treatment# through# structural# adjustment# programs# imprinted# the# 1980s# as# the# “lost# decade,”# in# which# people’s# conditions# deteriorated.#Then#in#the#1990s,#there#was#yet#another#attempt#to#attenuate#these#policies# by#putting#a#human#face#on#adjustment#while#focusing#on#social#and#human#dimensions#of# development.##

With#the#end#of#the#Cold#War,#great#euphoria#reigned#in#the#UN.#As#then#SecretaryN

General#Boutros#BoutrosNGhali#would#later#write,#“During#the#Cold#War,#the#superpowers# controlled# global# decisions,# and# the# ideological# contest# between# them# constrained# the# secretaryNgeneral.#Today#we#are#living#in#the#midst#of#a#worldwide#revolution.#With#the#end# of#the#Cold#War,#an#international#system#that#had#politically,#economically,#and#strategically#

######################################################## 64#Ibid.,#para.#26.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 125# involved# every# country# in# the# world# disappeared# almost# overnight.”65#As# a# Le( Monde(

Diplomatique(article#put#it,##

“Prior#to#the#1991#elections,#President#Bush#was#warned#by#a#psychological# profile#contained#in#a#CIA#report#that#Mr.#BoutrosNGhali#was#"uncontrollable"# and#"unpredictable".#He#was#quite#the#opposite#of#the#kind#of#person#the#US# administration# wanted# to# see# heading# a# United# Nations# that# was# now# unencumbered#by#the#traditional#countervailing#presence#of#the#nonNaligned# nations#and,#more#particularly,#the#Soviet#bloc.#The#fall#of#the#Berlin#wall#had# enabled#the#United#States#to#conduct#the#Gulf#war#almost#as#it#pleased#and# this# suggested# a# model# for# the# future:# the# UN# proposes,# on# Washington’s# initiative,#and#the#US#disposes.#But#Mr.#BoutrosNGhali#did#not#share#that#view# of#the#end#of#the#cold#war.#The#UN#was#now#free#from#the#constraints#of#EastN West# rivalries.# He# thought# it# should# therefore,# in# the# interests# of# peace,# accept#its#full#responsibilities#and#even#extend#and#strengthen#them.#Suiting# action#to#word,#he#presented#two#core#documents,#agendas#for#peace#and#for# development,#which#called#for#a#wideNranging#programme#of#reform.”66## # It#is#the#euphoria#that#followed#the#end#of#the#Cold#War,#which#indicated#that#the#UN# would#no#longer#be#a#“lame#duck”#organization.#Under#the#leadership#of#BoutrosNGhali,#who# was#the#first#SG#to#lead#the#UN#in#the#aftermath#of#the#Cold#War,#the#organization#found# itself# revitalized.# His# Agenda# for# Peace# (1992)# and# Agenda# for# Development# (1994)# laid# down#the#contours#of#the#Millennium#Declaration,#feeding#into#and#taking#inspiration#from# the# global# conferences# of# the# early# 1990s.# But# the# 1990s# also# saw# the# proliferation# of# ######################################################## 65#Boutros#BoutrosNGhali,#“Global#Leadership:#After#the#Cold#War,”#Foreign(Affairs((March/April#1996).#In#this# article,#BoutrosNGhali#also#made#references#to#the#many#conferences#that#took#place#during#the#1990s,#noting,# “Globalization,# largely# an# economic# phenomenon,# is# failing# to# reach# all# peoples.# Too# many# are# excluded,# unable#to#obtain#access#to#the#prosperity#it#offers.#At#the#same#time,#the#market#economy#that#is#the#engine#of# this# movement# is,# by# its# very# logic,# driving# large# numbers# of# peopleNNin# developing,# transitional,# and# developed# countries# alikeNNinto# deeper# poverty# and# despair.# As# secretaryNgeneral# I# have# placed# great# importance#on#international#conferences#as#a#way#of#raising#the#world's#consciousness#about#these#problems.# International#conferences#are#not#a#new#idea;#they#have#played#a#part#in#diplomacy#since#antiquity.#But#the# conferences# convened# since# 1992# represent# something# new# and# different.# They# are# linked.# They# are# cumulative.#They#foster#global#consensus#on#interlocking#global#issues.#They#generate#specific#commitments.# And#they#provide#a#comprehensive#framework#for#international#action#in#fields#that#are#drastically#affected#by# the#negative#side#of#globalization:#the#environment#and#development#(Rio#de#Janeiro,#1992),#human#rights# (Vienna,#1993),#natural#disasters#(Yokohama,#1994),#population#(Cairo,#1994),#poverty,#unemployment,#and# social#disruption#(Copenhagen,#1995),#the#advancement#of#women#(Beijing,#1995),#housing#(Istanbul,#1996).”#

66#Eric# Rouleau,# “Why# Washington# Wants# to# Rid# of# Mr.# BoutrosNGhali,”# Le(Monde(Diplomatique((November# 1996),#accessed#January#18,#2014,#http://mondediplo.com/1996/11/un.# Chapter(4.(THE(UNITED(NATIONS:(POVERTY’S(TRAJECTORY(IN(DEVELOPMENT( 126# internal#conflicts#and#civil#wars,#which#heavily#put#BoutrosNGhali’s#leadership#to#the#test.#

The#wars#in#Somalia#and#Bosnia#as#well#as#the#Rwanda#Genocide#tarnished#the#UN’s#image.#

At# its# 50th# anniversary# in# 1995,# there# was# a# clear# sense# that# the# UN# needed# substantial# change.#Greater#engagement#in#the#realm#of#development#may#have#offered#a#nice#change# from#the#peacekeeping#debacles#that#had#blemished#the#UN’s#reputation#and#its#chance#at# effectively# accomplishing# the# goals# etched# in# its# Charter.# As# Chapter# 5# will# show,# the# incoming# leftNofNcenter# governments# of# many# donor# countries# and# their# attempts# at# creating#a#cohesive#system#of#development#assistance#under#the#helm#of#poverty#reduction# offered#that#opportunity.#

Chapter 5

AID IN CRISIS: THE CASE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM ! ! Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 128$

The$ IR$ literature$ has$ extensively$ examined$ the$ ways$ in$ which$ domestic$ actors’$ preferences$and$political$coalitions$influence$states’$ability$or$willingness$to$cooperate$or$ bargain$with$other$states$to$reach$international$agreements.1$In$the$words$of$one$scholar,$ this$ research$ has$ established$ the$ link$ between$ domestic$ and$ international$ politics$ as$ “a$ truism.”2$Hence,$this$section$does$not$delve$into$this$research,$as$scholars$have$established$ various$links$between$particular$domestic$structures$and$foreign$policy$outcomes,$which$ go$beyond$the$scope$of$this$dissertation.$However,$the$example$of$the$UK$discussed$in$this$ chapter$offers$a$case$study$of$how$domestic$pressures$in$response$to$foreign$policy$acts$can$ deeply$ impact$ a$ change$ in$ international$ aid$ politics$ as$ well$ as$ in$ restructuring$ domestic$ institutions$in$charge$of$international$development.$$

Chapters$ 3$ and$ 4$ focused$ on$ institutional$ interests$ and$ took$ international$ organizations$to$be$independent$entities$with$their$own$agendas$and$survival$mechanisms,$ but$ it$ is$ important$ to$ stress$ that$ IOs$ are$ still$ very$ much$ composed$ of$ nationLstates$ as$ members.$Each$of$these$states$has$their$own$political$agenda$and$domestic$constituents.$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 1$This$literature$is$extensive$and$a$proper$treatment$of$this$topic$would$require$a$dissertation$on$its$own.$The$ purpose$of$this$short$foray$is$to$demonstrate$the$important$role$that$states$play$in$norm$construction$through$ the$example$of$the$UK.$As$for$the$literature$capturing$the$domesticLinternational$linkages,$see,$for$example,$ Peter$ B.$ Evans,$ Harold$ K.$ Jacobson,$ and$ Robert$ D.$ Putnam,$ eds.$ Double?Edged( Diplomacy$ (Berkeley,$ CA:$ University$ of$ California$ Press,$ 1993);$ Peter$ Gourevitch,$ “The$ Second$ Image$ Reversed:$ The$ International$ Sources$ of$ Domestic$ Politics,”$ International( Organization$ 32$ (1978):$ 881L911;$ Peter$ Katzenstein,$ Between( Power( and( Plenty:( Foreign( Economic( Policies( of( Advanced( Industrial( States( (Madison,$ WI:$ University$ of$ Wisconsin$ Press,$ 1978);$ Helen$ Milner,$ Interests,( Institutions,( and( Information:( Domestic( Politics( and( International(Relations((Princeton,$NJ:$Princeton$University$Press,$1997);$Harald$Mueller$and$Thomas$RisseL Kappen,$“From$the$Outside$In$and$from$the$Inside$Out:$International$Relations,$Domestic$Politics,$and$Foreign$ Policy,”$in$The(Limits(of(State(Autonomy:(Societal(Groups(and(Foreign(Policy(Formulation,(ed.$David$Skidmore$ and$ Valerie$ M.$ Hudson$ (Boulder,$ CO:$ Westview$ Press,$ 1993);$ Robert$ Putnam,$ “Diplomacy$ and$ Domestic$ Politics:$ The$ Logic$ of$ TwoLLevel$ Games,”$ International( Organization( 42$ (1988):$ 427L460;$ Thomas$ RisseL Kappen,$“Public$Opinion,$Domestic$Structure,$and$Foreign$Policy$in$Liberal$Democracies,”$World(Politics(43$ (1991):$ 479L512;$ Jack$ Snyder,$ Myths( of( Empire:( Domestic( Politics( and( International( Ambitions( (Ithaca,$ NY:$ Cornell$University$Press,$1993).$

2$Kjell$Goldmann,$“The$Line$in$the$Water:$International$and$Domestic$Politics,”$Cooperation(and(Conflict(24$ (1989):$116.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 129$

Hence,$in$this$section,$special$focus$will$be$placed$on$the$domestic$determinants$of$foreign$ policy.$This$type$of$analysis$is$perhaps$best$represented$by$Robert$Putnam’s$metaphor$of$a$ twoLlevel$ game$ to$ indicate$ the$ dual$ constraints$ faced$ by$ state$ representatives$ as$ they$ engage$ in$ international$ bargaining$ and$ respond$ to$ domestic$ pressures.$ According$ to$

Putnam’s$game,$the$negotiator$(representing$a$state)$has$to$please$both$his$domestic$(Level$

II)$and$international$(Level$I)$constituents.$The$preferences$and$coalitions$of$Level$II$actors$ and$ institutions$ influence$ the$ likelihood$ that$ an$ agreement$ at$ Level$ I$ can$ be$ reached.$ In$ other$words,$domestic$cleavages$can$both$enable$and$constrain$international$cooperation$ on$different$issue$areas.$At$a$very$general$level,$this$would$imply$that$a$change$in$electoral$ politics$and$shift$in$interest$groups$would$provide$state$negotiators$with$different$sets$of$ possibilities$and$constraints.$This$general$point$can$be$gleaned$from$the$shift$in$internal$ politics$of$powerful$Western$countries$in$the$1990s,$leading$to$a$shift$in$their$domestic$and$ international$economic$policy.$$

Just$as$the$rise$of$Conservative/Republican$governments$in$the$UK$and$US$heralded$ the$ turn$ to$ neoliberal$ policies$ during$ the$ 1980s$ (based$ on$ then$ existing$ economic$ challenges),$ the$ rise$ of$ social$ democratic$ governments$ in$ European$ countries$ was$ accompanied$ with$ an$ increasing$ interest$ in$ global$ poverty$ during$ the$ 1990s$ within$ the$ growing$ context$ of$ humanitarianism$ and$ increasing$ social$ costs$ as$ a$ result$ of$ economic$ globalization.$ Thus,$ in$ the$ 1990s,$ governing$ coalitions$ in$ several$ European$ countries$ changed,$mostly$from$those$identifying$with$conservatism$to$those$labeled$as$democratic$ or$ socialist,$ with$ the$ latter$ paying$ more$ attention$ to$ social$ services,$ job$ creation,$ and$ infrastructure$ investment.$ Significantly,$ the$ shift$ in$ domestic$ politics$ brought$ to$ an$ end$ rightLleaning$ governments$ that$ had$ been$ ruling$ these$ countries$ for$ over$ a$ decade.$ For$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 130$ example,$ in$ 1994,$ Wim$ Kok$ of$ the$ Labour$ Party$ was$ elected$ Prime$ Minister$ of$ the$

Netherlands$to$head$a$liberal$coalition$replacing$Ruud$Lubbers$of$the$Christian$Democratic$

Appeal,$who$had$governed$from$1982$to$1994.$In$1997,$the$election$of$Tony$Blair$put$an$ end$ to$ the$ twoLdecade$ Conservative$ rule$ of$ British$ politics$ that$ had$ seen$ both$ Margaret$

Thatcher$ and$ John$ Major$ in$ power$ since$ 1981.$ Similarly,$ the$ 16Lyear$ rule$ of$ Chancellor$

Helmut$Kohl$of$Germany$was$brought$to$an$end$with$the$election$of$Gerhard$Schroeder,$ who$headed$a$redLgreen$coalition$of$the$Social$Democrat$and$Green$Parties.$In$the$US$also,$ the$Republican$presidencies$of$Ronald$Reagan$and$George$Bush$since$1981$came$to$an$end$ when$the$Democrat$Bill$Clinton$was$elected$to$presidency$in$January$1993.$$

Although$we$see$this$shift$in$various$countries,$I$am$mostly$interested$in$the$British$ case$for$two$important$reasons.$First,$the$UK$played$an$important$role$in$making$poverty$ reduction$ central$ to$ development$ discourse$ and$ practice,$ as$ New$ Labour$ took$ over$ the$ reins$ of$ power$ and$ appointed$ the$ social$ liberal$ Clare$ Short$ as$ its$ Secretary$ of$ State$ for$

International$Development.$This$happened$amidst$Britain’s$most$controversial$aid$scandal,$ which$ changed$ the$ face$ of$ Britain’s$ development$ structure$ for$ good.$ Second,$ the$ importance$ of$ the$ UK$ as$ a$ driver$ of$ the$ poverty$ reduction$ agenda$ was$ emphasized$ by$ several$of$my$interviewees$and$leaped$at$me$in$the$UN$and$World$Bank$archives.$The$fact$ that$the$British$government$conscientiously$and$purposefully$worked$to$make$poverty$the$ central$ theme$ and$ overarching$ objective$ of$ international$ development$ highlights$ the$ important$role$of$a$powerful$state$in$constructing$consent$around$poverty$and$is$further$ examined$below.$$

$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 131$

5.1 Pergau Dam Scandal and British Aid in Crisis $ The$Conservative$Party$ruled$British$politics$for$close$to$two$decades,$first$under$the$ premiership$of$Margaret$Thatcher,$from$May$1979$to$November$1990,$and$then$under$John$

Major,$who$filled$the$post$of$prime$minister$until$May$1997.$Although$that$time$period$is$ primarily$associated$with$free$market$policies$that$saw$the$privatization$of$Britain’s$main$ stateLowned$ industries,$ including$ transportation,$ telecommunication,$ steel,$ and$ gas,$ it$ is$ also$ full$ of$ political$ scandals$ that$ sullied$ British$ politics.$ One$ of$ those$ political$ scandals$ constituted$a$decisive$moment$in$development$policy$of$the$UK$leading$to$a$revamping$of$ the$British$foreign$aid$system.$That$scandal$came$to$be$known$as$the$Pergau$Dam$Affair.$

This$momentous$crisis$in$British$foreign$aid$policy$and$the$subsequent$incredulity$of$the$

British$ public$ at$ the$ extent$ of$ government’s$ corruption$ augmented$ the$ need$ for$ New$

Labour$ to$ distinguish$ itself$ from$ the$ previous$ Tory$ government.$ As$ a$ result,$ the$ new$ government$ restructured$ the$ UK$ Overseas$ Development$ Administration$ (UK$ ODA)$ and$ created$stronger$institutions$housed$within$the$Department$of$International$Development$

(DFID).$$

While$Pergau$dam$may$be$a$household$name$in$the$UK,$few$in$the$US$would$have$ heard$about$it.$I$learned$about$it$in$my$various$interviews$with$scholars$and$practitioners$ at$ DFID$ after$ my$ prodding$ questions$ about$ the$ role$ the$ UK$ may$ have$ played$ in$ raising$ poverty$ reduction$ to$ the$ top$ of$ the$ global$ development$ agenda.$ Shortly$ after$ I$ started$ looking$into$this,$Tim$Lankester,$a$former$British$civil$servant,$published$a$book$titled$The(

Politics(and(Economics(of(Britain’s(Foreign(Aid:(The(Pergau(Dam(Affair.(The$Center$for$Global$

Development—a$ nonLprofit$ think$ tank$ in$ Washington,$ DC,$ focusing$ on$ international$ development—organized$an$event$in$November$2012,$introducing$the$book$while$debating$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 132$ the$ scandal$ and$ its$ tangible$ impact$ on$ British$ foreign$ aid$ architecture.$ The$ Pergau$ Dam$

Affair$was$about$the$involvement$of$British$government$in$an$aid$for$arms$deal$with$the$ government$of$Malaysia$with$the$agreement$that$20$percent$of$an$arms$sale$from$Britain$to$

Malaysia$be$spent$on$the$construction$of$a$dam$to$provide$electricity.$This$tying$of$foreign$ aid$to$military$exports$contained$no$less$than$three$scandals$in$one.$$

First,$ the$ contracts$ for$ the$ construction$ of$ the$ dam$ were$ awarded$ without$ any$ competitive$bidding$to$two$companies$with$links$to$the$British$Conservative$Party.$The$first$ company,$Balfour$Beatty,$was$a$major$donor$to$the$Conservative$Party$ruling$at$the$time,$ and$the$second$company,$Cementation$International,$employed$the$advisory$services$of$the$ son$of$former$Conservative$Prime$Minister,$Margaret$Thatcher.$Second,$UK$ODA$engineers$ and$economists$had$assessed$the$project$and$found$it$not$to$be$a$costLeffective$means$of$ producing$electricity$for$Malaysia.$In$fact,$the$UK$ODA$review$considered$the$construction$ of$ the$ Pergau$ dam$ to$ waste$ resources$ and$ identified$ alternative$ projects$ for$ electricity$ production.$Despite$this$advice,$the$UK$ODA$continued$with$the$construction$of$the$dam$ and$ authorized$ the$ expenditure$ of$ 234$ million$ pounds$ towards$ the$ project’s$ execution.$

Third,$the$aid$package$was$linked$through$documentary$evidence$to$a$reciprocal$arms$deal$ whereby$ the$ Malaysian$ government$ agreed$ to$ buy$ over$ £$ 100$ million$ worth$ of$ British$ military$equipment$in$return$for$the$UK$funding$of$Pergau.3$The$decision$to$link$aid$to$arms$ was$found$to$be$not$only$ethically$wrong,$but$also$unlawful.$In$November$1994,$the$British$

High$ Court$ ruled$ that$ the$ Pergau$ dam$ had$ violated$ the$ Overseas$ Development$ and$ CoL $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 3$The$ documentary$ evidence$ for$ this$ case$ was$ made$ public$ in$ a$ High$ Court$ case—initiated$ by$ the$ World$ Development$Movement,$a$British$NGO,$against$the$Foreign$Office—which$resulted$in$the$ruling$that$aid$for$ Pergau$violated$the$1966$Overseas$Aid$Act$forbidding$use$of$British$aid$money$for$the$purchase$of$arms.$See$ UK$Parliament,$“Recent$Cases$of$Corruption$Involving$UK$Companies$and$UKLBacked$International$Financial$ Institutions,”$ accessed$ January$ 30,$ 2015,$ http://www.parliament.theLstationeryL office.co.uk/pa/cm200001/cmselect/cmintdev/39/39ap06.htm#n135.$$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 133$ operation$ Act$ of$ 1980,$ which$ gave$ the$ Secretary$ of$ State$ power$ “for$ the$ purpose$ of$ promoting$the$development$or$maintaining$the$economy$of$a$country$or$territory$outside$ the$ United$ Kingdom,$ or$ the$ welfare$ of$ its$ people,$ to$ furnish$ any$ person$ or$ body$ with$ assistance.”4$The$Pergau$dam$had$severe$consequences$and$“added$to$the$sense$of$fin?de? régime$disarray$in$the$Conservative$government$which$brought$electoral$rout$in$1997.”5$$

Indeed,$New$Labour’s$rise$to$power$was$very$much$connected$to$declining$public$ opinion$of$the$two$decades$of$Conservative$government.$Tony$Blair$won$the$election$at$a$ time$when$the$Conservative$Party$was$mired$in$various$scandals,$termed$“sleaze”$scandals$ because$of$the$petty$sexual$nature$of$many$of$them$involving$cabinet$ministers$and$MPs.$

The$Pergau$Dam$Affair$contributed$to$the$collection$of$scandals.$When$New$Labour$took$ over,$ it$ continued$ a$ tradition$ that$ had$ started$ in$ 1964$ of$ changing$ the$ organizational$ structure$ of$ administering$ development$ assistance.$ Primarily,$ the$ reorganization$ was$ about$ the$ Ministry$ of$ Overseas$ Development$ and$ its$ independence$ from$ the$ Foreign$

Ministry.$A$quick$glance$at$that$history$of$UK$development$from$1960L1997$indicates$that$ generally$while$Labour$delinked$the$Ministry$of$Overseas$Development$from$the$Foreign$

Office,$ when$ in$ power,$ the$ Conservative$ Party$ incorporated$ it$ into$ the$ Foreign$ Office.$ In$ particular,$during$the$Conservative$rule$of$1979L1997,$the$government$announced$that$it$ would$ “give$ greater$ weight$ in$ the$ allocation$ of$ our$ aid$ to$ political,$ industrial$ and$ commercial$objectives$alongside$our$basic$development$objectives.”6$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 4$Overseas(Development(and(Cooperation(Act(1980$(London:$Her$Majesty’s$Stationery$Office,$1980),$accessed$ February$2014,$http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1980/63/pdfs/ukpga_19800063_en.pdf.$

5 $The$ Economist,$ “Dam$ Lies,”$ November$ 17,$ 2012,$ accessed$ November$ 22,$ 2015,$ http://www.economist.com/news/booksLandLarts/21566608LlookLunderbellyLforeignLaidLdamLlies.$

6$This$ statement$ was$ made$ by$ Neil$ Marten,$ Minister$ of$ Overseas$ Development$ under$ Thatcher.$ Quoted$ in$ Owen$Barder,$“Reforming$Development$Assistance:$Lessons$from$the$U.K.$Experience,”$in$Security(by(Other( Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 134$

These$institutional$shifts$were$accompanied$with$policy$changes$in$specific$periods.$

The$first$major$policy$shift$took$place$under$the$Labour$government$and$was$set$out$in$the$

1975$ White$ Paper$ titled$ The(Changing(Emphasis(of(British(Aid(Policies:(More(Help(for(the(

Poorest.( As$ a$ result,$ the$ Ministry$ of$ Overseas$ Development( focused$ British$ aid$ on$ the$ poorest$ countries$ and$ emphasized$ its$ allocation$ towards$ the$ alleviation$ of$ extreme$ poverty.7$Similar$to$the$ILO$proposal,$the$British$aid$policy$adopted$a$basic$needs$approach$ and$focused$on$the$rural$poor$as$its$main$constituents.$This$change$is$interesting$insofar$as$ the$ basic$ needs$ approach$ was$ also$ supported$ by$ donors,$ although$ rejected$ by$ aid$ recipients,$who$wanted$substantive$changes$in$the$form$of$redistribution$of$resources.$

The$ second$ major$ policy$ shift$ occurred$ under$ the$ Conservative$ government$ after$ the$ election$ of$ Margaret$ Thatcher.$ In$ February$ 1980,$ then$ Minister$ of$ Overseas$

Development,$Neil$Marten,$announced$the$government$would$“give$greater$weight$in$the$ allocation$of$our$aid$to$political,$industrial,$and$commercial$objectives$alongside$our$basic$ development$objectives.”8$As$a$result,$the$links$between$aid$and$commercial$considerations$ were$strengthened$with$the$majority$of$the$aid$restricted$to$the$purchase$of$British$goods$ and$services$throughout$the$1980s.$This$shift$in$policy$was$also$the$grounds$on$which$the$

Pergau$ dam$ controversy$ had$ been$ based,$ enmeshing$ commercial$ interests$ with$ development$assistance$while$raising$questions$about$the$purpose$of$British$aid.$As$Tim$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ Means:(Foreign(Assistance,(Global(Poverty,(and(American(Leadership,(edited$by(Lael$Brainard$(Washington,$DC:$ The$Brookings$Institution,$2007),$10.$

7$Ministry$ of$ Overseas$ Development,$ Overseas( Development:( The( Changing( Emphasis( in( British( Aid( Policies:( More(Help(for(the(Poorest((London:$Her$Majesty’s$Stationery$Office,$1975).$$

8$Quoted$in$Owen$Barder,$“Reforming$Development$Assistance:$Lessons$from$the$U.K.$Experience,”$11.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 135$

Lankester$recounts$in$his$book,$“The$decision$to$back$the$project$was$taken$primarily$to$ boost$Britain’s$trade$and$political$relations$with$Malaysia.”9$$

The$Pergau$Dam$Affair$was$a$turning$point$in$British$aid$policy$whereby$“aid$moved$ away$from$being$so$closely$geared$to$British$commercial$interests$and$towards$becoming$ today$possibly$most$highly$respected$amongst$all$donors$with$a$much$strengthened$focus$ on$poverty$alleviation.”10$The$incoming$Labour$government$abolished$UK$ODA$in$1997$and$ replaced$ it$ with$ the$ Department$ for$ International$ Development$ under$ the$ leadership$ of$

Clare$ Short,$ a$ Member$ of$ Parliament$ since$ 1983,$ whose$ controversial$ and$ outspoken$ personality$ won$ her$ sympathies$ and$ contempt$ from$ different$ political$ camps.$ While$ working$in$Blair’s$cabinet,$she$was$also$a$strong$critic$of$the$government,$in$particular$with$ regards$to$the$war$in$Iraq.$Her$disagreements$with$Blair$finally$led$her$to$submit$her$letter$ of$resignation$in$May$2003,$primarily$because$of$her$belief$that$“the$runLup$to$the$conflict$ in$Iraq$was$mishandled.”11$$

As$ a$ principled$ and$ outspoken$ person,$ Short$ very$ much$ steered$ the$ development$ debate$during$her$tenure$as$Secretary$of$International$Development.$In$her$autobiography,$ after$having$described$the$deplorable$condition$and$high$number$of$the$world’s$poor,$Short$ recounts$the$emergence$of$“a$growing$international$consensus$that$these$levels$of$poverty$ and$ inequality$ were$ the$ greatest$ moral$ challenge$ and$ the$ greatest$ danger$ the$ world$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 9$Tim$ Lankester,$ The( Politics( and( Economics( of( Britain’s( Foreign( Aid:( The( Pergau( Dam( Affair( (London:$ Routledge,$2012),$2.$

10$Lankester,$The(Politics(and(Economics(of(Britain’s(Foreign(Aid:(The(Pergau(Dam(Affair,$141.$$

11 $The$ Guardian,$ “Clare$ Short’s$ Resignation$ Letter,”$ May$ 12,$ 2003,$ accessed$ Jan$ 30,$ 2015,$ http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/may/12/labour.voluntarysector.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 136$ faced.”12$She$ goes$ on$ to$ highlight$ her$ close$ involvement$ in$ building$ this$ new$ consensus$ through$ her$ role$ as$ the$ head$ of$ then$ newly$ established$ Department$ for$ International$

Development$and$its$“improved$development$model$which$focused$on$building$competent$ state$capacity$rather$than$charitable$projects$or$oneLoff$investments.”13$In$fact,$Clare$Short$ was$quite$proud$of$the$role$she$and$DFID$played$in$this$focus$on$poverty,$so$much$that$she$ stated,$ “From$ 1997$ onwards,$ the$ UK$ government$ helped$ build$ a$ new$ international$ consensus$ designed$ to$ face$ the$ challenge$ and$ in$ that,$ I$ believe,$ we$ were$ entitled$ to$ take$ some$pride.”14$

Based$ on$ her$ biography$ as$ well$ as$ various$ accounts$ of$ her$ personality,$ for$ Short$ there$was$a$moral$imperative$to$reduce$poverty$in$an$age$when$the$resources$were$there$to$ do$so.$An$official$that$worked$closely$with$her$at$the$time$conveyed$to$me$that$Clare$Short$ genuinely$believed$that$in$this$day$and$age$it$was$simply$morally$wrong$to$have$enormous$ numbers$of$the$world’s$population$to$live$in$poverty.15$Stefan$Dercon,$currently$the$Chief$

Economist$ at$ DFID,$ also$ conveyed$ this$ sentiment,$ arguing$ that$ while$ in$ the$ early$ 1990s$ nobody$ really$ cared$ much$ about$ development,$ the$ change$ in$ the$ UK$ government$ and$ particularly$ the$ appointment$ of$ Clare$ Short16$as$ the$ head$ of$ development$ enormously$ impacted$the$way$in$which$the$UK$handled$development$issues.17$Similarly,$David$Hulme,$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 12$Clare$Short,$An(Honorable(Deception?:(New(Labour,(Iraq,(and(the(Misuse(of(Power((London:$The$Free$Press,$ 2004),(258.$

13$Ibid.,$261.$$

14$Ibid.,$262.$

15$Interview$with$former$DFID$staff,$February$28,$2014.$

16$My$ various$ efforts$ to$ contact$ Clare$ Short$ for$ an$ interview$ were$ to$ no$ avail.$ However,$ I$ believe$ that$ her$ memoirs$as$well$as$the$information$I$could$retrieve$through$other$interviews$as$well$as$UN$archives$provided$ strong$support$for$the$argument$laid$out$in$these$pages.$$

17$Interview$with$Stefan$Dercon,$March$1,$2013.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 137$

Professor$of$Development$Studies$at$the$University$of$Manchester$and$Executive$Director$ of$the$Brooks$World$Poverty$Institute,$who$has$interviewed$Clare$Short,$asserted$she$was$

“a$committed$politician,$who$wants$to$make$the$world$a$better$place.”18$In$fact,$the$moral$ imperative$of$poverty$reduction$and$the$extent$to$which$Short$was$vested$in$this$project$is$ reflected$ in$ a$ note$ to$ Kofi$ Annan$ after$ she$ received$ a$ copy$ of$ the$ SG’s$ report$ We( The(

Peoples.(In$that$note$of$18$April$2000,$Short$wrote$to$Annan,$

“I$ have$ just$ received$ a$ copy$ of$ your$ Millennium$ report.$ My$ officials$ and$ others$ in$ the$ British$ Government$ are$ now$ studying$ the$ detail$ of$ your$ proposals,$but$I$wanted$to$write$immediately$to$welcome$one$feature$of$the$ report$ –$ its$ emphasis$ on$ poverty$ reduction$ and$ the$ International$ Development$Targets.$As$you$know,$I$believe$very$strongly$that$the$historic$ goal$of$poverty$eradication$could$be$within$our$grasp.$The$Millennium$Report$ has$clearly$identified$poverty$reduction$as$one$of$the$major$challenges$facing$ the$international$community$in$the$21st$Century.$I$trust$that$the$Millennium$ Summit$ will$ follow$ your$ advice$ and$ take$ this$ opportunity$ to$ give$ a$ major$ push$ to$ the$ achievement$ of$ the$ International$ Development$ Targets$ for$ poverty$reduction.”19$$ $ That$there$would$be$a$moral$foundation$to$Short’s$approach$to$her$work$at$DFID$is$ clearly$ established.$ But$ did$ the$ moral$ rationale$ and$ zealous$ personality$ of$ Clare$ Short$ entirely$ explain$ the$ UK’s$ focus$ on$ poverty$ reduction?$ Not$ entirely.$ The$ changing$ institutional$environment$and$the$establishment$of$an$autonomous$DFID$buttressed$Short’s$ personal$ crusade$ against$ poverty.$ The$ fact$ that$ DFID$ was$ created$ as$ an$ independent$ ministry$run$by$a$cabinet$member$did$not$sit$very$well$with$the$Foreign$Office$or$Ministry$ of$Defense,$which,$as$I$learned$from$a$civil$servant$working$within$DFID$at$the$time,$initially$ competed$with$DFID$over$the$aid$budget.$As$Clare$Short$recounts$in$her$autobiography,$the$ new$department$had$to$fight$quite$a$few$battles$early$on$because$of$the$hostility$to$DFID,$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 18$Interview$with$David$Hulme,$September$24,$2012.$

19$“Letter$from$Clare$Short$to$Kofi$Annan,”$April$18,$2000,$United$Nations$Archives.$$$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 138$ which$was$resented$for$its$“interference$on$British$business$interests$or$arms$sales.”$She$ elaborates,$

“The$ trade$ policy$ officials$ in$ DTI$ (Department$ of$ Transport$ and$ Industry)$ were$incensed$that$we$had$established$a$tradeLpolicy$department;$Treasury$ officials$ had$ written$ off$ unpayable$ debt$ before$ and$ did$ not$ need$ new$ conditions$ which$ would$ link$ debt$ relief$ to$ the$ establishment$ of$ povertyL reduction$ strategies.$ Those$ in$ charge$ of$ environmental$ policy$ had$ little$ interest$in$the$situation$in$developing$countries.$The$Foreign$Office$wanted$ us$to$run$projects$and$not$interfere$in$political$issues$such$as$the$ending$of$ conflict$in$Africa.$Africa$came$low$down$the$list$of$Foreign$Office$priorities$ but$they$certainly$did$not$want$DFID$poking$its$nose$in.$The$old$order$saw$ the$ duty$ of$ British$ government$ to$ take$ forward$ British$ interests.$ The$ suggestion$ that$ poverty,$ inequality$ and$ environmental$ degradation$ were$ threats$to$our$interests$and$to$the$future$of$the$planet$as$well$as$major$moral$ concerns$had$hardly$penetrated$our$institutional$arrangements.”20$ $ However,$ these$ initial$ reactions$ to$ an$ independent$ development$ ministry$ did$ not$ discourage$ Short.$ Convinced$ of$ the$ soundness$ of$ her$ mission,$ in$ November$ 1997,$ Short$ presented$ to$ Parliament$ a$ White$ Paper$ on$ International$ Development$ titled$ Eliminating(

World(Poverty:(A(Challenge(for(the(21st(Century.$In$this$paper,$she$set$up$eliminating$poverty$ to$be$the$“the$single$greatest$challenge$that$the$world$faces.”21$While$framing$it$as$a$moral$ duty$to$help$the$poor,$she$emphasized$the$urgency$of$reducing$poverty$because$otherwise$

“the$ world$ will$ simply$ not$ be$ sustainable.”22$The$ 1997$ White$ Paper$ echoed$ some$ of$ the$ development$ taking$ place$ among$ the$ OECD$ donor$ countries.$ First,$ it$ identified$ the$ challenge$ of$ development$ to$ be$ “the$ elimination$ of$ poverty$ and$ encouragement$ of$ economic$ growth$ which$ benefits$ the$ poor”$ and$ suggested$ the$ means$ to$ overcoming$ the$ challenge$to$be$the$“international$sustainable$development$targets$and$policies,”$thereby$ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 20$Clare$Short,$An(Hourable(Deception?(New(Labour,(Iraq,(And(the(Misuse(of(Power,$79.$(

21$Department$for$International$Development,$Eliminating(World(Poverty:(A(Challenge(for(the(21st(Century,(Cm.$ 3789$(London:$The$Stationery$Office,$1997),$5.$

22$Ibid.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 139$ referring$to$the$International$Development$Goals$(IDGs)$that$had$been$established$in$the$

1996$OECD$report$Shaping(21st(Century.(Second,$it$listed$the$goal$of$halving$the$proportion$ of$ people$ who$ live$ in$ extreme$ poverty$ by$ 2015$ as$ a$ key$ target$ while$ also$ listing$ other$ targets$ related$ to$ the$ IDGs.$ Thereby,$ this$ document$ emphasized$ the$ social$ aspects$ of$ development$ while$ highlighting$ various$ dimensions$ of$ human$ development,$ including$ health,$education,$water,$food,$environmental$sustainability,$population$policy,$etc.$Third,$ breaking$away$from$the$market$focused$policies$of$the$past,$it$highlighted$the$role$of$the$ state$ in$ “facilitating$ economic$ growth$ and$ benefiting$ the$ poor.$ Both$ States$ and$ markets$ make$good$servants$and$bad$masters.”23$$

Were$ there$ any$ strategic$ grounds$ for$ the$ focus$ on$ poverty?$ In$ response$ to$ this$ question,$ David$ Hulme$ suggested$ that$ it$ was$ a$ “fortunate$ critical$ juncture”$ that$ the$ UK$ became$ interested$ in$ the$ IDGs$ because$ New$ Labour$ had$ promised$ not$ to$ exceed$ the$

Conservatives’$public$expenditure$ceilings$during$the$first$three$years,$but$it$also$wanted$to$ distinguish$itself$and$its$policies$from$the$Conservative$Party’s.$According$to$Hulme,$“One$ way$they$could$show$a$big$difference$was$by$increasing$the$aid$budget$massively$as$soon$as$ they$took$over$the$government.$They$could$do$that$with$aid$because$it$was$a$small$budget,$ but$ if$ they$ had$ to$ do$ that$ with$ health,$ education$ or$ social$ welfare,$ they$ would$ go$ right$ through$ the$ conservative$ spending$ ceilings.”24$In$ other$ words,$ the$ rationale$ to$ focus$ on$ poverty$reduction$and$the$decision$to$increase$the$aid$budget$wasn’t$solely$moral$but$also$ explicitly$political$with$a$view$to$gaining$the$support$of$Labour$voters$and$potential$voters.$$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 23$Ibid.,$12.$

24$Interview$with$David$Hulme,$September$24,$2012.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 140$

Two$ other$ developments$ were$ key$ to$ Short’s$ success$ in$ elevating$ the$ antipoverty$ norm.$Domestically,$the$establishment$of$the$Jubilee$2000$movement,$a$nonLgovernmental$ campaign$ established$ in$ London$ in$ 1994$ to$ call$ for$ debt$ cancelation$ of$ the$ poorest$ countries,$helped$cement$this$emerging$antipoverty$norm.$In$1998,$Jubilee$2000$mobilized$

70,000$volunteers$to$gather$at$the$GL8$meeting$in$Birmingham$and$to$form$a$human$chain$ around$the$building$where$the$annual$meeting$was$to$take$place.$In$addition,$it$collected$

1.5$million$signatures$from$50$countries$and$presented$it$to$Clare$Short,$who$was$already$ predisposed$ to$ the$ idea$ of$ debt$ cancelation.$ A$ year$ later,$ at$ the$ GL8$ meeting$ in$ Cologne,$

Jubilee$2000$presented$a$petition$with$close$to$15$million$signatures$asking$for$further$debt$ relief.$ This$ involvement$ of$ a$ civil$ society$ movement$ not$ only$ appealed$ to$ the$ activist$

Development$Secretary,$but$also$shifted$public$opinion$in$favor$of$poverty$reduction.$

While$ pushing$ the$ poverty$ reduction$ agenda$ at$ home,$ Clare$ Short$ found$ a$ set$ of$ similarLminded,$ female$ development$ ministers$ in$ other$ European$ countries$ as$ her$ allies,$ who$would$help$her$advance$that$agenda$internationally.$In$1999,$she$joined$the$German$

Minister$ of$ Economic$ CoLoperation$ and$ Development,$ Heidemarie$ WieczorekLZeul,$ the$

Dutch$ Minister$ for$ Development$ CoLoperation,$ Eveline$ Herfkens,$ and$ the$ Norwegian$

Minister$ of$ International$ Development,$ Hilde$ F.$ Johnson$ to$ form$ the$ Utstein$ Group.$ The$ objective$ was$ to$ collaborate$ in$ their$ approach$ towards$ poverty$ reduction$ worldwide,$ by$ streamlining$ their$ own$ aid$ delivery$ systems,$ and$ by$ influencing$ the$ international$ community's$policies$to$combat$poverty.$Although$the$fact$that$they$were$all$women$was$ downplayed$by$Eveline$Herfkens,$who$argued$that$the$Swedish$development$minister$had$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 141$ also$been$a$woman,$but$“not$on$board$on$the$same$issues,”$she$acknowledged,$“It$helped$ that$we$were$women$and$got$publicity$for$that,$but$it$was$more$the$principle.”25$

Perhaps$most$striking$is$the$way$in$which$these$four$women$ministers$coordinated$ their$ work$ by$ always$ meeting$ in$ advance$ of$ international$ conferences$ to$ compare$ notes$ and$discuss$which$points$to$push.$Herfkens$stated,$“We$had$a$division$of$labor,$who$would$ say$ what$ when…kind$ of$ a$ good$ cop/bad$ cop$ strategy.$ In$ the$ development$ committee$

(referring$to$DAC),$for$instance,$one$of$us$would$speak$before$the$US,$and$another$after$the$

US,$and$we$would$have$the$same$message.”26$Indeed,$their$coordination$and$cooperation$ paid$ off,$ as$ they$ received$ international$ acclaim,$ including,$ in$ 2003,$ through$ the$ presentation$of$the$first$annual$Commitment(to(Development(Award$by$the$Center$for$Global$

Development$in$Washington$D.C.27$$

$ The$ British$ case$ illustrates$ how$ domestic$ politics$ and$ the$ institutional$ creation$ of$

DFID$ enabled$ this$ powerful$ state$ to$ ensure$ that$ the$ international$ development$ agenda$ would$be$aligned$with$its$domestic$agenda.$While$the$UK$needed$to$regain$the$trust$of$its$ public$that$aid$was$spent$for$the$right$reasons$on$the$right$projects,$the$focus$on$poverty$ offered$the$rationale$to$keep$aid$on$the$domestic$agenda.$Showing$leadership$within$the$ international$arena$on$making$poverty$the$end$of$development$ensured$the$voters$at$home$ that$ their$ tax$ money$ would$ be$ spent$ wisely.$ At$ the$ same$ time,$ cooperating$ and$ coordinating$with$other$donors$to$make$poverty$central$to$their$agendas$further$advanced$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 25$Interview$with$Eveline$Herfkens,$December$16,$2013.$

26$Ibid.$$

27$Center$for$Global$Development,$“2003$Commitment$to$Development$Award$Recipient:$The$Utstein$Group,”$ accessed$ 25$ March,$ 2014,$ http://www.cgdev.org/page/2003LcommitmentLdevelopmentLawardLrecipientL utsteinLgroup.$ Chapter(5.(AID(IN(CRISIS:(THE(CASE(OF(THE(UNITED(KINGDOM( 142$ the$ international$ debates,$ clearing$ the$ path$ to$ a$ global$ agenda$ constructed$ around$ the$ antipoverty$norm.$

$ PART%I.%DEVELOPMENT%AS%END%OF%POVERTY% 143!

! To!sum!up!the!argument!laid!out!in!Part!I,!the!resuscitation!of!poverty!as!a!central! issue! of! development! came! at! a! time! when! economic! and! political! discontent! were! widespread.!As!voices!critical!of!structural!adjustment!and!economic@growth!based!policies! got!louder,!there!was!an!urge!to!rethink!policies!prescribed!to!the!developing!countries!and! identify!less!socially!costly!strategies.!It!seems!that!two!routes!could!have!been!taken:!1)! supplement!the!existing!system!by!moving!to!reduce!the!burden!of!poverty!in!the!poorest! countries,! or! 2)! restructure! global! economic! institutions! while! radically! changing! the! agenda! of! existing! institutions.! The! focus! on! poverty! ultimately! privileged! additions! and! modifications!to!the!existing!order!over!transformations!and!restructuring!of!the!existing! global!governance!system.!Thus,!what!emerged!wasn’t!deep!soul@searching!and!critical!self@ reflection!with!a!“potential!for!structural!change,”!but!rather!“specific!reforms!aimed!at!the! maintenance!of!existing!structures.”1!!

With!the!background!conditions!in!place,!Part!II!examines!the!process!leading!up!to! the! Millennium! Development! Goals,! offering! a! political! analysis! that! relays! the! diverse! perspectives! of! the! UN,! World! Bank,! OECD! as! well! as! the! NGO! community.! Chapter! 6! focuses! on! specific! moments! of! norm! articulation! and! examines! the! actors! and! their! interests,! motivations,! and! strategies! to! argue! that! state! interests! and! organizational! agendas! were! indeed! key! to! the! construction! of! the! antipoverty! agenda! that! came! to! dominate!development!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium.!Chapter!7!then!examines!the!uptake! of! the! MDGs! through! the! mechanisms! that! were! set! up! to! advocate! for! their! global! adoption.!In!that!process,!the!form!and!content!of!the!MDGs!help!explain!the!rather!rapid! consolidation!of!the!antipoverty!norm!in!the!new!millennium.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Cox,!“Critical!Political!Economy,”!32.!

PART II

GLOBAL CONVERGENCE ON ANTIPOVERTY NORM

PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 145!

! In!early!2001,!after!the!excitement!of!the!millennium!and!the!glorious!celebrations! at! the! UN! Millennium! Summit! had! faded,! two! UN! officials! met! to! discuss! a! strategy! that! would!revive!the!Millennium!Declaration,!a!document!“so!good!and!so!rich”!that!it!should! not!have!“the!same!fate!as!all!the!previous!ones!and!end!up!in!oblivion.”1!Michael!Doyle,!an!

IR!scholar!“perhaps!best!known!for!developing!the!‘democratic!peace’!theory”2!had!been! appointed!by!Kofi!Annan!to!succeed!John!Ruggie!as!Special!Advisor!for!Strategic!Planning! in! the! Executive! Office! of! the! UN! Secretary! General.! Jan! Vandemoortele,! an! experienced! development! economist! who! had! spent! two! decades! within! the! UN! System,! in! particular!

United!Nations!Children’s!Fund!(UNICEF),!had!recently!joined!United!Nations!Development!

Programme! (UNDP)! as! the! Director! of! the! Poverty! Group! within! the! Bureau! for!

Development! Policy.! Along! with! several! other! responsibilities,! Doyle! was! tasked! with! putting! together! a! document! that! would! respond! to! the! General! Assembly’s! request! that!

“the! SecretaryZGeneral! urgently! [to]! prepare! a! longZterm! “roadmap”! towards! the! implementation!of!the!Millennium!Declaration!within!the!UN!system!and!to!submit!it!to!the!

General! Assembly! at! its! fiftyZsixth! session.”3!Together! with! Vandemoortele,! Doyle! coZ chaired! an! interZagency! experts! group! (IAEG)! that! would! operationalize! the! Millennium!

Declaration!by!selecting!some!key!promises!and!turning!them!into!a!set!of!goals.!“That’s!the! origin!of!the!MDGs,”!told!me!Vandemoortele,!who!has!been!widely!recognized!as!one!of!the! architects!of!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!!

2!United! Nations,! “Secretary! General! Appoints! New! Special! Advisor! for! Strategic! Planning,”! Press! Release! SG/A/766,! February! 9,! 2001,! accessed! March! 11,! 2014,! http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2001/sga766.html.!!!

3!United! Nations,! General! Assembly! resolution,! “FollowZup! to! the! outcome! of! the! Millennium! Summit,”! A/RES/55/162,! December! 18,! 2000,! accessed! February! 1,! 2012,! http://daccessZ ods.un.org/TMP/8477528.69129181.html.! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 146!

! Although! it! sounds! simple,! this! story! is! not! as! straightforward! as! it! seems.! In! hindsight,!many!people!have!taken!credit!for!the!MDGs!and!proudly!associate!themselves! with! them,! but! at! the! time,! it! was! a! rather! risky! endeavor! primarily! because! of! a! recent! event!that!had!brought!together!the!UN,!World!Bank,!IMF!and!OECD!to!launch!a!report—A%

Better%World%for%All—that!had!been!met!with!much!criticism!by!civil!society.!To!understand! the!controversy!that!surrounded!the!topic!of!development!and!in!particular!Kofi!Annan’s! engagement!with!development!issues!at!the!time,!we!need!to!go!further!back!in!time!and! ask! when! and! under! what! circumstances! poverty! reduction! was! identified! as! the! main! objective! of! development.! The! answer! to! that! question! holds! the! key! to! our! question! of! when! and! under! what! circumstances! the! global! convergence! on! poverty! reduction! may! have!been!forged.!!

The! evolution! of! the! antipoverty! norm—manifested! in! the! global! convergence! on! poverty!reduction!and!institutionalized!in!the!Millennium!Development!Goals!(MDGs)—has! not!gone!unnoticed.!In!fact,!various!scholars!have!offered!explanations!that!draw!on!their! institutional!experiences!to!offer!their!particular!perspectives.4!Yet,!a!political!analysis!of! the!processes!that!gave!rise!to!this!convergence!has!been!missing.!Part!II!fills!that!gap!by! offering!a!variegated!analysis!that!relays!the!perspectives!from!the!UN,!IFIs,!OECD!as!well! as! the! NGO! community.! As! various! UN! personnel! suggested! to! me,! the! aim! of! the! MDGs! initially! was! twofold:! to! avoid! that! the! Millennium! Declaration! was! forgotten! and! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!Michael!Doyle,!“Dialectics!of!a!Global!Constitution:!The!Struggle!Over!the!UN!Charter,”!European%Journal%of% International% Relations% (October! 2011):! 1Z24;! Jan! Vandemoortele,! “The! MDG! Story:! Intention! Denied,”! Development% and% Change% 42,! no.! 1! (2011):! 1Z21;! Richard! Manning,! Using% Indicators% to% Encourage% Development:% Lessons% from% the% Millennium% Development% Goals,! DIIS! Report! 2009:01! (Copenhagen:! Danish! Institute!for!International!Studies,!2009);!March!Malloch!Brown,!The%Unfinished%Global%Revolution:%The%Road% to%International%Cooperation%(London:!Penguin!Books,!2011).! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 147!

! broaden! the! narrow! definition! of! development! beyond! economic! growth.5!According! to!

Vandemoortele,!“we!succeeded!on!the!first!account,!but!we!failed!on!the!second.”6!!

Part! II! of! this! dissertation! first! analyzes! the! evolution! of! this! convergence! by! focusing! on! specific! moments! of! norm! articulation:! UN! World! Summit! for! Social!

Development!(WSSD)!in!March!1995,!WSSD+5!in!June!2000,!and!the!Millennium!Summit!in!

September! 2000.! Examining! the! actors,! their! interests! and! motivations! as! well! as! their! strategies,! this! study! complements! constructivist! accounts! that! emphasize! agency! and! contingency!with!structural!accounts!that!highlight!political!constraints!that!actors!face!in! multilateral!diplomacy.!It!then!draws!attention!to!the!content!and!form!of!the!norm,!which! were!key!to!the!success!of!the!MDGs!due!to!their!framing!of!the!goals!in!the!complex!and! multidimensional!concept!of!human!development.!

Following! the! argument! introduced! in! Part! I,! the! narrative! below! illustrates! that! during!the!latter!half!of!the!1990s,!a!discourse!of!relevancy!prevailed!in!global!governance! institutions.! By! this! I! mean! that! the! relevancy! of! key! organizations! dealing! with! development! and! aid! was! questioned.! This! debate! as! to! whether! existing! international! organizations! were! appropriate! to! the! changing! global! context! was! both! externally! and! internally!driven.!In!light!of!the!end!of!the!Cold!War,!the!very!rationale!for!ODA—motivated! by! the! extant! bipolar! world! order! and! the! fear! of! communist! spread—had! disappeared,! reflected! in! the! continuous! decline! of! official! development! assistance! as! a! percentage! of! gross! national! income! from! 0.32! in! 1990! to! 0.26! in! 1995! and! 0.21! in! 2001.7!As! Part! I!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!Interview!with!Diana!Alarcon,!December!3,!2013;!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!!

6!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!

7!It!is!only!after!the!Monterrey!Conference!in!March!2001!that!an!increase!in!ODA!is!detected,!which!grew!to! 0.23%!in!2002!and!reached!its!peak!in!2005!by!achieving!the!same!level!of!0.32%!of!GNI!as!it!had!in!1990.!It’s! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 148!

! argued,!the!World!Bank!and!IMF!found!themselves!in!a!climate!of!crisis!as!their!structural! adjustment! programs! were! questioned,! and! civil! society! groups! organized! a! countermovement! in! 50%Years%is%Enough%campaign! to! protest! the! celebration! of! the! IFIs’!

50th! anniversary.! The! UN,! on! the! other! hand,! initially! having! discovered! a! newfound! confidence!in!its!independence!from!the!EastZWest!rivalries,!organized!a!series!of!summits! and!conferences!during!the!first!half!of!the!1990s.!But,!at!the!same!time,!the!breakup!of!the!

Soviet! Union! and! the! subsequent! internal! conflicts! and! civil! wars! jeopardized! the! world! organization’s!authority!as!it!got!enmeshed!in!Bosnia,!Somalia!and!Rwanda!with!disastrous! outcomes.!Thus,!by!midZdecade,!the!euphoria!following!the!fall!of!the!Berlin!Wall!gave!way! to!a!questioning!of!the!competence!and!efficiency!of!the!United!Nations.!Similarly,!the!rich! countries!whose!interests!were!primarily!served!through!the!World!Bank!and!IMF,!faced! with!dwindling!funds!and!erasure!of!their!previous!rationale!for!bilateral!and!multilateral! investments,! and! with! development! ministers! eager! to! revive! their! departments,! sought! new!ways!to!reinvigorate!the!urgency!of!aid.!

Chapter!6!argues!that!by!1996,!the!discourse!of!relevancy!had!been!countered!with!a! discourse! of! poverty.! Internal! reflections! and! debates! within! these! institutions! indicate! their! search! into! how! to! make! themselves! relevant! to! a! postZCold! War! order,! in! which! many!of!the!same!development!problems!as!before!existed,!however!without!the!previous! bipolar! world! order.! Drawing! on! language! already! in! existence! at! least! since! Truman’s!

Point!Four!speech,!in!which!he!extolled!“For%the%first%time%in%history,!humanity!possesses!the! knowledge!and!skill!to!relieve!suffering!of!these!people!(emphasis!added),”!this!discourse!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! been! hovering! around! 0.3%! over! the! past! years! after! hitting! a! bottom! low! in! 2007! at! 0.27%.! For! more! information,!see!OECD!Official!Development!Assistance!website!at!http://www.oecd.org/statistics/.!! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 149!

! suggested! that! for%the%first%time%in%history%poverty! could! be! eradicated,! and! that! to! do! so! would!require!the!engagement!of!all!the!institutions!that!in!one!way!or!another!had!the! mandate! to! contribute! to! that! goal.! Poverty! reduction! as! an! ultimate! goal! gave! all! these! institutions!the!coherence!and!unifying!theme!they!needed!to!justify!their!further!existence! and!participation!in!the!development!community.!It!is!no!coincidence!that!in!sequence!we! see!the!launch!of!the!International!Development!Goals!within!the!OECD/DAC!followed!by! the!inauguration!of!the!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Papers!within!the!IMF/WB!and!finally! the!Millennium!Development!Goals!within!the!UN!system.!It!is!also!no!secret!that!the!global! agenda!to!fight!poverty,!as!embodied!within!the!Millennium!Development!Goals,!was!first! conceived! by! the! OECD/DAC! within! the! confines! of! the! donor! club,! even! though! they! selectively!drew!on!UN!conferences!and!globally!negotiated!language!to!further!legitimate! their!identification!of!poverty!reduction!as!the!end!of!development,!rather!than!economic! growth,! which! had! been! the! mantra! of! neoliberal! policies! embodied! in! Washington!

Consensus.!

Yet,! irrespective! of! their! originally! donorZdriven! beginnings,! the! MDGs! came! to! dominate!the!global!development!agenda.!The!inclusion!of!goal!8!on!global!cooperation!for! development!was!immensely!important!in!this!process,!as!it!ensured!that!the!agenda!did! not!only!emphasize!the!responsibilities!of!developing!countries!but!also!highlighted!areas! in! which! developed! countries! shared! responsibilities.! Nevertheless,! as! Chapter! 7! demonstrates,! the! MDGs! did! not! automatically! penetrate! development! planning! within! countries!but!required!some!campaigning.!At!the!same!time,!the!multidimensionality!of!the!

Millennium! Development! Goals! compounded! with! their! specific! features—their! timeZ bound!and!measurable!targets—were!crucial!to!the!consolidation!of!the!antipoverty!norm.! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 150!

! As! a! norm% complex,! the! specific! normative! claims! within! the! MDGs! allowed! for! a! multisectoral!approach!to!poverty!reduction,!which!required!the!participation!of!various! organizations! and! their! formulation! of! their! priorities! within! the! MDG! framework.! Thus,! the!chapter!shows!how!the!constitution!of!the!MDGs!was!crucial!to!their!broad!acceptance.!

This!analysis!suggests!that!although!identities!and!institutional!platforms!played!a! major! role! in! constructing! the! consensus! on! poverty,! state! interests! and! organizational! priorities! steered! the! debate! and! conditioned! the! range! of! possible! outcomes.! Thus,! the! global!development!agenda!was!initially!a!construct!of!the!donor!community,!who!looked! for! ways! to! make! aid! relevant! and! to! justify! development! assistance! to! their! domestic! constituents.! International! organizations,! on! the! other! hand,! had! their! own! institutional! agendas! and! conditioned! decisionZmaking! processes.! The! international! community’s! consensus!that!poverty!reduction!be!the!ultimate!aim!of!development!gave!rise!to!a!set!of! goals!(MDGs),!which!served!the!interests!of!donors!and!international!organizations!alike.!

Their!form!and!content,!in!turn,!ensured!the!consolidation!of!the!antipoverty!norm.!

Chapter 6

NEGOTIATING THE ANTIPOVERTY AGENDA! ! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 152! !

To! outline! the! evolution! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! this! chapter! focuses! on! three! events!that!were!critical!to!the!articulation!of!this!norm.!First,!I!discuss!the!March!1995!

World!Summit!for!Social!Development!(WSSD)!in!Copenhagen,!which!has!been!associated! with!the!birth!of!the!poverty!reduction!goal.1!There!are!different!accounts!of!this!summit! depending!on!one’s!sources,!and!together!they!offer!us!a!holistic!perspective!on!the!various! views!and!expectations!of!the!participants.!As!elaborated!below,!there!is!broad!evidence! that!some!donors!left!the!summit!dissatisfied!with!the!inability!of!the!WSSD!participants!to! accept! a! goalJoriented! agenda! with! precise! targets.! Within! a! year,! OECD/DAC! published!

Shaping(the(21st(Century,! which! introduced! the! original! International! Development! Goals!

(IDGs),! containing! a! goalJoriented! agenda! that! some! donors! had! advocated! at! the! Social!

Summit! in! Copenhagen.! I! analyze! the! various! interpretations! of! this! report! and! how! it! prepared!the!ground!for!the!introduction!of!the!IDGs!to!the!international!community.!I!then! turn!to!WSSD+5!in!Geneva—the!key!event!at!which!the!convergence!of!the!UN,!World!Bank,!

IMF! and! OECD! was! presented! to! the! international! community! in! a! joint! report! titled! A(

Better(World(for(All((BWfA).(This!followJup!summit!was!originally!intended!to!review!the! implementation!of!the!Copenhagen!commitments,!however,!the!BWfA!report!derailed!the! discussions! for! reasons! that! will! be! elaborated! below.! The! negative! response! that! this! report!garnered!from!civil!society!groups!left!a!deep!mark!on!Kofi!Annan!and!his!Executive!

Office! in! treating! development! issues.! Next,! I! examine! the! process! that! gave! rise! to! the!

Millennium! Declaration! whose! text! was! politically! mandated! and! could! be! used! for! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!It!is!in!the!Social!Summit!that!we!first!encounter!wording!specific!to!the!eradication!of!poverty!as!a!global! goal.!See!United!Nations,!Report(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development,!A/CONF.166/9,!April!19,!1995,! accessed!March!11,!2013,!http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/aconf166J9.htm.(

2!In! fact,! this! seems! to! be! a! commonly! held! view! by! representatives! from! UN! agencies,! OECD/DAC,! World! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 153! !

Millennium! Development! Goals.! Here! the! $1! a! day! definition! of! poverty! that! had! been! introduced!in!the!IDGs!resurfaced!and!was!endorsed!by!the!international!community.!!

6.1 The Conferences and Summits of the 1990s

It!is!widely!acknowledged!that!the!goals!set!at!the!UN!summits!and!conferences!held! in!the!1990s!were!the!foundation!for!the!promises!entailed!in!the!Millennium!Declaration! and!later!refined!in!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.2!This!understanding!was!relayed!to! me!almost!by!everyone!I!interviewed.!The!only!people,!who!were!more!cautious!to!make! this!claim!were!the!NGO!representatives!with!whom!I!spoke.!They!urged!me!to!read!the! reports!of!those!conferences!closely,!as!they!found!that!many!of!the!achievements!endorsed! in!those!meetings!were!shortJchanged!in!their!reincarnations!as!the!MDGs.!The!main!bone! of!contention,!as!I!learned,!was!the!definition!of!poverty!as!extreme!poverty,!measured!as! the!proportion!of!people!living!on!less!than!$1!a!day.3!This!was!contentious,!because!many! believed!that!measuring!extreme!poverty!at!such!a!low!threshold!not!only!ignored!million! others!that!still!lived!at!or!below!subsistence!levels!in!the!developing!countries,!but!also! entirely! excluded! the! extreme! poor! in! developed! countries.! But! there! were! additional! issues.! For! example,! some! argued! that! the! MDGs! did! not! so! much! draw! on! these! UN! gatherings!but!instead!derailed!much!of!the!work!that!member!states!had!accomplished!in! these! settings,! negotiating! issues! pertaining! to! economic! policy,! women,! poverty,! and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!In! fact,! this! seems! to! be! a! commonly! held! view! by! representatives! from! UN! agencies,! OECD/DAC,! World! Bank,!and!DFID.!In!addition!to!my!various!interviews,!this!view!is!published!in!Vandemoortele!(2011),!Hulme! and!FukudaJParr!(2009),!Manning!(2009),!and!Doyle!(2011).!Civil!society!representatives,!however,!hold!a! widely! diverging! view! and! argue! that! the! goals! were! a! small! selection! and! deviated! from! the! agreements! achieved!at!these!conferences.!See!Footnote!11.!!

3!$1!a!day!was!the!original!formulation!of!this!indicator,!although!later!revisions!increased!it!to!$1.25!a!day.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 154! ! sustainability! of! the! environment.4!Since! poverty! had! started! to! figure! in! prominently! in! declarations! giving! rise! to! the! various! development! decades,! it! would! not! be! correct! to! identify!the!1995!World!Summit!for!Social!Development!(WSSD,!also!called!Social!Summit! or!Copenhagen!Summit)!with!its!birthplace,!nonetheless,!this!summit!was!the!origin!of!the! debate!on!poverty!eradication!as!a!global!goal!and!thus!requires!our!analysis.!

6.1.1 World Summit for Social Development (WSSD) ! A! brainchild! of! the! French! government,! in! particular! Mitterrand,5!and! held! in!

Copenhagen! from! 6J12! March! 1995,! the! Social! Summit! had! the! highest! attendance! by! senior!government!officials!to!date,!including!117!heads!of!state!or!government!as!well!as! other!highJranking!officials!representing!186!countries.6!According!to!the!UN!Intellectual!

History! Project,! Juan! Somavía,! Special! Advisor! to! SecretaryJGeneral! BoutrosJGhali! at! the! time,!“took!a!role!in!thinking!about,!pushing,!and!animating!the!Social!Summit.”7!!

During!the!46th!session!of!the!General!Assembly!in!1991,!there!was!a!broad!debate! concerning! the! “increasing! international! awareness! of! economic! and! social! factors! as! important! components! of! peace! and! security.”8!Records! indicate! that! during! the! general!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!Many!civil!society!groups!echo!this!view.!See,!for!example,!Bharati!Sadasivam,!“Wooing!the!MDGJskeptics,”! Development(48,!no.!1!(2005):!30J34;!Peggy!Antrobus,!“Critiquing!the!MDGs!from!a!Caribbean!Perspective,”! Gender( and( Development( 13,! no.! 1! (Mar.! 2005):! 94J104;! Roberto! Bissio,! “Civil! Society! and! the! MDGs,”! Development(Policy(Journal(3! (April! 2003):! 151J160.! Ashwani! Saith,! “From! Universal! Values! to! Millennium! Development!Goals:!Lost!in!Translation,”!Development(and(Change(37,!no.!6!(2006):!1167J1199.!

5!John! Langmore,! Director! of! the! Division! for! Social! Policy! and! Development! in! the! UN's! Department! of! Economic!and!Social!Affairs!from!1997!to!2002,!shared!this!piece!of!information!with!me,!noting!that!while! Juan!Somavía!was!the!chair!of!the!PrepComs,!it!was!the!French!who!initiated!the!idea!to!hold!a!conference!on! social!development.!Interview!with!John!Langmore,!April!3,!2014.!

6!United!Nations!General!Assembly,!“Social!Aspects!of!Development,”!UN(Year(Book((1995),!1113.!!

7!Juan!Somavía,!interview!by!Thomas!G.!Weiss,!United(Nations(Intellectual(History(Project,!October!2,!2001.!

8!United! Nations,! General! Assembly! resolution,! “Social! Development,”! A/RES/46/139,! December! 17,! 1991,! accessed!January!28,!2015,!http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/46/a46r139.htm.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 155! ! debate,!Foreign!Affairs!Ministers!of!the!GJ77!stressed!the!importance!of!social!issues!within! the! UN! and! “the! need! for! a! concerted! effort! by! developing! countries! to! coordinate! and! harmonize!their!positions!in!this!area.”9!The!context!that!gave!rise!to!this!debate!was!“the! recent!evolution!of!EastJWest!relations”!and!developing!countries’!worries!associated!with! potential! reduction! or! diversion! of! bilateral! and! multilateral! financial! resources! and! development! assistance! to! Central! and! Eastern! European! countries. 10 !This! worry! in! conjunction!with!an!emerging!collective!understanding!of!the!centrality!of!social!issues!to! questions!of!economic!growth,!peace!and!security!materialized!into!the!request!to!Somavía! by!the!UN!Economic!and!Social!Council!(ECOSOC)!in!May!1991!that!he!hold!consultations! with! UN! member! states! regarding! WSSD.! Somavía’s! report! to! ECOSOC! was! the! basis! for!

Resolution! 47/92! adopted! by! the! UN! General! Assembly! in! December! 1992,! in! which! member!states!decided!to!“convene!a!World!Summit!for!Social!Development!at!the!level!of! heads!of!State!or!Government!early!in!1995,”11!and!highlighted!the!core!issues!affecting!all! societies! to! include! improving! social! integration,! alleviating! and! reducing! poverty,! and! expanding!productive!employment.!!!

Three! subsequent! Preparatory! Committees! (PrepComs)! took! place! in! January! and!

August! 1994,! and! January! 1995! in! order! to! define! expected! outcomes! and! to! draft! and! negotiate!the!text!of!the!Declaration!and!Programme!of!Action!that!the!summit!was!to!bear.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9!Ibid.!!

10!United!Nations,!General!Assembly!resolution,!“Impact!of!the!Recent!Evolution!of!EastJWest!Relations!on!the! Growth!of!the!World!Economy,!in!particular!on!the!Economic!Growth!and!Development!of!the!Developing! Countries,!as!well!as!on!International!Economic!Cooperation,”!A/RES/46/202,!December!20,!1991,!accessed! January!28,!2015,!http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/46/a46r202.htm.!

11!United! Nations,! General! Assembly! resolution,! “Convening! of! a! World! Summit! for! Social! Development,”! A/RES/47/92,! December16,! 1992,! accessed! March! 11,! 2013,! http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r092.htm.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 156! !

A! Daily! Bulletin! issued! by! the! International! Institute! for! Sustainable! Development12! captured!the!negotiations!that!took!place!among!member!states!and!noted!that!there!was!a! clear! shift! in! emphasizing! the! importance! of! poverty! reduction! by! the! time! the! third!

PrepCom!had!convened.!According!to!this!report,!“there!has!been!some!movement!towards! agreement! on! the! need! to! eradicate,! and! not! just! reduce,! absolute! poverty.! This! political! shift! represents! a! breakthrough! since! the! international! community! has! never! before! actually!committed!to!poverty!eradication.!Notwithstanding!these!gains,!concerns!remain! about!the!lack!of!specific!interim!targets!(or!definitions)!for!the!eradication!of!poverty.”13!

While! this! Canadian! nonJprofit! organization! emphasized! poverty! as! the! key! outcome! of! the! Social! Summit,! other! participants! had! different! interpretations.! As! Nitin!

Desai,! at! the! time! UN! Under! Secretary! General! for! Policy! Coordination! and! Sustainable!

Development! noted,! “The! landmark! World! Summit! for! Social! Development! (WSSD)! was! many!things!to!different!groups!and!actors.”14!As!such,!many!civil!society!groups!found!the! focus! to! be! on! economic! policy! and! applauded! the! declaration’s! call! for! structural! adjustment!policies!“to!include!social!development!goals,!in!particular!eradicating!poverty,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!Reports! published! by! Third( World( Network! reference! the! unbalanced! access! to! the! conference.! In! one! article!they!suggest,!“While!several!NGO!representatives!are!present,!the!media!is!excluded.!But!those!writing! for! and! producing! the! ‘Earth! Negotiations! Bulletin’,! a! nonJofficial! daily! report! (summary! record)! of! the! meetings,!whose!writers!have!‘privileged!access’,!enabling!them!to!be!inside!meetings!and!report!them!(as! they!do!at!other!such!conferences).!This!bulletin!is!produced!by!the!International!Institute!for!Sustainable! Development,!an!operation!funded!among!others!by!the!governments!or!the!official!institutions!of!Canada,! Netherlands,!USA,!UK,!Switzerland,!EC,!Germany,!Denmark,!Norway,!Finland,!Australia,!and!BP!Amoco.!The! bulletin! acknowledges! logistical! support! for! the! operation! by! the! UN! Office! in! Geneva! and! the! UN’s! Department!of!Economics!and!Social!Affairs!Secretariat.”!The!article!further!suggests!that!“corporate!private! sector!lobbyists”!are!consulted!as!the!language!of!the!outcome!documents!is!negotiated.”!See!Chakravarthi! Raghavan,!“Corporate!Rights!to!Prevail!over!Public!Health?”!Third(World(Network,!June!28,!2000.!!

13!International! Institute! for! Sustainable! Development,! Earth( Negotiations( Bulletin! 10,! no.! 36,! January! 31,! 1995,!accessed!March!12,!2014,!http://www.iisd.ca/vol10/1036000e.html.!

14!United! Nations! NonJGovernmental! Liaison! Service,! NGLS( Development( Dossier:( Social( Priorities( of( Civil( Society((July!1996):!3.!doi:!http://www.unJngls.org/orf/developmentdossier.htm.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 157! ! promoting!full!and!productive!employment,!and!enhancing!social!integration.”15!In!fact,!as!

Victoria!TauliJCorpuz,!a!member!of!the!drafting!committee!of!the!Copenhagen!Declaration! put!it,!the!summit!was!historic!“because!for!the!first!time!a!world!conference![looked]!at! issues! which! have! caused! misery! and! pain! for! the! majority! of! the! world's! people….! referring! to! the! problems! of! debt,! structural! adjustment! policies,! and! Bretton! Woods!

Institutions.”16!Most! tellingly,! the! NGOs! attending! the! summit! decided! to! sign! their! own!

Copenhagen( Alternative( Declaration,! arguing! that! while! the! official! outcome! documents! included!“very!good!humanitarian!goals!with!ambitious!targets,”!they!did!not!incorporate! adequate!policy!recommendations!to!“decisively!address!the!structural!roots!of!the!social! development! crisis.”17!Poverty! and! its! reduction! did! not! take! a! central! space! in! the! NGO! declaration,! which! instead! focused! on! the! imbalances! within! the! existing! economic! and! political! power! relations,! and! socioeconomic! inequalities.! This! theme,! however,! was! one! that! powerful! actors,! in! particular! the! United! States! of! America,! would! not! condone—a! point!that!many!of!my!interviewees!stressed.!This!was!the!case!because!in!light!of!the!end! of!the!Cold!War!and!vindication!of!liberal!ideology,!the!field!of!alternatives!had!narrowed! tremendously.!Distribution!of!resources!had!too!much!of!a!statist,!central!planning!ring!to! it,!and!since!the!disintegration!of!the!Soviet!Union!had!been!interpreted!as!the!strength!of! liberal! values! and! principles,! planning! and! increasing! state! intervention! could! not! be! condoned.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!See! United! Nations,! Report( of( the( World( Summit( for( Social( Development,! A/CONF.166/9,! April! 19,! 1995,! accessed!March!11,!2013,!http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/aconf166J9.htm.!!!

16!United!Nations,!NGLS(Development(Dossier,!105.!

17!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 158! !

Nonetheless,! the! Copenhagen! Summit! was! a! watershed! event! for! several! reasons.!

First,!there!was!a!desire,!expressed!prominently!by!then!Secretary!General!BoutrosJGhali! that! the! summit! produce! a! concrete! action! plan! rather! than! a! mere! declaration,! thereby! impressing!upon!member!states!to!come!up!with!an!actionable!program!that!would!help! achieve!the!goals!set.!In!his!opening!remarks,!BoutrosJGhali!emphasized,!“the!aim!of!the!

Summit! was! to! make! social! development! a! major! priority! for! the! international! community,”18!speaking! to! the! general! atmosphere! at! the! time! of! too! much! economic! growth!and!too!little!social!development.!Second,!the!general!debate!on!the!core!issues!to! be!addressed!at!the!summit!revolved!around!a!discussion!of!the!negative!repercussions!of! economic!globalization,!which!rather!than!having!trickled!down!was!perceived!by!many!to! be!threatening!global!society.!Hence,!there!seemed!to!be!consensus!among!delegates!that! the! economic! and! political! roots! of! poverty! had! to! be! addressed! at! the! summit,! in! conjunction!with!the!role!of!the!UN!in!that!process.!There!was!also!general!agreement!that! the! IFIs! needed! to! become! more! sensitive! to! social! development! issues.! While! some! felt! that!the!IMF!and!the!World!Bank!should!be!abolished!altogether,!others,!including!the!UN! leadership!suggested!that!instead!they!“play!a!full!role!in!the!social!action!that!was!being! redefined!and!reinvented.”19!!

Three! outcomes! of! the! Social! Summit! require! particular! attention.! First,! although! the!Programme!of!Action!laid!out!certain!goals!and!targets!that!should!be!achieved!in!order! to! reduce! poverty! and! eliminate! absolute! poverty,! it! left! the! specific! strategies! and! processes!to!the!countries!themselves.!The!text!made!sure!to!note!the!urgency!of!the!need!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!United!Nations!General!Assembly,!“Social!Aspects!of!Development,”!UN(Year(Book((1995),!1113.!

19!Ibid.,!1114.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 159! ! for! national! strategies! “with! specific! timeJbound! commitments! to! eradicate( absolute( poverty!by!a!target!date!to!be!specified!by!each!country!in!its!national!context!(emphasis! added).”20!In! fact,! the! WSSD! outcome! documents! were! very! clear! about! the! national! specificity!of!poverty!in!terms!of!its!definition,!measurement!and!assessment.!In!a!section! dedicated! to! the! types! of! actions! that! should! be! taken! in! order! to! formulate! integrated! strategies! to! eradicate! poverty,! the! document! urged! member! states! to! formulate! and! implement! national! poverty! eradication! plans,! which! “should! establish,! within! each! national!context,!strategies!and!affordable!timeJbound!goals!and!targets!for!the!substantial! reduction! of! overall! poverty! and! the! eradication! of! absolute! poverty.”21!It! further! noted,!

“Each! country! should! develop! a! precise! definition! and! assessment! of! absolute! poverty,! preferably! by! 1996,! the! International(Year(for(the(Eradication(of(Poverty.”22!Hence,! unlike! the!later!reformulation!of!the!poverty!goal!in!the!Millennium!Declaration,!which!included! the! $1! a! day! indicator,! “the! Social! Summit! refused! to! set! up! one! poverty! line! because! it! understood!that!basically!each!society!understands!poverty!as!relative!to!the!situation!of! each!country.”23!

A! second! accomplishment! of! the! Copenhagen! Summit! was! the! applicability! of! its! commitments! to! all! countries.! The! summit’s! action! plan! is! very! specific! about! the! multifarious!manifestations!of!poverty!and!adamant!to!make!clear!that!poverty!“occurs!in! all! countries:! as! mass! poverty! in! many! developing! countries,! pockets! of! poverty! amid!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!United!Nations,!Programme(of(Action(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development,(para.!25.!

21!Ibid.,!para.!26b.!

22!Ibid.,!para.!26d.!!

23!Interview!with!Roberto!Bissio,!March!24,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 160! ! wealth!in!developed!countries,!loss!of!livelihoods!as!a!result!of!economic!recession,!sudden! poverty!as!a!result!of!disaster!or!conflict,!the!poverty!of!lowJwage!workers,!and!the!utter! destitution!of!people!who!fall!outside!family!support!systems,!social!institutions!and!safety! nets.”24!Thus,! unlike! the! later! MDGs,! which! were! perceived! by! some! to! “ghettoize! the! problem!of!development”25!by!focusing!on!the!extreme!poor,!the!social!summit!was!clear! on!poverty’s!existence!in!all!the!world’s!societies.!!

Third,! the! Social! Summit! produced! the! first! internationally! agreed! document! to! acknowledge! “the! adverse! effects! of! structural! adjustment,! stabilization! or! reform! programmes,”26!and!to!urge!that!these!programmes!“include!social!development!goals,!in! particular! the! eradication! of! poverty,! the! generation! of! productive! employment! and! the! enhancement! of! social! integration.” 27 !This! was! particularly! important! to! some! GJ77! countries!and!civil!society!groups.!Based!on!accounts!by!Roberto!Bissio,!a!prominent!civil! society! representative! at! the! meetings! who! headed! Social! Watch28!and! represented! civil! society! interests! from! the! South,! as! well! as! Juan! Somavía,! the! summit’s! chairperson,! problems!associated!with!structural!adjustment!projects!were!key!to!many!in!the!South,!so! although!“poverty!was!very!important…the!debate!among!civil!society!at!that!time!was!–! yes!there!are!three!pillars!of!social!development29,!but!you!cannot!deal!with!them!if!you!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!UN,!Programme(of(Action(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development,(para.19.!

25!Ashwani!Saith,!“From!Universal!Values!to!Millennium!Development!Goals:!Lost!in!Translation,”!1184.!

26!UN,!Programme(of(Action(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development.!para.!49g.!

27!Ibid.,!para.!91.!!

28!Social!Watch!is!“an!international!network!of!citizen!organizations”!that!came!about!in!1995!as!a!“meeting! place!for!nonJgovernmental!organizations!concerned!about!social!development!and!gender!discrimination,! and! engaged! in! monitoring! the! policies! which! have! an! impact! on! inequality! and! on! people! who! live! in! poverty.”!See!Social!Watch!website:!www.socialwatch.org/node/63.!

29!As! mentioned! above,! the! three! pillars! of! social! development! per! WSSD! were! employment,! poverty! and! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 161! ! don’t!talk!about!structural!adjustment.”30!Yet,!later!the!MDGs!would!not!mention!structural! issues! and! instead! focus! on! social! sectoral! goals! that! addressed! the! symptoms! without! improving! the! fundamental! causes! of! poverty,! such! as! unfavorable! terms! of! trade,! agricultural! subsidies! in! developed! countries,! and! other! imbalances! in! the! relations! between!the!developed!and!developing!countries.!!!

Civil!society!groups!had!different!expectations!of!the!Copenhagen!Summit.!Based!on! the!notion!that!all!countries!had!similar!problems,!they!agreed!with!the!statement!in!the!

Programme! of! Action! that,! “Actions! are! recommended! to! create,! in! a! framework! of! sustained! economic! growth! and! sustainable! development,! a! national! and! international! environment!favourable!to!social!development,!to!eradicate!poverty,!to!enhance!productive! employment! and! reduce! unemployment,! and! to! foster! social! integration.”31!As! Roberto!

Bissio! recounted,! “the! establishment! of! a! poverty! goal! was! never! a! key! issue! in! the! discussions,! which! were! more! focused! on! economic! policies! and! the! soJcalled! ‘enabling! environment’!highly!influenced!by!the!then!recent!creation!of!the!WTO!and!the!worldwide! push!for!structural!adjustment!by!the!Bretton!Woods!institutions.”32!!

Thus,!accounts!by!civil!society!groups!and!those!sympathetic!to!NGOs!suggest!that! what!developing!countries!really!wanted!was!not!so!much!a!focus!on!poverty!or!setting!a! goal!on!poverty!reduction.!The!idea!that!all!of!this!was!being!done!ultimately!to!eradicate! poverty!was!taken!as!given.!However,!where!the!dissonance!arose!was!in!the!ways!in!which!

30!Interview!with!Roberto!Bissio,!March!24,!2014.!

31!United!Nations,!Programme(of(Action(of(the(World(Summit(for(Social(Development.!

32!Roberto!Bissio,!email!to!the!author,!March!22,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 162! ! various!countries!from!the!North!and!South!felt!about!the!strategies!required!to!meet!that! goal.!According!to!Bissio,!“In!many!senses,!WSSD!was!NOT!a!precedent!for!the!MDGs!but! rather! the! MDGs! derailed! many! of! the! working! lines! agreed! upon! in! WSSD,! which! had! poverty,!employment!and!social!integration!as!its!three!pillars,!to!focus!only!in!the!first!one,! understood!as!a!problem!exclusively!of!the!poorest!among!developing!countries!and!not!as! an!issue!everywhere.”33!!

The! notes! capturing! the! WSSD! and! the! negotiations! giving! rise! to! the! Declaration! and!Programme!of!Action!offer!an!image!of!a!more!or!less!consensual!approach!by!member! states.! However,! digging! deeper! into! the! archives! of! these! meetings,! another! picture! emerges;!one!indicating!that!the!negotiations!were!not!as!smooth,!and!contained!“difficult! debates!and!periodic!retreats!from!consensus!language!from!the!Earth!Summit!in!Rio,!the!

Human! Rights! Conference! in! Vienna! and! International! Conference! on! Population! and!

Development! in! Cairo.”34!Indeed,! based! on! accounts! of! persons! who! participated! in! the! summit,!there!were!quite!a!few!heated!debates!also!around!the!topic!of!poverty!reduction.!

According!to!Jan!Vandemoortele,!who!later!coJchaired!the!interJagency!group!that!created! the! MDGs,! some! DAC! members! had! advocated! for! the! adoption! of! a! timeJbound! poverty! target,!but!the!GJ77!resisted!any!kind!of!a!quantifiable!global!target!to!be!included!in!WSSD! action! plan! because! they! thought! poverty! was! illJdefined! and! that! every! country! should! have! its! own! definition,! objective! and! timeframe! to! achieve! poverty! reduction.! Based! on! this! account,! “the! donor! club! came! back! from! Copenhagen! frustrated! and! angry”35!and! a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!Ibid.!

34!International!Institute!for!Sustainable!Development,!Earth(Negotiations(Bulletin.!

35!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 163! ! year! later! the! OECD/DAC! published! Shaping( the( 21st( Century,! which! introduced! the!

International! Development! Goals! that! also! included! the! poverty! goal! of! halving! the! proportion!of!those!earning!less!than!$1!a!day.!

Richard!Manning,!Managing!Director!of!the!DAC!from!2003!to!2008,!gave!a!different! account,!according!to!which!the!OECD!member!countries!were!already!debating!the!future! of! development! cooperation! because! after! the! disintegration! of! the! Soviet! Union,! the! expectation!of!a!“peace!dividend!that!would!lay!the!foundations!for!increased!ODA”!had!not! panned!out,!and!instead!led!to!“a!significant!switch!of!resources!from!traditional!recipients! of! ODA! towards! the! transition! countries.”36!As! Manning! explained,! “this! led! to! a! sort! of! crisis!of!confidence!in!the!DAC!and!a!feeling!that!we!needed!to!reflect!on!whether!we!had!a! place!going!forward!and!whether!there!would!be!a!future!for!development!assistance,!and! how!to!sustain!support!for!this!at!a!time!when!our!political!establishments!were!telling!us! that! it! was! more! important! to! help! Czech! Republic! and! Hungary! to! make! good! transitions.”37!The!same!discourse!of!relevancy!was!therefore!at!play!when!the!decision!was! made!to!initiate!a!reflective!process!dubbed!exercise(de(réflexion!chaired!by!then!DAC!Chair!

James!Michel!“to!help!prepare!development!strategies!for!the!21st!century.”38!!

Already! in! May! 1995,! only! a! few! months! after! the! Copenhagen! Summit,! the! DAC!

High! Level! Meeting! had! adopted! the! statement! “Development! Partnerships! in! the! New!

Global! Context,”! in! which! donors! “agreed! on! shared! orientations! for! their! development! cooperation! efforts! and! preparing! for! key! challenges! of! sustainable! economic! and! social! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!Richard!Manning,!“Using!Indicators!to!Encourage!Development:!Lessons!from!the!Millennium!Development! Goals,”!81.!!!

37!Interview!with!Richard!Manning,!March!7,!2013.!

38!OECD,!DAC(in(Dates:(The(History(of(OECD’s(Development(Assistance(Committee((Paris:!OECD,!2006),!26.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 164! ! development!into!the!21st!century,”!while!simultaneously!expressing!their!“deep!concern! that! domestic! preoccupations! and! budgetary! pressures! in! some! Member! countries! could! seriously! jeopardise! the! international! development! cooperation! effort! at! a! critical! juncture.” 39 !This! document! listed! a! set! of! “strategic! orientations”! expressing! that! development! cooperation! was! “a! key! investment! in! the! future”! and! identified! poverty! reduction!as!“a!central!challenge.”40!According!to!OECD!documents,!this!statement!was!the! product! of! DAC! deliberations! in! 1994! when! “the! relationship! between! aid! volume! and! perceptions! of! aid! effectiveness! in! both! donor! and! partner! countries”41!were! assessed.! It! called!for!an!effective!and!efficient!cooperation!in!a!context!where!policies!were!coherent! with! development! goals.! In! addition,! it! was! based! on! principles! of! local! ownership! of! development! along! with! policies! that! encouraged! economic! growth,! investment! in! social! development,! good! governance,! human! rights,! rule! of! law,! and! sustainable! environment.!!!

In! fact,! DAC! itself! put! forward! this! document! as! the! foundational! text! leading! to! the! elaboration!of!concrete!goals!introduced!in!the!1996!Shaping(the(21st(Century(report,!noting! in!the!introduction,!“The!report!that!follows!builds!on!this!statement!and!proposes!specific! new!practical!measures!to!achieve!the!vision!of!partnership!for!development.”42!

OECD/DAC’s!Shaping(the(21st(Century(report!took!a!central!place!in!the!evolution!of! development! cooperation! towards! the! end! of! the! twentieth! century.! As! aid! had! been! declining!since!1990,!this!report!appealed!to!the!international!community!“to!sustain!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39!OECD,!Development(Partnerships(in(the(New(Global(Context((Paris:!OECD,!1995).((

40!Ibid.!!

41!Ibid.!!

42!OECD/DAC,!Shaping(the(21st(Century:(The(Contribution(of(Development(CoWoperation((Paris:!OECD,!1996),!3.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 165! ! increase! the! volume! of! official! development! assistance! in! order! to! reverse! the! growing! marginalization! of! the! poor! and! achieve! progress! toward! realistic! goals! of! human! development.”43!ODA!by!DAC!member!states!had!declined!from!US!$88!billion!in!1990!to!

US!$73!billion!in!1997,!but!recuperated!almost!all!of!that!loss!by!2000!when!ODA!was!at!US!

$84!billion.!But!perhaps!more!important!than!the!subsequent!rise!in!total!DAC!ODA!were! the! “realizable! goals”! that! Shaping( the( 21st( Century( report! inaugurated,! breaking! down! development! into! economic,! social! and! environmental! pillars! and! affording! each! with! quantifiable!goals!and!targets,!thereby!not!only!framing!development!as!consisting!of!those! three!pillars!(even!today,!the!postJ2015!agenda!deliberations!focus!on!these!three!pillars! neglecting!political,!cultural,!and!technological!aspects!of!development)!but!also!providing! a!framework!that!would!be!taken!as!the!foundational!basis!for!the!deliberations!around!the!

Millennium!Development!Goals!five!years!later.!!

It!is!in!Shaping(the(21st(Century(report!that!the!seven!quantitative!goals!first!made!an! appearance,! all! but! one! of! which! were! later! incorporated! into! the! MDGs.! In! fact,! while! explaining! the! interJagency! expert! group! (IAEG)! meetings! that! constructed! the! MDGs,!

Michael!Doyle!stated,!“When!we!sat!down!for!the!first!meeting,!we!had!the!IDGs!in!front!of! us.! And! the! first! question! was! what! are! we! going! to! call! these! new! goals.”44!Similarly,!

Richard!Manning!noted,!“Within!the!Millennium!Declaration!there!is!a!section!that!is!quite! close!to!the!IDGs!and!written!in!a!similar!language.!The!outcome!was!quite!recognizably! similar! to! the! OECD! goals,! except! that! goal! 6! was! replaced! with! HIV/AIDS! instead! of! reproductive!health,!and!they!added!goal!8!on!development!cooperation.!Later!on!came!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 43!Ibid.,!4.!

44!Interview!with!Michael!Doyle,!September!13,!2012.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 166! !

MDGs,!which!was!intriguingly!never!endorsed!by!the!General!Assembly!but!merely!noted! as!“useful!guidance.”45!!

! Jan!Vandemoortele,!on!the!other!hand,!argued,!“To!say!that!MDGs!came!from!DAC!is! wrong.!The!DAC!used!the!same!agreements!that!were!used!at!UN!conferences.!It’s!not!like!

DAC!invented!those.!DAC!was!the!first!one!to!put!different!sectors!together!but!since!1990! the!UN!organized!those!sectoral!meetings,!first!on!Education!and!Children!in!1990,!then!

Rio,! Cairo,! etc.” 46 !According! to! Vandemoortele,! this! has! been! a! “donorJcentric”! misinterpretation!of!events,!which!gives!a!lot!more!credit!to!donors!than!it’s!due.!As!Doyle! later!clarified!to!me,!the!IDGs!had!their!roots!in!the!1990s!summits,!as!did!the!MDGs.!The! distinction!between!the!IDGs!and!the!UN!conferences!was!a!false!dichotomy,!however,!the!

“style! and! format”! of! the! MDGs! was! similar! to! the! IDGs,! as! some! IAEG! members,! in! particular! the! OECD,! had! advocated! for! it.! For! our! purposes,! the! important! point! is! that! everyone!agrees!that!the!IDGs!would!not!have!received!wide!support,!had!they!not!drawn! on!universally!mandated!text!and!language.!The!Zeitgeist!of!the!time!was!one!of!a!strong!UN! and!declining!BWIs,!seen!as!the!culprits!behind!much!of!the!development!problems.!Thus,! goals!associated!with!international!agreements!convened!under!UN!auspices!would!have! found!positive!reception,!even!if!selectively!chosen.!This!also!explains!the!BWI’s!decision!to! sign!up!to!a!UNJbased!agenda!after!having!dismissively!treated!the!UN!for!several!decades.!!

! All! accounts! agree! that! the! MDGs! could! not! and! did! not! deviate! from! the! original! mother! document,! the! Millennium! Declaration.! Either! the! IDGs! somehow! were! incorporated! into! the! Millennium! Declaration,! which! then! gave! rise! to! the! MDGs,! which!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45!Interview!with!Richard!Manning,!March!7,!2013.!

46!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 167! ! ultimately! may! explain! the! strong! resemblance! between! the! two! sets! of! goals.! Or! the!

Millennium!Declaration!merely!looked!back!at!the!many!global!agreements!and!goals!set! within!the!UN!over!the!previous!decade!and!synthesized!those!into!this!tenJpage!document! that!later!gave!rise!to!the!MDGs.!The!UN!website!itself!traces!the!source!of!the!MDGs!to!UN! summits! and! conferences! of! the! 1990s! and! suggests! these! were! proposed! in! the!

Millennium! Report! (official! title! is! We( the( Peoples)! before! being! endorsed! in! the! UN!

Millennium! Declaration! of! 8! September! 2000.47!Thus,! the! OECD! and! NGOs! believe! the!

MDGs!to!have!been!a!product!of!the!North,!while!the!UN!itself!argues!that!these!goals!were! already!endorsed!by!the!world!community!in!global!gatherings.!The!best!source!to!clarify! this!would!be!the!team!that!drafted!the!Millennium!Declaration,!led!by!John!Ruggie.!

! When!asked,!Ruggie!referred!me!to!Kofi!Annan’s!March!2000!report!We(the(Peoples,( which!served!as!the!basis!for!the!Millennium!Declaration.!In!that!report,!Annan!noted!the! great!opportunities!offered!by!globalization!and!expressed!regret!that!it!had!only!benefited! some.! Thus,! he! proclaimed,! “the! central! challenge! we! face! today! is! to! ensure! that! globalization!becomes!a!positive!force!for!all!the!world’s!people,!instead!of!leaving!billions! of! them! behind! in! squalor.”48!To! do! this,! Annan! suggested! that! a! shift! was! required,! “No! shift!in!the!way!we!think!or!act!can!be!more!critical!than!this:!we!must!put!people!at!the! centre!of!everything!we!do.”49!And!so,!Ruggie!came!down!on!the!same!side!of!the!debate!as!

Vandemoortele,!maintaining,!“There!has!been!a!lot!written!about!the!contribution!of!OECD! to!this!debate.!But!fact!of!the!matter!is!in!the!SG’s!office!that!was!not!a!major!driver!at!all.!It! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47!United!Nations,!We(the(Peoples:(The(Role(of(United(Nations(in(the(21st(Century((New!York:!United!Nations,! 2000).!

48!Ibid.,!6.(!

49!Ibid.,!7.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 168! ! was! much! more! his! philosophy,! which! he! expresses! in! his! book! of! putting! people! at! the! center!of!things.”50!!

In!fact,!it!is!in!this!document!that!we!first!meet!the!$1!a!day!indicator!outside!of!the! context!of!the!IFIs!and!OECD,!as!Annan!urged!the!“international!community!at!the!highest! level—the!Heads!of!State!and!Government!convened!at!the!Millennium!Summit—to!adopt! the!target!of!halving!the!proportion!of!people!living!in!extreme!poverty,!and!so!lifting!more! than!1!billion!people!out!of!it,!by!2015.”51!And!he!followed!that!up!by!suggesting!that,!“Our! only!hope!of!significantly!reducing!poverty!is!to!achieve!sustained!and!broadJbased!income! growth,”52!the! surest! road! to! which! was! “through! successfully! engaging! in! the! global! economy,! combined! with! effective! social! policies.”53!After! having! covered! the! different! topics!dealing!with!development,!peace!and!security,!environmental!sustainability,!and!UN! reform,! Annan! urged! that! for! this! world! organization! to! become! more! effective! and! efficient,! “A! more! peopleJoriented! United! Nations! must! be! a! more! resultsJbased! organization.”54!And! interestingly,! at! the! very! end! of! this! report,! there! is! a! small! section! titled!“for!consideration!by!the!Summit,”55!which!lists!a!set!of!priorities,!in!which!some!of! the!goals!later!to!appear!on!the!MDG!list!are!included,!as!well!as!priorities!for!peace!and! security,!sustainability!of!our!environment,!as!well!as!the!reform!of!the!UN.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 50!Interview!with!John!Ruggie,!April!3,!2013.!

51!United!Nations,!We(the(Peoples,!20.!

52!Ibid.,!21.!!

53!Ibid.,!23.!

54!Ibid.,!73.!

55!Ibid.,!76J77.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 169! !

The!most!revealing!part!of!these!excerpts!is!the!way!in!which!poverty!reduction!and! economic! growth! are! related! to! each! other.! As! a! UN! veteran,! deeply! immersed! in! the! diplomacy!of!the!UN,!Annan!was!aware!of!the!approach!required!to!make!changes!to!this! bureaucratic!machine.!The!SG!didn’t!rock!the!boat!(the!experience!of!BoutrosJGhali,!whose! abrasive! attitude! had! cost! him! a! second! term! was! still! fresh! in! memory),! but! instead! suggested! incremental! changes! through! the! inclusion! of! a! peopleJcentered! development! agenda!that!incorporated!social!development!along!with!economic!growth!as!the!necessary! factor! in! impacting! development! outcomes.! At! the! time,! this! was! a! lot! more! than! the! previous! development! objectives! focusing! on! growth! had! offered.! Hence,! even! if! not! revolutionary,!the!change!was!one!that!could!be!achieved!in!a!multilateral!setting!including! very!many!different!perspectives!on!development.!

! In!his!autobiography,!Kofi!Annan!notes!that!this!report,!We(the(Peoples,(was!written! under!the!leadership!of!“two!senior!aides!from!my!office!on!the!thirtyJeighth!floor,!John!

Ruggie! and! Andrew! Mack…without! the! departments! taking! any! formal! role! and! without! consultation! with! member! states.”56!The! motivation! to! issue! a! report! that! was! to! be! considered!by!member!states!before!the!Millennium!Summit!without!their!input!rested!on!

Annan’s!judgment!that!“poverty!should!form!the!core”!of!the!report!and!that!“poverty!was! never! going! to! move! forward! on! that! basis”57!–! that! is! if! the! report! were! to! be! an! internationally! agreed! document,! poverty! would! not! be! set! at! the! top! of! the! agenda.! He! further! explains! that! while! development! summits! of! the! 1990s! had! adopted! various! resolutions,!they!were!mostly!“complex,!opaquely!worded,!and!made!no!real!demands!on!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!Kofi!Annan,!Interventions:(A(Life(in(War(and(Peace((New!York:!Penguin!Press,!2012),!221.(

57!Ibid.,!222J223.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 170! ! anyone,”!while!his!report!set!“quantifiable!and!timeJbound!targets!for!poverty!eradication,! and!set!those!targets!around!clear,!simple,!and!morally!undeniable!goals.”58!!!

That!poverty!would!not!have!made!it!to!the!top!of!the!agenda,!had!this!report!been! negotiated!among!member!states!is!a!key!insight! that!Annan!does!not!further!elaborate.!

But!my!interviewees!helped!me!shed!some!light!on!this!issue.!Richard!Manning!argued!that! the! IDGs! were! written! by! the! North! without! consultations! and! claimed,! “Had! the! South! written! the! goals,! they! would! have! undoubtedly! emphasized! other! things! that! were! downplayed! here,! such! as! the! economic! infrastructure.”59!But! Vandemoortele! disagreed! with!Manning,!maintaining!“colleagues!from!OECD/DAC,!WB!and!IMF!certainly!interpreted! the!MDGs!as!the!descendants!of!the!IDGs;!but!the!others—the!UN!colleagues—saw!them!as! the! outcome! of! the! 1990s! summits….the! sectoral! declarations! formed! the! basis! of! the!

Millennium!Declaration,!not!the!OECD!report.”60!

When!I!asked!Roberto!Bissio,!he!argued,!“What!the!Social!Summit!tried!to!do!was!to! take! the! agenda! out! of! the! narrow! donorJrecipient! relations,! the! NorthJSouth! relations,! which! were! perceived! as! being! stuck! around! that! (referring! to! poverty! reduction).”61!

Accordingly,!the!idea!was!to!broaden!the!discussion!to!“the!notion!that!globalization!was! creating! new! conditions! and! we! need! to! say! something! meaningful! for! societies! everywhere,!not!just!developing!countries,!or!the!poor.”62!In!fact,!all!countries!were!asked! to! report! on! the! progress! they! made! in! upholding! their! commitments! that! they! had! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58!Ibid.,!223.!

59!Interview!with!Richard!Manning,!March!7,!2013.!

60!Jan!Vandemoortele,!email!to!author,!March!30,!2014.!

61!Interview!with!Roberto!Bissio,!March!24,!2014.!

62!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 171! ! endorsed!in!the!Copenhagen!Declaration;!“that’s!why!Social!Watch!was!created!to!promote! that!in!all!countries,”63!Bissio!explained!to!me.!!

Hence,!based!on!these!accounts,!it!apparently!wasn’t!so!much!the!ultimate!goal!of! poverty! reduction! that! was! up! for! negotiation! but! rather! the! form! that! this! fight! against! poverty! should! take.! The! global! South! was! more! interested! in! changing! the! terms! of! the! global! economy! –! a! discussion! that! it! had! been! pursuing! since! the! 1970s! when! the! New!

International!Economic!Order!debate!had!surfaced!within!the!UN!General!Assembly.!Yet,! for!the!donors!and!the!BWIs,!which!primarily!represent!those!same!DAC!donors,!poverty! reduction! offered! the! unifying! goal! that! could! imbue! the! aid! debate! both! a! rationale! for! further! development! assistance! as! well! as! coherence! in! donor! relations.! This! analysis! suggests! that! when! political! space! opened! up! for! alternative! solutions! to! development! problems,!not!all!existing!concepts!could!compete!for!supremacy.!For!example,!some!of!the! specific! suggestions! emanating! from! the! WSSD! referred! to! changing! the! underlying! economic!structures,!such!as!creating!a!more!favorable!trade!environment!for!developing! countries! or! promoting! equitable! distribution! of! income! and! resources.! But! these! topics! could!not!be!on!the!table!because!the!neoliberal!Zeitgeist!of!the!time!did!not!allow!topics! such!as!acknowledgement!of!rising!inequalities!(among!and!between!countries)!or!wealth! transfer! to! be! raised! for! debate.! Hence,! the! normative! environment! foreclosed! the! possibility! of! some! principles! to! compete! for! domination! of! the! development! debate.!

Poverty!reduction,!on!the!other!hand,!both!sounded!morally!right!and!strategically!didn’t! attack! powerful! interests.! Development! policies! could! continue! as! they! had,! except! now!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 63!Ibid.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 172! ! more! attention! would! be! given! to! social! dimensions! of! development! through! increasing! social!services.!Who!would!disagree!with!that?!

6.1.2 From a Discourse of Relevancy to a Discourse of Poverty ! After! the! Social! Summit,! there! is! no! indication! that! governments! were! held! accountable!for!the!commitments!they!had!endorsed!in!the!Copenhagen!Declaration.!While! the!outcome!documents!of!this!summit!were!soon!thrown!into!the!dustbin!of!history,!the!

OECD/DAC!had!created!a!list!of!goals!published!in!its!Shaping(the(21st(Century(report,!which! was! celebrated! by! the! aid! community! as! a! new! development! strategy! that! emphasized!

“peopleJcentered! development,! local! ownership,! global! integration! and! international! partnership,! based! on! experience! and! conclusions! reached! at! a! series! of! international! conferences”!with!the!goal!“to!serve!as!a!basis!of!a!new!global!partnership!with!developing! countries! and! to! strengthen! coJordination! to! achieve! global! results.”64!Subsequently! in!

1997,! the! Development! Assistance! Committee! organized! “the! first! joint! DAC/UN/World!

Bank/IMF!seminar!on!indicators!of!development!progress,”65!which!a!year!later!led!to!the! creation!of!“a!working!set!of!indicators!to!show!progress!from!the!1990!baseline!towards! the!International!Development!Goals.”66!(

! A! similar! move! to! make! development! practice! more! coherent! took! place! within! the!UN!when!Kofi!Annan!became!SecretaryJGeneral!in!1997.!In!the!field!of!economic!and! social! development,! Annan! created! the! UN! Development! Group! (UNDG)! as! the! executive! committee!on!development!operations!under!the!leadership!of!the!UNDP!Administrator!(at!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64!OECD,!DAC(in(Dates,(27.!

65!Ibid.,!28.!

66!Ibid.,!29.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 173! ! the!time!the!newly!appointed!Mark!Malloch!Brown)!with!the!aim!to!bring!more!coherence! and!efficiency!to!UN’s!development!activities.!To!further!streamline!UN!operations!at!the! country!level,!he!brought!the!various!UN!activities!under!one!roof!by!creating!a!single!UN! office!where!all!the!various!funds!and!programmes!could!operate!under!the!supervision!of! the!Resident!Coordinator.!The!establishment!of!a!Common!Country!Assessment!(CCA)!and!

United! Nations! Development! Assistance! Framework! (UNDAF)! was! to! further! enhance! cooperation!and!coherence!among!the!various!UN!agencies!as!well!as!the!close!consultation! of! the! national! government! in! identifying! common! objectives! and! priorities! for! development.! Annan! also! believed,! “If! there! was! ever! to! be! any! kind! of! cohesive,! global! effort! to! face! extreme! poverty,”67!the! Bank! and! the! Fund! had! to! be! brought! into! a! partnership!with!the!UN.!So,!in!April!1999,!for!the!very!first!time,!the!Chamber!of!the!UN!

Economic! and! Social! Council! hosted! World! Bank! Executive! Directors! in! a! meeting! with!

ECOSOC! member! states.! John! Langmore,! at! the! time! Director! of! Policy! and! Social!

Development! at! UN! Department! of! Economic! and! Social! Affairs! noted,! “a! convergence! between! the! values! and! policies! of! the! UN! and! the! Bank! [is]! underway! at! present.”!68!

Deputy! SecretaryJGeneral! Louise! Fréchette! made! a! similar! observation,! calling! it! an!

“obvious!convergence!of!views”!between!the!organizations!while!World!Bank’s!president!

James! Wolfensohn! maintained! that! the! UN! and! the! Bank! “shared! common! values”! and! similar!goals,!“particularly!the!eradication!of!poverty.”69!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67!Kofi!Annan,!Interventions,!221.!!

68!John!Langmore,!“Making!the!System!Work!More!Coherently:!The!UN!and!the!Bretton!Woods!Institutions,”! Social(Development(Review(3,!no.!2((June!1999).!

69!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 174! !

! This! event! is! interesting,! because! it! was! the! very! first! time! that! these! two! organizations! with! clearly! different! mandates! met! with! the! intention! to! create! a! partnership.!That!this!partnership!would!be!viewed!with!some!skepticism!seems!logical.!

After!all,!while!the!UN!is!a!global!institution!serving!all!member!states,!the!WB!only!caters! to! those! countries! that! need! to! borrow! loans! from! it! while! serving! its! constituents! that! represent!the!donor!countries.!Even!the!language!used!to!describe!the!actors!involved!in! these! organizations! is! different;! while! the! UN! refers! to! all! states! as! member! states,! the!

World! Bank! differentiates! between! its! rich! “stakeholders”! and! poor,! loanJreceiving!

“clients.”!This!partnership!initiative!was!lauded!by!Eveline!Herfkens,!the!Dutch!Minister!of!

Development! Cooperation! and! former! WB! Executive! Director! as! “a! marriage! made! in! heaven,” 70 !but! one! could! argue! that! this! partnership! was! more! like! a! “marriage! of! convenience”!at!a!time!when!both!organizations!were!looking!for!ways!to!revive!and!prove! the! relevance! of! these! organizations! in! light! of! economic! policies! and! peacekeeping! missions! gone! awry.! As! significant! if! not! more! so! were! the! financial! crises! that! were! befalling!various!parts!of!the!world!in!the!1990s,!culminating!in!the!1997!Asian!financial! crisis.!In!fact,!social!tensions!associated!with!IFI!policies!were!key!to!the!grievances!and! global! riots! that! questioned! existing! neoliberal! strategies,! opening! up! political! space! in! pursuit!of!alternative!solutions.!!

! As!the!many!discussions!of!the!1990s!illustrate,!the!question!of!UN’s!renewal!in! the! face! of! a! changing! world! attracted! a! lot! of! attention.! From! the! South! Commission! in!

1990! to! BoutrosJGhali’s! development! agenda! in! 1994! to! Annan’s! reform! proposals! from!

1997!onwards,!the!last!decade!of!the!twentieth!century!saw!a!renewed!call!for!reforming! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 70!Ibid.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 175! ! the!world!organization!in!order!to!“strengthen!its!ability!to!meet!new!demands!and!deliver! its!vital!services!in!the!most!effective!and!efficient!ways.”71!!

! Similarly,!the!World!Bank!was!undergoing!certain!operational!changes,!with!the! newly! inaugurated! president! Wolfensohn! talking! about! social! justice! and! poverty! reduction.!Caroline!Anstey,!Wolfensohn’s!speech!writer!suggested,!“there!was!a!feeling!in! the!1990s!that!the!private!sector!was!going!to!come!in!and!fund!all!the!infrastructure,!so! the! Bank! should! leave! infrastructure! funding! to! the! private! sector.” 72 !Wolfensohn! corroborates!this!sentiment!in!his!autobiography,!suggesting!that!by!1995!the!Bank’s!$20! billion! investment! in! the! developing! countries! was! overshadowed! with! the! $250! billion! private!capital!investments,!leading!critics!“to!argue!that!the!Bank!was!becoming!less!and! less! relevant! and! perhaps! should! be! phased! out! or! substantially! reduced.”73!But! the! criticisms! were! vast! and! did! not! only! end! with! the! Bank’s! relevance! as! a! result! of! the! private! sector! takeJover! but! extended! to! its! daily! operations! and! a! sense! that! it! was! contributing!to!the!problem!rather!than!solving!the!problems!of!poverty,!corruption,!and! environment.!As!Wolfensohn!attests,!the!criticism!was!so!widespread!that!it!was!impacting! the! organization,! “it! hurt! morale,! to! the! point! where! at! senior! management! retreats,! veteran! World! Bankers! would! debate! whether! the! Bank! was! indeed! becoming! a! “sunset! institution”,”74!using! a! similar! discourse! of! relevancy(that! UN! member! states! used! during! the!preparations!leading!up!to!the!Millennium!Summit!in!trying!to!understand!the!role!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71 !United! Nations,! “Strengthening! the! UN,”! accessed! April! 8,! 2014,! http://www.un.org/en/strengtheningtheun/results.shtml.((!

72!Interview!with!Caroline!Anstey,!December!11,!2013.!

73!James!D.!Wolfensohn,!A(Global(Life((New!York:!Public!Affairs,!2010),!258.!

74!Ibid.,!260.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 176! ! this!world!organization!played.!Thus,!Wolfensohn!felt!that!he!was!joining!an!organization!

“that! had! reached! a! crossroads,”75!and! that! there! was! not! enough! emphasis! on! social! dimensions! of! development.! In! June! 1995,! having! just! embarked! on! his! role! as! the! WB! president,! Wolfensohn! stated,! “The! World! Bank! had! taken! on! the! issues! of! poverty! and! development!in!the!broadest!sense.!But!to!my!eyes,!it!seemed!to!approach!these!challenges! in!a!technocratic!way,!with!language!clothed!in!jargon!and!devoid!of!emotion.”76!!

! Hence,!in!the!mid!1990s,!as!the!Bank!was!hit!by!a!crisis!in!its!confidence!as!a!result! of!structural!adjustment!projects!and!the!global!backlash!against!its!policies,!the!change!in!

WB! leadership! offered! it! the! opportunity! to! rethink! and! reJevaluate! its! policies.!

Wolfensohn!was!key!to!this!process!and!suggested!the!focus!on!poverty!reduction!could! best! be! operationalized! through! the! Comprehensive! Development! Framework! (CDF),! which! was! launched! in! January! 1999! following! the! UNDAF! preparation! and! just! a! few! months! before! the! meeting! of! the! WB! Executive! Directors! with! ECOSOC.! The! CDF,! according!to!the!Bank,!“encompasses!a!set!of!principles!to!guide!development!and!poverty! reduction,! including! the! provision! of! external! assistance”! emphasizing! “the! interdependence! of! all! elements! of! development—social,! structural,! human,! governance,! environmental,!economic,!and!financial.”77!The!similarities!to!the!human!development!(HD)! concept! are! not! accidental.! After! all,! as! discussed! previously,! Amartya! Sen! had! given! a! series! of! lectures! at! the! Bank! at! the! invitation! of! Wolfensohn,! extending! the! HD! concept! into!World!Bank!operations.(

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!Ibid.!

76!Ibid.,!271.!

77!For! more! information! on! the! Comprehensive! Development! Frameworks,! see! World! Bank’s! website! at! http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01013/WEB/0__CONJ3.HTM.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 177! !

( There!were!two!other!developments!within!the!World!Bank,!which!indicate!this! organization! was! trying! to! reinvent! itself! in! order! to! adjust! its! operations! to! the! new! realities! on! the! ground.! First,! in! 1996,! the! Bank,! in! conjunction! with! IMF,! launched! the!

Heavily! Indebted! Poor! Countries! (HIPC)! initiative,! which! enabled! countries! that! were! unsustainably! indebted! to! receive! debt! relief! as! well! as! loans! at! low! interest! rates.! In!

Wolfensohn’s!account,!this!initiative!was!a!highly!sensitive!one!within!the!World!Bank,!“a! nightmare.! It! meant! cutting! across! decades! of! history! within! the! Bank.”78!However,! he! notes! that! despite! this! initial! resistance! donors! came! around,! especially! “from! 1997! onward! with! the! appointment! of! Clare! Short! as! Britain’s! first! secretary! of! state! for! international!development,!a!position!with!full!cabinet!status.”79!This!piece!of!information! further!adds!credence!to!a!story!that!was!laid!out!in!the!previous!chapter!of!the!importance! of!the!UK!and!its!Development!Minister!Clare!Short,!whom!Wolfensohn!calls!an!“effective! and!vigorous!social!activist!and!often!a!fierce!critic!of!NGOs,”!who!taught!him!to!ignore!the! rhetoric!and!instead!“listen!to!their!criticism,!and!try!to!agree!on!relief(measures!that!can!be! sold! to( the( governments( and( the( voters( of( the( developed( world! (emphasis! added).”80!Here! again,! the! strategic! rationale! of! the! poverty! discourse! is! alluded! to,! highlighting! the! coexistence!of!moral!claims!and!strategic!ends!within!the!antipoverty!norm.!!

! Second,!in!1999,!the!IFIs!initiated!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Papers!(PRSPs),!as!a! precondition!for!access!to!HIPC!as!well!as!a!means!to!ensure!that!aidJrecipient!countries! focus!on!poverty!reducing!reforms.!I!have!not!engaged!very!much!with!the!IMF,!as!I!think!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78!James!D.!Wolfensohn,!A(Global(Life,!288.!!

79!Ibid.!!

80!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 178! ! that! they! generally! do! not! deviate! from! their! mandate! of! macroeconomic! stabilization,! which! for! better! or! worse! has! kept! them! away! from! the! poverty! issue! (or! rather! from! focusing! on! poverty! reduction! as! a! direct! goal! of! IMF! policy).! However,! even! the! IMF! towards! the! end! of! the! century! restructured! its! Enhanced! Structural! Adjustment! Facility! and! replaced! it! by! (or! by! some! accounts! merely! renamed! it)! the! Poverty! Reduction! and!

Growth! Facility! (PRGF)! in! November! 1999.! Thus,! according! to! IMF,! the! PRSP! was! introduced! as! “a! participatory,! countryJled! mechanism! to! more! sharply! focus! countries'! poverty!reduction!efforts.”81!The!PRSP!approach!was!to!bring!about!substantive!changes!in! the!way!countries'!economic!plans!were!formulated.!These!changes!included!policies!that! were!more!clearly!focused!on!growth!and!poverty!reduction,!on!full!integration!between! the!poverty!reduction!and!macroeconomic!elements!of!the!program,!and!greater!degrees!of! participation! by! civil! society! and! national! ownership,! which! in! turn! would! lead! to! more! consistent! policy! implementation.! The! PRGF! therefore! was! established! to! “make! the! objectives! of! poverty! reduction! and! growth! more! central! to! lending! operations! in! its!

[IMF’s]!poorest!member!countries.”82!

! As! a! result! of! these! processes,! towards! the! end! of! the! decade,! all! these! organizations,! including! OECD,! IMF,! WB,! and! UN! were! moving! towards! a! central! goal:! poverty!reduction.!Thus,!by!the!time!the!discussions!on!the!Millennium!Declaration!were!in! full!force,!institutional!reform!and!innovation!within!the!World!Bank!(CDF!and!PRSP),!the!

International!Monetary!Fund!(PRGF),!the!United!Nations!(CCA/UNDAF)!and!Organization! for!Economic!Cooperation!and!Development!(IDG)!had!replaced!the!discourse!of!relevancy! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81 !IMF,! The( Poverty( Reduction( and( Growth( Facility( Factsheet( (July! 2009),! accessed! March! 11,! 2014,! https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/prgf.htm.!

82!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 179! ! in!the!second!half!of!the!1990s!with!a!discourse!around!poverty,!highlighting!the!invaluable! contribution!that!these!international!organizations!could!make!to!its!reduction,!especially! in!light!of!the!fact!that!for(the(first(time(in(history(the!world!had!the!means!to!do!so.!

6.2 CONTENTIOUS CONVERGENCE ON A Better World for All

“Economic! growth! is! not! a! guarantee! of! poverty! reduction—but! it! is! absolutely!essential!for!sustaining!poverty!reduction!over!the!longer!run….It! has!to!generate!more!incomeJearning!opportunities!so!that!poor!people!can! engage! in! productive! and! wellJpad! work.! It! has! to! give! poor! people! more! access!to!assets!to!help!unleash!their!productive!potential!and!allow!them!to! feed!themselves.”! ! “Globalization!offers!enormous!opportunities!to!the!developing!countries— better! ways! of! tapping! the! world’s! knowledge,! better! technology! for! delivering! products! and! services,! better! access! to! the! world’s! markets.! But! taking! advantage! of! the! opportunities! requires! action.! Countries! have! to! lower!their!tariffs!and!other!trade!barriers!and!streamline!their!systems!for! the!flow!of!imports,!exports!and!finance.”! ! Excerpts(from(the(Better(World(for(All(Report( !

In! June! 2000,! the! UN! held! a! fiveJyear! review! to! take! stock! of! the! Copenhagen! commitments.!Towards!that!end,!the!UN!General!Assembly’s!24th!special!session!was!held! in!Geneva!preceding!the!Millennium!Summit!by!less!than!three!months.!As!a!result,!only!19! heads! of! state! –! mostly! from! Africa! and! Asia! –! and! only! two! from! the! North,! including!

Denmark!and!Norway!attended!the!World!Summit!for!Social!Development!+5!(commonly! referred! to! as! WSSD+5! or! Social! Summit! plus! 5).! The! Development! Caucus! consisting! of! nonJgovernmental! organizations! around! the! world! expressed! their! “profound! disappointment”! at! the! low! priority! accorded! by! many! governments! to! the! meeting! and! their!“grave!concern”!at!the!lack!of!will!to!carry!forward!the!Copenhagen!vision!of!social! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 180! ! development!shown!in!the!positions!taken!in!the!negotiations.”83!Significantly,!one!of!these! commitments!was!the!20/20!vision,!which!asked!that!both!donor!and!receiving!countries! allocate!20!percent!of!their!funds!to!social!sector!expenses.!This!commitment!was!buried! when!the!seeds!of!the!MDGs!were!planted!in!June!2000.!

Perhaps!more!than!anything!else,!the!event!that!raised!eyebrows!and!led!to!a!big! backlash!from!the!NGO!community!was!the!“illJtimed!and!ill!advised!launch!of!the!Better(

World(for(All”(report!by!Kofi!Annan!along!with!the!heads!of!the!IMF,!World!Bank!and!the!

OECD;!“a!document,!produced!at!the!behest!of!the!GJ7!for!their!Okinawa!Summit!in!July.”84!

Again,!there!are!different!interpretations!of!this!report!and!the!reasons!for!why!these!four! multilateral!institutions!decided!for!the!very!first!time!to!coJsign!a!document.!!

Recounting!the!UN!version,!Jan!Vandemoortele,!who!at!the!time!worked!at!UNICEF! and!was!involved!in!writing!the!report,!explained!that!the!reason!for!producing!the!report! was!to!have!some!kind!of!a!review!paper!on!how!well!the!world!was!performing!on!the!

IDGs.!At!this!point,!the!IDGs!had!found!a!central!position!within!the!programming!of!the!

OECD,! WB! and! IMF,! thanks! to! the! relentless! marketing! efforts! of! Clare! Short,! who! had!

“visited! all! of! the! major! donors! and! development! agencies,! energetically! advocating! that! everyone! use! the! IDGs! to! sharpen! their! programming,! harmonise! activity! and! mobilise! public!support.”85!Vandemoortele!along!with!Richard!Jolly,!who!at!the!time!was!a!special! advisor!to!UNDP!Administrator!Mark!MallochJBrown,!collaborated!with!the!other!agencies!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 83!Chakravarthi!Raghavan,!“Copenhagen+5!Is!Barely!Copenhagen,!If!Not!Minus,”!Third(World(Network,!July!2,! 2000.!

84!Ibid.!!

85!Hulme!also!notes,!“She!also!‘sold’!them!to!African!and!Asian!heads!of!state!and!ministers!and,!according!to! ! her! advisors, was! surprised! when! some! of! these! were! not! so! enthusiastic! about! this! product! of! the! rich! nations.”!See!David!Hulme,!“The!MDGs,”!24.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 181! ! and!created!a!document!that!was!“simple”!with!“light!language”!so!that!it!could!be!used!as!a!

“communication!tool.”86!The!diagnostic!part!of!the!report!was!apparently!not!problematic,! as! it! dedicated! two! pages! to! each! of! the! seven! IDGs! with! graphs! presenting! different! indicators! for! each! goal! while! explaining! where! the! international! community! stood! and! why! it! was! important! to! focus! on! that! particular! goal.! The! controversy! surrounded! the! second,!prescriptive!part!of!the!report,!titled!“What!will!it!take!to!achieve!these!goals.”87!

Although! only! four! pages! long,! the! starting! blurb! is! indicative! of! the! reasons! for! the! backlash! from! the! South.! It! reads,! “Stronger! voices! for! the! poor,! economic! stability! and! growth! that! favours! the! poor,! basic! social! services! for! all,! open! markets! for! trade! and! technology,!and!enough!development!resources,!used!well.”88!One!might!think!that!nobody! would! have! objections! to! the! poor! having! a! stronger! voice! or! access! to! social! services.!

However,!these!strategies!were!interspersed!with!means!that!have!been!and!at!the!time! were!very!much!in!contention,!including!the!understanding!that!growth!and!open!markets! for! trade! were! among! the! solutions! to! poverty.! This! was! particularly! problematic! as! financial!crises!had!been!unleashed!in!different!parts!of!the!world!throughout!the!1990s,! precisely!because!of!that!line!of!thinking.!

At!least!four!aspects!of!the!report!attracted!criticism.!First,!the!institutions!behind! the!publication!of!the!report!were!suspect.!Collaboration!among!these!four!international! organizations!raised!eyebrows!because!their!interests!and!missions!were!perceived!to!be! different.!The!Washington!Consensus!policies!dictated!by!the!IFIs!were!viewed!as!the!main! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 86!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!

87!IMF,! OECD,! UN! and! World! Bank,! A( Better( World( for( All:( Progress( towards( the( International( Development( Goals((Washington,!DC:!IMF,!OECD,!UN!and!World!Bank,!2000).(

88!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 182! ! source!of!poverty!and!misery!in!many!of!the!developing!countries!that!had!enacted!their! structural! adjustment! programs.! Thus,! their! partnership! with! the! UN! in! fighting! poverty! was!simply!unfathomable!to!many.!But!also!OECD’s!participation!was!unacceptable,!both!to! the!NGO!community!and!many!of!the!countries!from!the!South,!who!found!it!patronizing!to! be!dictated!by!the!donor!club!what!needed!to!be!done!in!order!for!them!to!achieve!goals!set! for!them.!In!that!light,!Kofi!Annan’s!signature!was!seen!as!an!endorsement!of!a!document! that!“undermined!the!very!concept!of!political!inclusiveness!that!defines!the!UN”89!and!thus! as!a!betrayal!of!the!majority!of!the!UN!memberJstates.!

Second,!and!relatedly,!while!Kofi!Annan!had!signed!the!report,!it!had!not!received! the!stamp!of!approval!from!UN!member!states,!because!they!had!not!been!involved!in!any! negotiations!that!led!to!the!publication!of!BWfA.!In!fact,!as!Richard!Manning!explained,!it! was!the!1999!GJ8!summit!in!Cologne!that!led!to!the!decision!to!produce!a!highJlevel!report! on! poverty! alleviation,! stating,! “We! reaffirm! our! commitment! to! contribute! to! the! achievement!of!economic!and!social!development!in!Africa,!Asia!and!Latin!America.!We!will! review!the!situation!in!that!regard!every!year,!on!the!basis!of!reports!by!the!IFIs!and!the! relevant!regional!development!banks,!on!the!alleviation!of!poverty.”90!Note!must!be!taken! of!the!fact!that!the!UN!was!not!included!in!this!commitment.!Nevertheless,!when!the!report! was!launched,!Kofi!Annan’s!name!popped!up!as!the!first!signatory!since!leaders!of!these! organizations!had!signed!the!document!in!alphabetical!order.!This!lends!further!credence! to! the! need! for! the! donor! community! to! partner! with! the! UN! to! forge! a! credible! global! development!agenda!around!the!antipoverty!norm.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 89!Ibid.!!

90 !Cologne! Summit,! G8( Communiqué( Köln( 1999,( June! 20,! 1999,! accessed! March! 22,! 2014,! http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/1999koln/finalcom.htm.(( Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 183! !

The!third!problem!had!to!do!with!the!timing!of!the!launch!of!the!report.!The!1990s! in! general! were! economically! turbulent! times! with! various! financial! crises,! including! the!

1994! economic! crisis! in! Mexico,! the! 1997! Asian! financial! crisis,! and! the! 1998! Russian! financial!crisis,!which!had!brought!into!deep!questioning!the!philosophy!of!open!and!free! trade!and!capital!markets.!In!addition,!the!antiJglobalization!movement!had!staged!protests! against!WTO!in!November!1999!and!at!the!World!Bank/IMF!annual!meetings!in!April!2000,! demonstrating! their! discontent! with! free! trade,! unregulated! political! power! of! multinational! corporations! and! environmental! degradation! while! calling! for! fair! trade,! democratic! representation! and! sustainable! development.! Against! this! background,! the!

BWfA(report!prescribed!extant!neoliberal!policies!of!unfettered!markets,!economic!growth! and!further!globalization.!As!the!excerpts!at!the!start!of!this!section!illustrate,!even!though! the!ends!(goals)!focused!on!poverty!reduction!and!improvements!in!the!social!sectors!of! health!and!education,!the!means!(policies!and!strategies)!remained!rooted!in!such!policies! as!open!trade,!lower!tariffs,!less!regulation!of!financial!markets,!and!so!on,!as!advocated! through!Washington!Consensus.!!

! The!fourth!and!most!crucial!problem!was!related!to!the!content!of!the!report.!Social!

Watch!was!highly!critical!of!the!report!because!of!its!“major!distortions!of!the!letter!and! spirit”91!of!the!resolutions!reached!at!the!Social!Summit.!The!criticism!was!loud!and!it!had! many! orators! and! authors! beyond! Social! Watch! and! included! the! World! Council! of!

Churches!and!60!NGOs!organized!into!caucuses!for!WSSD+5!to!reject!the!report.!The!main! contention! that! all! these! statements! highlighted! was! Annan’s! participation! in! “a! propaganda!exercise!for!international!financial!institutions!whose!policies!are!widely!held! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 91!Roberto!Bissio,!“A!Better!World!for!Whom?”!Third(World(Network,(June!23,!2000.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 184! ! to! be! at! the! root! of! many! of! the! most! grave! social! problems! facing! the! poor! all! over! the! world!and!especially!those!in!the!poor!nations.”92!The!joint!statement!by!the!NGO!caucuses! mocked! the! report! to! be! an! endorsement! of! “Bretton! Woods! for! All”! and! asked! the! UN!

Secretary! General! to! withdraw! his! support,! arguing! that! the! document! not! only! derailed! the!process!by!“reinforcing!Northern!perspectives!and!disempowering!the!South”!but!also! patronized!the!poor!while!ignoring!poverty!in!the!North!through!its!$1!a!day!indicator!of! extreme! poverty.! The! report! was! seen! as! Kofi! Annan’s! surrender! to! the! Bretton! Woods! institutions,!not!only!failing!“to!recognize!the!role!of!IFI!liberalization!policies!in!generating! poverty,! but! instead! proposed! to! eradicate! poverty! with! more! of! the! same! medicine! –! despite!the!recent!failure!of!these!very!same!policies!in!East!Asia.”93! !

So,!why!did!the!UN!decide!to!participate!in!this!report?!Since!my!attempts!to!get!a! direct!response!to!this!question!from!those!who!were!involved!in!the!process!have!been!to! no!avail,94!I!have!to!rely!on!my!sources!to!speculate.!There!seem!to!be!two!broad!views!on! this.!One!perspective!is!that!Annan!essentially!didn’t!know!what!he!was!getting!himself!into! but!intended!to!make!the!UN!more!relevant!when!it!came!to!development!issues.!According! to!this!view,!the!collaboration!with!the!IFIs!and!OECD!and!the!joint!launch!of!the!BWfA(was! a!mere!miscalculation!based!on!Annan’s!lack!of!real!engagement!in!development!debates,! as!he!had!spent!most!of!his!career!in!the!internal!bureaucracy!of!the!UN!primarily!in!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92!Chakravarthi!Raghavan,!“Churches!Protest!BW!for!All!Report,”!Third(World(Network,!June!28,!2000.!

93!World!Council!of!Churches,!“NGOs!Call!on!the!UN!to!Withdraw!Endorsement!of!“A!Better!World!For!All,”! Joint!Statement!by!NGO!Caucuses,!June!28,!2000.!

94!I!contacted!John!Ruggie,!Andy!Mack,!and!Vijaya!Ramachandran,!who!had!worked!on!the!Millennium!Report.! John!Ruggie!was!very!kind!to!give!me!an!interview,!but!my!followJup!request!for!clarification!conflicted!with! his!sick!leave.!Andy!Mack!initially!replied!to!my!email!and!suggested!I!contact!Vijaya.!Vijaya!Ramachandran! told!me!that!she!did!not!know,!because!she!was!“brought!in!from!the!outside!only!in!the!last!few!months!to! help!with!drafting!the!report.”!Email!to!author,!March!18,!2014.!!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 185! ! fields!of!peace!and!security.!Taking!a!guess!as!to!why!Annan!may!have!decided!to!sign!the! report,!Roberto!Bissio!supported!this!point!of!view!and!explained,!“Annan!was!probably! trying! to! put! the! UN! back! in! the! agenda! somehow,! to! make! it! relevant,! was! a! bit! of! the! terms! of! the! discussion! that! many! people! were! saying.”95!Some! also! thought! that! Annan! relied!to!some!extent!on!Mark!MallochJBrown,!who!had!joined!UNDP!as!its!administrator! after!having!left!his!World!Bank!position!of!ViceJPresident!for!External!Affairs,!which!he! had!held!from!1994J99.!Appointing!someone!from!the!Bank!to!head!UNDP!had!offered!a! great!opportunity!to!make!these!organizations,!which!were!sometimes!viewed!as!rivals,!to! work!more!closely!together.96!

However,!as!Michael!Doyle!correctly!pointed!out,!“the!SG!would!not!sign!something! like!this!as!an!oversight;!everything!with!his!name!on!it!was!vetted.”97!Hence,!the!second! interpretation!points!to!Annan!having!known!what!he!was!doing!and!intending!to!get!more! collaboration!and!coherence!among!development!agencies!with!the!ultimate!goal!of!making! the!IFIs!more!accountable!for!their!policies.!Supporting!this!viewpoint,!John!Langmore,!the!

Director! of! the! Division! for! Social! Policy! and! Development! in! the! UN's! Department! of!

Economic! and! Social! Affairs! (DESA)! from! 1997! to! 2002,! suggested! that! there! were! both! technical!and!political!reasons!for!Annan’s!decision!to!work!more!closely!with!the!BWIs.!

Describing!the!UN!and!WB!perceptions!of!each!other,!Langmore!stated,!“They!used!to!say! the! UN! was! not! technically! competent! and! we! used! to! say! they! were! out! of! touch!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 95!Bissio!followed!this!up!with!“Although!putting!it!into!perspective,!Annan!was!later!on!much!more!sensitive! to!the!critique!and!sympathetic!to!the!notion!that!there!should!be!some!quid!pro!quo!in!the!negotiations,!that! if!developing!countries!were!to!come!up!with!results,!they!should!get!some!support!in!return.”!Interview,! March!24,!2014.!

96!Interview!with!a!former!UNDP!employee,!who!would!like!to!remain!anonymous.!

97!Michael!Doyle,!email!message!to!author,!May!20,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 186! ! politically.”98!To! Annan,! “it! was! important! to! try! and! improve! communication! both! for! operational!reasons!but!also!for!political!reasons”!because!the!IFIs!represented!“ideas!that! came! from! treasuries! which! in! national! situations! were! often! making! policies! that! were! inconsistent! with! the! commitment! to! human! development.”99!In! fact,! some! very! tangible! initiatives!were!taken!to!build!up!cooperation!between!these!organizations,!including!the! invitation!of!the!Bank!as!well!as!WTO!to!meetings!of!ECOSOC!as!well!as!social!summit!in!

Copenhagen!and!the!special!session!in!Geneva.!

! If! we! accept! Langmore’s! account,! Kofi! Annan’s! replies! to! the! criticisms! following!

BWfA(do! not! come! as! a! surprise,! as! he! tried! to! explain! the! need! for! closer! collaboration! between! development! institutions! in! order! to! make! progress.! He! was! not! apologetic! but! argued,!“the!report!contains!our!targets!and!objectives!J!these!are!the!aims!of!the!UN!as! expressed!at!Copenhagen!and!elsewhere,!for!which!our!partner!organizations!now!express! their!support!as!well.!It!would!be!truly!ironic!if,!after!years!of!trying!to!get!them!to!do!so,! we! were! now! not! to! accept! their! ‘yes’! as! an! answer.”100!Similarly,! Mark! MallochJBrown! defended!the!report!noting,!“Everyone!of!these!goals!are!the!goals!acclaimed!by!the!United!

Nations! conferences! and! in! the! case! of! one! by! the! SecretaryJGeneral! J! I! mean! six! by! the!

United!Nations!conferences!and!one!by!the!SecretaryJGeneral!in!his!Millennium!report:!The! income!poverty!goal,!which!we!expect!to!be!adopted!by!the!Millennium!Assembly.!So!these! are!goals!adopted!by!the!South!as!much!as!the!North.!And!they!are!aimed!at!a!Northern! audience,!the!GJ7,!to!force!them!to!do!more!to!support!poverty!reduction!in!the!South.!So!I! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 98!Interview!with!John!Langmore,!April!3,!2014.!

99!Ibid.!!

100!Chakravarthi!Raghavan,!“Annan!replies!to!WCC!over!‘Better!World!for!All’!report,”!Third(World(Network((4! Jul.!2000).! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 187! ! don’t! think! it! is! a! bad! goal."101!Key! to! this! statement! is! MallochJBrown’s! distinction! between! the! goals,! emphasizing! the! $1/day! goal! as! one! that! was! not! rooted! in! UN! conferences,! but! was! expected! to! be! ratified! by! the! General! Assembly.! In! fact,! this! statement!offers!an!insight!into!the!purposive!nature!of!positioning!the!$1/day!goal!in!the!

Millennium! Report,! later! in! the! Millennium! Declaration,! and! subsequently! among! the! targets!monitoring!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.!!

! Ultimately,! the! BWfA(report! was! a! huge! embarrassment! and! the! only! time! that! a! report! of! such! stature! was! coJsigned! by! UN,! IMF,! WB! and! OECD.! This! was! a! lesson! that! those!involved!in!writing!the!report!took!on!board.!Later,!while!creating!the!Millennium!

Development!Goals,!caution!would!overrule!the!temptation!to!set!up!strategies!on!how!to! achieve! global! goals.! Despite! the! great! backlash,! the! Better( World( for( All( report! brought! these!organizations!closer!together,!enabling!staff!within!them!to!work!closely!and!redefine! development! in! ways! that! would! be! meaningful! to! all! of! them.! As! a! result! of! this! collaboration,!the!wall!that!for!a!very!long!time!had!separated!the!United!Nations!from!the!

World!Bank!was!lifted,!leading!to!their!converging!policy—or!at!the!very!least!convergence! in!rhetoric—on!poverty!reduction!as!the!ultimate!objective!of!development.!!!

6.3 The Road to the Millennium Development Goals

6.3.1 We the Peoples ! On! 23! July! 1998,! S.! Iqbal! Riza,! Kofi! Annan’s! chef! de! cabinet! wrote! a! note! to! John!

Ruggie,!the!SecretaryJGeneral’s!special!advisor!on!strategic!planning,!offering!his!feedback!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 101!United!Nations,!“Transcript!of!Press!Conference!Given!by!SecretaryJGeneral!Kofi!Annan!and!Other!Officials! to!Launch!Joint!Report!‘A!Better!World!for!All,’”!Press!Release!SG/SM/7466,!June!26,!2000,!accessed!March! 27,!2014,!http://www.un.org/press/en/2000/20000626.sgsm7466.doc.html.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 188! ! on!a!concept!note!that!the!latter!had!shared,!outlining!the!contours!of!the!report!that!would! later!become!We(the(Peoples(or!the!Millennium!Report.!In!that!note,!Riza!argued,!!

“My! own! view! remains! that,! rather! than! the! “high! road”! of! political! organization!and!structure,!the!SecretaryJGeneral!should!take!the!“low!road”! at! the! level! of! humanity! which,! after! all,! constitutes! “the! peoples”! of! the! United!Nations!Charter.!At!this!level,!poverty!remains!a!vicious!and!pervasive! scourge! fueling! in! part,! that! second! bane! –! armed! conflict.! The! significant! reality!is!that,!for!the!first!time!in!our!history,!we!have!acquired!the!means!to! eradicate!extreme!poverty!–!what!we!now!must!find!is!the!political!will!for! this! mission.! ! Since! the! Sovereign! State! is! still! the! unit! where! decisions! affecting! people! are! taken,! the! SecretaryJGeneral! should! challenge! governments,!the!rich!helping!the!poor,!to!bring!the!basic!necessities!of!life!to! all!human!beings!in!the!first!fifty!years!of!the!millennium.”102! ! This!conversation!took!place!before!member!states!had!formally!endorsed!plans!for! the! Millennium! Assembly,! yet! it! foreshadowed! the! tone! and! content! of! the! Millennium!

Declaration!as!well!as!the!later!Millennium!Development!Goals.!Here!is!the!first!indication! that!I!came!across!which!pointed!to!the!direction!that!the!UN!and!its!leadership!envisioned! for!the!new!millennium,!in!particular!the!focus!on!eradication!of!extreme!poverty.!!

Six! months! after! this! exchange,! on! 17! December! 1998,! the! UN! General! Assembly! adopted!Resolution!53/202,!in!which!it!decided!“to!designate!the!fiftyJfifth!session!of!the!

General!Assembly!“The!Millennium!Assembly!of!the!United!Nations,”!reflecting!the!widely! held!view!that!the!year!2000!constituted!“a!unique!and!symbolically!compelling!moment!to! articulate!and!affirm!an!animating!vision”103!for!the!UN.!Member!states!further!requested! from! the! SG! that! he! consult! them! along! with! members! of! the! specialized! agencies! and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 102!“Note! to! Prof.! Ruggie:! Millennium! Assembly,”! written! by! S.! Iqbal! Riza,! July! 23,! 1998,! United! Nations! Archives.!

103 !United! Nations,! General! Assembly! resolution,! “The! Millennium! Assembly! of! the! United! Nations,”! A/RES/53/202,!December!17,!1998,!http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 189! ! observers!to!propose—“after!a!process!of!intergovernmental!consultation”104—topics!that! would!focus!the!summit.!!

UN! archives! suggest! that! the! Secretary! General’s! office! indeed! consulted! member! states,!even!though!Kofi!Annan!himself!suggests!that!the!Millennium!Report!was!written!in! a! small! group! without! much! consultation.! There! is! ample! evidence! that! member! states! actively! participated! through! formal! and! informal! sessions! to! vocalize! their! areas! of! interest!and!what!they!felt!to!be!relevant!topics!that!should!be!incorporated!into!the!report.!

For!example,!the!subJtitle!of!the!report!“The!Role!of!the!United!Nations!in!the!21st!Century”! is!reflected!in!a!correspondence!between!Sweden!and!DSG’s!office.!Hans!Dahlgren!of!the! permanent!mission!of!Sweden,!representing!an!informal!Group!of!16,105!wrote!a!letter!to! the!Deputy!SecretaryJGeneral!highlighting!human!security!as!a!central!concept!that!should! drive!the!discussions!while!noting!that!the!general!theme!could!be!“A!United!Nations!for! the!TwentyJFirst!Century.”106!Kishore!Mahbubani,!at!the!time!permanent!representative!of!

Singapore!to!the!UN,!expressed!the!views!of!the!Forum!of!Small!States!in!a!letter!to!Deputy!

Secretary! General! Louise! Fréchette,! where! he! noted,! “At! this! point! in! time,! the! UN! faces! some! real! questions! about! its! future”! and! highlighted! the! importance! of! an! outcome! document!“that!is!clearly!actionJoriented!and!will!make!a!difference.”107!!

There! is! also! evidence! that! think! tanks! as! well! as! civil! society! groups! were! consulted.!In!a!note!capturing!the!key!points!of!a!meeting!between!Annan!and!think!tanks!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 104!Ibid.!!

105!This! group! consists! of! Australia,! Brazil,! Canada,! Cote! d’Ivoire,! Czech! Republic,! Egypt,! India,! Indonesia,! Ireland,!Jamaica,!Japan,!Republic!of!Korea,!Mexico,!Netherlands,!South!Africa,!and!Sweden.!!

106!“Letter!from!Hans!Dahlgren!to!Louise!Fréchette,”!May!7,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!

107!“Letter!from!Kishore!Mahbubani!to!Louise!Fréchette,”!July!9,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 190! !

(although! it! is! not! clear! which! specific! ones),! attending! institutes! were! asked! for! their! inputs!on!topics!relating!to!“collective!security,!poverty!eradication,!rule!of!law,!and!lessons! learned!for!the!UN!from!new!forms!of!organization!in!the!private!and!nonJprofit!sectors.”108!

In!addition,!correspondence!between!the!Millennium!Forum—an!organization!of!NGOs!for! the!purposes!of!coordinating!their!input!into!the!Millennium!Assembly—and!the!Secretary!

General’s! office! shows! “every! sign! of! taking! the! Millennium! exercise! very! seriously.”109!

Thus,! the! Millennium! Forum! held! a! conference! from! 22J26! May,! at! which! Kofi! Annan! delivered!the!keynote!address.!In!a!thankJyou!letter!to!the!SG!following!the!event,!Techeste!

Ahderom,!coJchair!of!the!forum!noted,!“Many!participants!were!deeply!impressed!by!your! vision! of! the! future! and! your! ideas! for! practical! ways! in! which! the! United! Nations! and! governments!might!expand!their!cooperation!with!the!institutions!of!civil!society.”110!The! final!declaration!and!action!plan!agenda!emanating!from!the!Millennium!Forum!captured! civil!society’s!consensus!on!the!major!themes!of!the!Forum,!which!included!peace,!security! and! disarmament;! eradication! of! poverty;! human! rights;! sustainable! development! and! environment;!facing!the!challenges!of!globalization;!and!strengthening!and!democratizing! the! United! Nations! and! international! organizations—all! of! which! were! reflected! in! the!

Millennium!Declaration.!!

Calling!for!the!establishment!of!a!“Global!Poverty!Eradication!Fund!to!ensure!access! to!credit!for!the!poor”!while!urging!that!“the!actions!of!transnational!corporations!should!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108!“Summary!Note!on!the!SecretaryJGeneral’s!Meeting!with!Think!Tanks,!May!4,!1999,”!Note!produced!by! Asif!Khan,!May!7,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

109!“The! SecretaryJGeneral! Talking! Points:! For! Statement! to! the! General! Assembly! on! the! Millennium! Assembly!and!the!Millennium!Summit,”!March!22,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

110!“Letter!from!Techeste!Ahderom,!coJchair!of!Millennium!Forum!to!Secretary!General!Kofi!Annan,”!June!8,! 2000,!United!Nations!Archives.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 191! ! be!regulated!by!a!legally!binding!framework”!and!that!“the!Bretton!Woods!institutions!and! the! WTO! should! become! integrated! and! accountable! to! the! Economic! and! Social!

Council,”111!civil!society!certainly!generated!a!declaration!that!had!a!different!tone!from!the! documents!emanating!from!member!states!and!their!various!fora.!However,!they!were!very! much! in! line! with! the! spirit! of! the! time.! Civil! society! representatives! could! more! easily! express! frustrations! with! the! existing! system! without! having! to! face! the! political! constraints!inherent!to!multilateral!diplomacy.!

In! addition! to! these! consultations,! a! press! release! published! by! the! General!

Assembly! noted! on! 8! April! 1999! that! in! preparation! for! the! Millennium! Assembly,!

“representatives!of!governments,!civil!society!and!nonJgovernmental!organizations!will!be! gathering!by!region!over!the!next!five!months!to!debate!how!the!United!Nations!can!best! achieve! its! goals! in! the! coming! millennium.” 112 !Indeed,! the! next! months! saw! the! convocation! of! regional! meetings! in! all! five! regions,! including! Economic! and! Social!

Commission!for!Western!Asia!(ESCWA)!in!Beirut,!Economic!Commission!for!Europe!(ECE)! in!Geneva,!Economic!Commission!for!Africa!(ECA)!in!Addis!Ababa,!Economic!Commission! for!Latin!American!Countries!(ECLAC)!in!Santiago,!and!Economic!and!Social!Commission! for! Asia! and! the! Pacific! (ESCAP)! in! Tokyo.! In! March! 1999,! the! SG’s! office! had! sent! a! facsimile!to!all!regional!executive!secretaries,!asking!them!to!hold!their!meeting!under!the! broad!theme!of!“The!United!Nations!in!the!TwentyJFirst!Century”!and!to!choose!subtopics!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 111!“Millennium!Forum!Adopts!Final!Declaration,!Action!Plan!Agenda:!Capping!WeekJlong!NGO!Deliberations,! Document! Articulates! CivilJSociety! Vision! for! UN! in! TwentyJFirst! Century,”! General( Assembly( Meetings( Coverage,(May!26,!2000,!United!Nations!Archives.!

112!United! Nations,! General! Assembly! “United! Nations! to! Organize! Hearings! in! Five! Regions! to! Prepare! for! Year! 2000! ‘Millennium! Assembly,’”! Press! Release! GA/9552,! April! 8,! 1999,! accessed! March! 27,! 2014,! http://www.un.org/press/en/1999/19990408.ga9552.html.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 192! ! from!the!UN’s!five!areas!of!work,!including!“peace!and!security,!economic!and!social!affairs,! development!cooperation,!humanitarian!affairs,!and!human!rights.”113!!

Of! significance! to! the! focus! of! our! topic! here! is! a! memo! from! John! Ruggie! to! Kofi!

Annan! about! a! paper! prepared! by! the! European! Union! on! how! they! envision! the!

Millennium!Summit!to!be!structured.!While!endorsing!an!interactive!format!simultaneous! with!the!plenary!speeches,!the!memo!indicates!the!EU’s!emphasis!on!poverty,!as!it!notes,!

“The! topics! would! be! poverty! eradication! (which! the! EU! wishes! to! keep! separate! from! development/development! finance);! development;! peace! and! security;! strengthening! the!

UN.”114!Perhaps! more! significantly,! this! short! memo! emphasizes,! “The! British! have! had! informal! discussions! with! South! Africa;! the! SA! Ambassador! is! said! to! have! liked! the! proposal.”115!While!it!is!not!clear!from!this!memo!what!the!content!of!this!discussion!may! have! been,! what! is! important! is! that! South! Africa! was! one! of! the! coJchairs! of! the! Joint!

Coordination!Committee!of!the!NonJAligned!Movement!(NAM)!and!the!Group!of!77.!Thus,!it! seems!that!the!UK!had!convinced!the!NAM!and!the!GJ77!of!the!importance!of!poverty!as!a! focus!of!development!in!the!new!millennium.!Perhaps!the!more!revealing!document!is!the! aide! memoire! of! the! European! Union,! which! is! attached! to! Ruggie’s! memo.! In! that! document,!the!EU’s!emphasis!on!development!is!made!clear!through!its!suggestion!that!the!

Millennium! Summit! consist! of! four! roundtables! with! distinct! themes,! the! first! of! which! should! be! “Poverty! Eradication! in! the! Context! of! Globalisation”! followed! with! a! second!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 113 !“Facsimile! from! Miles! Stoby,! Assistant! SecretaryJGeneral! and! Millennium! Assembly! Coordinator! to! Executive!Secretary!of!each!region,”!March!11,!1999,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

114!“EU!Paper!on!Millennium!Process,”!Memo!from!John!Ruggie!to!Kofi!Annan,!November!1,!1999,!United! Nations!Archives.!

115!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 193! !

“devoted!to!developmental!issues,!including!UN!relations!with!the!BWIs.”116!In!addition!to! this!focus!on!poverty!and!the!relations!among!development!partners,!in!particular!the!UN! and!the!IFIs,!the!EU!iterated!a!few!times!the!importance!of!organizing!an!event!that!would! not!be!merely!celebratory!but!generate!“lasting!and!substantive!results.”117!!

In!March!2000,!as!the!Millennium!Report!was!touched!up!for!completion,!Iqbal!Riza! wrote!another!note!to!John!Ruggie,!wherein!he!encouraged!that!“the!SecretaryJGeneral’s! thoughts!on!the!scourge!of!poverty!will!be!presented!in!a!more!focused!manner”!in!the!final! and! completed! report.! In! particular,! Riza! noted,! it! would! be! important! for! the! report! to! emphasize!poverty!because!“the!World!Bank!and!the!IMF!are!preparing!major!initiatives! for!a!campaign!against!extreme!poverty!and!it!would!be!a!pity!if!we!were!left!behind.”118!

Thus,!Riza!was!eager!for!poverty!to!take!a!central!place!in!the!Millennium!Report!not!only! because!of!the!moral!underpinnings!of!such!an!initiative,!but!also!because!of!the!centrality! of!this!topic!within!the!IFIs’!programming.!In!fact,!Riza!wanted!the!report!to!come!up!with! something!bolder!and!more!innovative!than!a!mere!repetition!of!the!Copenhagen!call!for! halving!poverty!by!2015!and!asked!Ruggie!for!alternative!proposals.!This!indicated!that!the!

UN! wanted! to! be! a! key! interlocutor! in! debates! about! development,! in! particular! emphasizing!the!importance!of!poverty!in!those!debates.!!

The!final!outcome,!We(the(Peoples:(The(Role(of(the(United(Nations(in(the(TwentyWfirst(

Century( was! received! with! open! arms! by! the! international! community.! Under! the! authorship!of!John!Ruggie,!the!normative!principles!entailed!in!the!beautiful!prose!of!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 116!“Aide! Memoire:! Millennium! SummitJProposals! for! further! action,”! October! 21,! 1999,! United! Nations! Archives.!

117!Ibid.!!

118!“Note!to!Professor!Ruggie:!Millennium!Report,”!by!S.!Iqbal!Riza,!March!14,!2000,!United!Nations!Archives.!!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 194! ! report! covered! a! broad! spectrum! of! topics! satisfying! everyone! who! may! have! made! a! contribution!to!the!document.!Although!its!language!was!mostly!aspirational!and!suggested! that! most! areas! required! more! progress,! several! parts! of! the! report! contained! concrete! goals!and!quantitative!targets.!Announcing!“we!must!put!people!at!the!center!of!everything! we!do,”119!the!first!section!of!the!report!with!concrete!goals,!titled!“Freedom!from!Want”! exclaimed,! “extreme! poverty! is! an! affront! to! our! common! humanity.”120!Within! the! first! three!sentences!of!the!body!of!this!section,!the!reader!learns!that!close!to!“half!the!world’s! population!still!has!to!make!do!on!less!than!$2!per!day”!while!almost!“1.2!billion!people—

500!million!in!South!Asia!and!300!million!in!Africa—struggle!on!less!than!$1.”121!Following! more!figures!illustrating!the!dire!situation!of!poverty!and!inequality!in!the!world,!Annan! calls! on! the! international! community! “to! adopt! the! target! of! halving! the! proportion! of! people! living! in! extreme! poverty,! and! so! lifting! more! than! 1! billion! people! out! of! it,! by!

2015.”122!The!other!targets!that!are!specifically!mentioned!in!this!report!include:!

! Reduce! the! gender! gap! in! primary! and! secondary! education! by! 2005! and! of! ensuring!that,!by!2015!all!children!complete!a!full!course!of!primary!education;! ! ! Reduce!HIV!infection!rates!in!persons!15J24!by!25!percent!within!countries!most! affected!by!2005!and!globally!by!2010;! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 119!United!Nations,!We(the(Peoples,(7.!

120!Ibid.,!19.!

121!Ibid.!!

122!Ibid.,!20.!It!is!important!to!note!that!Annan!further!urges,!“that!no!effort!be!spared!to!reach!this!target!by! that!date!in!every!region,!and!in!every!country,”!a!notion!that!later!on!is!contested!by!Jan!Vandemoortele,!who! believes! the! MDGs! to! be! global! goals! and! not! attributable! to! specific! countries.! In! Vandemoortele’s! own! words,!“The!most!widespread!misunderstanding!is!that!global!targets!must!be!achieved!by!each!and!every! country.!The!correct!interpretation!is!that!the!MDGs!encourage!all!countries!to!strive!for!accelerated!progress! but!that!ultimately!their!applicability!can!only!be!tested!and!judged!against!what!is!realistically!achievable! under! countryJspecific! circumstances.! To! be! meaningful,! national! target! setting! requires! adaptation,! not! mindless!adoption!of!global!targets.”!See!Jan!Vandemoortele,!“Making!Sense!of!the!MDGs,”!Development(51! (2008):!224.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 195! !

! Increase! the! percentage! of! people! with! access! to! information,! education! ad! services!for!protection!against!HIV!infection!to!at!least!90!percent!by!2005!and! 95!percent!by!2010;! ! ! Improve!the!lives!of!100!million!slum!dwellers!by!2020;! ! ! Reduce! by! half,! between! now! and! 2015,! the! proportion! of! people! who! lack! sustainable!access!to!adequate!sources!of!affordable!and!safe!water.! ! Of! course,! the! report! also! pleaded! with! the! rich! countries! to! help! reach! these! quantitative,! timeJbound! targets! as! well! as! other! less! concrete! goals! mentioned! in! the! report,!such!as!debt!relief!and!promotion!of!private!investment.!However,!only!the!social! sector!goals!were!treated!to!quantitative!targets,!and!they!would!be!taken!on!verbatim!by! the!Millennium!Declaration,!to!be!later!translated!into!the!MDGs.!

6.3.2 The United Nations Millennium Declaration ! The! way! in! which! the! Millennium! Declaration! was! written! was! in! and! of! itself! a! rather!new!process.!While!all!along!member!states!were!engaged!in!negotiations!that!gave! rise! to! summit! declarations,! the! way! Kofi! Annan! went! about! the! Millennium! Declaration! was!quite!distinct!from!previous!experiences.!Based!on!his!biography,!it!was!a!small!group! under! the! coJleadership! of! Ruggie! and! Mack! that! drafted! the! Millennium! Report,! but!

“because! we! had! a! document! that! called! for! major! commitments! by! governments,! this! made!it!less!likely!they!would!ever!agree!to!it.”123!However,!Annan!and!his!team!made!sure! to! undertake! necessary! measures! “to! stack! the! deck! in! our! favor.” 124 !And! thus,! the!

Executive!Office!arranged!a!range!of!concurrent!assemblies!during!the!Millennium!Summit,! which!brought!together!NGOs,!religious!leaders!and!parliamentarians!that!could!pressure!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 123!Kofi!Annan,!Interventions,!224.!

124!Ibid.,!225.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 196! ! their!governments!to!agree!to!the!terms!set!in!the!Millennium!Report.!Most!notably,!Oxfam! was! given! the! opportunity! to! present! two! million! signatures! in! support! of! their! Make(

Poverty(History(campaign! to! the! SG! during! the! Summit.! In! addition,! having! built! up! high! expectations!of!the!Millennium!Summit!by!congregating!152!heads!of!state!around!three! roundtable! discussions! without! any! of! their! aides! in! attendance,! and! framed! the!

Millennium!Report!in!such!a!way!that!“no!one!in!their!right!mind!could!deny,”!Annan!was! able!to!“get!the!global!deal!we!were!seeking.”125!The!Millennium!Declaration!was!endorsed! unanimously,! containing! many! of! the! elements! entailed! in! We( the( Peoples.( As! Annan! pointed!out,!the!Millennium!Declaration!was!“an!incredibly!powerful!global!idea”!that!at! the!time!UN’s!189!member!states!signed!on!to,!possibly!“not!realizing!the!strength!of!what! they!had!brought!to!life!and!expecting!it!to!suffer!the!same!quick!death!that!had!overtaken! so!many!other!UN!declarations.”126!

When! I! asked! Roberto! Bissio! about! civil! society’s! engagement! in! the! Millennium!

Declaration,! he! pointed! out! that! in! the! past! the! preparatory! process! leading! up! to! UN! summits!had!offered!a!venue!for!member!states!as!well!as!civil!society!groups!to!engage!in! debates! and! negotiations! surrounding! the! declarations! and! action! plans! emerging! from! such!global!gatherings.!As!an!example,!he!mentioned!the!fiveJyear!review!meeting!of!the!

Social! Summit! that! took! place! in! June! 2000! in! Geneva,! where! civil! society! could! engage! through! the! many! panels! and! side! activities! organized,! as! well! as! through! official! roundtables! that! were! coJchaired! by! government! or! UN! personnel! with! an! NGO! representative!(he!had!coJchaired!a!panel!discussion!along!with!Eveline!Herfkens,!at!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 125!Ibid.!!

126!Ibid.,!227.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 197! ! time!the!Dutch!Development!Minister).!!However,!when!the!Millennium!Declaration! was! drafted,! civil! society! was! not! consulted.! Most! of! my! interviewees! didn’t! think! that! a! document! of! this! stature! would! have! made! it! to! the! Millennium! Summit! without! having! been!at!least!shared!with!key!member!states.!According!to!Bissio,!“the!SG!wouldn’t!produce! a!document!as!ambitious!as!the!Millennium!Declaration!without!circulating!a!draft,!so!of! course!key!countries!must!have!seen!a!draft.!But!basically,!it!was!a!oneJday!meeting!where! heads! of! state! were! presented! with! the! declaration! and! it! was! a! takeJit! or! leaveJit! situation.”127!Jan! Vandemoortele! made! a! similar! observation.! Heading! UNICEF’s! Social!

Policy!Unit!at!the!time,!Vandemoortele!described!his!attempts!“to!influence!the!shaping!of! the! Millennium! Declaration! on! behalf! of! UNICEF,! and! I! remember! very! clearly! that! I! couldn’t!get!anywhere!with!the!Millennium!Declaration!and!the!office!of!John!Ruggie.”128!

The!message!was!“loud!and!clear”!that!this!was!a!“closed!door!operation.”129!!

According! to! these! accounts,! this! was! the! very! first! time! that! an! important! document!such!as!a!summit!declaration!was!produced!without!prior!consultation.!As!Bissio! suggested,!“that!slowly!became!in!the!following!years!more!and!more!the!procedure.!Now! more!and!more!the!high!level!inauguration!of!the!GA!is!a!place!where!things!get!produced! and!it’s!not!very!clear!where!they!come!from.!It’s!behind!the!door!consultation!and!no!civil! society.”130!The!intriguing!aspect!of!this!new!development!is!its!practical!departure!from! incorporating!civil!society!in!global!discussions!while!rhetorically!the!exact!opposite!was!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 127!Interview!with!Roberto!Bissio,!March!24,!2014.!

128!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!

129!Ibid.!

130!Interview!with!Roberto!Bissio,!March!24,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 198! ! the!case.!Putting!people!at!the!center!of!everything!from!peace!to!security!to!development! meant! also! broadly! consulting! various! popular! constituencies,! and! it! is! this! very! novelty! that!is!most!associated!with!Annan’s!leadership!at!the!UN.!!

In!its!final!format,!the!Millennium!Declaration!consisted!of!seven!parts!dedicated!to! each! of! the! following! areas:! values! and! principle;! peace,! security! and! disarmament;! development!and!poverty!eradication;!protecting!our!common!environment;!human!rights,! democracy!and!good!governance;!protecting!the!vulnerable;!meeting!the!special!needs!of!

Africa;! and! strengthening! the! United! Nations.! The! Declaration! incorporated! the! list! of! targets!from!the!Millennium!Report,!but!its!novelty!was!twoJfold.!First,!it!went!beyond!the! goals!in!the!report!to!include!maternal!and!child!mortality!targets!as!well!as!major!diseases! such!as!malaria!in!the!HIV/AIDS!goal.!Second,!and!more!importantly!for!our!purposes,!it! defined! extreme! poverty! as! the! “proportion! of! the! world’s! people! whose! income! is! less! than!one!dollar!a!day.”131!This!was!essentially!the!means!through!which!the!UN!managed!to! have!all!member!states!endorse!a!goal!that!had!its!origin!within!the!World!Bank!and!that! had! not! been! extensively! negotiated! as! the! other! goals! and! targets.! While! civil! society! groups!resisted!the!BWfA(report!in!June!2000!because!of!Kofi!Annan’s!endorsement!of!a! report!whose!text!had!not!been!negotiated,!a!few!months!later,!the!extreme!poverty!target! of!$1!a!day!along!with!most!other!targets!were!unanimously!endorsed!in!the!substance!of! the!Millennium!Declaration,!legitimating!its!use!as!the!main!indicator!to!measure!poverty! reduction.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 131!United!Nations,!UN(Millennium(Declaration.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 199! ! 6.3.3 The Road map towards the Implementation of the UN Millennium Declaration ! The!search!for!the!origins!of!the!MDGs!has!led!me!to!diverse!–!and!at!times!quite! imaginative! –! accounts! relayed! by! various! actors,! often! highJlevel! officials! closely! associated!with!the!process.!Some!have!told!the!story!of!how!“a!small!group!wrote!up!the!

MDGs!in!the!basement!of!the!UN!office!in!New!York”132!ringing!in!images!of!a!smokeJfilled! room!with!men!(and!potentially!a!few!women)!sitting!around!a!long!oval!table!negotiating! the! final! MDGs! as! if! they! were! a! war! plan.! Another! version! is! of! the! goals! having! been! passed! around! on! a! cocktail! napkin! at! some! social! function! at! the! end! of! a! long! day’s! conference! bringing! various! interJagency! staff! together.! And! most! conspiracyJtheoryJ infused! of! all! is! the! unexplained—and! potentially! also! unexamined—assertion! that! the! goals! were! the! creation! of! a! CIA! operative.133!All! of! these! fantastic! stories! have! been! captured!in!various!accounts!but!the!actual!story!of!how!the!MDGs!were!conceived!is!much! more! sober! and! less! exciting.! The! result! of! various! meetings! among! experts! and! technocrats,!it!was!led!by!a!few!people!representing!the!UN!system!(incl.!WB!and!IMF)!and!

OECD,!who!attempted!to!synthesize!the!views!of!diverse!actors!while!remaining!committed! to!creating!a!list!that!would!be!quantitative,!timeJbound,!and!measurable!for!comparative! purposes!–!across!time!and!space.!!

As! already! discussed,! the! IDGs! were! perceived! primarily! as! a! donor! agenda,! something! that! the! OECD! had! cooked! up,! and! therefore! met! quite! a! bit! of! resistance! by!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 132!Mark! Tran,! “Mark! MallochJBrown:! developing! the! MDGs! was! a! bit! like! nuclear! fusion,”! The( Guardian,( November! 16,! 2012,! accessed! April! 1,! 2014,! http://www.theguardian.com/globalJ development/2012/nov/16/markJmallochJbrownJmdgsJnuclear.!

133!Samir!Amin,!“The!Millennium!Development!Goals:!A!Critique!from!the!South,”!Monthly(Review!57,!no.!10! (March!2006).! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 200! ! developing!countries!as!well!as!civil!society!groups.!But!it!is!also!widely!acknowledged!that! the! MDGs! are! not! that! drastically! different! from! the! IDGs! (see! Appendix! I).! Quite! a! few! accounts!have!been!written!on!how!the!MDGs!were!created.!Here!I!would!like!to!focus!on! the!sequence!of!events!and!the!meetings!that!actually!led!to!the!creation!of!the!MDGs.!As! the! following! account! suggests,! the! operationalization! of! the! Millennium! Development!

Goals! was! largely! left! to! development! economists! and! statisticians,! who! had! to! think! through! ways! in! which! the! goals! could! be! monitored.! Although! largely! viewed! as! a! technical!exercise,!the!decision!of!how!to!measure!countries’!achievement!of!each!of!the! goals!is!a!highly!political!act!that!informs!debates!about!allocation!of!resources!and!political! priorities.!More!importantly,!one!of!the!main!outcomes!of!this!goalJoriented!approach!to! development!has!been!the!attribution!of!responsibility!to!the!countries!themselves,!which! are!thus!treated!as!independent!units,!solidly!circumscribed!by!their!territorial!boundaries! and!disconnected!from!the!international!political!economy.134!

In!March!2001,!a!few!months!after!the!Millennium!Declaration!had!been!adopted,! the! World! Bank! decided! to! convene! a! conference,! titled! “From! Consensus! to! Action:! A!

Seminar!on!the!International!Development!Goals,”!with!the!aim!“to!discuss!the!goals!at!the!

Millennium! Declaration,! still! framed! in! terms! of! the! IDGs,! but! the! idea! was! to! have! a! meeting! to! discuss! among! agencies! how! to! tackle! them.”135!Although! some! policy! people! were!involved!in!this!exercise,!Eric!Swanson!heading!the!World!Development!Indicators!of! the! World! Bank,! who! helped! organize! this! event,! told! me! that! the! majority! of! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 134!For!an!interesting!study!of!the!role!of!indicators!in!global!governance,!see!Sally!Engle!Merry,!“Measuring! the!World:!Indicators,!Human!Rights,!and!Global!Governance,”!Current(Anthropology(52,!no.!S3!(April!2011):! 83J95.!

135!Interview!with!Eric!Swanson,!November!21,!2013.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 201! ! participants! were! statisticians! with! technical! knowledge! necessary! for! identifying! indicators! and! the! best! means! to! measure! progress! within! social! sectors.! According! to!

Swanson,! at! the! end! of! the! conference,! Jo! Ritzen,! Vice! President! of! the! World! Bank’s!

Development! Economics! Department,! who! “had! a! lot! of! interest! in! social! welfare! of! development”! approached! a! few! people,! including! “Jan! (Vandemoortele! of! UNDP),! Brian!

(Hammond!of!OECD),!myself!(Eric!Swanson!of!WB),!Gareth!Jones!from!UNICEF,!and!there! were! no! minutes! kept.”136!This! group! talked! about! the! main! elements! of! the! goals! and!

“what!we!came!up!with!wasn’t!too!different!from!the!IDGs,!mainly!because!we!felt!that!the!

MDGs!should!be!kept!short!and!simple!and!that!it!would!be!a!mistake!to!put!in!too!many! secondary!targets!because!it!would!only!detract!from!the!core!ones.”137!At!the!end!of!this! meeting,!the!group!came!up!with!a!list!that!was!typed!up!and!circulated!(see!Table!1).138!!

TABLE&1.&Reconciling&the&IDGs&and&the&Millennium&Declaration&Goals139& International-Development-Goals- Millennium-Declaration-Goals- 1!Poverty!reduction! 1!Poverty!reduction! 2!Water! 5!Slums! 6!Digital![divide]! 2!Universal!primary!education! 2!Education:!Universal!primary!education! 3!Gender!equality! 3!Education:!Gender!gap! 4!Infant!and!child!mortality! 4!Health:!HIV/AIDS! 5!Maternal!mortality! 6!Reproductive!health! 7!Environment:!Sustainable!development! “A!sustainable!future:!The!environmental!agenda”! Source:!Colin!Bradford!(USAID!Representative),!handwritten!note.!

According!to!Swanson,!this!was!the!first!meeting!that!gave!rise!to!a!consideration!of! the!Millennium!Declaration!and!the!ways!in!which!it!could!be!reconciled!with!the!existing!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 136!Ibid.!

137!ibid.!!

138!The!list!was!reproduced!in!a!publication!by!David!Hulme.!See!Hulme,!The(MDGs,!39.!

139!Ibid.!! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 202! !

IDGs,!which!were!clearly!already!in!use!by!the!OECD/DAC!member!countries,!primarily!the!

UK,!who!was!very!keen!on!holding!on!to!the!IDGs!and!even!better!make!those!the!global! development!agenda.!After!this!meeting,!the!UN!under!the!leadership!of!Michael!Doyle!and!

Jan!Vandemoortele!organized!the!interagency!expert!group!that!met!several!times!during! spring!and!summer!of!2001!and!finally!produced!the!Millennium!Development!Goals!as!we! know!them!today.!!

UN!archives!do!not!shed!much!light!on!the!process!that!went!into!the!negotiations! among!the!various!agencies!engaged!in!creating!the!final!list!of!MDGs,!but!my!interviews! offer!some!indication!of!the!organizational!politics!involved.!The!UN!General!Assembly!had! requested! Kofi! Annan! to! come! up! with! a! document! on! how! the! Millennium! Declaration! could! be! made! actionable,! and! yet,! the! final! MDGs! only! focused! on! the! two! chapters! focusing! on! development! and! poverty! eradication! and,! to! some! extent,! protecting! our! common!environment.!Why!only!focus!on!development!when!the!Millennium!Declaration! was! so! broad! and! had! a! rather! wide! scope?! Vandemoortele! suggested! this! was! a! conscientious! decision,! as! he! “played! a! big! role! as! the! gatekeeper”! with! two! criteria! in! mind:!“Is!there!a!solid!indicator!for!that!target?!And!are!there!good!global!data!to!monitor! it?”140!Vandemoortele!explained!that!the!source!of!the!task!and!the!internal!politics!of!the!

UN! were! key! to! the! final! outcome,! “We! had! a! politically! agreed! text! which! was! the!

Millennium!Declaration,!and!what!we!did!was!lifting!out!verbatim!18!targets!like!the!one!on! poverty,!schooling,!etc.!We!grouped!them!into!8!goals.!We!gave!the!goals!a!title!and!then!we! selected! 48! indicators.! But! the! targets! themselves! were! verbatim! taken! out! of! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 140!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 203! !

Millennium!Declaration.!Because!we!knew!that!as!a!group!of!experts!we!had!no!mandate!to! create!politically!agreed!language.”141!!

Thus,! some! have! argued! that! the! MDGs! are! a! setback! to! issues! pertaining! to! reproductive! health,! because! –! unlike! the! IDGs! –! there! is! no! standalone! goal! for! them.!

Noting!the!absence!of!universal!access!to!reproductive!health!in!We(the(Peoples!and!hence! later!in!the!Millennium!Declaration,!David!Hulme!has!placed!the!blame!on!“what!has!been! labeled! ‘an! unholy’! alliance! (Berer,! 2001)….spearheaded! by! the! Vatican! and! the! UN! delegations! of! conservative! Islamic! countries! and! conservative,! evangelical! Christian! groups!from!the!US.”142!Vandemoortele!maintained!that!reproductive!health!didn’t!make!it! into!the!MDGs!because!it!was!absent!from!the!Millennium!Declaration,!explaining,!“it’s!not! us! who! didn’t! select! it! but! it! wasn’t! in! the! original! text.! And! that! was! the! result! of! the!

Americans! mostly,! not! so! much! the! Vatican! and! Pakistan! and! Egypt,! it! was! the! US! administration! under! Bush,! and! they! went! a! big! step! back! on! that! front.! They! made! an! alliance!with!others,!but!the!driving!force!was!the!US!administration.”143!!

Cognizant!of!the!different!weights!that!varying!member!states!carry!within!the!UN,!I! asked! Doyle! about! the! political! process! that! led! to! the! MDGs.! Doyle! explained! that! the! process!of!generating!the!MDGs!from!the!Millennium!Declaration!rested!on!a!twoJpronged! approach,!whereby!Vandemoortele!oversaw!the!technical!aspects!by!coJchairing!the!interJ agency!meetings,!while!Doyle!himself!dealt!with!the!political!track,!which!meant!regularly! meeting!and!briefing!various!UN!constituents,!including!“the!EU,!the!GJ77,!the!Americans,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 141!Ibid.!!

142!David!Hulme,!“The!MDGs,”!27.!

143!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 204! ! the!UK,!etc.!It!was!very!important!that!they!got!on!board.”144!An!anecdote!on!human!rights! helped! explain! this! further.! Doyle! shared! the! idea! of! including! human! rights! indicators! within!the!MDGs,!but!when!he!brought!this!up!with!Mary!Robinson,!at!the!time!UN!High!

Commissioner!for!Human!Rights,!she!objected!to!the!idea!on!the!grounds!that!a!globally! agreed!set!of!indicators!for!human!rights!did!not!exist.!To!Doyle,!“That!was!discouraging.!

Having!failed!on!human!rights!where!I!saw!a!lot!of!promise!and!aware!of!the!enormous! amount!of!work!involved!with!the!MDGs,!I!said!let’s!just!stick!with!what!we!have.”145!!

Yet,! even! the! coJchairs! of! the! UN! interJagency! expert! team! emphasize! different! factors!in!their!recollection!of!the!MDG!story.!Vandemoortele!showed!his!disappointment! at! the! low! level! of! priority! the! MDGs! took! within! the! UNDP! at! the! time,! stating! that! the! directorate!was!rather!indifferent!to!the!process!because!“nobody!really!had!any!idea!of!the! eventual!outcome.”146!Clearly,!the!BWfA(event!had!left!an!indelible!mark!on!UNDP’s!psyche.!

In!fact,!Vandemoortele!almost!sounded!regretful!when!I!asked!him!about!the!poverty!goal! within!the!MDGs,!saying!that!the!reason!for!why!the!donors,!in!particular!the!UK,!pushed! for! it! were! twofold.! First,! “it’s! a! catchJall! phrase! to! mobilize! your! domestic! support! for! development!cooperation,!and!of!course!if!you!have!the!$1!a!day!which!is!so!simplistic!and! nonsensical!but!then!you!can!show!figures!to!your!public,!look!the!dollars!and!pounds!we! are!spending!on!development!cooperation!are!really!resulting!in!real!impact!on!the!ground!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 144!Interview!with!Michael!Doyle,!April!8,!2013.!

145!Ibid.!

146!Jan!Vandemoortele,!email!to!author,!March!30,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 205! !

–!although!it’s!fake,!bogus–!but!politically!there’s!lots!of!mileage,!which!is!why!I!think!Clare!

Short!and!the!Scandinavians!and!the!Dutch!went!for!it.”147!!

Eveline! Herfkens! corroborated! Vandemoortele’s! statement! by! suggesting! that! the! driving!force!behind!quantitative!targets!was!that!“we!had!to!show!results…for!example,! that!many!more!kids!go!to!school!than!otherwise…to!make!results!visible!to!constituencies! in! rich! countries.”148!According! to! Vandemoortele,! this! was! the! primary! reason! for! why! poverty!reduction!as!a!goal!in!particular!measured!as!extreme!poverty!of!$1!a!day!was!on!

OECD’s!agenda!in!1996!and!why!they!tried!to!also!incorporate!it!into!the!social!summit!in!

1995,!“because!they!needed!it,!as!ODA!was!in!freeJfall!and!they!were!desperate!to!make! their!case.”149!The!second!reason,!Vandemoortele!argued,!was!ideological,!not!just!the!selfJ interest!of!ministers!of!development!cooperation,!in!the!sense!that!they!could!say,!“look,! the! neoliberal! policy! package! is! delivering! on! its! promises…your! system! is! faulty! but! it! delivers!because!there!is!no!more!poverty,!as!the!WB!and!now!even!the!US!say!we!have! reached!the!poverty!goal!five!years!ahead!of!time.!It’s!bogus.”150!

Ultimately,!the!MDGs!were!created!on!the!back!of!a!unanimously!agreed!document! at!a!unique!event,!substantiated!by!“an!accident!of!calendar,”151!as!Annan!put!it.!Although! they!evolved!to!take!on!a!life!of!their!own!and!to!imprint!the!global!development!agenda,! they!were!merely!“noted”!in!an!annex!attached!to!the!SecretaryJGeneral’s!road!map!report! at!the!2001!General!Assembly!summit.!Doyle!clarified!that!it!was!at!the!insistence!of!the!US! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 147!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.!

148!Interview!with!Eveline!Herfkens,!December!16,!2013.!

149!Ibid.!!

150!Ibid.!!

151!Kofi!Annan,!Interventions,(222.(( Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 206! ! that! the! MDGs! be! merely! “noted,”! as! an! endorsement! would! have! required! that! they! be! vetted!in!Washington,!where!“the!Bush!Administration!would!have!stopped!it!by!insisting! that! IMF! and! WB! and! OECD! drop! out.”152!This! is! because! the! US! thought! that! the! MDGs!

“represented!the!wrong!kind!of!Third!World!development!thinking”!because!“unlike!their! own!Millennium!Challenge!Account!which!we!were!undermining,!we!had!failed!to!specify! the!right!strategy!to!achieve!development!(for!them!it!was!privatization,!monetary!stability,! fiscal! balance,! central! bank! independence,! unrestricted! DFI! (direct! foreign! investment),! unrestricted!trade,!rule!of!law!and!democracy!–!in!that!order).”153!!

In! contrast,! Doyle! explained,! GJ77! as! well! as! the! European! Union! had! formally! welcomed! the! MDGs! at! various! meetings! in! 2001! and! expressed! their! willingness! to! endorse!them.!The!main!reason!for!this!agreement!was!the!inclusion!of!goal!8,!which!based! on! the! text! of! the! Millennium! Declaration,! sets! out! to! “Develop! a! global! partnership! for! development.”154!MDG!8!was!a!response!to!the!critique!from!civil!society!about!the!IDGs! having! created! a! donorJdriven! agenda! that! monitored! the! development! activities! of! the!

South! without! holding! the! North! and! their! policies! to! account.! As! Doyle! explained,! this! specific!goal!and!targets!were!written!“in!direct!consultation!with!the!leadership!group!of! the! GJ77! developing! countries! in! order! to! restore! mutual! responsibility! to! the! oneJsided! monitoring!that!characterized!the!IDGs.”155!As!Chapter!7!will!elaborate,!the!same!kind!of! timeJbound!and!measurable!targets!given!to!the!first!seven!goals!were!not!assigned!to!goal!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 152!Michael!Doyle,!email!to!author,!May!20,!2014.!

153!Ibid.!!

154!For! a! complete! list! of! the! Millennium! Development! Goals! and! further! background! information,! see! Appendix!9.6!or!visit!http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkgd.shtml.!

155!Michael!Doyle,!email!to!author,!May!20,!2014.! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 207! !

8.!Nevertheless,!the!mere!presence!of!a!goal!that!established!an!accountability!mechanism! for!donors!was!accepted!by!developing!countries,!reflecting!a!leap!from!the!donorJdriven!

IDGs! to! the! globally! derived! MDGs.! In! addition,! the! standardized,! quantifiable! and! timeJ bound!targets!within!the!first!7!goals!set!in!motion!a!process!that!would!help!consolidate! the!antipoverty!norm.!!

As!this!chapter!demonstrated,!while!drawing!on!the!conferences!of!the!1990s,!the!

Millennium! Development! Goals! were! a! topJdown! process,! initially! created! by! donors! within!OECD!to!harmonize!aid!and!better!coordinate!their!policies,!later!endorsed!by!the! international!community!within!the!Millennium!Declaration,!and!finally!made!actionable!in! the!MDGs!through!an!exclusive,!technocratic!process!engaging!the!various!UN!programmes,! funds!and!agencies!as!well!as!the!IMF,!World!Bank!and!OECD.!This!transformation!from!a! narrowly!conceived!set!of!goals!to!a!globally!consented!agenda!was!made!possible!through! the! inclusion! of! goal! 8,! which! iterated! some! targets! that! would! enable! greater! global! cooperation!for!development!by!holding!the!industrialized!countries!accountable!for!their! actions!and!policies.!While!the!IDGs,!as!presented!in!A(Better(World(for(All(report,!had!been! received! angrily! by! civil! society! actors! in! June! 2000,! a! short! few! months! later,! similar! principles!presented!in!the!Millennium!Declaration!were!praised!for!their!aspirations!and! endorsed! by! all! 189! Member! States.! Crucially,! they! left! out! the! contentious! goal! of! reproductive!health!but!included!a!goal!on!global!cooperation.!Indeed,!by!September!2001,! not!only!did!these!millennium!goals!constitute!a!novel!longJterm!development!agenda!for! the!international!community,!they!came!to!solidify!the!antipoverty!norm!and!gave!rise!to! various!social!movements!determined!to!“make!poverty!history.”156!!Yet,!subscribing!to!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 156!The! Make( Poverty( History! campaign! was! created! in! 2005! in! Great! Britain! and! Ireland! as! part! of! the! Chapter(6:(NEGOTIATING(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(AGENDA( 208! ! global! agenda! is! one! thing;! ensuring! that! the! agenda! is! widely! acknowledged! and! implemented!by!states!is!an!entirely!different!thing.!Chapter!7!examines!the!constitution!of! the!antipoverty!norm!to!explain!its!consolidation.!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! international! Global! Call! to! Action! Against! Poverty! (GCAP)! that! mobilized! various! charity,! faithJbased,! and! civil!society!groups!to!rally!around!social!justice!issues,!in!particular!as!they!pertain!to!MDG!8!on!aid,!trade! and!debt.!See!www.makepovertyhistory.org.!

Chapter 7

CONSTITUTION AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE ANTIPOVERTY NORM ! ! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 210! !

Within! the! UN! system,! the! MDGs! had! an! important! impact! on! the! operational! activities!of!diverse!programmes,!funds!and!agencies.!But!also!outside!of!the!UN!system,! the! global! development! agenda! impacted! donors’! funding! and! developing! countries’! planning!instruments,!if!not!in!practice,!at!the!very!least!in!rhetoric.!A!closer!look!at!the!

MDG!rollout!indicates!three!distinct!phases!to!the!evolution!of!this!agenda.1!!

From!2002F2005,!most!activities!were!geared!towards!advocacy!around!the!MDGs! through! awarenessFraising! campaigns,! monitoring,! reporting,! and! costing! exercises.! This! first! phase! saw! one! particular! organization—United! Nations! Development! Programme!

(UNDP)—gain! greater! space! in! development! discussions! for! various! reasons! elaborated! below,!including!the!fact!that!key!units!dealing!with!those!initial!activities!such!as!the!UN!

Millennium! Campaign! and! the! UN! Millennium! Project,! were! housed! within! UNDP.! The! years! 2005F2010! saw! increasing! initiatives! in! incorporating! the! MDGs! into! PRSPs! and! generally!mainstreaming!these!goals!into!countries’!national!development!planning.!This! move! came! in! response! to! the! resolution! adopted! by! world! leaders! at! the! 2005! World!

Summit! to! “adopt,! by! 2006,! and! implement! comprehensive! national! development! strategies! to! achieve! the! internationally! agreed! development! goals! and! objectives,! including!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.”2!A!few!years!later,!the!2010!review!summit! led! the! UN! High! Level! Plenary! Meeting! to! conclude! that! progress! in! achieving! the! MDGs! was! lagging! in! many! countries.! Thus,! from! 2010! onwards,! focus! shifted! to! an! UNFwide! exercise!termed!the!MDG!Acceleration!Framework!(MAF)!to!offer!“governments!and!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!I!am!thankful!to!Selim!Jahan,!currently!Director!of!the!Human!Development!Report!Office,!who!has!served! different!positions!within!UNDP!since!1992!for!walking!me!through!the!evolution!of!the!MDGs!within!the!UN! system!since!their!inception.!!!

2!United!Nations,!General!Assembly!resolution!60/1,!2005(World(Summit(Outcome,(A/RES/60/1!(24!October! 2005).!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 211! ! partners!a!systematic!way!to!identify!and!prioritize!bottlenecks!to!progress!on!MDG!targets! that!are!off!track,!as!well!as!‘acceleration’!solutions!to!these!bottlenecks.”3!!

This!chapter!focuses!on!the!first!phase!of!the!MDG!rollout!(2002F2005)!to!examine! the! uptake! of! the! MDGs! in! the! aftermath! of! the! SecretaryFGeneral’s! submission! of! the!

Roadmap( to! the! General! Assembly! in! September! 2001,! by! outlining! the! various! mechanisms! that! were! put! in! place! in! order! to! broaden! the! debate.! In! delineating! the! initiatives! undertaken! to! make! the! MDGs! a! household! name! within! development! circles! and!to!implement!them!at!the!local!level,!the!chapter!first!focuses!on!mechanisms!created! to!consolidate!the!antipoverty!norm,!thereby!examining!the!political!processes!that!were! set!in!motion.!Particular!attention!is!paid!to!the!steps!taken!immediately!in!the!aftermath!of! the! launch! of! the! Roadmap,( to! ensure! that! all! the! pieces! were! in! place! for! a! successful! integration! of! the! MDGs! into! national! planning.! Next,! the! chapter! conducts! a! textual! analysis!of!the!MDGs!to!highlight!the!features!of!these!goals!that!enabled!the!consolidation! of!the!antipoverty!norm.!!

This!analysis!suggests!that!understanding!the!constitution!of!the!MDGs!is!essential! to!understanding!their!behavior.4!In!other!words,!the!specific!features!of!the!MDGs!in!terms! of! their! content! and! form! can! help! us! understand! their! consolidation,! from! the! initial! pushbacks! to! their! eventual! embracement! by! the! international! community.! The! chapter! highlights! the! multidimensionality! of! the! antipoverty! norm—its! multisectoral! approach! that!combined!eight!interFrelated!goals!in!line!with!the!human!development!concept—as!a! significant! feature! that! contributed! to! its! manifestation.! The! understanding! that! poverty! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!UNDG,!MDG(Acceleration(Framework:(Operational(Note!(New!York:!United!Nations,!2011).!

4!I! am! grateful! to! Tim! Mitchell! for! having! pointed! me! in! this! direction! early! on! when! discussing! my! dissertation!proposal.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 212! ! reduction!depended!on!improvements!in!such!diverse!areas!as!health,!education,!gender! equality,!environmental!sustainability,!and!global!cooperation!around!aid,!trade,!and!debt! relief,! signified! the! important! role! that! key! development! actors! played! in! pursuit! of! this! millennial! agenda.! At! the! same! time,! the! MDGs! created! a! process,! whereby! “all! development! efforts! by! donors! had! to! be! mapped! onto! one! or! more! of! the! goals.”5!As! a! result,! development! organizations! lobbied! to! get! their! specific! concerns! attached! to! the!

MDGs,! in! order! to! ensure! that! their! priority! areas! received! the! required! attention.! Thus,! their! multisectoral! content! and! participationFinducing! approach! contributed! to! the! consolidation! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! as! various! institutions! formulated! their! priorities! within!the!MDG!framework.!

The! norms! literature! in! IR! has! debated! the! various! features! of! norms! that! rise! to! prominence,! giving! different! explanations! as! to! why! some! issues! emerge! as! normative! principles!versus!others.!In!terms!of!substance,!the!antipoverty!norm!contains!many!of!the! attributes!the!literature!ascribes!to!successful!norms,!as!it!is!an!issue!area!that!highlights! vulnerability! and! violation! of! equal! rights,! is! highly! visible! in! the! public! domain,! and! attracts!donor!interest.6!In!terms!of!form,!the!antipoverty!norm!indicates!the!emergence!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!Rolph! van! der! Hoeven,! “MDGs! postF2015:! Beacons! in! Turbulent! Times! or! False! Lights?”! UN(System(Task( Team(on(the(PostO2015(UN(Development(Agenda((conference!paper!presented!in!New!York,!27F29!Feb!2012).!

6!Margaret!E.!Keck!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!Activists(Beyond(Borders:(advocacy(Networks(in(International(Politics( (Ithaca! and! London:! Cornell! University! Press,! 1998);! Clifford! Bob,! The( Marketing( of( Rebellion:( Insurgents,( Media,( and( International( Activism( (Cambridge:! Cambridge! University! Press,! 2005);! Carpenter,! “Setting! the! Advocacy!Agenda”;!R.!Charli!Carpenter,!“Governing!the!Global!Agenda:!“Gatekeepers”!and!“Issue!Adoption”!in! Transnational! Advocacy! Networks,”! in! Who( Governs( the( Globe?,( edited! by! Deborah! D.! Avant,! Martha! Finnemore!and!Susan!K.!Sell!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2010).!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 213! ! a!new!type!of!norm,!which!I!call!a!norm(complex.7!On!the!face!of!it,!the!antipoverty!norm!is! clear!and!specific,!and!thus,!consistent!with!the!findings!in!the!literature!that!assign!higher! success!to!such!principles.8!At!the!same!time,!as!a!norm!complex,!the!MDGs!contain!many! different!interFrelated!principles,!whose!interconnectedness!signifies!poverty!itself!to!be!a! highly! complex! social! phenomenon.! This! multidimensionality9!of! the! MDGs! helped! win! over! the! various! actors! required! in! order! to! endorse! the! MDGs,! not! only! the! various! international! organizations! but! also! states,! whose! votes! were! necessary! to! endorse! the!

MDGs.!But,!while!generating!consent!around!the!overarching!idea!of!poverty!reduction,!the!

MDGs! do! not! resolve! questions! revolving! around! causes! and! solutions! to! poverty.! This! ambiguity,!however,!is!concealed!by!the!clearly!defined!goal!of!halving!the!proportion!of! people! living! on! less! than! $1.25! a! day! by! 2015,! creating! a! certainty! and! clarity! that! has! helped!the!consolidation!of!antipoverty!norm!in!development!discourse!and!practice.!!

There!is!general!agreement!that!the!Millennium!Development!Goals!set!themselves! apart! from! previous! development! goals! and! targets.! The! particular! nature! of! these! goals! sheds!light!on!their!feasibility!to!not!only!dominate!the!international!development!agenda! within!a!short!period!of!time,!but!also!to!solidify!the!antipoverty!norm.!In!particular,!four!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!FukudaFParr!and!Hulme!call!the!antipoverty!norm!a!“supernorm”!suggesting!the!MDGs!are!individual!norms! that!together!make!the!antipoverty!supernorm.!I!instead!call!this!a!“norm!complex”!to!highlight!the!complex! causal!relationships!among!the!individual!normative!principles!contained!within!the!MDGs.!This!will!prove! particularly! useful! in! my! discussion! of! other! similar! types! of! norm! complexes! in! the! concluding! chapter,! where!I!examine!failed!states!and!good!governance.!

8 !Jeffrey! W.! Legro,! “Which! Norms! Matter?! Revisiting! the! “Failure”! of! Internationalism,”! International( Organization(51,!no.!1!(Winter!1997):!31F63.!

9!As! Michael! Doyle! explained,! “Philosophically! the! multidimensional! character! of! poverty! and! extreme! poverty! were! clear! to! all! the! participants,! and! frequently! part! of! our! advocacy! (it! was! a! key! theme! in! my! standard!stump!speech).!!But!as!importantly,!it!was!strategically!central;!the!big!tent!conception!of!how!to! address!poverty!was!key!to!winning!over!by!enlisting!not!only!the!key!agencies!but!also!the!votes!that!were! needed! to! endorse! the! MDGs! in! the! GA! (hence! the! weird! emphasis! on! the! needs! of! landlocked! and! small! island!states!FF!count!them!up!)”!Michael!Doyle,!eFmail!to!author,!August!26,!2014.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 214! ! features!of!these!goals!stand!out.!First,!they!created!a!fifteenFyear!agenda!with!clear!and! timeFbound!targets,!thereby!establishing!target(setting!as!a!key!feature!of!the!development! agenda.! Second,! through! the! use! of! simple! and! “universal”10!goals,! their! standardization! helped!simplify!a!complex!social!phenomenon—in!this!case!poverty.!Third,!by!identifying! indicators! and! calculating! national! and! international! progress! towards! achieving! these! goals,! they! introduced! quantification! as! a! compelling! and! powerful! tool! to! evaluate! governments’! efforts! and! commitment! to! poverty! reduction.! Finally,! the! MDGs! depicted! ontological( freezing11!in! the! development! debate,! whereby! poverty! became! primarily! a! problem!internal!to!the!state,!thereby!shifting!the!focus!from!transnational!forces!or!global! governance! structures! to! flawed! domestic! institutions! and! policies.! In! sum,! the! MDGs! presented! a! powerful! agenda! that! maintained! the! antipoverty! focus! of! international! development! efforts.! At! the! same! time,! their! focus! on! performance! evaluation! within! domestic! realms! detracted! from! the! interdependent! nature! of! transformative! processes! that!impact!poverty!and!progress!in!a!globalized!world.!!

This! chapter! proceeds! as! follows.! First,! the! mechanisms! that! were! established! in! order!to!institutionalize!the!MDGs!will!be!examined.!Despite!the!broad!consensus!that!had!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!I!use!the!word!“universal”!hesitantly,!because!although!the!goals!are!meant!to!apply!to!all!the!countries!in! the!world,!the!bar!is!set!so!low!that!most!middleFincome!and!highFincome!countries!have!already!achieved! many! of! the! goals.! This! was! one! of! the! key! critiques! leveled! at! the! MDGs! early! on.! The! most! crisp! identification!of!this!problem!has!been!vocalized!by!the!Economist!Ashwani!Saith,!who!argues,!“even!though! [the! MDG! frame]! professes! to! be! propelled! by! shared! universal! values,! the! entire! MDG! scaffolding! and! accompanying!text!is!insufficiently!global!in!its!approach.!It!tends!to!ghettoize!the!problem!of!development! and! locates! it! firmly! in! the! third! world! –! as! if! development! is! fundamentally! and! exclusively! an! issue! of! absolute! levels! of! living.! Whatever! happened! to! poverty! and! deprivation! in! the! advance! economies?”! See! Ashwani!Saith,!“From!Universal!Values!to!Millennium!Development!Goals:!Lost!in!Translation,”!Development( Change(37!no.!6!(2006):!1184.!Indeed,!this!criticism!has!meant!that!the!debates!around!the!next!development! agenda!have!been!very!much!focused!on!the!“universality”!of!goals,!such!that!they!apply!to!all!the!UN!member! states!and!hold!all!governments!accountable!for!their!development!policies,!irrespective!of!their!income!or! human!development!rank.!!

11!I!am!thankful!to!Alex!Cooley!for!providing!me!with!this!terminology.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 215! ! brought!the!Millennium!Declaration!and!subsequently!the!Millennium!Development!Goals! to!life,!the!operationalization!and!implementation!of!the!MDGs!required!some!coaxing!and! cajoling,! as! their! relevance! and! utility! were! not! immediately! recognized! by! all! member! states.!The!focus!will!be!primarily!on!the!United!Nations!Development!Programme,!the!UN! agency! that! was! given! the! responsibility! as! the! Chair! of! the! UN! Development! Group! to! oversee!the!campaigning!and!monitoring!of!the!MDGs.!Second,!the!particular!features!of!the!

MDGs!will!be!assessed!to!explain!their!contribution!to!consolidating!the!antipoverty!norm! within!development!circles.!Finally,!differences!in!the!formulation!of!targets!and!indicators! for! the! first! seven! goals! compared! to! goal! 8! will! be! examined! to! elucidate! the! primary! argument! of! this! chapter:! that! target! setting,! standardization,! quantification,! and! ontological!freezing!of!development!as!a!process!have!been!crucial!to!the!consolidation!of! the!antipoverty!norm,!in!as!far!as!focus!has!been!primarily!on!the!goals!pertaining!to!the! social!sector!while!global!cooperation!targets!have!received!less!attention.!!!

7.1 MDG Advocacy, Monitoring & Reporting

! The!introduction!of!the!MDGs!in!the!Roadmap(was!only!the!beginning!of!the!global! journey!to!reduce!poverty.!At!that!point,!it!was!up!to!the!United!Nations!and!its!partners!to! actively! pursue! the! achievement! of! the! goals.! The! SecretaryFGeneral! outlined! the! way! forward!in!the!following!terms!in!the!Roadmap:!

“The! United! Nations! will! report! on! the! progress! towards! the! millennium! development! goals! at! the! global! and! country! levels,! coordinated! by! the! Department!of!Economic!and!Social!Affairs!of!the!United!Nations!Secretariat! and!UNDP,!respectively.!Reporting!will!be!based!on!two!principles:!(a)!close! consultation! and! collaboration! with! all! relevant! institutions,! including! the! United! Nations! Development! Group! (including! WHO! and! UNCTAD),! other! United! Nations! departments,! funds,! programmes! and! specialized! agencies,! the!World!Bank,!IMF!and!OECD,!and!regional!groupings!and!experts;!and!(b)! the! use! of! nationally! owned! poverty! reduction! strategies,! as! reported! in! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 216! !

poverty! reduction! strategy! papers,! United! Nations! common! country! assessments! and! national! human! development! reports,! which! emphasize! a! consultative!process!among!the!development!partners.”12! ! Thus,!the!responsibility!to!monitor!progress!globally!and!nationally!was!assigned!to!

UN!Department!of!Economic!and!Social!Affairs!(UNDESA)!and!UNDP,!respectively.!In!fact,!

UNDP!came!away!from!this!exercise!gaining!much!more!importance!in!the!implementation! of!MDGs!and!carrying!greater!responsibility!in!development!debates!than!before.!Several! factors!explain!UNDP’s!centrality!to!the!MDG!agenda.!First,!as!the!UN’s!global!development! network,!UNDP!is!on!the!ground!in!166!countries.!This!physical!proximity!to!development! issues! on! the! ground! as! well! as! direct! contact! with! the! people! and! governments! have! legitimated!this!UN!programme’s!increasing!significance!as!a!development!actor.!Second,!

UNDP’s!highly!decentralized!organization!has!allowed!it!to!head!the!UN!system!of!Resident!

Coordinators.! Thus,! at! the! local! level,! UNDP! Resident! Representatives! (who! are! also! UN!

Resident! Coordinators)! are! responsible! for! coordinating! the! development! work! of! the! entire!UN!family!of!organizations,!including!the!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!of!the!

UN!(FAO),!the!International!Labor!Organization!(ILO),!the!UN’s!Children’s!Fund!(UNICEF),! the!World!Food!Programme!(WFP),!etc.!Third,!at!the!global!level,!UNDP!chairs!the!United!

Nations!Development!Group!(UNDG),!which!includes!the!UN’s!key!players!in!international! development.!UNDG!is!a!committee!of!currently!32!UN!agencies,!funds!and!programmes,! which! meet! and! discuss! their! work,! harmonize! their! initiatives,! try! to! eliminate! redundancies,!and!essentially!aim!to!increase!the!effectiveness!and!efficiency!of!their!work.!

Finally,!UNDP’s!historical!counterFnarrative!to!dominant!WashingtonFbased!development!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!United!Nations,!Roadmap(Towards(the(Implementation(of(the(United(Nations(Millennium(Declaration,(Report! of!the!SecretaryFGeneral,!A/56/326!(6!September!2001),(55.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 217! ! policies,! most! visibly! enacted! through! the! establishment! of! the! human! development! concept,! has! presented! this! organization! as! one! that! is! in! “solidarity”! with! the! people.13!

Thereby,! this! organization’s! leadership! with! the! MDGs! was! significant! to! the! broad! acceptance!of!the!MDGs!within!countries.!!

These! features! of! UNDP! allowed! it! to! become! a! primary! force! in! promoting! and! pursuing! the! implementation! of! the! MDGs.! Various! people! that! I! interviewed! for! this! project! highlighted! the! central! role! that! UNDP! came! to! play! with! regards! to! the! MDGs.!

Charles! Gore! (formerly! affiliated! with! United! Nations! Conference! for! Trade! and!

Development! or! UNCTAD)! underlined! the! “primacy! of! UNDP,”! arguing! that! this! organization!“strategically!wanted!to!strengthen!its!position”!and!that!it!had!the!advantage! of! housing! the! human! development! concept.14!Indeed,! UNDP! had! been! overshadowed! by! the!Bretton!Woods!institutions!for!several!decades,!and!the!MDGs!gave!it!the!opportunity! to!shine,!especially!as!the!goals!were!embedded!in!the!human!development!paradigm!that! defined!development!beyond!economic!growth!in!terms!of!human!capabilities!and!choices.!

Mark!Malloch!Brown!(former!UNDP!Administrator)!highlighted!the!impact!of!the!MDGs!on!

UNDP’s!funding!and!position!by!noting,!“Efforts!around!MDGs!put!UNDP!back!in!center!of! development!coordination!and!policy,!and!as!a!result!of!UNDP!being!put!at!the!center!of!the! table,! there! was! a! halo! effect! on! resources.”15!Indeed,! as! Figure! 4! shows,! while! donor!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13!Olav!Stokke!argues!that!UNDP’s!solidarity!with!the!people!has!been!historically!juxtaposed!to!World!Bank! conditionality,! and! that! UNDP! has! often! been! source! of! new! information! and! ideas! about! development,! particularly! visible! in! its! yearly! publication! of! the! Human! Development! Report,! which! has! been! a! counterweight!to!World!Bank’s!World!Development!Report.!He!attributes!governments’!perception!of!UNDP! as! people’s! development! agency! to! its! highly! representative! character,! as! it! partners! with! various! stakeholders!in!countries!and!mostly!hires!local!employees.!See!Olav!Stokke,!The(UN(and(Development:(From( Aid(to(Cooperation((Bloomington,!IN:!Indiana!University!Press,!2009).!!

14!Interview!with!Charles!Gore,!November!18,!2013.!

15!Interview!with!Mark!Malloch!Brown,!September!15,!2014.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 218! ! contributions! to! the! UNDP! had! been! gradually! declining! since! 1992,! after! 2001! the! organization’s!resources!started!to!increase!substantially.!!

Figure'4.'Donor'Contributions'to'UNDP'(million'US'$)'

1400!

1200!

1000!

800!

600!

400!

200!

0! 1990! 1991! 1992! 1993! 1995! 1996! 1997! 1998! 1999! 2000! 2001! 2002! 2003! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 1994! 2004! ! !!!!! Source:!UNDP!At!a!Glance:!The!TenFYear!Record!compiled!by!Global!Policy!Forum! ! !

The! seeds! for! this! important! change! were! planted! early! on.! In! October! 2001,! following! the! General! Assembly! meeting! of! September! that! launched! the! Roadmap,! the!

Administrative! Committee! on! Coordination! (ACC) 16 !constituting! all! heads! of! the! UN! specialized! agencies,! funds! and! programmes! (including! the! World! Bank)! met! to! discuss,! among! others,! countryFlevel! monitoring! of! MDGs.! According! to! the! UN! archives,! the! question! of! how! to! campaign! for! the! MDGs! was! quite! central! to! the! discussions,! leading!

World!Bank!president!James!Wolfensohn!to!suggest!that!Mark!Malloch!Brown,!the!UNDP!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16!The!ACC!is!now!called!the!United!Nations!System!Chief!Executives!Board!for!Coordination!(CEB).!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 219! !

Administrator!and!Chair!of!the!UN!Development!Group!(UNDG)!17!act!as!the!“scorekeeper”! of!MDG!progress.18!A!few!weeks!later,!on!November!16,!2001,!Kofi!Annan!sent!a!letter!to! the! members! of! ACC! to! solicit! their! approval! that! Malloch! Brown! be! considered! both!

“scorekeeper”!and!“campaign!manager”!of!the!MDGs!because!“by!his!institutional!position! as!Chair!of!UNDG!and!by!his!experience!of!campaigns,![Mark!Malloch!Brown]!is!best!suited! for!this!role.”19!!

Malloch! Brown! found! himself! at! a! historically! opportune! moment! leading! an! important!development!organization.!He!joined!UNDP!as!its!administrator!in!1999,!after! having!worked!at!the!World!Bank!as!ViceFPresident!for!External!Affairs!from!1994F1999.!

As! previous! chapters! highlighted,! that! was! a! crucial! time! period! as! the! Bank! was! under! pressure!to!prove!its!relevance.!It!was!Malloch!Brown’s!job!to!give!the!World!Bank!a!face! lift!and,!in!his!own!words,!“to!combat!the!critics.”20!Indeed,!“Under!his!guidance,!the!Bank! blitzed! opinionFmakers! with! fullFpage! newspaper! advertisements! and! a! television! campaign! to! change! perceptions! of! it! as! an! arrogant! institution! unwilling! to! heed! outsiders.”21!In! that! position,! Malloch! Brown! was! both! in! close! contact! with! World! Bank!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17!As!the!UNDG!website!states,!“The!United!Nations!Development!Group!unites!the!32!UN!funds,!programmes,! agencies,! departments,! and! offices! that! play! a! role! in! development.! The! group’s! common! objective! is! to! deliver! more! coherent,! effective! and! efficient! support! to! countries! seeking! to! attain! internationally! agreed! development! goals,! including! the! Millennium! Development! Goals.! Established! by! the! SecretaryFGeneral! in! 1997,!the!UNDG!designs!systemFwide!guidance!to!coordinate,!harmonize!and!align!UN!development!activities.! The!group!strengthens!the!UN!development!system!at!the!country!level,!prepares!it!to!meet!future!challenges! and!ensures!that!operations!are!conducted!in!accordance!with!mandates!from!UN!governing!bodies!such!as! the!General!Assembly.”!See!www.undg.org/content/about_the_undg.!

18!Note!to!Mr.!Malloch!Brown,!“Subject:!CountryFlevel!monitoring!of!Millennium!Development!Goals!(MDGs),”! 20!November!2001,!United!Nations!Archives.!!

19!Ibid.!!

20!Mark!Malloch!Brown,!The(Unfinished(Global(Revolution((New!York:!The!Penguin!Press,!2011),!101.!!

21!Mark! Tran,! “Profile:! Lord! Malloch! Brown,”! The( Guardian,( June! 28,! 2007),! accessed! August! 1,! 2012,! http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/jun/28/politics.labour1.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 220! ! president!James!Wolfensohn!and!in!charge!of!external!relations!with!the!UN.!In!addition,!in! the! early! 1980s! he! had! worked! with! Kofi! Annan! while! employed! by! the! UN! High!

Commissioner!for!Refugees.!Thus,!he!was!known!and!trusted!by!both!leaders!of!the!UN!and! the! World! Bank! while! heading! an! international! development! agency! that! housed! the! human!development!concept,!in!addition!to!chairing!UN’s!development!activities.!!

Malloch!Brown!rebranded!UNDP!by!not!only!giving!it!a!new!logo,!but!a!new!vision! and! profile.! While! previously! engaged! in! many! different! areas! of! development,! UNDP! created! six! thematic! practice! areas! that! would! receive! its! staff’s! full! attention,! including! poverty,!democratic!governance,!crisis!prevention!and!recovery,!energy!and!environment,!

ICT!for!development,!and!HIV/AIDS.!The!Business!Plans!2000F2003!indicated!a!focusing!of! the! organization’s! operations! by! “positioning! UNDP! to! make! the! greatest! possible! contribution! to! human! development! and! to! poverty! eradication,! specifically! to! the! 2015! goal!of!reducing!extreme!poverty!by!half.”22!Malloch!Brown!announced!this!move!shortly! after! the! endorsement! of! the! Millennium! Declaration,! acknowledging! that! a! better! performing! UNDP! would! be! “a! highly! focused! and! fieldForiented! organization! for! policy! support.”23!With!the!aim!to!strengthen!its!policy!capacity,!UNDP!embarked!on!a!series!of! key!inventions,!one!of!which!was!the!introduction!of!knowledge!services,!in!order!for!the! organization! “to! become! the! source! of! the! most! upFtoFdate,! highFquality,! cuttingFedge! knowledge,!experience!and!expertise!in!its!six!thematic!priority!areas.”24!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22!UNDP,!Update(on(the(UNDP(Business(Plans,(2000O2003,(DP/2001/CRP.2,!December!29,!2000.!

23!Ibid.!!

24!UNDP,!What(Are(UNDP’s(Knowledge(Services?((New!York:!UNDP,!2001).! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 221! !

Reinvigorated!and!tasked!as!“score!keeper”!and!“campaign!manager”!of!the!global! development!agenda,!UNDP!worked!with!its!partner!agencies!to!formulate!a!strategy!for! the! MDGs.! This! strategy! had! three! parallel! tracks! and! included! the! Millennium! Project,!

Millennium! Reports,! and! Millennium! Campaign.! The! Millennium! Project! was! created! in!

February!2002,!commissioned!by!Kofi!Annan!to!develop!an!action!plan!for!the!achievement! of! MDGs.! The! Project! included! ten! thematic! task! forces! comprising! 250! experts! from! around!the!world!and!was!directed!under!the!leadership!of!renowned!Economist!Jeffrey!

Sachs.!The!main!rationale!for!the!Project!was!to!bring!together!various!UN!agencies,!the!

World! Bank,! the! IMF,! and! other! partners! to! “recommend! a! concrete! action! plan! for! the! world!to!reverse!the!grinding!poverty,!hunger!and!disease!affecting!billions!of!people.”25!!

The!second!leg!of!the!strategy!consisted!of!advocacy!and!campaigning.!In!October!

2002,!Kofi!Annan!appointed!Eveline!Herfkens!(whom!we!met!in!earlier!chapters,!first!as!a!

World!Bank!Executive!Director,!and!later!as!the!Dutch!Development!Minister!and!one!of! the!Utstein!Four)!to!direct!the!Millennium!Campaign!with!the!task!to!raise!awareness!of!

MDGs! and! to! increase! support! among! governments! and! nonFgovernmental! actors! for! achieving!the!goals.!As!Annan!himself!explained,!the!Millennium!Campaign!was!launched!in! order!to!“make!the!commitments!(i.e.!MDGs)!better!known!throughout!the!world!and!to! ensure!that!they!are!the!focus!of!global!action.”26!!

To!monitor!progress!on!the!MDGs,!UNDESA!was!tasked!with!writing!global!reports,! while!the!Poverty!Group!within!UNDP’s!Bureau!for!Development!Policy!was!tasked!with! the!responsibility!to!guide!UN!country!teams!(UNCTs)!in!producing!national!reports.!Under! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25!UN!Millennium!Project,!http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/who/index.htm.!

26!United! Nations,! “Report! of! the! SecretaryFGeneral! on! the! Work! of! the! Organization,”! UN( Yearbook( 2003! (August!28,!2003),!26.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 222! ! the!direction!of!Jan!Vandemoortele,!national!reports!were!to!serve!as!accountability!tools! that! would! drive! political! support! for! the! achievement! of! the! global! poverty! reduction! agenda.!To!that!end,!and!in!line!with!the!newly!created!concept!of!knowledge!services,!the!

Poverty! Group! moderated—on! behalf! of! UNDG—a! virtual! knowledge! network! called!

Millennium!Development!Goals!Network,!or!MDGNet.!The!aim!of!this!network!was!initially! to! support! all! UN! staff! in! writing! MDG! reports,! but! it! soon! extended! membership! to! governments,! civil! society,! academia,! donors,! research! centers! and! private! sector! while! offering!a!forum!to!exchange!information!on!MDG!advocacy,!monitoring,!and!reporting!as! well!as!MDG!related!analytical!and!operational!activities.!!

The!years!leading!up!to!the!review!summit!of!2005!were!a!formative!period!for!the!

MDGs! as! they! were! debated,! loved! and! hated! by! development! experts,! UN! personnel,! government!officials,!civil!society!groups,!and!so!on.!Despite!the!threeFpronged!approach!to! the! MDG! rollout! (campaigning,! research,! and! reporting),! this! discussion! focuses! on! monitoring!and!reporting!only!primarily!because!UN’s!development!network!was!deeply! engaged! in! that! process! and! through! its! presence! in! countries! could! better! gauge! governments’! reception! of! the! MDGs.! Further,! access! to! valuable! sources! enable! a! more! insightful!analysis!of!the!first!years,!which!as!I!argue,!were!crucial!to!the!consolidation!of! the!antipoverty!norm.!The!sources!on!which!I!base!this!analysis!are!twofold.!!

First,! I! draw! on! discussions! held! within! MDGNet.! As! mentioned,! within! the! UN! system,! UNDP! was! pioneering! the! field! of! knowledge! management! and! had! already! launched! several! thematic! networks! on! such! areas! as! poverty,! democratic! governance,!

HIV/AIDS,!gender,!and!evaluation,!among!others.!However,!these!networks!were!open!to!

UNDP! staff! only,! while! MDGNet,! under! UNDG! auspices,! was! open! to! a! broad! range! of! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 223! ! development!practitioners!beyond!UNDP.!As!such,!it!was!a!global!network!that!tried!to!lead! an! open! and! inclusive! discussion! about! MDGs! while! offering! a! unique! platform! for! practitioners! from! all! walks! of! life! to! exchange! information! and! experience! about! monitoring!and!reporting!of!MDG!progress,!advocacy!and!awareness!raising,!programmatic! design! and! implementation! of! policies! and! strategies,! and! so! on.! I! need! to! note! that! I! facilitated!MDGNet!from!February!2003!to!December!2004!and!thus!oversaw!many!of!the! conversations!while!gauging!the!issues!and!controversies!surrounding!the!MDGs!in!their! early!days.27!Second,!supplementing!the!analysis!of!MDGNet!discussions,!I!draw!on!various! interviews!that!I!have!conducted!over!the!years!with!UNDP!staff!at!the!time!in!charge!of! different!aspects!of!MDGs.!!

One!of!the!most!salient!topics!in!the!early!years!of!the!MDGs!was!the!question!of! reporting!on!the!goals.!The!reports,!as!Kofi!Annan!had!mentioned!in!his!letter!to!the!ACC! members,!were!to!be!“an!important,!systemFwide!tool!to!enhance!country!ownership!of!the! goals….[to]! demonstrate! the! commitment! of! the! United! Nations! system! in! supporting! national!and!international!efforts!in!achieving!these!goals.”28!But!there!was!pushback!from! country!offices!as!questions!were!raised!on!how!the!MDG!reports!(MDGR)!should!fit!into! already! existing! Common! Country! Assessments! (CCA),! United! Nations! Development!

Assistance!Frameworks!(UNDAF),!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Papers!(PRSP),!and!National!

Human!Development!Reports!(NHDR).!Even!though!a!guidance!note!on!MDGR!preparation!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27!I!remain!a!member!of!MDGNet!and!every!so!often!receive!a!message!through!that!network.!All!MDGNet! queries,! informational! messages,! discussions,! and! resource! updates! since! the! launch! of! the! network! in! January! 2002! are! archived! electronically! and! accessible! to! members.! I! expressly! informed! the! network! facilitator!of!my!intent!to!use!material!from!the!MDGNet!archives!for!my!dissertation!on!April!27,!2012!and! was!asked!to!cite!material!under!UNDG!MDGNet.!!

28!Ibid.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 224! ! had! been! provided! through! UNDG! in! October! 2001,! it! had! not! foreseen! the! avalanche! of! queries! addressing! the! overlap! with! various! other! reporting! mechanisms! that! already! existed!within!country!offices.!!

Thus,!throughout!2002,!the!discussions!among!members!primarily!revolved!around!

MDG! advocacy! and! awareness! raising! with! questions! about! how! to! get! governments! interested!in!assisting!in!the!production!of!yet!another!report!(in!addition!to!the!already! existing! CCA,! UNDAF,! NHDR,! PRSP).! Many! saw! the! MDGs! as! additional! demand! from! headquarters!that!governments!prove!they!are!spending!the!resources!provided!to!them! by!donors!in!the!right!way—that!is!in!the!pursuit!of!poverty!reduction.!This!is!evident!in! the!many!questions!raised!by!UNDP!staff!in!2002!about!how!to!engage!governments.!The! report!was!to!be!produced!by!governments!with!the!help!of!UN!country!teams,!so!that!they! could! own! the! reports! and! the! process! that! went! into! monitoring! the! goals.! Yet,! the! discussions! indicate! that! UN! country! teams! had! to! make! quite! an! effort! to! encourage! governments!to!produce!MDG!reports.!As!one!UNDP!staff!working!in!Mauritius!noted,!“I! have! not! seen! from! the! various! experiences! shared! on! the! network! where! a! country! voluntarily!prepared!an!MDG!report.!I!believe!that!the!advocacy!role!of!the!UN!system!is! essential!to!encourage!governments!to!take!the!lead!in!producing!these!reports.”29!Another! staff!member!from!the!Philippines!asked!members!how!to!“popularize”!the!MDGs!since!the! government! had! shown! a! lack! of! interest! based! on! the! rationale! that! their! development!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!UNDG! MDGNet,! Query:(MDGRs,(Some(Analytical(Questions(&(Good(Practices(in(MDGR(Participation,(July! 7,! 2002.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 225! ! plan! was! already! oriented! towards! poverty! reduction! and! used! similar! indicators! to! the! ones!listed!in!the!MDGs.30!!

In! addition! to! the! perception! that! this! was! yet! another! monitoring! mechanism! hanging!over!the!heads!of!governments!in!developing!countries,!there!was!quite!a!bit!of! confusion!about!the!role!of!MDG!reports!in!relation!to!other!existing!documents.!Therefore,! early!on,!there!was!a!sense!that!the!MDGs!and!their!reports!needed!to!be!somehow!aligned! with! existing! reporting! mechanisms! without! taking! too! much! time! and! resources! away! from!the!countries.!Some!of!this!confusion!was!clarified!in!an!email!to!the!listFserve!where! it!was!stated,!!

“MDG!reports!use!existing!data!and!analyses!(CCA,!NHDR,!PRSP,!etc.);!their! main! difference! is! that! they! target! a! much! wider! audience.! Other! reports! exist!in!a!relatively!small!world!of!specialists!and!bureaucrats;!they!seldom! reach!the!media!and!the!public.!MDG!reports!are!meant!to!help!break!that! barrier,! to! bring! key! development! messages! to! the! fore! without! having! to! read!200+!pages!and!without!having!to!speak!the!development!jargon.”31! ! Hence,!UN!country!teams!were!advised!to!use!the!MDGs!as!an!advocacy!tool!that! would!broaden!the!debate!and!incorporate!society!at!large!in!a!conversation!about!poverty! and!other!developmental!challenges.!Malloch!Brown!believed!that!“the!charm!of!the!MDGs! was!that!they!were!going!to!become!center!of!elections.!You’d!have!MDG!elections…that!by! creating! this! score! card,! this! league! table! of! performance! around! poverty,! hunger,! education,! this! would! be! seized! on! by! politicians! to! either! defend! their! performance! or! challenge!the!poor!performance!of!the!incumbents.”32!The!question!of!how!to!ensure!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!UNDG!MDGNet,!Query:(The(Philippines/Popularizing(the(MDGs?,(August!21,!2002.!!

31!UNDG!MDGNet,!Query:(Argentina/Definition(of(Indicator,!May!2,!2002.!

32!Interview!with!Mark!Malloch!Brown,!August!16,!2012.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 226! !

MDGs!penetrated!local!planning!and!even!elections!despite!their!topFdown!origins!was!not! further!discussed.!

The!discussions!on!MDGNet!suggest!that!at!the!beginning,!not!only!were!the!MDGs! far! away! from! morphing! into! an! electoral! tool,! their! mere! utility! and! relevance! were! questioned.!The!goals!were!seen!as!the!lowest!common!denominator!that!only!applied!to! the!poorest!countries.!This!was!especially!evident!in!the!cold!reception!they!received!from!

Latin! America.! As! Diana! Alarcon,! a! veteran! MDG! expert,! who! has! worked! on! the! global! development!agenda!since!January!2001,!recalled,!“In!Latin!America,!there!was!absolutely! no!interest!in!an!agenda!that!was!perceived!to!be!donorFcentric!with!objectives!that!had!no! correspondence!with!that!country.”33!In!particular,!since!these!reports!focused!on!poverty! reduction,! there! was! quite! a! bit! of! confusion! on! their! differences! from! the! PRSPs.! In!

September! 2002,! Vandemoortele! wrote! a! oneFpager,! titled! “Are! the! MDGs! and! PRSPs! competing! acronyms?”! His! conclusion! was! “the! perception! that! MDGs! and! PRSPs! are! overlapping,! or! competing! acronyms,! is! incorrect.! MDGs! are! not! the! UN's! version! of! the!

World!BankFled!PRSP.!MDGs!and!PRSPs!are!closely!linked,!and!in!a!sequential!way:!before! embarking! on! a! PRSP,! society! must! set! numerical! and! timeFbound! targets! for! human! development!and!poverty!reduction—the!MDGs!(emphasis!in!original).”34!This!explanation! of!the!role!of!MDGs!reflects!the!participatory!and!transparent!process!that!Malloch!Brown! had! envisioned.! The! idea! that! society! would! come! together! and! set! its! own! targets! for! human! development! in! an! inclusive! way! and! take! ownership! of! the! goals! was! an! oftF

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!Interview!with!Diana!Alarcon,!April!17,!2014.!

34!Jan!Vandemoortele,!“Are!MDGs!and!PRSPs!competing!acronyms?”!MDGNet(Archives,(September!15,!2002.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 227! ! repeated! theme! that! resonated! with! development! experts! sitting! at! headquarters! but! puzzled!those!working!in!the!“field.”!!

An!updated!UNDG!guidance!note!on!MDGRs!was!published!and!shared!in!October!

2003,! including! two! annexes! that! aimed! to! clarify! the! variation! of! MDGs! from! existing! frameworks!and!their!contribution!to!the!overall!development!discourse!and!practice.!One! annex! discussed! the! relationship! between! the! CCA,! NHDR,! PRSP! and! MDGR! while! explaining!to!UNCTs!that!MDG!reports!were!merely!public!advocacy!tools!in!the!shape!of! concise!reports!with!the!intent!to!open!up!national!dialogue!about!the!goals.!Another!annex! presented! a! memo! titled! “How! do! the! MDGs! relate! to! the! PRSP?”! sent! by! Mark! Malloch!

Brown,!Chair!of!UNDG!and!Shengman!Zhan,!Managing!Director!of!the!World!Bank!to!all!WB! country!directors!and!UN!resident!coordinators!on!May!5,!2003.!This!memo!reiterated!the! importance! of! national! ownership! of! the! goals! and! the! necessity! for! each! country! to! set! their! own! targets! for! meeting! the! MDGs.! It! further! highlighted! the! importance! of! the!

MDGRs!and!PRPSs!not!to!create!parallel!processes,!although!the!wording!was!so!opaque! that! many! country! offices! still! remained! unclear! as! to! what! the! link! between! the! two! processes!was.!!

MDGNet! archives! highlight! that! in! addition! to! the! reluctance! expressed! by! developing! countries! and! the! confusion! about! the! goals’! relationship! to! existing! development! instruments,! the! indicators! themselves! created! much! headache.! A! quick! glance!at!the!data!suggests!that!between!May!2002!and!October!2003,!there!were!a!dozen! separate!queries!about!indicators,!in!terms!of!methodological!notes,!the!type!of!data!to!use,! ways!to!fill!data!gaps,!how!to!tailor!the!indicators!to!the!national!context,!what!types!of! indicators!to!use!for!MDG!8,!etc.!There!were!so!many!questions!around!indicators!that!the! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 228! ! decision! was! made! to! launch! the! first! expertFmoderated! discussion! within! MDGNet! in!

March! 2003! on! the! topic! of! monitoring! and! indicators.! This! was! a! lengthy! debate! that! included!close!to!50!participants!across!UN!country!teams!as!well!as!national!development! institutes.!By!September!2003,!UNDG!had!published!a!handbook!“to!provide!United!Nations! country! teams! and! national! and! international! stakeholders! with! guidance! on! the! definitions,!rationale,!concepts!and!sources!of!the!data!for!the!indicators…used!to!monitor! the! Millennium! Development! Goals.”35!The! next! four! years! (January! 2004! to! September!

2007)! witnessed! only! half! a! dozen! queries,! with! half! of! them! composing! informational! messages! about! online! databases! of! social! indicators! and! expert! referrals.! However,! up! until!the!end!of!2004,!the!bulk!of!work!within!UNCTs!was!dedicated!to!creating!resources! to!monitor!progress!and!report!on!the!goals.!

Hence,!one!of!the!most!impactful!consequences!of!the!MDGs!with!their!measurable! and!timeFbound!targets!was!the!focus!on!technical!solutions.!As!some!of!the!debates!and! initial!questions!surrounding!the!emergence!of!the!MDGs!indicate,!rather!than!dealing!with! the! question! of! poverty! as! a! longFterm! problem! in! need! of! transformative! social! change! through!participation!and!dialogue,!the!development!community!engaged!with!questions!of! measurement,! data! availability,! validity,! reliability,! and! so! on.! Although! intended! to! motivate! political! action! around! poverty! reduction,! the! MDGs! generated! preoccupation! with! statistics! and! methodological! issues.! At! the! same! time,! the! discussions! about! the! indicators!increasingly!legitimized!their!use,!helping!to!cement!the!antipoverty!norm.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!This!publication!lists!among!its!members!and!contributors!many!of!the!UN!agencies!as!well!as!the!World! Bank,!World!Trade!Organization,!and!Organization!for!Economic!CoFoperation!and!Development.!See!UNDG,! Indicators(for(Monitoring(the(Millennium(Development(Goals:(Definitions,(Rationale,(Concepts(and(Sources((New! York:!United!Nations,!2003).! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 229! !

Examining!the!ways!in!which!indicators!can!impact!agendas,!Davis!et!al.!argue,!“In! the!first!year!or!two!after!an!indicator!is!released,!there!is!discussion!and!debate!about!the! indicator!itself,!but!after!a!few!years,!the!indicator!is!presented!in!these!news!media!largely! as!a!fact!that!describes!a!country’s!situation,!with!virtually!no!discussion!about!the!source! of!the!data!or!the!nature!of!the!indicator!itself.”36!Indeed,!the!initial!years!saw!much!debate! around! indicators! and! reporting,! and! there! was! a! clear! effort! to! ensure! that! developing! countries! demonstrated! they! owned! the! process! by! producing! an! MDGR.! But! this! overwhelming!attention!to!monitoring!and!reporting!eventually!led!to!further!refining!of! the!targets!and!indicators,!such!that!the!review!summits!led!to!the!increase!of!targets!from!

18!to!21!and!indicators!from!48!to!61.!Thus,!these!debates!and!the!longFterm!horizon!of!the!

MDGs!allowed!for!further!discussions!and!amendments!that!expanded!the!original!targets! to!include!reproductive!health!and!employment.!!

In!sum,!the!form!of!the!antipoverty!norm!embedded!in!the!MDGs!ensured!that!their! first! few! years! would! revolve! around! debates! about! monitoring! and! reporting.! Indeed,! most!efforts!were!directed!at!helping!governments!gain!awareness!of!the!indicators,!collect! data,!and!publish!reports.!Technological!issues!such!as!the!best!MDG!tracking!software,!the! development! of! a! tracking! portal! for! country! teams,! and! training! on! the! use! of! data! monitoring! software! came! to! highlight! most! of! the! work! that! was! done! through! the! network.!As!Diana!Alarcon!noted,!“rather!than!actual!policy!making,!the!emphasis!was!on! monitoring!and!reporting.”37!The!emphasis!on!monitoring!and!reporting!would!finally!shift! to!policymaking!at!the!2005!World!Summit,!when!the!realization!that!actual!achievement! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!Davis! et! al.,! eds.! Governance( by( Indicators:( Global( Power( Through( Quantification( and( Ranking! (Oxford:! Oxford!University!Press,!2012),!20.!!

37!Interview!with!Diana!Alarcon,!April!17,!2014.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 230! ! of! the! goals! had! been! lagging! gave! way! to! focusing! efforts! on! incorporating! MDGs! into! national!development!strategies.!By!then!rigorous!campaigning!and!reporting!had!been!at! work!long!enough!for!the!MDGs!to!become!common!basis!for!action!and!coordination.!!

7.2 MDGs and Their Features

! The!analysis!of!the!early!years!of!the!MDGs!through!MDGNet!confirms!the!premise! on!which!this!chapter!is!based;!namely,!that!the!constitution!of!the!antipoverty!norm—that! is!the!form!and!content!of!the!MDGs—influenced!its!behavior.!In!particular,!some!specific! features! of! the! MDGs! helped! consolidate! the! antipoverty! norm,! in! particular! their! longF term! targetFsetting! horizon,! quantitative! indicators,! standardized! goals,! and! framing! of! poverty! as! a! domestic! challenge—that! is! one! internal! to! the! state.! These! features! of! the!

MDGs! were! significant! as! they! helped! capture! progress! over! time! while! evaluating! governments’!efforts!towards!achieving!those!goals.!Importantly,!they!helped!simplify!the! complex! social! phenomenon! of! poverty! by! breaking! it! down! into! several! interFrelated! goals.! These! features! were! key! to! consolidating! the! antipoverty! norm! because! they! sustained!an!agenda!that!could!be!tracked!over!the!longFrun!based!on!indicators!that!had!to! be!updated!through!various!types!of!surveys,!including!household!income!and!expenditure! surveys,!economic!and!social!surveys,!etc.!Further,!the!reporting!built!into!the!MDG!process! ensured!that!updated!data!would!feed!into!updated!reports!showing!the!commitment!of! governments! to! poverty! reduction.! But,! these! features! had! also! some! unintended! consequences!that!were!captured!in!the!above!section!and!will!be!further!elaborated!here.!!

The!composition!of!the!MDGs!based!on!simple!goals,!followed!by!a!few!measurable! targets! to! be! monitored! through! indicators! enabled! the! incorporation! of! the! normative/aspirational! with! the! technocratic/quantitative! aspects! of! this! global! agenda,! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 231! ! while! at! the! same! time! keeping! a! succinct! and! quantifiable! agenda.! While! in! previous! development!decades!the!targets!could!be!lost!in!the!aspirational!texts!embedding!them,! the! MDGs! were! separated! from! their! ambitious! mother! document,! the! Millennium!

Declaration.!This!feature!of!the!MDGs!had!two!consequences.!!

First,! the! goals! allowed! for! an! easily! communicable! development! agenda! that! everyone!could!understand!and!appreciate.!Every!state!would!want!to!“Eradicate!extreme! poverty!and!hunger,”!“Achieve!universal!primary!education,”!“Promote!gender!equality!and! empower! women,”! “Reduce! child! mortality,”! “Improve! maternal! health,”! “Combat!

HIV/AIDS,! malaria! and! other! diseases,”! “Ensure! environmental! sustainability,”! and!

“Develop!a!global!partnership!for!development.”38!Thus,!these!goals!were!a!nice!organizing! principle!that!effortlessly!lent!themselves!to!effective!advocacy!campaigns.!!

In! addition,! tracking! targets! meant! that! statistical! capacity! at! the! country! level! needed!to!be!strengthened!to!make!data!available!for!monitoring!and!reporting!purposes.!

The!longFterm!horizon!of!the!targetFsetting!exercise!further!emphasized!the!importance!of! consistent!data!collection!in!order!to!provide!updated!reports.!These!aspects!of!the!MDGs! renewed! governmental! commitment! to! the! antipoverty! norm,! if! not! on! a! yearly! basis,! at! least! every! five! years! when! the! review! summits! took! place.! As! Figure! 5! indicates,! the! number! of! MDG! reports! spiked! in! 2005! and! 2010! when! summits! took! stock! of! progress! made!and!challenges!ahead.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38!These!are!the!eight!Millennium!Development!Goals!in!the!order!in!which!they!are!listed.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 232! !

Figure'5.'Number'of'National'MDG'Reports'2001D2014'

100! 90! 80! 70! 60! 50! 40! 30! 20! 10! 0!

! ! Source:!Calculated!based!on!MDGRs!reported!on!UNDP!website.39!! ! ! Second,!target!setting!offered!the!kind!of!transparency!and!accountability!that!the! donor!community!had!been!longing!for.!This!clarity!of!the!goals!and!their!categorization! into! specific! areas! of! development! meant! that! particular! development! agencies! and! divisions! within! international! development! organizations! could! be! tasked! with! the! responsibility! to! align! their! programs! with! the! MDGs,! thereby! adapting! a! resultsFbased! framework! that! more! easily! connected! inputs! to! outputs! and! outcomes.! As! previous! chapters!argued,!the!resultsFbased!framework!of!the!MDGs!was!meant!to!accomplish!just! that.! In! the! move! to! maintain! and! increase! foreign! aid,! it! was! crucial! that! donor! governments!showed!how,!where,!and!on!what!the!taxpayers’!dollars/pounds!were!spent.!

This! resultsFbased! framework! indeed! made! it! easier! to! “sell! aid! to! donors,”40!as! Stefan!

Dercon,!DFID’s!chief!economist!conveyed!to!me.!!

The! second! feature! of! the! MDGs! is! their! composition! of! “universal”! goals,! which! generated! a! standardization( that! simultaneously! established! links! between! various! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39 !These! include! national! MDG! reports! by! developing! countries! only.! See! http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/mdg/mdgFreports/.!

40!Interview!with!Stefan!Dercon,!March!1,!2013.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 233! ! complex! social! phenomena! (such! as! education,! health! and! poverty)! and! in! the! process! simplified!poverty!reduction!as!a!project.!In!terms!of!interFlinkages,!as!the!Roadmap!points! out,! the! Millennium! Development! Goals! focus! on! “sustainable! development! through! poverty! eradication”! the! achievement! of! which! “demands! a! concerted! effort! to! reduce! poverty,! including! finding! solutions! to! hunger,! malnutrition! and! disease.”41!Indeed,! this! report!is!very!clear!in!drawing!links!between!the!various!MDGs!and!emphasizes,!“all!the! issues!around!poverty!are!interconnected!and!demand!crossFcutting!solutions.”42!Thus,!in! line! with! the! human! development! concept,! poverty! is! defined! as! a! multidimensional! concept!that!can!have!many!causes!and!consequences.!For!example,!drawing!links!between! the!various!goals,!the!Roadmap(states,!!

“ShortFchanging!girls!is!not!only!a!matter!of!gender!discrimination!but!is!bad! economics!and!bad!social!policy.!Experience!has!shown!over!and!over!again! that!investment!in!girls’!education!translates!directly!and!quickly!into!better! nutrition!for!the!whole!family,!better!health!care,!declining!fertility,!poverty! reduction!and!better!overall!performance.”43!! ! This! HD! conceptualization! was! a! great! step! away! from! the! exclusively! growthF oriented!definition!of!development!that!had!dominated!the!field!for!decades.!Both!the!focus! on!social!issues!and!the!emphasis!on!the!interconnectedness!of!diverse!variables!helped! emphasize!the!complexity!of!poverty.!!

In! addition,! the! multisectoral! approach! to! poverty! reduction! encouraged! the! participation! of! many! different! development! actors! in! the! fight! against! poverty.! As! such,! connecting! health,! education! and! environmental! policies! (for! example)! to! the! broader!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41!United!Nations,!Roadmap(Towards(the(Implementation(of(the(United(Nations(Millennium(Declaration,!3.!!

42!Ibid.!!

43!Ibid.,(para.!95.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 234! ! objective! of! poverty! reduction! helped! cement! the! antipoverty! norm.! In! other! words,! standardization! helped! all! donors! and! recipients! to! speak! the! same! language;! one! that! highlighted! the! importance! of! poverty! reduction! as! the! ultimate! goal,! even! when! the! intermediate!targets!were!health!or!education!policy.!!

However,!standardization(also!meant!that!countries!had!to!learn!to!apply!the!goals! to!their!national!contexts.!In!other!words,!rather!than!focusing!on!development!problems! particular!to!any!one!national!context,!developing!countries!found!themselves!tailoring!a! standard! agenda! to! their! particular! development! challenges.! Research! indicates! that! standards! depoliticize! choices! that! might! otherwise! be! open! to! public! debate.44!While! offering! member! states! technical! answers! to! their! social! problems! through! a! consensual! agenda!that!harmonized!development!activities,!these!standardized!global!targets!led!to!“a! growing!focus!on!how!things!are!done—a!focus!on!form!rather!than!content.”45!In!fact,!as! the!analysis!above!demonstrates,!at!least!the!first!few!years!following!the!MDG!rollout!to! the!countries!witnessed!an!increasing!preoccupation!with!measurement,!monitoring,!and! reporting! on! the! goals! thereby! generating! debates! that! revolved! around! technical! issues! rather!than!the!politics!surrounding!development!as!a!transformative!process!in!society.!

The! third! feature! of! the! MDGs! is! quantification,! i.e.! the! quantitative! nature! of! the! indicators!pertaining!to!each!target.!As!Part!I!discussed,!this!was!the!very!first!time!that!a! concise!list!of!goals!was!established!within!a!development!framework!including!targets!and! indicators! to! monitor! progress.! Various! scholars! have! written! about! this! feature! of! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44!See! Nils! Brunsson! and! Bengt! Jacobsson,! eds.,! A( World( of( Standards( (Oxford! and! New! York:! Oxford! University!Press,!2000).!

45!Bengt! Jacobsson,! “Standardization! and! Expert! Knowledge,”! in! A( World( of( Standards,! edited! by! Niles! Brunsson!and!Bengt!Jacobsson!(Oxford!and!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2000),!46.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 235! !

MDGs!and!their!consequences.!Based!on!one!account,!the!structure!of!these!goals!was!very! much!influenced!by!resultsFbased!management!or!RBM,!a!performance!strategy!that!was! widely!in!use!in!the!1990s!and!adopted!in!the!public!sector!of!many!developed!countries.46!

The! idea! was! that! setting! targets,! monitoring! and! rewarding! staff! based! on! their! achievements!would!improve!organizational!performance.!A!more!recent!project!assesses! the!intended!and!unintended!consequences!of!the!MDG!targets!and!finds!that!the!attempt! to! “elaborate! an! entire! international! agenda! through! numerical! targeting,! simplification,! reification!and!abstraction!of!quantification!created!perverse!effects!in!the!MDGs.”47!!

I!take!a!more!balanced!view,!as!my!research!indicates!that!quantification!had!both! advantages!and!disadvantages.!The!use!of!indicators!made!it!possible!to!present!complex! social! phenomena! such! as! poverty! and! gender! equality! in! more! accessible! terms.! This! allowed! a! broader! participation! in! debates! revolving! around! development! issues! while! offering!activists!powerful!tools!with!which!to!raise!awareness!and!call!for!action.!This!is! particularly! evident! in! such! campaigns! as! “One”! and! “Make! Poverty! History”! where! numbers!have!been!used!to!highlight!social!injustices.!The!images!of!2.5!billion!people!not! having!access!to!improved!sanitation!facilities!is!much!more!powerful!than!simply!noting! that!today!more!people!have!access!to!improved!sanitation!than!25!years!ago.48!!

In!addition,!indicators!have!offered!a!powerful!tool!to!evaluate!governments’!efforts! towards! achieving! those! goals.! This! is! particularly! evident! when! the! annual! Human! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46!David!Hulme!argues!that!RBM!was!used!in!Australia,!Canada,!Germany,!New!Zealand,!the!UK!and!the!USA!as! well! as! their! development! agencies! AUSAID,! CIDA,! GTZ,! NORAD,! DFID,! and! USAID,! respectively.! See! David! Hulme,!“The!Millennium!Development!Goals:!A!Short!History!of!the!World’s!Biggest!Promise,”!Brooks(World( Poverty(Institute,(Working!paper!no.!100!(2009).!

47!Sakiko! FukudaFParr,! Alicia! Ely! Yamin! and! Joshua! Greenstein,! The(Power(of(Numbers:(A(Critical(Review(of( MDG(Targets(for(Human(Development(and(Human(Rights,(Working!Paper,!May!2013.!

48!United!Nations,!2014(Millennium(Development(Goals(Report!(New!York:!United!Nations,!2014).!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 236! !

Development! Reports! (HDRs)! are! published.! Studies! indicate! that! many! countries! take! their! HDI! (human! development! index)! ranking! seriously! and! report! on! it! within! their! national!media!while!comparing!themselves!with!their!neighbors.49!Praise,!criticism!as!well! as! contestation! of! their! ranking! often! follows! the! publication! of! HDRs.! In! July! 2014,! for! example,!Jamaica!worriedly!reported!that!it!had!fallen!11!places!in!that!year’s!HDI!and!was!

“at!serious!risk!of!being!demoted!into!the!category!of!countries!considered!to!have!medium! human! development.”50!In! contrast,! in! December! 2010,! United! Arab! Emirates! proudly! reported!that!it!had!the!highest!HDI!rank!in!the!region,!having!risen!five!places!since!2005! while! “The! overall! region! suffered! a! HDI! decline! of! 27! percent! because! of! substantial! inequality! in! health,! education! and! income.”51!Thus,! even! if! not! necessarily! having! any! compliance! or! enforcement! mechanisms! built! within! them,! indicators! have! the! potential! to—and! often! do—impact! governments’! actions! in! as! far! as! states! are! concerned! about! their!image!on!the!international!arena.!Corroborating!this,!Malloch!Brown!recalled,!“being! in!Brazil!one!year!when!our!MDG!numbers!were!coming!out!and!really!genuinely!anxious! calls!from!governments’!and!mayors’!offices!to!UNDP!trying!to!get!a!headsFup!in!order!to!be! ready! for! the! press! on! what! their! numbers! were! this! year.”52!Hence,! quantification! and! ranking!can!be!!powerful!tools!to!encourage!political!action.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!Devin! Joshi,! “Successfully! Promoting! a! Global! Ideology?! The! United! Nations! and! Human! Development! Reports”!(paper!presented!at!Academic!Council!of!United!Nations!Annual!Meeting,!Istanbul,!Turkey,!19F21! June!2014).!!

50!Jovan!Johnson,!“Jamaica!Falls!11!Places!on!Human!Development!Index,!Risks!Demotion,”!The(Gleaner,!July! 24,!2014,!http://jamaicaFgleaner.com/latest/article.php?id=54434!(accessed!December!15,!2014).!

51!Manal! Ismail,! “UAE! leads! region! on! UN! human! development! index,”! The( National,( December! 13,! 2010,! http://www.thenational.ae/news/uaeFnews/politics/uaeFleadsFregionFonFunFhumanFdevelopmentFindex! (accessed!December!15,!2014).!

52!Interview!with!March!Malloch!Brown,!August!18,!2012.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 237! !

However,!indicators!may!also!have!some!adverse!effects.!For!one!thing,!indicators! signal! objectivity! as! quantitative! methods! are! used! for! scientific! validation! of! social! phenomena.!As!a!result,!any!kind!of!interpretative!work!that!may!have!gone!into!choosing!a! certain! type! of! indicator! over! another! is! largely! left! out.! What! remains! is! a! metric! that! disguises!the!debates,!judgments!and!possible!contestations!that!generated!a!statistic.!In! the!case!of!the!MDGs,!moreover,!one!of!the!key!criteria!for!the!choice!of!indicators!was!data! availability! with! the! consequence! of! relying! on! indicators! that! measure! policies! that! are! widely! monitored! rather! than! those! that! best! measure! policies! conducive! to! achieving! a! goal.53!For! example,! one! of! the! indicators! to! measure! progress! in! child! mortality! is! the! percentage! of! underF5! children,! who! have! been! vaccinated! against! measles.! As! a! recent! study! has! found! out,! however,! measles! is! the! cause! of! only! 4%! of! underF5! mortality! compared!to!19%!dying!due!to!pneumonia!followed!by!17%!due!to!diarrhea.!As!the!study! suggests,!“indicators!that!would!evaluate!progress!in!reducing!the!incidence!of!pneumonia,! diarrhea,!malaria!and!neonatal!sepsis!or!pneumonia…would!have!provided!very!valuable! information!to!policy!design!and!program!implementation.”54!Yet,!the!ease!of!vaccination! seems! to! be! the! reason! for! having! chosen! the! measles! indicator! rather! than! others! that! potentially!offer!more!policyForiented!information.!!

Finally,! the! MDGs! distinctly! delineated! the! achievement! of! poverty! reduction! as! a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 53!A!project!titled!The(Power(of(Numbers:(A(Critical(Review(of(MDG(Targets(for(Human(Development(and(Human( Rights(has!been!recently!finalized!and!mainly!focuses!on!the!reductionism!of!the!MDGs!and!the!ways!in!which! the! millennium! goals! and! targets! marginalized! important! global! priorities.! Its! case! studies! of! the! specific! MDGs! highlight! that! “while! the! choice! of! indicators! with! poor! data! availability! and! definitional! difficulties! have!been!identified!as!a!weakness!of!the!MDGs,!robust!statistical!criteria!may!favor!indicators!that!are!less! responsive!to!policy!priorities.”!FukudaFPar!et!al.,!The(Power(of(Numbers,!7.!!

54!Elisa! DiazFMartinez! and! Elizabeth! D.! Gibbons,! “The! Questionable! Power! of! the! Millennium! Development! Goal!to!Reduce!Child!Mortality,”!Journal(of(Human(Development(and(Capabilities:(A(MultiODisciplinary(Journal( for(PeopleOCentered(Development(15,!no.!2F3!(2014):!207.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 238! ! task!that!is!internal!to!the!state!and!primarily!the!responsibility!of!developing!countries.!

Although! the! goals! present! “a! partnership! between! the! developed! countries! and! the! developing!countries,”55!the!tasks!are!clearly!defined!to!be!within!the!confines!of!national! territories.! The! focus! on! the! absolute! poor! and! the! choice! of! targets! within! the! first! six! goals!(and!two!targets!on!access!to!safe!drinking!water!and!sanitation!in!goal!7)!on!issue! areas,!which!the!developed!countries!have!mostly!long!achieved,!illustrates!the!division!of! labor!inherent!to!the!achievement!of!the!MDGs.!However,!the!inclusion!of!goal!8!on!global! partnerships! signals! the! need! for! developed! countries! to! offer! their! support! and! cooperation!in!order!to!help!the!progress!of!developing!countries.!!

This! ontological( freezing! inherent! to! the! MDG! agenda! has! had! two! distinct! consequences.! On! the! one! hand,! it! has! focused! the! attention! of! governmental! and! nonF governmental! officials! on! the! challenges! within! states.! In! other! words,! domestic! institutions! are! emphasized! as! the! primary! site! of! investigation! for! any! obstacles! that! poverty! reduction! policies! might! be! facing! within! any! given! country.! On! the! other! hand,! while!emphasizing!governments’!accountability!for!their!own!development!challenges,!this! feature! of! the! MDGs! has! induced! governments! to! prove! their! commitment! to! poverty! reduction!by!reporting!on!the!kinds!of!policies!they!have!been!enacting!in!order!to!attain! the!MDG!targets.!This!in!turn!has!meant!greater!focus!on!what!it!is!that!governments!are! doing! within! their! borders! to! address! the! challenges! of! poverty! without! necessarily! relating! those! state! policies! to! international! constraints! and/or! opportunities! through! trade,!migration,!patents,!and!so!on.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55!United!Nations,!Roadmap(Towards(the(Implementation(of(the(United(Nations(Millennium(Declaration,!55.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 239! !

This! analysis! suggests! that! the! form! the! MDGs! took! as! global! goals! with! specific! targets!and!measurable!indicators!impacted!the!way!in!which!the!antipoverty!norm!was! consolidated!in!a!short!period!of!time.!Despite!initial!reluctance!and!suspicion!exhibited!by! some!developing!countries,!rolling!out!a!global!development!agenda!to!the!country!level! created!much!debate!about!the!meaning!and!relevance!of!the!targets!and!indicators!to!the! diverse! national! contexts! of! countries.! Simultaneously,! the! continuous! debates! about! national! statistical! capacity! to! measure! indicators,! to! allocate! money! to! social! sectors,! to! monitor!the!goals!and!write!reports,!and!to!continuously!pitch!their!national!development! strategies!within!the!frame!of!the!MDGs!helped!consolidate!the!antipoverty!norm!because! of!the!iterative!process!of!calculation!and!evaluation.!!!

7.3 Development Rules for the World

To! reiterate,! the! Millennium! Development! Goals—in! their! original! conception! consisting! of! 8! goals,! 18! targets,! and! 48! indicators—were! included! as! an! annex! in! the!

Roadmap( towards( the( Implementation( of( the( United( Nations( Millennium( Declaration.! This! was!the!SecretaryFGeneral’s!report!to!the!General!Assembly!in!September!2001,!outlining!

“potential!strategies!for!action!that!are!designed!to!meet!the!goals!and!commitments!made! by!the!147!heads!of!State!and!Government,!and!189!Member!States!in!total,!who!adopted! the!Millennium!Declaration.”56!The!first!paragraph!of!the!annex!states,!“consultations!were! held!among!members!of!the!United!Nations!Secretariat!and!representatives!of!IMF,!OECD! and! the! World! Bank! in! order! to! harmonize( reporting( on! the! development( goals( in! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!Ibid.,!2.!! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 240! !

Millennium!Declaration!and!the!international(development(goals((emphasis!added).”57!Thus,! the! MDGs! were! formulated! to! create! a! unified! agenda! for! both! donors! and! recipients,! in! order! to! ensure! coordinated! policies! and! activities.! Further,! the! Roadmap! suggests! that!

“clear!and!stable!numerical!targets”!were!devised!in!order!to!“trigger!action!and!promote! new! alliances! for! development.” 58 !Hence,! there! was! a! clear! understanding! that! the! endorsement!of!an!agenda!with!numerical!targets!would!encourage!ownership!of!the!goals.!!

Yet,!the!contents!of!the!first!seven!goals!and!as!compared!to!goal!8!on!establishing!a! global! partnership! for! development! are! quite! varied.! While! MDGs! 1! through! 7! have! quantifiable!targets,!MDG!8!is!more!fluid,!contending!with!a!more!vague!formulation!of!its! targets.!As!Chapter!6!illustrated,!the!inclusion!of!specific!and!quantitative!targets!for!the! other!MDGs!in!the!text!of!the!Millennium!Declaration!gave!the!interFagency!expert!group!

(IAEG)!a!mandate!to!include!them!in!their!final!list!of!goals.!This,!however,!was!not!the!case! with! MDG! 8.! Indeed,! the! IAEG! was! not! comfortable! using! any! targets! that! had! not! been! specifically!included!in!the!Declaration.!Several!members!of!the!IAEG!who!formulated!the!

MDGs,! including! Michael! Doyle,! John! Langmore,! Eric! Swanson,! and! Jan! Vandemoortele,! confirmed! the! limitations! in! generating! any! more! determinate! targets! and! indicators! for! goal!8!due!to!lack!of!mandate!in!the!text!of!the!Millennium!Declaration.!As!a!result,!MDG!8! focused!on!aid,!trade,!and!debt!relief!while!maintaining!more!amorphous!targets!without! temporal!specificities.!!!

Some! examples! can! illuminate! these! differences.! Goal! 1! on! eradicating! extreme! poverty! and! hunger! lists! as! its! targets! the! halving! of! the! proportion! of! people! with! an!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 57!Ibid.,!55.!

58!Ibid.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 241! ! income!less!than!$1!a!day!and!those!suffering!from!hunger!between!1990!and!2015.!These! targets! are! specific,! measurable! and! timeFbound,! setting! clear! expectations.! Their! indicators!in!turn!are!similarly!quantitative!and!don’t!leave!any!room!for!ambiguity,!as!they! ask,!among!others!that!the!poverty!gap!ratio,!the!proportion!of!people!below!$1!a!day!and! prevalence! of! underweight! children! under! five! years! of! age! be! monitored! to! assess! progress.!A!similar!specificity!can!be!gauged!from!the!next!five!goals!on!primary!education,! empowerment!of!women,!maternal!and!child!health,!and!HIV/AIDS!and!other!diseases.!For! example,!reducing!maternal!mortality!rate!by!threeFquarters!between!1990!and!2015!is!to! be! measured! based! on! maternal! mortality! ratios! and! proportion! of! births! attended! by! skilled!health!personnel.!!

Whether!or!not!these!are!the!right!indicators!and!to!what!extent!they!measure!what! they!are!supposed!to!measure!is!a!different!question.!However,!what!is!important!is!that! these! targets! and! indicators! are! simple! and! concrete,! aiming! to! “provide! relevant! and! robust!measures!of!progress!towards!the!targets!of!the!Millennium!Development!Goals.”59!

Additionally,! data! for! some! of! these! indicators! were! already! being! collected,! therefore! making!data!availability!a!prerequisite!for!choosing!certain!measurements!over!others.!In! fact,!as!the!coFchairs!of!the!interagency!expert!team!overseeing!the!selection!of!the!targets! and! indicators—Michael! Doyle! and! Jan! Vandemoortele—explained! to! me! on! separate! occasions,!the!exercise!itself!was!quite!pragmatic.!While!relying!on!the!politically!agreed! language!of!the!Millennium!Declaration,!two!criteria!were!used!to!select!the!targets:!“One,! is!there!a!solid!indicator!for!that!target?!And!two,!do!we!have!good!global!data!to!monitor!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59!United!Nations,!Indicators(for(Monitoring(the(Millennium(Development(Goals,!1.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 242! ! it?”60!This! is! indeed! visible! in! the! first! six! goals! and! to! some! extent! in! the! goal! on! environmental!sustainability.!

Goal!7!on!the!environment!has!some!quantifiable!indicators,!although!there!is!a!mix! of! ambiguous! and! more! specific! targets,! such! that! target! 10! on! reducing! by! half! the! proportion!of!people!without!access!to!safe!drinking!water!is!listed!along!with!the!more! ambiguous! target! 9! calling! the! international! community! to! “integrate! the! principles! of! sustainable! development! into! country! policies! and! programmes! and! reverse! the! loss! of! environmental!resources.”!Yet,!when!we!examine!the!Millennium!Declaration,!the!language! that!would!have!given!the!experts!the!confidence!of!a!mandate!to!select!bolder!and!more! specific! targets! for! the! goal! of! environmental! sustainability! can! be! found.! For! example,! paragraph! 22! of! the! Declaration! states,! “We! reaffirm! our! support! for! the! principles! of! sustainable!development,!including!those!set!out!in!Agenda!21,!agreed!upon!at!the!United!

Nations!Conference!on!Environment!and!Development.”!This!is!the!permission!slip,!so!to! speak,!that!would!have!allowed!the!experts!to!revert!to!the!goals!included!in!Agenda!21! and!to!select!more!specific!targets.!!

In!spite!of!the!reference!to!Agenda!21,!members!of!the!IAEG!could!only!justify!the! use!of!targets!based!on!their!specification!in!the!Millennium!Declaration.!A!close!reading!of! the!Millennium!Declaration!suggests!that!paragraph!23!could!have!given!them!at!least!one! better!defined!target,!“to!ensure!the!entry!into!force!of!the!Kyoto!Protocol,!preferably!by! the!tenth!anniversary!of!the!United!Nations!Conference!on!Environment!and!Development!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60!Interview!with!Jan!Vandemoortele,!November!26,!2012.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 243! ! in! 2002,! and! to! embark! on! the! required! reduction! in! emissions! of! greenhouse! gases.”61!

However,!this!text!was!not!distilled!into!the!targets!of!the!global!development!agenda.!In! other!words,!already!in!the!formulation!of!the!environmental!sustainability!goal,!where!the! commitments! were! more! directly! relevant! to! donors’! policies,! the! targets! were! less! concrete!despite!the!existing!mandate!in!the!text!of!the!Millennium!Declaration.!

The! clearest! divide! in! terms! of! specificity! of! the! targets! is! visible! in! goal! 8.! A! footnote!in!the!annex!of!the!Roadmap(states,!“The!selection!of!indicators!for!goals!7!and!8!is! subject! to! further! refinement,”! indicating! that! those! involved! expected! to! further! debate! and! select! better,! measurable! indicators.! Nonetheless,! since! the! targets! had! been! lifted! from!the!Declaration!and!could!not!be!changed,!their!analysis!highlights!a!few!things.!

The! first! target! under! goal! 8! states,! “Develop! further! an! open,! ruleFbased,! predictable,! nonFdiscriminatory! trading! and! financial! system”! without! offering! any! indicators.!Indeed!none!of!the!targets!under!goal!8!are!defined!or!outcomeForiented.!They! don’t! specify! by! how! much! any! increase! or! decrease! is! to! be! achieved! let! alone! the! timeframe!within!which!progress!is!to!be!measured.!For!example,!two!separate!targets!(13! and! 14)! reflect! on! the! special! needs! of! the! least! developed! countries! and! the! needs! of! landlocked! and! smallFisland! developing! states,! respectively,! which! are! merely! to! be!

“addressed.”!Similarly,!target!15!calls!for!the!developed!countries!to!“Deal!comprehensively! with!the!debt!problems!of!developing!countries”!without!specifying!any!specific!targets!or! timeFlines!except!to!note!that!debt!be!made!sustainable!in!the!long!term!introducing!“debt!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 61!United!Nations,!General!Assembly!resolution!55/2,!United(Nations(Millennium(Declaration,(A/RES/55/2!(8! September!2000),!para.!23.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 244! ! sustainability”62!as!a!vague!term!without!any!definition.!The!final!two!targets!do!not!refer! to!cooperation!between!developed!and!developing!countries!at!all.!Instead,!they!highlight! the! close! collaboration! between! the! industrialized! world! and! the! pharmaceutical! companies!(target!17)!and!the!private!sector!(target!18)!in!ensuring!that!essential!drugs! and!technologies!are!made!available!to!the!developing!countries,!respectively.!!

Nevertheless,! MDG! 8! was! a! great! improvement! over! the! previously! agreed! international!development!goals!within!the!confines!of!the!OECD.!In!addition!to!signaling! the!donor!countries’!credible!commitment!to!poverty!reduction,!the!targets!pertaining!to! goal!8!called!for!more!and!better!development!assistance,!a!more!open!and!fair!framework! for! trade,! and! debt! relief.! In! fact,! goal! 8! to! some! extent! lifted! the! ontological( freezing( explained! above! by! linking! donors’! policies! to! the! poverty! reduction! of! developing! countries.!Development!practitioners!were!quick!to!point!out!within!MDGNet!discussions! that! the! implementation! of! goal! 8! was! a! prerequisite! to! attaining! the! first! seven! goals.63!

This! to! a! great! extent! explains! the! silent! endorsement! of! the! MDGs! in! the! SecretaryF

General’s! Roadmap,! as! it! established! an! understanding! that! donor! countries! were! at! the! very! least! partners! in! development.! Even! if! their! responsibilities! were! not! as! clearly! monitored!as!those!of!developing!countries,!a!certain!accountability!framework!had!been! put!in!place.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62!Jolly!et!al.!have!argued!that!the!term!“debt!sustainability”!masks!the!“slowFmoving!and!heavily!bureaucratic! process! with! many! conditionalities….At! every! stage! of! the! process,! heavily! indebted! poor! countries! must! produce! documents! and! policy! statements! to! convince! creditors! that! the! forgiven! portion! of! the! debt! will! indeed!go!to!education,!health,!and!other!expenditures!that!invest!in!human!resources,!combat!poverty,!and! boost! economic! growth.”! See! Richard! Jolly! et! al.! UN( Contributions( to( Development( Thinking( and( Practice( (Bloomington:!Indiana!University!Press,!2004),!294.!

63!This!was!a!theme!that!was!frequently!highlighted!in!MDGNet!discussions,!including!“Query:!Reporting!on! Goal!8:!Solidifying!the!Deal?”!December!16,!2003;!“Info:!MDG!8!–!Commitment!to!Development!Index,”!March! 29,!2004.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 245! !

The!UNDG!Guidance!Note!of!October!2003!clearly!stated,!“Developed!countries!have! a!primary!responsibility!for!reporting!on!Goal!8…but!reporting!on!some!of!its!aspects!by! developing!countries!can!help!to!solidify!the!deal.”!Nevertheless,!the!same!kind!of!activity! that! ensued! in! developing! countries! in! terms! of! monitoring! and! reporting,! did! not! take! place!in!donor!countries.!A!recent!review!of!goal!8!concludes,!“The!lax!nature!of!the!targets! and! indicators! for! MDG! 8! also! affected! the! reporting! that! could,! otherwise,! have! been! a! mechanism!to!encourage!accountability!by!rich!countries.”64!This!conclusion!confirms!the! finding! presented! in! this! chapter! that! quantification,! standardization! and! target! setting! ensured! sustained! commitment! of! developing! countries! to! the! development! agenda! by! generating! questions! about! the! relevancy,! calculability,! and! monitoring! of! the! indicators.!

This! is! reflected! in! the! rapid! production! of! MDG! reports! by! developing! countries! as! compared!to!the!late!start!that!developed!countries!had!in!this!process.!By!the!end!of!2004,! only!a!handful!of!donors!had!produced!MDGRs!while!MDGNet!celebrated!a!milestone:!the! submission!of!the!100th!national!MDGR!by!developing!countries.65!!

The! rather! vague! formulation! of! goal! 8! and! the! premise! that! further! deliberation! was! required! in! order! to! generate! more! concrete! indicators! explained! the! lag! in! donor! countries’!response!to!the!MDGs,!at!least!in!as!far!as!reporting!on!their!commitments!was! considered.!While!the!UNDG!was!hard!at!work!advocating!for!monitoring!and!reporting!on! developing! countries’! status! and! their! progress! towards! attaining! the! MDGs,! developed! countries!seemed!less!inclined!to!report!on!their!progress!in!terms!of!goal!8.!In!fact,!while! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64!Aldo!Caliari,!“Analysis!of!Millennium!Development!Goal!8:!A!Global!Partnership!for!Development,”!Journal( of(Human(Development(and(Capabilities:(A(MultiODisciplinary(Journal(for(PeopleOCentered(Development(15,!no.! 2F3!(2014):!277.!!

65!This!message!noted!that!another!25!reports!were!in!the!pipelines.!UNDG!MDGNet,!“Info:!The!Number!of! MDG!Reports!Reaches!100,”!December!16,!2004.! Chapter(7:(CONSTITUTION(&(CONSOLIDATION(OF(THE(ANTIPOVERTY(NORM( 246! ! dozens! of! developing! countries! had! produced! their! first! MDGR! by! the! end! of! 2004,! only! four! countries! within! OECD/DAC! could! boast! of! the! same,! including! France,! the!

Netherlands,!Norway,!and!Portugal.!

Ultimately,! while! the! MDGs! had! the! relevant! indicators! to! track! performance! in! developing!countries,!the!same!kind!of!timeFbound!benchmarks!were!missing!from!the!goal! pertaining! to! those! holding! the! purse! strings.! In! addition,! as! one! of! my! interviewees! explained,! several! OECD! countries! were! reluctant! to! be! accountable! to! international! organizations!or!even!to!each!other,!and!did!not!accept!the!UN!as!a!scorekeeper!of!their! performance. 66 !Many! OECD! countries! thought! that! it! was! justified! to! monitor! the! performance!of!developing!countries,!seeing!OECD!taxpayers!financed!their!development.!

But!to!be!held!to!account!for!their!own!policies!and!have!their!performance!evaluated!went! beyond!the!kind!of!global!bargain!donors!had!originally!envisioned.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66!Interview!with!former!UNDP!employee,!November!10,!2013.! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 247!

! % ! ! Why!did!poverty!reduction!come!to!dominate!the!global!development!agenda!at!the! turn!of!the!millennium?!At!first!sight,!it!may!seem!a!“no>brainer”!that!poverty!reduction! should!be!the!ultimate!objective!of!development,!but!when!it!is!historicized,!it!no!longer! can!be!taken!for!granted.!Part!II!has!argued!that!the!evolution!of!the!antipoverty!norm!was! founded!on!both!moral!and!strategic!grounds!with!IOs!and!their!employers,!i.e.!states,!as! norm!entrepreneurs!interacting!within!their!social!contexts!that!required!strategic!action! in! order! for! the! antipoverty! norm! to! be! endorsed.! The! global! development! agenda— centered! on! poverty! reduction—was! initially! a! construct! of! the! donor! community,! who! looked!for!ways!to!make!aid!relevant!and!accountable!to!justify!development!assistance!to! their!domestic!constituents.!!

For! some! developing! countries,! this! focus! on! poverty! and! the! constructed! global! consensus! to! pursue! a! “lowest>common>denominator”! agenda! detracted! from! the! more! serious! problems! underlying! the! lack! of! development! in! the! South,! in! particular! the! international! economic! regime! and! the! many! inequalities! built! into! a! global! governance! structure!that!many!believed!to!benefit!its!creators!and!their!allies.!However,!modifying!the! existing! development! agenda! by! incorporating! social! goals! into! extant! growth>focused! priorities! was! something! that! all! could! agree! on! while! reforming! the! system! was! more! difficult! and! threatened! existing! power! structures.! Thus,! with! the! inclusion! of! goal! 8! on! global!cooperation!for!development,!developing!countries!could!at!least!ensure!that!donors! made!some!changes!to!their!aid,!trade,!and!debt!relief!policies;!no!matter!how!marginal.!!

The!uptake!of!the!MDGs!by!developing!countries!was,!however,!slow.!Critics!on!the! left! argued! that! the! MDGs! narrowed! down! the! ambitious! global! goals! of! the! 1990s! to! a! short!list!of!quantifiable!targets!thereby!shifting!the!debate!from!what!counts!to!what!can!

! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 248!

! % ! be! counted;! from! long>term! objectives! to! short>term! projects;! and! from! inter>national! structural! change! to! technocratic! solutions! within! the! territorial! boundaries! of! states.!

Critics!on!the!right!argued!that!the!goals!placed!too!much!emphasis!on!service!provision!for! health! and! education! while! crowding! out! investments! in! jobs! and! growth.! Nevertheless,! there!was!a!global!mandate!to!focus!development!policies!on!poverty!reduction,!and!the!

UN—in!particular!UNDP—took!that!mandate!seriously!and!made!it!the!foundation!of!their! activities.! Thus,! the! various! mechanisms! set! up! in! and! through! UNDP! ensured! that! momentum!would!not!be!lost.!Indeed,!the!MDGs!survived!the!initial!doubts!and!suspicions,! and! in! the! process! came! to! dominate! the! global! agenda! until! 2015.! What! made! that! possible,!as!Chapter!7!argued,!was!the!form!and!content!of!the!MDGs.!!

As!Charles!Gore,!former!director!of!the!UNCTAD!Least!Developed!Countries!Report! who!has!been!working!in!the!field!of!development!since!the!1970s,!incisively!pointed!out,!

“what’s!critical!is!not!the!poverty!reduction!norm,!but!the!form!of!the!norm.”1!Chapter!7! showed!how!the!form!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!rooted!in!target!setting,!standardization!and! quantification,! helped! cement! the! antipoverty! norm.! Although! there! are! no! development! strategies! that! are! specifically! built! around! the! MDGs,! these! goals! “have! provided! a! discourse,!an!international!point!of!reference!against!which!countries!can!articulate!their! own!achievements,!their!development!gaps!and!success!stories…they!are!an!advocacy!tool! and!a!way!to!articulate!their!challenges!in!relation!to!this!accepted!international!norm.”2!

This! evolution! of! the! buy>in! of! the! MDGs! is! supported! by! the! production! of! over! 400!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Interview!with!Charles!Gore,!November!18,!2013.!

2!Interview!with!Diana!Alarcon,!April!17,!2014.!

! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 249!

! % ! MDGRs! by! 2013,! showing! not! only! their! acceptance! at! the! country! level! but! also! the! institutional!persistence!to!make!the!MDGs!a!development!instrument!to!be!reckoned!with.!%

Interestingly,!enough!time!has!passed!that!the!measurability!factor!and!the!choice!of! indicators,! in! particular! in! terms! of! the! validity! and! reliability! of! data,! have! come! under! much!scrutiny.!As!a!result,!recent!conversations!surrounding!the!post>2015!agenda!have! focused!on!the!importance!of!qualitative!indicators!of!development.!What!may!have!been! lost!in!this!debate,!however,!is!the!impact!that!standardization!and!quantification!have!had! on! the! consolidation! of! the! antipoverty! norm.! The! MDGs! have! helped! solidify! our! understanding!that!the%global!development!challenge!of!our!era!is!poverty.!This!conception! itself! was! contentious,! as! the! previous! chapters! have! shown,! or! at! least! it! was! not! considered!the!only!problem!in!the!1990s.!Later,!by!defining!poverty!as!a!complex!human! development!challenge!that!can!yet!be!simply!measured!as!the!proportion!of!those!living! on! less! than! initially! $1! a! day,! the! multidimensionality! of! poverty! could! be! simply! presented! in! a! single! number.! The! insistence! by! donors! and! development! agencies! that! progress! on! the! MDGs! be! closely! monitored! generated! the! creation! and! maintenance! of! data! banks! focused! on! measurement.! In! this! iterative! process! of! categorization! and! calculation,!the!principle!that!poverty!is!the!ultimate!development!challenge!and!in!need!of! eradication!emerged!and!cemented!itself!as!common!sense.!

Ultimately,! this! analysis! highlights! that! at! inception! the! MDGs! carried! an! internal! tension:!they!simultaneously!motivated!political!action!and!depoliticized!development.!In! light! of! the! myriad! conferences,! declining! foreign! aid,! and! frustrations! with! project! proliferation! throughout! the! 1990s,! the! MDGs! served! as! an! advocacy! tool! for! action.!!

However,! the! technologies! that! they! devised! to! affect! and! monitor! change! included!

! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 250!

! % ! measurable! targets! and! indicators! created! by! an! epistemic! community! interested! in! technical! solutions.! This! inadvertently! reified! state! authority! while! substituting! much! needed!comprehensive!reform!with!measurable!quick!fixes.!Such!a!comprehensive!reform! could!have!included!the!implementation!of!strategies!set!out!in!the!broader!Roadmap!that! spoke! to! the! imbalances! in! the! global! trade! system! as! well! as! undemocratic! decision> making! mechanisms! that! sustain,! if! not! create,! development! challenges.! Such! strategies! could!have!included:!

• “Ensuring! that! food,! agricultural! trade! and! overall! trade! policies! are! conducive! to! fostering!food!security!for!all!through!a!fair!and!just!world!trade!system.! ! • Ensuring! that! developed! nations! fully! comply! with! the! commitments! they! made! under! the! Uruguay! Round! of! multilateral! trade! negotiations! to! improve! market! access!for!products!from!developing!countries;! ! • Ensuring! significant! improvement! in! market! access! in! developed! countries! for! agricultural!products!from!developing!countries;! ! • Eliminating! the! remaining! trade! barriers! in! manufacturing,! especially! on! textiles! and!clothing;! ! • Pursuing!measures!to!promote!the!cancellation!of!official!bilateral!debt.”3! ! Instead,! the! MDGs! focused! attention! on! states! and! treated! them! as! independent! units,! solidly! circumscribed! by! their! territorial! boundaries! and! disconnected! from! the! international! economic! regime! and! its! power! asymmetries.4!Their! normative! features! made!it!hard!for!governments,!international!organizations,!development!agencies,!and!civil!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!United!Nations,!General!Assembly,!Road%map%towards%the%implementation%of%the%United%Nations%Millennium% Declaration,%Report!of!the!Secretary>General!(A/56/326),!September!6,!2001.!!!

4!On! development! as! anti>politics! machine,! see! James! Ferguson,! The% AntiFPolitics% Machine:% “Development,”% Depoliticization,%and%Bureaucratic%Power%in%Lesotho%(Minneapolis:!University!of!Minnesota!Press,!1994).!In!a! similar!vein,!Douglas!Lummis!has!argued!that!economic!development!is!antidemocratic!and!“the!vocabulary! of! politics! out! of! economic! discourse! is! part! of! what! keeps! it! undemocratic.”! C.! Douglas! Lummis,! “Development!Against!Democracy,”!Alternatives%16!(1991):!32.!

! PART%II.%GLOBAL%CONVERGENCE%ON%ANTIPOVERTY%NORM% 251!

! % ! society! groups! not! to! approve! them.! Who! wouldn’t! want! a! poverty>free! world! where! people! are! literate,! healthy! and! environmentally! responsible?! However,! their! overwhelming!focus!on!social!issues!and!efforts!to!mobilize!countries!to!take!ownership!of! the!MDGs!translated!into!an!increasing!role!for!development!experts!during!the!early!phase! of!MDG!advocacy!and!monitoring!while!emphasizing!problems!internal!to!the!state.!This! resulted! in! an! increasing! integration! of! the! MDGs! into! existing! poverty! reduction! instruments! such! as! the! PRSP.! Consequently,! the! MDGs! implicitly! embraced! existing! policies!emphasizing!economic!and!political!liberalization.!As!such,!the!MDGs!didn’t!create! an! alternative! development! agenda,! but! instead! maintained! existing! power! relations! perpetuating!inequalities!among!and!within!states.!In!the!process,!however,!they!cemented! the! antipoverty! norm! and! the! conception! that! it! is! morally! wrong! for! anyone! to! live! in! abject!poverty.!!

Chapter 8

CONCLUSION! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 253!

In!September!2015,!world!leaders!will!once!again!gather!at!the!United!Nations!to! take! stock! of! this! millennium’s! first! development! agenda! and! to! endorse! the! next! set! of! goals! that! are! to! guide! international! development! priorities! for! the! next! fifteen! years.!

Worldwide!deliberations!about!the!postF2015!agenda!have!been!underway!since!2012,!and! by! all! accounts! they! have! been! openly! participatory,! inclusive,! and! consultative.! In!

December!2014,!drawing!on!these!consultative!processes,!SecretaryFGeneral!Ban!KiFmoon! submitted! his! synthesis! report! on! the! postF2015! sustainable! development! agenda! to! the!

UN!General!Assembly.!Titled!The(Road(to(Dignity(by(2030:(Ending(Poverty,(Transforming(All(

Lives( and( Protecting( the( Planet,( it! is! an! ambitious! agenda! that! feeds! into! the! intergovernmental! negotiations! that! will! ultimately! give! rise! to! the! priorities! embedded! within! the! upcoming! Sustainable! Development! Goals! (SDGs).! Most! importantly,! of! its! current!17!goals,!the!first!is!dedicated!to!“End[ing]!poverty!in!all!its!forms!everywhere.”1!

Thus,! the! global! convergence! on! the! antipoverty! norm! will! be! extended! into! the! next! development!agenda.!!

Today,! the! antipoverty! norm! is! firmly! consolidated! in! international! development! discourse!and!practice.!That!it!is!a!moral!imperative!for!the!international!community!to!end! poverty!around!the!world!is!firmly!etched!in!our!global!conscience.!Just!as!the!conception! that! all! humans! have! basic! rights! had! manifested! itself! in! the! Universal! Declaration! of!

Human!Rights,!the!concept!of!extreme!poverty!as!an!indignity!that!no!human!being!should! suffer! was! cemented! in! the! Millennium! Declaration! and! its! subsequent! goals.! This! dissertation! has! attempted! to! show! the! origins! of! this! normative! principle! by! examining!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!United!Nations,!The(Road(to(Dignity(by(2030:(Ending(Poverty,(Transforming(All(Lies(and(Protecting(the(Planet,( Synthesis!Report!of!the!SecretaryFGeneral!on!the!PostF2015!Sustainable!Development!Agenda,!A/69/700!(4! December!2014),!14.!

2!IMF,!The(Poverty(Reduction(and(Growth(Facility(Factsheet((Washington,!DC:!IMF,!2009).! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 254! political! processes! in! multilateral! settings! that! helped! generate! the! antipoverty! norm.!

Having! found! constructivist! theories! of! norm! emergence! in! explaining! the! formation! of! antipoverty! norm! less! satisfactory,! I! proposed! a! theoretical! framework! that! bridges! the!

“constructivistFrealist”! divide! by! adding! a! structural! dimension! to! the! dominant! agentF oriented! theories.! I! further! examined! the! content! and! form! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! manifested!in!the!Millennium!Development!Goals,!and!showed!how!the!constitution!of!this! norm! based! on! ontological! freezing,! target! setting,! standardization,! and! quantification! is! essential!to!understanding!its!consolidation.!!

In! this! concluding! chapter,! I! first! summarize! the! argument! presented! in! this! dissertation! project.! Next,! I! examine! some! other! international! norms,! including! state! fragility!and!good!governance,!whose!emergence!and!consolidation!can!be!explained!based! on!the!theoretical!framework!I!have!outlined!here.!I!conclude!this!chapter!by!considering! the!implications!of!my!research!while!briefly!weighing!in!on!the!changed!global!conditions! that!have!made!the!processes!giving!rise!to!the!SDGs!drastically!different!from!those!that! gave!rise!to!the!MDGs.!Although!a!final!set!of!Sustainable!Development!Goals!has!not!yet! been!defined,!the!work!streams!and!debates!that!have!been!feeding!into!the!process!reflect! the!changing!world!order!and!offer!insights!into!the!next!global!development!agenda.!!

8.1 Argument in Brief ! This! dissertation! set! out! to! explain! the! political! processes! that! gave! rise! to! the! antipoverty! norm;! the! moral! conceptualization! that! abject! poverty! is! dehumanizing! and! must!be!eradicated.!While!the!ultimate!goal!of!development!had!been!economic!growth!for! decades,!poverty!reduction!replaced!that!goal!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium.!To!understand! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 255! why,!I!first!took!a!longue(durée(perspective!that!showed!the!role!of!poverty!in!development! policy!since!the!creation!of!the!current!global!governance!system!after!the!end!of!World!

War! II.! Although! poverty! reduction! had! always! been! part! and! parcel! of! development! policies,!its!enunciation!as!the(global!challenge!of!our!time!emerged!in!the!1990s.!Hence,!I! examined! the! last! decade! of! the! twentieth! century! exploring! both! the! “permissive”! and!

“efficient”!causes!that!led!to!the!global!convergence!on!the!antipoverty!norm.!!

As! the! first! chapters! outlined,! the! end! of! the! Cold! War! ushered! in! a! euphoric! moment,! proclaiming! the! infallibility! of! the! liberal! project! and! “the! end! of! history.”! Yet,! crises!loomed!large!on!the!international!stage,!where!governance!structures!of!an!earlier! era! seemed! like! ancient! relics! no! longer! capable! of! managing! problems! of! a! new! world! order.! The! international! financial! institutions! were! attacked! for! their! conditionality! programs! that! wreaked! havoc! in! developing! countries.! The! UN,! on! the! other! hand,! was! overwhelmed! with! competing! peacekeeping! missions,! while! declining! foreign! aid! and! increasing! conflicts! relegated! development! to! a! lower! rung! of! importance.! As! ODA! fell,! donor!countries!found!themselves!debating!the!future!of!development!assistance!and!their! role!within!it.!Thus,!all!these!organizations!created!after!World!War!II!found!themselves! reflecting! on! their! relevancy(in! a! world! that! differed! from! the! one! that! had! given! rise! to! them.! In! this! moment! of! reflection,! poverty! was! identified! as! a! strategic! response! to! ameliorate!the!varying!problems!faced!without!a!deeper!engagement!with!the!underlying! structures!that!created!those!problems.!!

Thus,! the! OECD/DAC! member! countries,! reflecting! on! their! evolving! role! in! a! changing! world,! outlined! the! International! Development! Goals! in! 1996! in! order! to! harmonize!aid!initiatives!among!donors!while!selling!the!utility!of!aid!to!their!constituents! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 256! at!home.!The!World!Bank!(along!with!the!IMF)!hit!by!a!crisis!of!confidence!as!a!result!of!the!

SAPs! and! the! global! backlash! against! its! policies! launched! the! Heavily! Indebted! Poor!

Countries!(HIPC)!initiative,!which!enabled!countries!that!were!unsustainably!indebted!to! receive!debt!relief!as!well!as!loans!at!low!interest!rates.!Then,!in!1999,!in!keeping!with!the! poverty!theme,!the!IFIs!initiated!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Papers!as!a!precondition!for! access!to!HIPC!as!well!as!a!means!to!ensure!that!aidFrecipient!countries!focus!on!poverty! reducing!reforms.!I!have!not!engaged!very!much!with!the!IMF,!as!I!think!that!they!generally! do! not! deviate! from! their! mandate! of! macroeconomic! stabilization,! which! for! better! or! worse!has!kept!them!away!from!the!poverty!issue.!However,!even!the!IMF!towards!the!end! of!the!century!restructured!its!Enhanced!Structural!Adjustment!Facility!and!replaced!it!by!

(or! by! some! accounts! merely! renamed! it)! the! Poverty! Reduction! and! Growth! Facility!

(PRGF)!in!November!1999.!According!to!IMF,!the!PRSP!was!introduced!as!“a!participatory,! countryFled! mechanism! to! more! sharply! focus! countries'! poverty! reduction! efforts.”2!The!

PRGF!therefore!was!established!to!“make!the!objectives!of!poverty!reduction!and!growth! more!central!to!lending!operations!in!its!poorest!member!countries.”3!Thus,!poverty!was! instituted!as!the!primary!plight!of!the!developing!countries!among!donors!and!the!Bretton!

Woods!institutions.!!

! The!UN’s!marginalization!and!sense!of!crisis,!in!turn,!made!it!more!susceptible!to! new! initiatives! and! partnerships.! As! SecretaryFGeneral! Kofi! Annan! tried! to! reform! the! development!activities!within!the!UN!family,!the!uniform!focus!on!poverty!and!the!broader! development!community’s!dedication!to!the!IDGs!came!as!a!welcome!initiative.!Building!on!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!IMF,!The(Poverty(Reduction(and(Growth(Facility(Factsheet((Washington,!DC:!IMF,!2009).!

3!Ibid.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 257! this,! the! UN! used! the! start! of! the! new! millennium! as! an! occasion! to! take! stock! of! its! operations!and!to!launch!the!Millennium!Declaration,!which!contained!many!of!the!same! goals!iterated!within!the!International!Development!Goals.!The!international!community’s! endorsement!of!this!formidable!declaration!was!the!stepping!stone!to!the!creation!of!the!

MDGs,!which!echoed!the!IDGs!but!added!an!eighth!goal!dedicated!to!keeping!the!developed! countries!accountable!for!their!actions!and!collaboration!in!the!fight!against!poverty.!

! As! a! result,! towards! the! end! of! the! twentieth! century,! all! these! organizations,! including!IMF,!WB,!UN!and!OECD!were!moving!towards!a!central!goal:!poverty!reduction.!

By! the! time! the! discussions! about! the! Millennium! Declaration! were! in! full! force,! institutional! reform! and! innovation! within! the! World! Bank! (PRSP),! the! International!

Monetary!Fund!(PRGF),!the!United!Nations!(CCA/UNDAF)!and!Organization!for!Economic!

Cooperation! and! Development! (IDGs)! had! replaced! the! discourse! of! relevancy! with! a! discourse! of! poverty,! highlighting! the! invaluable! contribution! that! these! international! organizations!could!make!to!its!reduction,!especially!in!light!of!the!fact!that!for(the(first(time( in(history(the!world!had!the!means!to!do!so.!!

! Yet,!the!emergence!of!a!norm!does!not!necessarily!imply!its!persistence!within!the! international! system.! I! have! argued! that! the! constitution! of! the! antipoverty! norm— embedded! in! the! multidimensional! conceptualization! of! human! development—helps! explain!its!consolidation!in!international!development.!In!particular,!four!distinct!features! of! the! MDGs—ontological( freezing,( target( setting,( standardization,! and! quantification— induced!these!goals!to!dominate!the!international!development!agenda!within!a!short!time! period! while! helping! consolidate! the! antipoverty! norm.! By! making! poverty! a! problem! internal!to!the!state!and!setting!standardized!and!quantifiable!targets!to!monitor!progress! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 258! on!countries’!poverty!reduction!priorities,!the!MDGs!became!part!of!development!discourse! and!practice,!as!governments!used!them!to!show!that!they!were!using!funds!made!available! to!them!to!reduce!poverty!in!their!countries.!At!the!same!time,!donors!used!the!MDGs!to! channel!funds!to!specific!sectors!that!helped!attain!those!particular!targets!while!tracking! the!effectiveness!of!their!aid.!This!process!of!data!collection,!analysis,!and!ranking!helped! solidify!the!use!of!the!MDGs!while!consolidating!the!antipoverty!norm!as!the!ultimate!goal! of!global!development.!!

8.2 Applying Theoretical Framework to Other International Norms ! ! State! interests! and! organizational! incentives! play! an! important! role! in! norm! construction.! While! previous! treatments! of! the! state! as! the! only! important! actor! on! the! international! scene! had! led! to! the! constructivist! turn! in! IR,! this! turn! itself! resulted! in! underemphasizing!the!important!role!states!play!in!shaping!the!global!normative!agenda.!

This!dissertation!has!shown,!based!on!the!example!of!the!antipoverty!norm,!how!states!and! the! organizations! they! have! created! impact! agenda! setting.! The! theoretical! framework! outlined!here!is!one!where!a!crisis!as!a!result!of!existing!policies!opens!up!political!space! for!the!inclusion!of!a!new!normative!principle,!which!is!diagnosed!as!internal!to!the!state,! where! it! can! be! quantified! and! ranked,! and! where! its! achievement! over! time! can! be! tracked.! I! would! argue! that! the! antipoverty! construction! exemplifies! a! larger! movement! towards! norms! that! are! created! and! pushed! by! states! as! a! means! of! responding! to! transnational! challenges.! To! make! that! case,! I! present! two! examples! of! norms! whose! emergence! and! consolidation! could! be! explained! based! on! the! theoretical! framework! introduced!here:!the!conception!that!fragile!states!are!dangerous!(to!themselves!and!to!the! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 259! international! community)! and! good! governance! as! a! panacea! for! socioeconomic! and! political!development.!While!not!offering!a!complete!documentation!of!these!processes,!I! briefly!explain!how!my!theoretical!framework!might!apply!to!these!other!issue!areas.!

State%Fragility%

! The! idea! that! states! differ! from! each! other! in! terms! of! their! capacity! to! provide! services!to!their!citizens!or!to!protect!themselves,!and/or!in!terms!of!their!behavior!and! international! recognition,! is! not! a! new! one.! However,! in! the! 1990s,! a! new! conceptual! categorization!of!states!into!“stable”!or!“fragile”!groups!was!established.!Although!I!use!the! term!“fragile!states”!here!because!of!its!use!in!development!circles!as!well!as!the!use!of!the! state! fragility! index,! states! “where! governmental! structures! are! overwhelmed! by! circumstances”4!have! been! invariably! termed! as! “failed,”! “absent,”! “collapsed”! or! “weak,”! among!others.!The!concept!of!“state!fragility”!emerged!after!the!end!of!the!Cold!War!when! civil! conflicts! and! ethnic! wars! within! national! borders! increased.! This! happened! at! the! same!time!as!various!international!organizations!and!donors!were!adjusting!to!a!changing! global! landscape! while! considering! ways! to! make! their! organizations! more! relevant! to! a! postFCold!War!era.!But!it!was!further!augmented!in!light!of!the!attacks!on!the!World!Trade!

Center!and!the!Pentagon!on!September!11,!2001.!!

! Interestingly,! the! same! actors! that! played! a! role! in! forming! the! antipoverty! norm! were! involved! in! the! creation! of! the! state! fragility! concept.! Several! initiatives! were! undertaken,! which! originally! emerged! within! the! confines! of! the! donors! and! the! international!organizations!in!which!these!donor!countries!wield!power.!The!OECD/DAC!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!Gerald!B.!Helman!and!Steven!R.!Ratner,!“Saving!Failed!States,”!Foreign(Policy(89,!no.!4!(1993):!3.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 260! held! a! series! of! meetings! between! 2001! and! 2003! to! discuss! “poor! performers”! and!

“difficult! partnerships.”5!The! DAC! characterized! fragile! states! “as! those! countries! where! there! is! a! lack! of! political! commitment! and/or! weak! capacity! to! develop! and! implement! proFpoor!policies.”6!In!an!attempt!to!give!special!attention!to!fragile!states,!the!World!Bank! also! established! an! initiative! in! 2001! that! targeted! “lowFincome! countries! under! duress”!

(LICUD).!The!OECD/DAC!meetings!gave!rise!to!the!Fragile!States!Group!in!2003!(composed! of! DAC! member! states),! which! organized! a! “Senior! Level! Forum! on! Development!

Effectiveness!in!Fragile!States”!in!2005.!The!outcome!of!this!forum!were!the!“Principles!for!

Good! International! Engagement! in! Fragile! States! and! Situations,”! referred! to! as! Fragile!

States! Principles! (FSPs).! These! principles! “provide! a! set! of! guidelines! to! improve! involvement!of!the!international!community!in!situations!of!conflict!and!fragility,”!under! the! assumption! that! “poorly! conceived! involvement! can! do! more! harm! than! good.”7!In!

2005,! the! Paris! Declaration! on! Aid! Effectiveness! drew! on! the! FSPs! to! create! a! list! of! principles!that!applied!to!fragile!states,!noting,!“as!we!support!stateFbuilding!and!delivery! of! basic! services,! we! will! ensure! that! the! principles! of! harmonization,! alignment! and! managing!for!results!are!adapted!to!environments!of!weak!governance!and!capacity.”8!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!For!an!analysis!of!how!the!concept!of!“Fragile!States”!was!created,!see!Sonja!Grimm,!Nicolas!LemayFHébert,! and!Olivier!Nay,!“!‘Fragile!States’:!Introducing!a!Political!Concept,”!Third(World(Quarterly(35,!no.!2!(2014):! 197F209.!

6!Organization! for! Economic! CoFoperation! and! Development,! Whole( of( Government( Approaches( to( Fragile( States,(DAC!Guidelines!and!Reference!Series!(Paris:!OECD,!2006).!

7!For! more! information,! see! OECD! website! on! Fragile! States! Principles,! accessed! February! 19,! 2015,! http://www.oecd.org/dacfragilestates/.!

8!Organization!for!Economic!CoFoperation!and!Development,!The(Paris(Declaration(on(Aid(Effectiveness((Paris:! OECD,!2005).! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 261!

! As! with! the! antipoverty! norm,! the! UK! through! the! Department! for! International!

Development!(DFID)!played!a!leading!role!in!constructing!the!state!fragility!agenda!within! multilateral! organizations.! DFID’s! emphasis! on! poverty! reduction! was! connected! to! its! conceptualization! that! human! security! and! development! were! connected,! both! of! which! depended!on!the!role!of!the!state!within!developing!countries!and!state!capacity!to!provide! law!and!order!to!support!economic!development.9!Also,!the!US!played!an!important!role!in! the!construction!of!the!“fragile!state”!concept!by!undertaking!two!initiatives.!First,!the!US!

Agency!for!International!Development!(USAID)!created!a!“fragile!state!strategy”10!outlining! a! list! of! objectives! to! regulate! intervention! in! fragile! states.! It! listed! “analysis! and! monitoring!of!the!internal!dynamics!of!fragile!states”!as!the!first!component!to!gain!insights! into!the!“effectiveness”!and!“legitimacy”!of!states,!arguing!that!when!a!government!cannot! assure!provision!of!order!and!public!services,!and!in!addition!lacks!legitimacy!in!the!eye!of!

“important!segments!of!society,”!the!state!can!be!considered!to!be!failing.11!Second,!the!US! established! its! Millennium! Challenge! Corporation! (MCC)12,! which! was! tasked! to! select! countries!for!assistance!based!on!their!policy!performance!and!institutional!capacities.!The! core!criteria!for!this!selection!were!a!country’s!ability!to!“demonstrate!a!commitment!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9!Department!for!International!Development,!The(Politics(of(Poverty:(Elites,(Citizens(and(States(–(Findings(from( Ten(Years(of(DFIDTFunded(Research(on(Governance(and(Fragile(States(2001T2010((London:!DFID,!2010).!

10!US!Agency!for!International!Development,!Fragile(State(Strategy((Washington,!DC:!USAID,!2005).!

11!Ibid.,!3.!!

12 !The! Millennium! Challenge! Corporation! administers! the! previously! mentioned! Millennium! Challenge! Account!(MCA).!According!to!their!website,!“When!a!country!is!awarded!a!compact,!it!sets!up!its!own!local! MCA! accountable! entity! to! manage! and! oversee! all! aspects! of! implementation.”! For! more! information,! see! https://www.mcc.gov/pages/about,!accessed!February!19,!2015.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 262! just! and! democratic! governance,! investments! in! people,! and! economic! freedom! as! measured!by!different!policy!indicators.”13!

! Thus,! as! with! the! antipoverty! norm,! the! fragile! state! concept! was! promoted! by! a! series! of! international! organizations,! including! the! World! Bank! and! OECD! as! well! as! important!donor!countries,!including!the!UK!and!USA.!As!with!the!MDGs,!state!fragility!is!a! multidimensional! concept! that! includes! twelve! indicators! constituting! social,! economic,! and! political! variables.! These! indicators! pertain! to! such! diverse! areas! as! demographic! pressures,! movement! of! refugees,! brain! drain,! economic! decline,! deterioration! of! public! services,!violation!of!human!rights,!external!threats,!and!so!on.!In!other!words,!the!state! fragility!index!is!a!composite!index!that!reduces!many!different!socioeconomic!and!political! characteristics!of!a!country!into!a!number,!according!to!which!countries!are!ranked!in!the! international!community!of!states.!!

The!particular!features!of!this!multidimensional!concept,!similar!to!the!antipoverty! norm,!helped!its!consolidation.!Fragility!as!a!concept!that!is!internal!to!the!state!requires! interventions! that! correct! for! the! problems! within! state! borders.! In! addition! to! the! multidimensional! conceptualization! of! the! “fragile! state,”! its! measurability! explains! its! solidification.!As!Nehal!Bhuta’s!research!suggests,!“By!developing!a!method!for!measuring! fragility,!proponents!of!the!fragility!strategy!at!USAID!sought!to!increase!acceptance!of!the! term!itself.”14!Similar!to!the!MDGs,!where!at!times!already!existing!indicators!were!chosen!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 Millennium! Challenge! Corporation,! “The! Country! Selection! Process,”! accessed! February! 19,! 2015,! https://www.mcc.gov/pages/selection.(

14!Nehal! Bhuta,! “Governmentalizing! Sovereignty:! Indexes! of! State! Fragility! and! the! Calculability! of! Political! Order,”! in! Governance( by( Indicators:( Global( Power( through( Quantification( and( Rankings,( edited! by! Kevin! E.! Davis,!Angelina!Fisher,!Benedict!Kingsbury,!and!Sally!Engle!Merry!(Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!2012),! 144.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 263! to!measure!the!concept!at!hand,!in!measuring!concepts!central!to!state!fragility,!“Instead!of! identifying! measures! that! successfully! capture! attributes! of! the! concepts! sought! to! be! measured,!the!creators!identified!preFexisting!indicators!which!they!contended!measured! political,! social! economic,! and! security! outcomes( or! perceptions.” 15 !Thus,! the! multidimensionality!of!state!fragility!combined!with!the!understanding!that!it!is!something! internal!to!the!state!that!needs!to!be!quantified,!measured!and!tracked!through!indicators! helped!solidify!the!binary!distinction!between!“fragile”!and!“stable”!states.!!

Good%Governance!!

! In!the!introductory!chapter,!I!explained!why!the!governance!agenda!competed!with! but!did!not!emerge!as!one!around!which!all!member!states!could!have!converged!at!the! turn! of! the! millennium.! Nevertheless,! good! governance! did! emerge! as! an! international! norm! in! the! 1990s! and! has! since! filled! an! important! space! in! development! debates.! The! term!“good!governance”!was!first!introduced!in!a!1989!World!Bank!report!on!SubFSaharan!

Africa,!where!the!“root!cause!of!weak!economic!performance!in!the!past”!was!identified!to! be!“the!failure!of!public!institutions.”16!In!specific,!the!report!noted!that!while!free!markets! and! the! private! sector! were! important,! “they! must! go! handFinFhand! with! good! governance—a! public! service! that! is! efficient,! a! judicial! system! that! is! reliable,! and! an! administration!that!is!accountable!to!its!public.”17!Then!in!1992,!the!World!Bank!published! a! small! booklet,! titled! Governance( and( Development,( which! explained,! “The! Bank’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!Ibid.,!148.!

16!World!Bank,!SubTSaharan(Africa:(From(Crisis(to(Sustainable(Growth((Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1989),! xii.!!

17!Ibid.!! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 264! experience!has!shown!that!the!programs!and!projects!it!helps!finance!may!be!technically! sound,! but! fail! to! deliver! anticipated! results! for! reasons! connected! to! the! quality! of! government!action.”18!!

! As! the! World! Bank! publication! above! suggests,! good! governance! emerged! in! response!to!criticisms!of!structural!adjustment!programs,!whereby!the!failure!of!SAPs!was! explained! not! based! on! the! content! of! their! policies! but! the! quality! of! governance! in! receiving!countries.!In!fact,!some!have!argued!that!the!good!governance!agenda!was!a!good! substitution! for! the! structural! adjustment! policies,! because! it! still! focused! on! structural! variables! while! at! the! same! time! shifting! the! focus! from! the! prescribers! to! the! implementers!of!the!policies.!A!discussion!paper!by!UNCTAD!in!2000!similarly!suggested! that!this!new!focus!on!governance!“arrived!at!a!moment!when!growing!doubts!regarding! the!purpose!and!effectiveness!of!the!IFIs!seemed!to!threaten!their!funding,!and!even!their! continued!existence.”!19!Mlada!Bukovansky!corroborates!this!finding!in!her!analysis!of!the! anticorruption!agenda!(which!is!subsumed!under!the!broader!governance!agenda),!where! she! finds! the! focus! on! good! governance! to! have! been! a! response! to! the! inadequacy! of! narrow!economic!responses!to!development!challenges.20!!!

! While!the!UK!played!an!important!role!in!the!antipoverty!norm!construction,!the!US! was!a!critical!actor!in!the!good!governance!formulation.21!The!US!government!was!not!only!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!World!Bank,!Governance(and(Development((Washington,!DC:!World!Bank,!1992),!1.!!

19 !Devesh! Kapur! and! Richard! Webb,! GovernanceTrelated( Conditionalities( of( the( International( Financial( Institutions,(Discussion!paper!series!6!(New!York:!UNCTAD,!2000),!18.!

20!Mlada! Bukovansky,! “The! Hollowness! of! AntiFCorruption! Discourse,”! Review( of( International( Political( Economy(13,!no.!2!(May!2006):!181F209;!Mlada!Bukovansky,!Corruption(is(Bad:(Normative(Dimensions(of(the( AntiTCorruption(Movement,(Working!paper!2002/5!(Canberra:!Australian!National!University,!2002).(!!

21!This! summary! of! the! origins! of! the! good! governance! concept! is! based! on! Ved! P.! Nanda,! “The! “Good! Governance”!Concept!Revisited,”!Annals(of(the(American(Academy(of(Political(and(Social(Science(603!(January! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 265! an!avid!promoter!of!the!good!governance!agenda;!it!was!also!an!early!adopter.!In!1998,!the!

US! Agency! for! International! Development! offered! a! conceptual! framework! that! linked! economic!growth!to!democratization!and!identified!rule!of!law,!elections,!civil!society,!and! governance!as!the!main!pillars!of!USAID’s!democracy!and!governance!activities.!In!his!2002!

National! Security! Strategy,! then! US! President! George! W.! Bush! signaled! the! shift! in! aid! policy!by!noting!that!the!US!would!provide!resources!to!help!those!countries!that!needed! and!sought!national!reform.!In!particular,!the!US!announced!the!creation!of!the!Millennium!

Challenge!Account!“for!projects!in!countries!whose!governments!rule!justly,!invest!in!their! people,! and! encourage! economic! freedom…fight! corruption,! respect! basic! human! rights,! embrace!the!rule!of!law,!invest!in!health!care!and!education,!follow!responsible!economic! policies,! and! enable! entrepreneurship.” 22 !Thus,! a! link! was! established! between! development!and!good!governance.!

! Within! the! World! Bank,! good! governance! was! initially! defined! in! terms! of! public! management!reforms!and!later!as!creating!an!enabling!environment!so!that!free!markets! could! function! properly.! But! by! the! end! of! the! 1990s,! the! definition! had! expanded! to! incorporate! ruleFbased! governance,! transparency,! and! corruption! in! the! public! sector.!

Soon,! other! international! development! aid! agencies! and! organizations! followed! suit.! In!

1997,!UNDP!published!its!Governance(Policy(Paper,(defining!good!governance!to!have!the!

22!The!White!House,!The(National(Security(Strategy(of(the(United(States(of(America((Washington,!DC:!United! States!Government!Printing!Office,!2002),!22.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 266! following! attributes:! “It! is! participatory,! transparent! and! accountable.! It! is! effective! in! making!the!best!use!of!resources!and!is!equitable.!And!it!promotes!the!rule!of!law.”23!! !

! As! the! different! organizational! and! state! perspectives! above! suggest,! despite! the! widespread!use!of!the!good!governance!concept,!its!definitions!widely!vary!depending!on! the!organization!deploying!it.!Thomas!Weiss!captures!the!varying!emphases!that!diverse! organizations!attach!to!different!facets!of!governance.!For!example,!while!the!World!Bank! defines!it!as!“the!manner!in!which!power!is!exercised!in!the!management!of!a!country’s! economic! and! social! resources,”! the! OECD! highlights! “the! use! of! political! authority! and! exercise!of!control!in!a!society!in!relation!to!the!management!of!its!resources!for!social!and! economic!development.”24!Definitional!difficulties!in!turn!impacted!the!choice!of!data!and! indicators!to!assess!countries’!governance!performance.!!

! Thus,!even!within!the!World!Bank!alone,!three!different!sets!of!indices!were!created! to! measure! governance.! First,! The! Country! Policy! and! Institutional! Assessment! (CPIA)! measures! how! the! domestic! institutional! framework! impacts! sustainable! growth.! World!

Bank!staff!use!their!knowledge!of!the!state!of!institutional!environment!in!a!prospective!aid! recipient! to! judge! the! CPIA! rating! for! a! given! country! by! rating! countries’! economic! management,! structural! policies,! policies! for! social! inclusion,! and! public! sector! management!and!institutions.!Importantly,!the!CPIA!is!a!key!criterion!in!IDA!allocations.25!

Second,! the! Worldwide! Governance! Indicators! (WGI)! define! governance! as! political!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23!UNDP,!Governance(for(Sustainable(Human(Development:(A(UNDP(Policy(Document((New!York:!UNDP,!1997).!

24 !Thomas! G.! Weiss,! “Governance,! Good! Governance! and! Global! Governance:! Conceptual! and! Actual! Challenges,”!797.!

25 !As! mentioned! in! previous! chapters,! the! World! Bank! provides! finance! to! developing! countries! on! concessional!terms!through!the!International!Development!Association!(IDA).!! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 267! authority! and! assess! it! in! terms! of! six! dimensions,! including! voice! and! accountability,! political! stability! and! absence! of! violence,! government! effectiveness,! regulatory! quality,! rule! of! law,! and! control! of! corruption.! Finally,! the! Doing! Business! framework! surveys! countries’! business! regulatory! environment! by! collecting! data! on! the! ease! of! starting! a! business,! employing! workers,! getting! permits,! registering! property,! enforcing! contracts,! protecting!investors,!and!so!on.26!!

Similar!to!the!antipoverty!agenda,!the!good!governance!concept!first!appeared!on! the!agenda!of!influential!international!development!organizations!and!states.!It!defined!the! problem! of! development! as! internal! to! the! state! and! its! institutions.! Following! from! this! logic,!the!primary!responsibility!for!socioeconomic!development!was!assigned!to!the!state! and!its!capacity!to!diagnose,!quantify!and!resolve!its!own!institutional!challenges.!Further,! it!offered!a!vague!and!multidimensional!definition!of!governance!based!on!an!interrelated! network! of! variables! that! are! difficult! to! measure,! such! as! transparency,! accountability,! corruption,! rule! of! law,! and! so! on.! More! importantly,! as! many! of! its! indicators! rely! on! perceptions,!the!good!governance!agenda!was!critiqued!for!its!arbitrariness,!lack!of!clarity! in!weighting!patterns!of!some!components!over!others,!and!weak!theoretical!foundations.27!!!

The! ambiguity! attached! to! the! concept! of! good! governance! along! with! its! multidimensional! conceptualization! based! on! many! moral! claims! that! one! could! hardly! disagree!with!have!made!good!governance!and!its!indicators!influential!metrics!to!assess! countries’!performance!and!their!“eligibility”!to!receive!aid.!The!US!Millennium!Challenge!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26 !See! Doing! Business:! Measuring! Business! Regulations,! accessed! February! 20,! 2015,! http://www.doingbusiness.org/data.!

27!Van!Waeyenberge,!Elisa.!“Selectivity!at!Work:!Country!Policy!and!Institutional!Assessments!at!the!World! Bank,”!European(Journal(of(Development(Research(21,!no.!5!(2009):!792F810.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 268!

Account! has! been! actively! selecting! countries! for! assistance! based! on! their! good! governance! performance.! Similarly,! “both! the! African! and! the! Asian! Development! Funds! use! a! very! similar,! but! independently,! estimated,! CPIA! in! their! aid! allocation,! and! the! allocation! processes! of! Dutch! and! British! aid! formally! draw! on! the! WB’s! CPIA! scores.”28!

Thus,!the!creation!of!a!simple!index!based!on!a!complicated!calculation!of!different!aspects! of! a! country’s! institutions! has! solidified! the! use! and! duplication! of! the! good! governance! norm!within!development!circles.!!

*!!*!!*!

By!the!end!of!the!century,!the!focus!of!development!debates!had!shifted!from!the! interTnational( to! the! intraTnational.! Following! the! end! of! the! Cold! War! and! with! the! outbreak!of!everFincreasing!internal,!ethnic!and!religious!wars,!themes!such!as!rule!of!law,! human!rights,!transparency,!accountability,!institutional!development,!and!corruption—in! other! words! governance! issues—had! come! to! dominate! debates! in! international! fora.! Of! course,!developing!countries!and!civil!society!organizations!had!long!demanded!reforms!in! global!institutions!and!decisionFmaking!mechanisms.!But!while!those!demands!centered!on! democratizing! global! decisionFmaking! mechanisms,! the! governance! issues! that! were! highlighted!at!the!turn!of!the!millennium!were!increasingly!confined!to!the!national!level.29!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!Ibid.,!793.!

29!Similar! treatments! of! the! 1990’s! shift! of! debate! from! one! focusing! on! global! interdependence! and! its! potential! disadvantages! to! one! focusing! on! the! internal! characteristics! of! states! as! a! cause! of! the! disadvantages!associated!with!globalization!exist!on!such!areas!as!human!security!and!corruption.!See,!for! example,! Mark! Duffield,! Global( Governance( and( the( New( Wars:( The( Merging( of( Development( and( Security( (London:! Zed! Books,! 2001);! Mlada! Bukovansky,! “Corruption! is! Bad:! Normative! Dimensions! of! the! AntiF Corruption! Movement,”! Working! paper! 2002/5( (Canberra:! Australian! National! University,! 2002);! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 269!

8.3 The Road to the post-2015 Agenda ! ! In! exploring! the! emergence! of! the! antipoverty! norm,! this! dissertation! has! highlighted! the! important! role! of! state! interests! and! organizational! agendas! in! norm! emergence.! Although! today’s! world! is! very! different! from! the! one! that! conceived! of! the!

Millennium! Development! Goals,! the! role! of! states! in! the! construction! of! the! next! development!agenda!is!no!less!significant.!In!fact,!lessons!learned!from!the!experience!with! the!MDGs!as!well!as!the!increasingly!multipolar!world!of!today!have!been!impacting!the! negotiations! that! will! generate! the! postF2015! development! agenda.! A! quick! comparative! analysis!of!these!two!different!processes!highlights!some!of!these!differences.!

Although! a! less! transparent! process! gave! rise! to! the! Millennium! Report! and! the!

MDGs,! the! Road( to( Dignity( (the! basis! for! the! SDGs)! is! based! on! a! broad! participatory! process.! Indeed,! since! early! 2012,! several! work! streams! have! been! taking! place! simultaneously!in!a!process!that!will!bring!together!deliberative!outcomes!emanating!from! the! interFgovernmental! Open! Working! Group! (OWG)! at! the! General! Assembly,! the! High!

Level!Panel!of!Eminent!Persons,!the!UN!System!Task!Team!on!PostF2015!Agenda,!as!well!as! national,! thematic,! and! regional! consultations.! Not! to! be! forgotten! are! the! global! consultations! through! the! virtual! MyWorld! Survey,! an! electronic! survey! that! has! been! collecting!data!on!people’s!top!six!priorities.30!Anyone!who!knows!about!this!survey!(and!is! computer! literate! and! has! access! to! a! computer! with! WiFFi)! can! essentially! voice! her!

30 !By! last! count,! over! one! million! people! had! voted,! accessed! February! 23,! 2015,! http://vote.myworld2015.org/.! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 270! opinion. 31 !Assessing! the! politics! behind! these! parallel! processes! would! require! a! dissertation!on!its!own;!suffice!it!to!say!that!the!exclusionary!process!of!the!MDGs!had!the! effect!of!ensuring!that!the!next!development!agenda!would!not!leave!anyone!behind!in!the! formulation!of!the!Sustainable!Development!Goals.!!

As! for! the! specific! MDGs,! they! were! based! on! interFagency! meetings! where! a! few! people!representing!UN!agencies,!IMF,!WB!and!OECD!formulated!the!final!list!of!targets!and! solicited! statisticians! for! their! advice! on! selecting! appropriate! indicators.! The! current! process,!on!the!other!hand,!has!been!incorporating!views!from!individual!member!states,! various!development!agencies!within!and!outside!the!UN!system,!as!well!as!external!actors,! such!as!civil!society!and!private!sector!groups,!who!have!actively!observed!and!contributed! to! the! negotiations! taking! place! among! member! states! within! the! GA.! This! inclusiveness! also!explains!the!(more!than)!doubling!of!the!goals!from!8!to!17!with!169!targets,!“turning! into!an!unending!and!fuzzy!wish!list.”32!!

Furthermore,! many! UN! agencies,! such! as! the! ILO! and! United! Nations! Industrial!

Development!Organization!(UNIDO)!did!not!take!the!MDGs!seriously!back!then!and!thought! of!them!as!a!fad!that!would!soon!disappear.!Today,!not!only!is!every!UN!agency!making! sure! that! they! are! part! of! the! process! and! actively! contribute! to! the! debates,! some! have! even! gone! as! far! as! rebranding! themselves! in! an! attempt! to! align! their! organizational!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Incidentally,! on! February! 28,! 2014,! when! I! interviewed! an! UNDP! employee! engaged! in! the! postF2015! agenda!in!his!office!in!New!York,!Olav!Kjorven,!at!the!time!Special!Adviser!to!the!UNDP!Administrator!on!the! postF2015!development!agenda,!walked!in!and!asked!for!the!latest!survey!results!as!he!was!heading!to!the! Open!Working!Group!meeting!at!the!General!Assembly!and!wanted!to!present!those!results.!!

32!Jan! Vandemoortele,! “PostF2015! Agenda:! Mission! Impossible?”! Development( Studies( Research( 1,! no.! 1! (2014):!223.!! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 271! agendas! with! the! SDGs.33!For! example,! UNIDO! risked! closure! in! the! 1990s! due! to! the! sentiment!by!some!donors,!including!the!US,!that!industrial!development!should!be!led!by! the! private! sector.! This! agency! reformed! itself! and! survived! the! crisis,! and! today,! its! priority! areas! include! poverty! reduction! through! productive! activities,! energy! and! environment,!and!trade!capacity!building.34!This!alignment!of!organizational!priorities!with! the! broader! framework! of! the! international! development! agenda! has! allowed! UNIDO! to! maintain!its!relevancy!and!offer!solutions!to!today’s!development!challenges.!

These! differences! are! crucial! as! they! point! out! that! states! and! international! organizations! have! learned! from! this! past! experience! with! the! MDGs.! The! postF2015! negotiations!are!lively!and!inclusive;!and!the!interFgovernmental!debates!indicate!that!this! time! around,! the! goals! will! be! universal! and! ensure! that! all! the! members! of! the! international! community! participate! in! the! attainment! of! the! SDGs.! In! light! of! the! 2008! financial!crisis,!the!Occupy!Wall!Street!movement,!fierce!public!retaliation!against!austerity! measures!in!Greece!and!Portugal,!as!well!as!increasing!debates!about!rising!inequalities— not!least!due!to!the!publication!of!Thomas!Piketty’s!book!on!this!topic35—inequality!has! been! a! dominant! theme! in! the! debates.! Initially,! there! seemed! to! be! some! hesitation! to! include!inequality!among!the!goals,!especially!as!the!US!expressed!objections!to!it!in!the!

Open! Working! Group.36!Nevertheless,! as! suggested! by! the! draft! proposal,! goal! 10! of! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!Diana!Alarcon,!interview!with!author,!December!3,!2013.!

34!This!case!(and!others!presented!in!this!dissertation)!confirms!Cooley!and!Ron’s!argument!that!bureaucratic! decisionFmaking! can! be! driven! at! least! as! much! by! shortFterm! concern! with! organizational! survival! as! by! normative!commitments.!See!Alexander!Cooley!and!James!Ron,!“The!NGO!Scramble:!Organizational!Insecurity! and!the!Political!Economy!of!Transnational!Action,”!International(Security(21,!no.!1!(Summer!2002):!5F39.!!

35!See!Thomas!Piketty,!Capital(in(the(TwentyTfirst(Century,!translated!by!Arthur!Goldhammer!(Cambridge,!MA:! Belknap!Press,!2014).!

36!See,! for! example,! Remarks! by! Ambassador! Elizabeth! Cousens,! US! Representative! to! ECOSOC,! for! the! Chapter(8.(CONCLUSION( 272! suggested!SDGs!mandates!the!reduction!of!inequality!within!and!among!countries.37!Thus,! the! experience! with! the! MDGs! over! the! past! fifteen! years! has! taught! states! and! international!organizations!that!the!global!development!agenda!to!which!they!subscribe!in!

September!2015!will!impact!their!priorities!and!aid!budgets.!!

Consequently,!the!international!community!is!taking!a!different!road!to!the!SDGs.!It! is!a!highly!participatory!and!consultative!process!that!will!generate!the!next!development! agenda.!Yet,!the!unruly!number!of!goals!and!targets!that!have!emerged!in!this!process!have! instilled!a!sense!of!nostalgia!among!those!privileged!to!have!been!included!in!the!creation! of!the!millennium!agenda.!The!document!that!will!emanate!from!these!debates!will!be!a! political! instrument! to! rally! state! and! nonFstate! actors! around! a! universal! agenda! that! invites! the! international! community! to! join! hands! on! the! “road! to! dignity.”! Whether! the! postF2015!agenda!will!be!concrete!and!quantifiable!to!overcome!the!multiple!complexities! embedded!within!the!Sustainable!Development!Goals!remains!to!be!seen.!!

!!!

! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! US/Canada/Israel! Team,! who! at! the! tenth! session! of! the! SDG! Open! Working! Group,! on! March! 31,! 2014,! argued,!“We!are!less!convinced!by!a!standalone!goal!on!inequality.!This!could!lead!us!to!a!sterile!debate!that! economists!have!been!having!for!generations!and!that!we!are!unlikely!to!resolve!here.!We!see!much!greater! practical!potential!and!concrete!impact!in!addressing!inequality!through!goals!and!targets!related!to!poverty! eradication;!equal!access!to!productive!and!other!assets;!social!protection!floors;!gender!equality;!elimination! of!discriminatory!practices,!policies,!and!laws;!and!jobFrich!and!inclusive!growth.!These!types!of!measures! will!be!a!much!more!concrete!way!to!hardFwire!real!action!to!reduce!inequalities!into!our!agenda.”!Accessed! February!25,!2015,!https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/owg10.html.!

37!The! Sustainable! Development! Knowledge! Platform! offers! a! compilation! of! all! the! different! streams! and! documents! that! have! led! to! the! current! list.! It! also! lists! the! 17! SDGs.! Accessed! February! 25,! 2015,! https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/.!

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APPENDICES Appendix(9.1(( 296$

APPENDIX 9.1 UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DECLARATION

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly

[without reference to a Main Committee (A/55/L.2)]

55/2. United Nations Millennium Declaration

The General Assembly

Adopts the following Declaration:

United Nations Millennium Declaration

I. Values and principles

1. We, heads of State and Government, have gathered at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 6 to 8 September 2000, at the dawn of a new millennium, to reaffirm our faith in the Organization and its Charter as indispensable foundations of a more peaceful, prosperous and just world.

2. We recognize that, in addition to our separate responsibilities to our individual societies, we have a collective responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level. As leaders we have a duty therefore to all the world’s people, especially the most vulnerable and, in particular, the children of the world, to whom the future belongs.

3. We reaffirm our commitment to the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, which have proved timeless and universal. Indeed, their relevance and capacity to inspire have increased, as nations and peoples have become increasingly interconnected and interdependent.

4. We are determined to establish a just and lasting peace all over the world in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Charter. We rededicate ourselves to support all efforts to uphold the sovereign equality of all States, respect for their territorial integrity and political independence, resolution of disputes by peaceful means and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, the right to self-determination of peoples which remain under colonial domination and foreign occupation, non-interference in the internal affairs of States, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for the equal rights of all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion and international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character.

5. We believe that the central challenge we face today is to ensure that globalization becomes a positive force for all the world’s people. For while globalization offers great opportunities, at present its benefits are very unevenly shared, while its costs are unevenly distributed. We recognize that developing countries and countries with economies in transition face special Appendix(9.1(( 297$ difficulties in responding to this central challenge. Thus, only through broad and sustained efforts to create a shared future, based upon our common humanity in all its diversity, can globalization be made fully inclusive and equitable. These efforts must include policies and measures, at the global level, which correspond to the needs of developing countries and economies in transition and are formulated and implemented with their effective participation.

6. We consider certain fundamental values to be essential to international relations in the twenty- first century. These include:

• Freedom. Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise their children in dignity, free from hunger and from the fear of violence, oppression or injustice. Democratic and participatory governance based on the will of the people best assures these rights.

•. Equality. No individual and no nation must be denied the opportunity to benefit from development. The equal rights and opportunities of women and men must be assured.

• Solidarity. Global challenges must be managed in a way that distributes the costs and burdens fairly in accordance with basic principles of equity and social justice. Those who suffer or who benefit least deserve help from those who benefit most.

• Tolerance. Human beings must respect one other, in all their diversity of belief, culture and language. Differences within and between societies should be neither feared nor repressed, but cherished as a precious asset of humanity. A culture of peace and dialogue among all civilizations should be actively promoted.

• Respect for nature. Prudence must be shown in the management of all living species and natural resources, in accordance with the precepts of sustainable development. Only in this way can the immeasurable riches provided to us by nature be preserved and passed on to our descendants. The current unsustainable patterns of production and consumption must be changed in the interest of our future welfare and that of our descendants.

• Shared responsibility. Responsibility for managing worldwide economic and social development, as well as threats to international peace and security, must be shared among the nations of the world and should be exercised multilaterally. As the most universal and most representative organization in the world, the United Nations must play the central role.

7. In order to translate these shared values into actions, we have identified key objectives to which we assign special significance.

II. Peace, security and disarmament

8. We will spare no effort to free our peoples from the scourge of war, whether within or between States, which has claimed more than 5 million lives in the past decade. We will also seek to eliminate the dangers posed by weapons of mass destruction.

9. We resolve therefore: Appendix(9.1(( 298$

• To strengthen respect for the rule of law in international as in national affairs and, in particular, to ensure compliance by Member States with the decisions of the International Court of Justice, in compliance with the Charter of the United Nations, in cases to which they are parties.

• To make the United Nations more effective in maintaining peace and security by giving it the resources and tools it needs for conflict prevention, peaceful resolution of disputes, peacekeeping, post-conflict peace-building and reconstruction. In this context, we take note of the report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations and request the General Assembly to consider its recommendations expeditiously.

• To strengthen cooperation between the United Nations and regional organizations, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter VIII of the Charter.

• To ensure the implementation, by States Parties, of treaties in areas such as arms control and disarmament and of international humanitarian law and human rights law, and call upon all States to consider signing and ratifying the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.

• To take concerted action against international terrorism, and to accede as soon as possible to all the relevant international conventions.

• To redouble our efforts to implement our commitment to counter the world drug problem.

• To intensify our efforts to fight transnational crime in all its dimensions, including trafficking as well as smuggling in human beings and money laundering.

• To minimize the adverse effects of United Nations economic sanctions on innocent populations, to subject such sanctions regimes to regular reviews and to eliminate the adverse effects of sanctions on third parties.

• To strive for the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, and to keep all options open for achieving this aim, including the possibility of convening an international conference to identify ways of eliminating nuclear dangers.

• To take concerted action to end illicit traffic in small arms and light weapons, especially by making arms transfers more transparent and supporting regional disarmament measures, taking account of all the recommendations of the forthcoming United Nations Conference on Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons.

• To call on all States to consider acceding to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, as well as the amended mines protocol to the Convention on conventional weapons.

10. We urge Member States to observe the Olympic Truce, individually and collectively, now and in the future, and to support the International Olympic Committee in its efforts to promote peace and human understanding through sport and the Olympic Ideal. Appendix(9.1(( 299$

III. Development and poverty eradication

11. We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are currently subjected. We are committed to making the right to development a reality for everyone and to freeing the entire human race from want.

12. We resolve therefore to create an environment – at the national and global levels alike – which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty.

13. Success in meeting these objectives depends, inter alia, on good governance within each country. It also depends on good governance at the international level and on transparency in the financial, monetary and trading systems. We are committed to an open, equitable, rule-based, predictable and non-discriminatory multilateral trading and financial system.

14. We are concerned about the obstacles developing countries face in mobilizing the resources needed to finance their sustained development. We will therefore make every effort to ensure the success of the High-level International and Intergovernmental Event on Financing for Development, to be held in 2001.

15. We also undertake to address the special needs of the least developed countries. In this context, we welcome the Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries to be held in May 2001 and will endeavour to ensure its success. We call on the industrialized countries:

• To adopt, preferably by the time of that Conference, a policy of duty- and quota-free access for essentially all exports from the least developed countries;

• To implement the enhanced programme of debt relief for the heavily indebted poor countries without further delay and to agree to cancel all official bilateral debts of those countries in return for their making demonstrable commitments to poverty reduction; and

• To grant more generous development assistance, especially to countries that are genuinely making an effort to apply their resources to poverty reduction.

16. We are also determined to deal comprehensively and effectively with the debt problems of low- and middle-income developing countries, through various national and international measures designed to make their debt sustainable in the long term.

17. We also resolve to address the special needs of small island developing States, by implementing the Barbados Programme of Action and the outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly rapidly and in full. We urge the international community to ensure that, in the development of a vulnerability index, the special needs of small island developing States are taken into account. Appendix(9.1(( 300$

18. We recognize the special needs and problems of the landlocked developing countries, and urge both bilateral and multilateral donors to increase financial and technical assistance to this group of countries to meet their special development needs and to help them overcome the impediments of geography by improving their transit transport systems.

19. We resolve further:

• To halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.

• To ensure that, by the same date, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education.

• By the same date, to have reduced maternal mortality by three quarters, and under-five child mortality by two thirds, of their current rates.

• To have, by then, halted, and begun to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS, the scourge of malaria and other major diseases that afflict humanity.

• To provide special assistance to children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.

• By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers as proposed in the "Cities Without Slums" initiative.

20. We also resolve:

• To promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable.

• To develop and implement strategies that give young people everywhere a real chance to find decent and productive work.

• To encourage the pharmaceutical industry to make essential drugs more widely available and affordable by all who need them in developing countries.

• To develop strong partnerships with the private sector and with civil society organizations in pursuit of development and poverty eradication.

• To ensure that the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communication technologies, in conformity with recommendations contained in the ECOSOC 2000 Ministerial Declaration, are available to all.

Appendix(9.1(( 301$

IV. Protecting our common environment

21. We must spare no effort to free all of humanity, and above all our children and grandchildren, from the threat of living on a planet irredeemably spoilt by human activities, and whose resources would no longer be sufficient for their needs.

22. We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development, including those set out in Agenda 21, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

23. We resolve therefore to adopt in all our environmental actions a new ethic of conservation and stewardship and, as first steps, we resolve:

• To make every effort to ensure the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol, preferably by the tenth anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 2002, and to embark on the required reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases.

• To intensify our collective efforts for the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.

• To press for the full implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa.

• To stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies.

• To intensify cooperation to reduce the number and effects of natural and man-made disasters.

• To ensure free access to information on the human genome sequence.

V. Human rights, democracy and good governance

24. We will spare no effort to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect for all internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.

25. We resolve therefore:

• To respect fully and uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

• To strive for the full protection and promotion in all our countries of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights for all. Appendix(9.1(( 302$

• To strengthen the capacity of all our countries to implement the principles and practices of democracy and respect for human rights, including minority rights.

• To combat all forms of violence against women and to implement the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

• To take measures to ensure respect for and protection of the human rights of migrants, migrant workers and their families, to eliminate the increasing acts of racism and xenophobia in many societies and to promote greater harmony and tolerance in all societies.

• To work collectively for more inclusive political processes, allowing genuine participation by all citizens in all our countries.

• To ensure the freedom of the media to perform their essential role and the right of the public to have access to information.

VI. Protecting the vulnerable

26. We will spare no effort to ensure that children and all civilian populations that suffer disproportionately the consequences of natural disasters, genocide, armed conflicts and other humanitarian emergencies are given every assistance and protection so that they can resume normal life as soon as possible.

We resolve therefore:

• To expand and strengthen the protection of civilians in complex emergencies, in conformity with international humanitarian law.

• To strengthen international cooperation, including burden sharing in, and the coordination of humanitarian assistance to, countries hosting refugees and to help all refugees and displaced persons to return voluntarily to their homes, in safety and dignity and to be smoothly reintegrated into their societies.

• To encourage the ratification and full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its optional protocols on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.

VII. Meeting the special needs of Africa

27. We will support the consolidation of democracy in Africa and assist Africans in their struggle for lasting peace, poverty eradication and sustainable development, thereby bringing Africa into the mainstream of the world economy.

28. We resolve therefore: Appendix(9.1(( 303$

• To give full support to the political and institutional structures of emerging democracies in Africa.

• To encourage and sustain regional and subregional mechanisms for preventing conflict and promoting political stability, and to ensure a reliable flow of resources for peacekeeping operations on the continent.

• To take special measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication and sustainable development in Africa, including debt cancellation, improved market access, enhanced Official Development Assistance and increased flows of Foreign Direct Investment, as well as transfers of technology.

• To help Africa build up its capacity to tackle the spread of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and other infectious diseases.

VIII. Strengthening the United Nations

29. We will spare no effort to make the United Nations a more effective instrument for pursuing all of these priorities: the fight for development for all the peoples of the world, the fight against poverty, ignorance and disease; the fight against injustice; the fight against violence, terror and crime; and the fight against the degradation and destruction of our common home.

30. We resolve therefore:

• To reaffirm the central position of the General Assembly as the chief deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations, and to enable it to play that role effectively.

• To intensify our efforts to achieve a comprehensive reform of the Security Council in all its aspects.

• To strengthen further the Economic and Social Council, building on its recent achievements, to help it fulfil the role ascribed to it in the Charter.

• To strengthen the International Court of Justice, in order to ensure justice and the rule of law in international affairs.

• To encourage regular consultations and coordination among the principal organs of the United Nations in pursuit of their functions.

• To ensure that the Organization is provided on a timely and predictable basis with the resources it needs to carry out its mandates.

• To urge the Secretariat to make the best use of those resources, in accordance with clear rules and procedures agreed by the General Assembly, in the interests of all Member States, by Appendix(9.1(( 304$ adopting the best management practices and technologies available and by concentrating on those tasks that reflect the agreed priorities of Member States.

• To promote adherence to the Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel.

• To ensure greater policy coherence and better cooperation between the United Nations, its agencies, the Bretton Woods Institutions and the World Trade Organization, as well as other multilateral bodies, with a view to achieving a fully coordinated approach to the problems of peace and development.

• To strengthen further cooperation between the United Nations and national parliaments through their world organization, the Inter-Parliamentary Union, in various fields, including peace and security, economic and social development, international law and human rights and democracy and gender issues.

• To give greater opportunities to the private sector, non-governmental organizations and civil society, in general, to contribute to the realization of the Organization’s goals and programmes.

31. We request the General Assembly to review on a regular basis the progress made in implementing the provisions of this Declaration, and ask the Secretary-General to issue periodic reports for consideration by the General Assembly and as a basis for further action.

32. We solemnly reaffirm, on this historic occasion, that the United Nations is the indispensable common house of the entire human family, through which we will seek to realize our universal aspirations for peace, cooperation and development. We therefore pledge our unstinting support for these common objectives and our determination to achieve them.

8th plenary meeting 8 September 2000

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$ Appendix(9.2( 305$

APPENDIX 9.2 OECD/DAC INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS

1. Economic Well-Being

The proportion of people living in extreme poverty in developing countries should be reduced by at least one-half by 2015.

2. Social Development

There should be substantial progress in primary education, gender equality, basic health care and family planning, as follows:

a) There should be universal primary education in all countries by 2015.

b) Progress toward gender equality and the empowerment of women should be demonstrated by eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005.

c) The death rate for infants and children under the age of five years should be reduced in each developing country by two-thirds the 1990 level by 2015. The rate of maternal mortality should be reduced by three-fourths during this same period.

d) Access should be available through the primary health-care system to reproductive health services for all individuals of appropriate ages, including safe and reliable family planning methods, as soon as possible and no later than the year 2015.

3. Environmental Sustainability and Regeneration

There should be a current national strategy for sustainable development, in the process of implementation, in every country by 2005, so as to ensure that current trends in the loss of environmental resources—forests, fisheries, fresh water, climate, soils, biodiversity, stratospheric ozone, the accumulation of hazardous substances and other major indicators—are effectively reversed at both global and national levels by 2015.

st Source: OECD/DAC, Shaping the 21 Century (Paris: OECD, 1996).

$ Appendix(9.3( 306$

APPENDIX 9.3 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS ANNEX IN THE ROADMAP TOWARDS THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DECLARATION

Goals and targets Indicators

Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the 1. Proportion of population below $1 per day proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day 2. Poverty gap ratio (incidence x depth of poverty)

3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption

Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the 4. Prevalence of underweight children (under proportion of people who suffer from five years of age) hunger 5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption

Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education

Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children 6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of 7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who primary schooling reach grade 5

8. Literacy rate of 15-24-year-olds

Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower women

Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary 9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and secondary education, preferably and tertiary education by 2005, and to all levels of education no later than 2015 10. Ratio of literate females to males of 15-to- 24-year-olds

11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector

12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament

Goal 4. Reduce child mortality

Target 5. Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 13. Under-five mortality rate 2015, the under-five mortality rate 14. Infant mortality rate

15. Proportion of 1-year-old children immunized against measles

Appendix(9.3( 307$

$ Goals and targets Indicators

Goal 5. Improve maternal health

Target 6. Reduce by three quarters, between 16. Maternal mortality ratio 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio 17. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel

Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to 18. HIV prevalence among 15-to-24-year-old reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS pregnant women

19. Contraceptive prevalence rate

20. Number of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS

Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to 21. Prevalence and death rates associated with reverse the incidence of malaria and malaria other major diseases 22. Proportion of population in malaria risk

areas using effective malaria prevention

and treatment measures

23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis

24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course

Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainabilitya

Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable 25. Proportion of land area covered by forest development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of 26. Land area protected to maintain biological environmental resources diversity

27. GDP per unit of energy use (as proxy for energy efficiency)

28. Carbon dioxide emissions (per capita) [Plus two figures of global atmospheric pollution: ozone depletion and the accumulation of global warming gases]

Target 10. Halve by 2015 the proportion of people 29. Proportion of population with sustainable without sustainable access to safe access to an improved water source drinking water

Appendix(9.3( 308$

Goals and targets Indicators

Target 11. By 2020 to have achieved a significant 30. Proportion of people with access to improvement in the lives of at least 100 improved sanitation million slum dwellers 31. Proportion of people with access to secure tenure [Urban/rural disaggregation of several of the above indicators may be relevant for monitoring improvement in the lives of slum dwellers]

Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for developmenta

Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, [Some of the indicators listed below will be predictable, non-discriminatory trading monitored separately for the least developed and financial system countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked countries and small island developing States] Includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction – both nationally and internationally Official development assistance

Target 13. Address the special needs of the least 32. Net ODA as percentage of OECD/DAC developed countries donors’ gross national product (targets of 0.7% in total and 0.15% for LDCs) Includes: tariff and quota free access for least developed countries’ exports; 33. Proportion of ODA to basic social services enhanced programme of debt relief for (basic education, primary health care, HIPCs and cancellation of official nutrition, safe water and sanitation) bilateral debt; and more generous ODA for countries committed to poverty 34. Proportion of ODA that is united reduction 35. Proportion of ODA for environment in Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked small island developing States countries and small island developing States 36. Proportion of ODA for transport sector in landlocked countries (through the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Market access Island Developing States and the outcome of the twenty-second special 37. Proportion of exports (by value and session of the General Assembly) excluding arms) admitted free of duties and quotas Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problem of developing countries through 38. Average tariffs and quotas on agricultural national and international measures in products and textiles and clothing order to make debt sustainable in the long term 39. Domestic and export agricultural subsidies in OECD countries

40. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity

Appendix(9.3( 309$

Goals and targets Indicators

Debt sustainability

41. Proportion of official bilateral HIPC debt cancelled

42. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services

43. Proportion of ODA provided as debt relief

44. Number of countries reaching HIPC decision and completion points

Target 16. In cooperation with developing 45. Unemployment rate of 15-to-24-year-olds countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth

Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical 46. Proportion of population with access to companies, provide access to affordable affordable essential drugs on a sustainable essential drugs in developing countries basis

Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, 47. Telephone lines per 1,000 people make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and 48. Personal computers per 1,000 people communication [Other indicators to be decided]

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ a$The$selection$of$indicators$for$goals$7$and$8$is$subject$to$further$refinement.$$ Appendix(9.4( 310$

APPENDIX 9.4 COMPARISON OF IDGS TO MDGS GOAL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (September 2001) Halve the proportion of people living in extreme Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 1 poverty (less than $1 a day) between 1990 to 2015 Target 1: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day. Target 2: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. Enroll all children in primary education by 2015 Achieve universal primary education 2 (Net primary enrolment 100% by 2015) Target 3: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and Promote gender equality and empower women 3 secondary education by 2005 Target 4: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and (Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary to all levels of education no later than 2015. school) 4 Reduce under-5 mortality rate by two-thirds Reduce child mortality between 1990 and 2015 Target 5: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate. 5 Reduce maternal mortality rate by three-quarters Improve maternal health between 1990 and 2015 Target 6: Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio. (% of births attended by skilled health personnel) Provide access for all who need reproductive Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 6 health services by 2015 Target 7: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. (Contraceptive prevalence rate) Target 8: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse incidence of malaria and other major diseases. Implement national strategies for sustainable Ensure environmental sustainability development to reverse loss of environmental Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and 7 resources programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources. (% of developing countries with environmental Target 10: Halve, by 2015, proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water. strategies) Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. Develop a global partnership for development Target 12: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system. Target 13: Address the special needs of the least developed countries. 8 Target 14: Address the special needs of landlocked countries and small island developing states. Target 15: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term. Target 16: In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth. Target 17: In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries. Target 18: In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications. $ Appendix(9.5( ( 311# APPENDIX 9.5 TRACING THE EVOLUTION OF MDGS MDG Shaping the 21st Century (1996) A Better World for All (June 2000) Millennium Declaration (September 2000) The proportion of people living in extreme poverty in Reduce the proportion of people living in To halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the developing countries should be reduced by at least one- extreme poverty by half between 1990 and world’s people whose income is less than one 1 half by 2015.1 2015 dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water. There should be universal primary education in all Enroll all children in primary school by 2015 To ensure that, by the same date, children countries by 2015.2 everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to 2 complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education. Progress toward gender equality and the empowerment Make progress towards gender equality and To promote gender equality and empowerment of 3 of women should be demonstrated by eliminating empowering women, by eliminating gender women as effective ways to combat poverty, gender disparity in primary and secondary education by disparities in primary and secondary hunger and disease and to stimulate development 2005.3 education by 2005 that is truly sustainable. The death rate for infants and children under the age of Reduce infant and child mortality rates by By the same date, to have reduced maternal 4 five years should be reduced in each developing two-thirds between 1990 and 2015 mortality by three quarters, and under-five child country by two-thirds the 1990 level by 2015.4 The rate mortality by two thirds, of their current rates. of maternal mortality should be reduced by three- Reduce maternal mortality ratios by three- 5 fourths during this same period (i.e. between 1990 and quarters between 1990 and 2015 2015).5 Access should be available through the primary health Provide access for all who need reproductive To have, by then, halted, and begun to reverse, the care system to reproductive health services for all health services by 2015 spread of HIV/AIDS, the scourge of malaria and 6 individuals of appropriate ages, including safe and other major diseases that afflict humanity. reliable family planning methods, as soon as possible and no later than the year 2015.6 Environmental sustainability and regeneration: There Implement national strategies for sustainable We reaffirm our support for the principles of should be a current national strategy for sustainable development by 2005 so as to reverse the loss sustainable development, including those set out in 7 development, in the process of implementation, in of environmental resources by 2015 Agenda 21, agreed upon at the UN Conference on every country by 2005, so as to ensure that current Environment and Development. trends in the loss of environmental resources—forests, fisheries, fresh water, climate, soils, biodiversity, stratospheric ozone, the accumulation of hazardous substances and other major indicators—are effectively reversed at both global and national levels by 2015.7 # #################################################################### 1 References Copenhagen Summit’s poverty eradication goal noting, this goal “seeks to give that target a concrete, attainable focus for the medium term.” 2 References the Jomtien Conference on Education for All in 1990, 1995 Copenhagen Summit on Social Development, and 1995 Beijing Conference on Women. 3 Notes that the Cairo and Beijing Conferences, and the Copenhagen Summit, recommend elimination of gender gap in primary and secondary education by 2005. 4 Notes the Cairo Conference on Population and Development established reducing infant morality rate to below 35/1000 live births and under-five mortality to below 45/1000 by 2015. 5 Notes Cairo adopted targets of reducing maternal mortality rate by one-half from 1990 to 2000 and by another one-half by 2015; targets were confirmed in Beijing. 6 Notes that this objective was agreed at the 1994 Cairo Conference. 7 Notes that this objective derives from the 1992 Rio Conference on the Environment and Development. 312$ APPENDIX 9.6 OFFICIAL LIST OF MDG TARGETS AND INDICATORS1 All indicators should be disaggregated by sex and urban/rural as far as possible. Effective 15 January 2008

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Goals and Targets Indicators for monitoring progress (from the Millennium Declaration) Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Target 1.A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose 1.1 Proportion of population below $1.25 (PPP) per daya income is less than one dollar a day 1.2 Poverty gap ratio 1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption Target 1.B: Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, 1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person employed including women and young people 1.5 Employment-to-population ratio 1.6 Proportion of employed people living below $1.25 (PPP) per day 1.7 Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment Target 1.C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of 1.8 Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age people who suffer from hunger 1.9 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Target 2.A: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, 2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary education will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling 2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary 2.3 Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Target 3.A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, 3.1 Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015 3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector 3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Target 4.A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five 4.1 Under-five mortality rate mortality rate 4.2 Infant mortality rate 4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children immunised against measles Goal 5: Improve maternal health Target 5.A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal 5.1 Maternal mortality ratio mortality ratio 5.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel Target 5.B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health 5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate 5.4 Adolescent birth rate 5.5 Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits) 5.6 Unmet need for family planning Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Target 6.A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of 6.1 HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years HIV/AIDS 6.2 Condom use at last high-risk sex 6.3 Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS 6.4 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-

orphans aged 10-14 years Target 6.B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for 6.5 Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to all those who need it antiretroviral drugs Target 6.C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of 6.6 Incidence and death rates associated with malaria malaria and other major diseases 6.7 Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets 6.8 Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs 6.9 Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis 6.10 Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course

1 Source: UN MDG Website: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=indicators/officiallist.htm 313$ Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country 7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources 7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP) 7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances 7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant 7.5 Proportion of total water resources used reduction in the rate of loss 7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected 7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction

Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable 7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation 7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility b Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives 7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums of at least 100 million slum dwellers Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development Target 8.A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non- Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least discriminatory trading and financial system developed countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States. Includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty Official development assistance (ODA) reduction – both nationally and internationally 8.1 Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as percentage of

OECD/DAC donors’ gross national income Target 8.B: Address the special needs of the least developed countries 8.2 Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors

to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, Includes: tariff and quota free access for the least developed countries' safe water and sanitation) exports; enhanced programme of debt relief for heavily indebted poor 8.3 Proportion of bilateral official development assistance of OECD/DAC countries (HIPC) and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous donors that is untied ODA for countries committed to poverty reduction 8.4 ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their

gross national incomes

8.5 ODA received in small island developing States as a proportion of their Target 8.C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and gross national incomes small island developing States (through the Programme of Action for the Market access Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and the outcome 8.6 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly) arms) from developing countries and least developed countries,

admitted free of duty

8.7 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products

and textiles and clothing from developing countries Target 8.D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing 8.8 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of countries through national and international measures in order to make debt their gross domestic product sustainable in the long term 8.9 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity Debt sustainability 8.10 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative) 8.11 Debt relief committed under HIPC and MDRI Initiatives 8.12 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services Target 8.E: In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to 8.13 Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a affordable essential drugs in developing countries sustainable basis Target 8.F: In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits 8.14 Fixed-telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants of new technologies, especially information and communications 8.15 Mobile-cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 8.16 Internet users per 100 inhabitants The Millennium Development Goals and targets come from the Millennium Declaration, signed by 189 countries, including 147 heads of State and Government, in September 2000 (http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm) and from further agreement by member states at the 2005 World Summit (Resolution adopted by the General Assembly - A/RES/60/1, http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=A/RES/60/1). The goals and targets are interrelated and should be seen as a whole. They represent a partnership between the developed countries and the developing countries “to create an environment – at the national and global levels alike – which is conducive to development and the elimination of poverty”. a For monitoring country poverty trends, indicators based on national poverty lines should be used, where available. b The actual proportion of people living in slums is measured by a proxy, represented by the urban population living in households with at least one of the four characteristics: (a) lack of access to improved water supply; (b) lack of access to improved sanitation; (c) overcrowding (3 or more persons per room); and (d) dwellings made of non-durable material.