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Electrical Properties of Metallic Sodium Tungsten Bronze Lewis Dee Muhlestein Iowa State University

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Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1966 Electrical properties of metallic sodium tungsten bronze Lewis Dee Muhlestein Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Condensed Matter Physics Commons Recommended Citation Muhlestein, Lewis Dee, "Electrical properties of metallic sodium tungsten bronze " (1966). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 3115. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/3115 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This dissertation has been microfihned exactly as received 67-5609 MUHLESTEIN, Lewis Dee, 1938- ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC SODIUM TUNGSTEN BRONZE. Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ph.D., 1966 Physics, solid state University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC SODIUM TUNGSTEN BRONZE by Lewis Dee Muhlestein A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major Subject: Physics Approved : Signature was redacted for privacy. In Chargé^of Major Work Signature was redacted for privacy. Department Signature was redacted for privacy. Dean cf Gradu te College Iowa State University Of Science and Technology Ames J Iowa 1966 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT vii I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND THEORETICAL MODELS 3 A. Experimental Data 3 B. Theoretical Models 6 III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 22 A. Growth and Preparation of Na^WO^ Single Crystals 22 B. Resistivity and Hall Coefficients 24 C. Seebeck Coefficients 33 IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 38 A. Resistivity 38 B. Hall Coefficients 49 C. Seebeck Coefficients 56 V. DISCUSSION 67 A. Free Electron Model 67 B. Density of States at the Fermi Energy 74 C. Effects of Ordering 79 D. Other Models 91 VI. CONCLUSION 94 VII, LITERATURE CITED 96 VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 100 IX. APPENDIX A; TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER 101 X. APPENDIX B: EXPERIMENTAL DATA 107 iii LIST OF FIGURES Page Fig. 1. Projection of the cubic and the tetragonal I structures of Na^WO^ into the (001) plane 11 Fig. 2. One electron molecular orbit energy diagram for cubic perovskite Na^WO^ 18 Fig. 3. Block diagram of the a.c. Hall apparatus 26 Fig. 4. Phase shifters and attenuator for the a.c. Hall apparatus 27 Fig. 5. Detailed circuit diagram for the a.c. Hall apparatus 30 Fig. 6. Seebeck coefficient sample holder 36 Fig. 7. Resistivity of Na WOo as a function of the sodium concentration at 300 K 39 Fig. 8. Resistivity of Na^WOg as a function of the sodium concentration at 4.2, 300, and 773°K 40 Fig. 9. Conductivity of Na^WOg as a function of the sodium concentration at 4.2, 300, and 773°K 42 Fig. 10. Thermal contribution to the resistivity of Na^WO^ as a function of the sodium concentration 44 Fig. 11. Resistivity of NaxWO] as a function of the sodium concentration at 300°K showing the anisotropy of the tetragonal I structure 45 Fig. 12. Conductivity of Na^WOg as a function of the sodium concentration at 300°K showing the anisotropy of the tetragonal I structure 47 Fig. 13. Resistivity of two tetragonal I Na^WO^ single crystals as functions of the temperature from 4.2 to 300°K 48 Fig. 14. Hall coefficients of Na^WO^ as a function of the sodium concentration 50 Fig. 15. Hall coefficients of three Na^WOo single crystals as functions of the temperature from 4.2 to 300°K 52 iv Page Fig. 16. Effective number of conduction electrons defined by n* = 1/Re as a function of the number of sodium atoms per unit volume 53 Fig. 17. Hall mobility of Na^WO^ defined by p = R/p as a function of the sodium concentration 55 Fig. 18. Seebeck coefficients of Na^WO, as functions of the temperature from 50 to 340°K 57 Fig. 19. Seebeck coefficients of Na W0„ as functions of the temperature from 15 to 60'^K 58 Fig. 20. Total Seebeck coefficients (S^), diffusion contribution (Sj) and lattice contribution (Sg) as functions of the temperature for sample 59-D (x = 0.875) 60 Fig. 21. Lattice contributions to the total Seebeck coefficients of Na^WOg as functions of the temperature from 15 to 60°K 61 Fig. 22. Coefficients A and lattice contributions (S;) at 19°K as functions of the sodium concentration 63 Fig.. 23. Total Seebeck coefficients of Na^WOg as functions of the sodium concentration for 15, 40, 100, 160, 210, and 300°k 64 Fig. 24. Seebeck coefficients of four tetragonal I Na^WO^ single crystals as functions of the temperature from 50 to 340°K 66 Fig. 25. The ratio of the observed value of iT(13) to the free electron value of ^ as a function of the sodium concentration 69 Fig. 26. The ratio of the observed effective number of conduction electrons defined by n* = 1/Re to the free electron number of conduction electrons as a function of the sodium concentration 71 Fig. 27. The ratio of the observed diffusion contribution to the Seebeck coefficient to the free electron value of the Seebeck coefficient as functions of the sodium concentration 73 Fig. 28. The density of states at the Fermi energy as a function of the sodium concentration 75 V Page Fig. 29. A schematic representation showing the effect of the superzones 80 Fig. 30. A schematic representation showing the minimum value of q for which a U-process can occur 89 Fig. 31. Block diagram of the temperature controller 102 Fig. 32. Resistance bridge circuit for the resistive sensing elements 103 Fig. 33. Thermocouple bridge circuit for the thermocouple sensing elements 104 Fig. 34. Servo amplifier circuit 105 Fig. 35. Heater power supply 106 vi LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1. Sample numbers, x-values, and homogeneity data for the Na^WOg single crystals 23 Table 2. Hall coefficient and resistivity for copper and silver 31 Table 3. Average x-value and range of x-values for the Na^WO^ samples used by Vest e^ a_l. (13) 78 Table 4. Resistivity of cubic Na W0„ single crystals at 4.2, 300 and 773°K ^ 107 Table 5. Hall coefficients of Na^WO^ at 300°K 108 Table 6. Seebeck coefficients of Na WO at 15, 40, 100, 210, and 300°K ^ 109 Table 7. Resistivity of tetragonal I Na W0„ single crystals at 300°K ^ 110 Table 8. Anisotropy of tetragonal I Na WO, single crystals at 300°K . 110 vii ABSTRACT • The resistivities, Hall coefficients, and Seebeck coefficients of metallic Na W0„ have been measured as functions of the sodium X 3 concentration (x-va lue) from x = 0.4 to x = 0.9 and as functions of the temperature from 4.2°K to 300°K. The resistivity and Hall co­ efficients showed an anomaly at x = 0.75 where the sodium atoms are ordered. These results are the first demonstration of ordering effects in any transport property of any tungsten bronze. At low temperatures the Seebeck coefficient consisted of a lattice contribution and a diffusion contribution. The lattice terra had a part due to normal phonon-electron interactions, which decreased with increasing sodium concentration; and a part due to Umklapp phonon-electron interactions, which increased with increasing sodium concentration. The resistivities. Hall coefficients, and Seebeck coefficients are sensitive to the homo­ geneity of the single crystals. The electrical properties of homo­ geneous crystals did not follow the predictions of free electron theory. 1 I. INTRODUCTION The nonstoichiometric compounds M^WO^ (where M represents an alkali metal) are commonly referred to as the alkali tungsten bronzes and since their discovery (Wohler, 1824 (1)) their properties have stimulated the interest of many investigators. Although other bronzes have been prepared and investigated, the alkali tungsten bronzes have received the most attention and, in particular, extensive data exists on sodium tungsten bronze, Na^WO^• The x-ray analyses of Hagg (2) and Magneli (3) have shown that the crystal structure of Na^WO^ is the cubic perovskite structure for sodium concentrations (x-values) between x = 1.0 and x = 0.48For x between 0.48 and 0.25, the crystal structure of Na^WO^ is tetragonal with c/a =0.3 and is usually designated as tetragonal I.^^ For x between 0.25 and 0.05 the crystal structure is also tetragonal with c/a = 0.8 and is usually designated as tetragonal II. There is also a hexagonal structure which seems to overlap both of the tetragonal structures; and below x = 0.05 there are other changes in the crystal structure of Na^WO^. There exists some discrepancy in the literature concerning the values of x at which the structural changes occur. Indeed, Ribnick e_t (4) have shown that there is some overlap in the phase transitions. The values of x which shall be given here for the phase transitions will be those values which seem to occur most in practice. Ribnick ejt £l. (4) have changed the designation of the two tetragonal structures originally used by Magneli (3). Here Magneli's original designation will be used. 2 Early investigations (5-8) showed that for sodium concentrations between x = 1.0 and x = 0.48 (the cubic structure) Na^WO^ exhibits a metallic behavior. Later (9) the range of the metallic behavior was extended to include the tetragonal I structure.
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  • Sodium Tungsten Bronze

    Sodium Tungsten Bronze

    Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 20: 690–701, 2020 Copyright © Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research ISSN: 1680-8584 print / 2071-1409 online doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2019.10.0548 Aerosol-assisted Production of NIR Shielding Nanoparticles: Sodium Tungsten Bronze Hao Tu, Weining Wang, Da-Ren Chen* Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA ABSTRACT An aerosol-assisted process for continuously producing sodium tungsten bronze particles in one step was proposed. The effects of the precursor solution, solvent, heating temperature, and moisture concentration on the quality (i.e., crystallinity) of the products were systematically investigated. The mechanisms for the particle formation and the chemical reactions involved in this process were also studied. By varying the atomic ratio of sodium to tungsten in the precursor solution, sodium tungsten bronze particles in the cubic (Na0.70WO3) and tetragonal (Na0.57WO3) phases were monophasically produced. Particles in both phases showed near infrared (NIR) shielding properties. However, cubic-phase particles (Na0.70WO3) possessed higher visibility in the visible light range due to their lower impurity content and higher crystallinity. Keywords: NIR shielding particles; Sodium tungsten bronze crystal; Aerosol-assisted synthesis. INTRODUCTION because of its unique optical properties (Berning and Turner, 1957; Berning, 1983). Both ITO and Ag are expensive due Near infrared (NIR) light is the radiation that has the to their production scale and storage (Padiyath et al., 2007). wavelength ranging from 0.75 µm to 1.5 µm, which makes In addition, the manufacture of dielectric-Ag-dielectric films ~18% solar radiation energy on the surface of the earth is by the sputtering processing, in which highly precise according to the previous measurement (ASTM International, thickness control of the Ag layer is required, since the extra 2012).