;),0000 'PIENNSYLVANIA

A GUIDE TO THE KEYSTONE STATE

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Compiled by workers of the Writers' Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Pennsylvania

AMERICAN GUIDE SERIES

: , . ILLUSTRATED

CO-SPONSORED BY THE PENNSYLVANIA HISTORICAL COMMISSION AND THE UNIVERSITY IF 'NSYLVANIA OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS * NEW YORK -

From the Bequest of Professor of Art History Walton James Lord 1917-1982

THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

6PENNSYLVANIA A Guide to the Keystone State COPYRIGHT 1940 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA FIRST PUBLISHED IN DECEMBER 1940

PENNSYLVANIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

Statewide Sponsor of the Pennsylvania Writers' Project FEDERAL WORKS AGENCY JOHN M. CARMODY, Administrator WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION HOWARD 0. HUNTER, Acting Commissioner FLORENCE KERR, Assistant Commissioner

PHILTr- 4TTHEWS, State Administrator

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA All rights are reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form. Introduction

T g1HiE Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has a rich offering to display to those who seek to know America. Its natural resources, its scen- ery, its people and their manifest interests illustrate a vivid section of the contemporary life of the Nation. But there is more to be discovered than the life of today and its conditioning environment. There is the past, and in few regions on this continent is there as much of the significant past preserved in proximity to the vibrant present. It is an interesting adventure to review that past, to make an inventory of the Commonwealth's successes, its failures, its triumphs, and its disap- pointments during the three centuries since white men first crossed its threshold. Here are presented the highlights of man's accomplishments within the Commonwealth from early days to the present, together with descriptions of those spots which nature, man, and retrospect have made interesting and important. So rich a treasure house cannot be best explored in ignorance or under the inspiration of whim or vagrant fancy, so those who know the State have sought to share their knowledge. This volume has been written by citizens of the Commonwealth for their neighbors, and to their neighbors within and without Pennsylvania they offer it. Roy F. NICHOLS University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania June 27, I940 I Foreword

IT HAS become a trite saying that 'Pennsylvania Has Everything,' but the difficulty has been that few people know where to find it. Penn- sylvania: A Guide to the Keystone State is the most valuable aid to see- ing and knowing Pennsylvania yet made available to the general public. The historic and scenic treasures of the Keystone State are here located and charted definitely and accurately as never before. This volume, probably not without error despite the careful reading of numerous consultants, cannot be expected to tell all that might be written on the historic heritage of the Commonwealth or the contemporary scene. That would take several volumes. But here are the highlights of Pennsyl- vania. From its pages emerge new bits of information as to our role in making modern America. New sites and vistas are opened for the inspec- tion of the tourist; old ones are called to mind more fully. The Gwide is a valuable and interesting book. It should be a contribution to better citizenship through making Pennsylvanians conscious of their traditions and backgrounds. In these troubled times such a work may well aid in the preservation of those fundamental values so essential to the maintenance of our democracy. S.K.STEVENS State Historian PennsylvaniaHistorical Commission Harrisburg,Pennsylvania July 3, I940

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Preface

WTTTITHIN the boundaries of what is now this great Common- j/~f wealth, where a handful of Swedes for forty years had lived V ~in peace and friendship with the Indians, William Penn, the English Quaker, laid the foundations of an experiment in government that might well be termed a well-spring of modern democracy. Here, from the four corners of the earth, came people of numerous racial groups and creeds with their different cultures, customs, and tongues. In Pennsylvania there existed no relentless policy of Indian extermination, no exiling of religious dissenters, no witch burning, no widespread traffic in slaves, no barriers of race, religion, politics or class to keep courageous hearts and willing hands from attaining security, freedom, and happiness. Today the descendants of the first pioneers, together with those of later immigrants who sought the opportunities afforded free men, have grown to more than ten millions. They enjoy that priceless heritage and are living witnesses to the fulfillment of those concepts and ideals. Is it not fitting, therefore, that such cherished shrines as Independence Hall, the Nation's birthplace; Valley Forge, where the cause of liberty lived through its darkest hours; and Gettysburg, where the Union sur- vived its greatest wound; should all rest within the borders of Pennsyl- vania? This volume, one in an extensive series of guides to the American scene by the WPA Writers' Program, relates this story of the Keystone State in addition to serving as a conventional guidebook. It was begun by the Pennsylvania Unit of the Federal Writers' Project under the supervision of Paul Comly French, final writing, research, condensation, and editing was completed by this Project sponsored by the Pennsylvania Depart- ment of Public Instruction. The Pennsylvania Historical Commission acted as co-sponsor in its preparation, and the University of Pennsylvania served as co-operating sponsor to publish. While space precludes listing all past and present workers on units throughout the State who have contributed to its preparation, credit for long and thorough research is due Charles Bomze, Clyde Portlock, and X PREFACE Samuel Schaeffer. Major contributions to the text were made by Kath- erine Britton, Irving Ignatin, George Lucey, Samuel Putman, and James Tighe. Tours were road-checked by Elmer W. Cloud, George B. Reeves, Joseph Schulhoff, and Jacob Silverstein. Architectural descriptions were supplied by Richard Fernbach and Thomas Wharton. Charles V. Waters served as copy reader for all manuscripts, and Joseph A. Kilcullen as pro- duction consultant. A list of other consultants will be found in the ac- knowledgments. The book was edited by Grant M. Sassaman, with James M. Moore as editor of the tours section. All maps were prepared by staff cartographers under the direction of William J. Hagerty. As the Guide went to press before the i940 census figures were avail- able, the 1930 figures are used throughout the text. There is, however, an alphabetical list of the preliminary I940 figures in the Appendices.

C.C.LESLEY State Supervisor September i, i940 PennsylvaniaWriters' Project 00000000000O00O0000000000000000000000000000000000

Contents

INTRODUCTION, By Roy F. Nichols v FOREWORD, By S.K.Stevens vii PREFACE ix PRACTICAL INFORMATION xxi CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS xxvii

Part I. The General Background PENNSYLVANIA TODAY 3 THE PHYSICAL STATE 6 THE INDIANS i8 HISTORY 24 ETHNIC GROuPS AND THEIR FOLKWAYS 59 MINE, MILL, AND FACTORY 71 TRANSPORTATION 86 THE FARMS 97 RELIGION 103 EDDUCATION II3 LITERATURE 122 GROWTH OF TTHE PRESS I33 THE THEATER '45 MUSIC 15I ARTS AND CRAFTS 158 ARCHITECTURE i69

PartII. Cities and Towns ALLENTOWN I8i BETHLEHEM i86 CARLISLE 195 CHESTER 202 EASTON 209 EPHRATA 2I5 ERIE - 220 Xii CONTENTS

GETTYSBURG 227 HARRISBURG 237 LANCASTER 246 PHILADELPHIA 255 PITTSBURGH 294 READING 3I4 SCRANTON 322 STATE COLLEGE 330 WILKES-BARRE 334 WILLIAMSPORT 34I YORK 346 PartIII. Tours TOUR I (Port Jervis,N.Y.)-Matamoras-Milford-Carbondale-Scranton- Towanda-Mansfield-Smethport-Kane-Warren-Corry- Union City-Junction with US 20 [US 6-6N] 355 Section a. New York Line to Scranton 355 Section b. Scranton to Mansfield 36r Section c. Mansfield to Kane 365 Section d. Kane to Junction with US 20 370 TOUR 2 Milford-Stroudsburg-Lansford-Tamaqua-Pottsville- Millersburg [US 209] 373 TOUR 3 (Phillipsburg,N.J.)-Easton-Bethlehem-Allentown-Harris- burg-Lewistown-Ebensburg-Pittsburgh-(Weirton,W.Va.) [US 22] 380 Section a. New Jersey Line to Harrisburg 38i Section b. Harrisburg to Lewistown 385 Section c. Lewistown to Ebensburg 388 Section d. Ebensburg to West Virginia Line 393 TOUR 3A Allentown-Reading-Ephrata-Lancaster-(Conowingo,Md.) [US 222] 395 Section a. Allentown to Reading 396 Section b. Reading to Lancaster 397 Section c. Lancaster to Maryland Line 399

TOUR 3 B Ebensburg-Indiana-Kittanning-Butler-New Castle- (Youngstown,Ohio) [US 4221 400 TOUR 4 (Lambertville,N.J.)-New Hope-Norristown-West Chester- (Wilmington,Del.) [US 202] 405 TOUR 5 (Trenton,N.J.)-Morrisville-Philadelphia-Media-(Rising Sun, Md.) [US I] 412 TOUR 6 (Trenton,N.J.)-Morrisville-Philadelphia-Chester-(Wilming- ton,Del.) [US i3] 420 TOUR 7 Philadelphia-Norristown-Reading-Lebanon-Junction with US 322 [US 422] 425 CONTENTS Xiii TouR 8 (Camden,N.J.)-Philadelphia-Lancaster-York-Gettysburg- Chambersburg-Greensburg-Pittsburgh-(Chester,W.Va.) [US 30] 436 Section a. New Jersey Line to Lancaster 437 Section b. Lancaster to Chambersburg 442 Section c. Chambersburg to Pittsburgh 447 Section d. Pittsburgh to West Virginia Line 454 TouR 8A Lancaster-Middletown-Harrisburg [US 230] 455 ToUR 8B Junction with US 3o-Latrobe-New Alexandria-Apollo-Leech- burg-Kittanning [State 98i, 8o, 380, 66] 458 TouR 9 (Bridgeport,N.J.)-Chester-Ephrata-Harrisburg-Lewistown- State College-Brookville-Franklin-Meadville-(Wiliams- field,Ohio) [US 322] 460 Section a. New Jersey Line to Harrisburg 46i Section b. Lewistown to Junction with US ii9 466 Section c. Junction with US 2 19-1 19 to Ohio Line 469 TOUR I0 (Binghamton,N.Y.)-Scranton-Pittston-Northumberland- Selinsgrove-Harrisburg-Carlisle-Chambersburg-(Hagers- town,Md.) [US i i] 472 Section a. New York Line to Northumberland 473 Section b. Northumberland to Harrisburg 48I Section c. Harrisburg to Maryland Line 482 TouR IoA Scranton-Stroudsburg Easton-Philadelphia [US 6ir] 485 Section a. Scranton to Easton 486 Section b. Easton to Philadelphia 490

TOuR oB Lemoyne-York-(Hereford,Md.)[US III] 497 ToUR ioC Selinsgrove-Lewistown-Mt.Union-McConnellsburg-(Hancock, Md.) [US 522] 499 ToUR I I Osterhout-Pittston-Wilkes-Barre-Mauch Chunk-Allentown- Philadelphia [US 3og] 502 Section a. Osterhout to Allentown 502 Section b. Allentown to Philadelphia 5o6 TOUR iiA Wilkes-Barre-Easton-Kintnersville-New Hope-Morrisville [State I IS, US 6r I, State 32] 5I1 Section a. Wilkes-Barre to Easton SI5 Section b. Easton to Morrisville 511 ToUR iiB Allentown-Boyertown-Collegeville-Phoenixvile-WestChester [State 29, 100, 73, 29] 5I3 TouR I2 (Waverly,N.Y.)-Towanda-Muncy-Wiiamsport-Lock Haven-Aitoona-Hollidaysburg-Bedford-(Cumberland, Md.)[US 220] 5i6 Section a. New York Line to Muncy 5r6 Section b. Muncy to Hoflidaysburg 520 Section c. Hollidaysburg to Maryland Line 526 xiv CONTENTS TOURRI3 (Lindley,N.Y.)-Williamsport-Muncy-Sunbury-Harrisburg- Gettysburg-(Emmitsburg,Md.) [US is] 527 Section a. New York Line to Muncy 527 Section b. Muncy to Harrisburg 529 Section c. Harrisburg to Maryland Line 533

TOURRI 3 A (Elmira,N.Y.)-Troy-TroutRun[Statei41 534

TouR I3 B Sunbury-Pottsville-Reading-Oxford [US 122] 536 TOUR I3 C Junction with US Is-Lewisburg-State College-Water Street [State 45] 544 TOUR 14 (Limestone,N.Y.)-Kane-DuBois-Ebensburg-Johnstown- (Grantsville,Md.) [US 219] 547 TouR I4A Kane-Clarion-Butler(EastLiverpool,Ohio)[State68] 554

TOUR r4 B Ridgway-St.Marys-Renovo-Lock Haven [US I20] 559 TOUR I4C Brockway-Brookville--Kittanning-Pittsburgh-(Wellsburg, W.Va.) [State 28, 66, 28, 31] 563 TOUR14D Junction with US 322-Indiana-Greensburg-Uniontown- (Morgantown,W.Va.) [US i i9] 567 TOUR I5 (Jamestown,N.Y.)-Warren-Oil City-Franklin-Mercer- (Youngstown,Ohio) [US 62] 574 TOUR i6 (Westfield,N.Y.)-North East-Erie-Girard-(Conneaut,Ohio) [US 20] 577

TouR I 7 Erie-Union City-Oil City-Franklin-Butler-Pittsburgh [State 8] 58 TOUR 18 Erie-Meadville-Pittsburgh-Washington-(Westover,W.Va.) [US I9] 588 TouR I9 (Keyser,Md.)-Uniontown-Washington-(Wheeling,W.Va.) [US 401 594 TOUR 20 Junction with US 20-New Castle-Pittsburgh-Uniontown [State 18, 930, 5I] 6oi TOUR 20A Rochester-Ambridge-Pittsburgh [State 88] 605 TOUR20B Pittsburgh-Homestead-Duquesne-McKeesport-Junction with State 5I [State 837, Unmarked road, State 837] 608 Part IV. Appendices CHRONOLOGY 6I5 A GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 623

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 630

CENSUS FIGURES-I940 633 INDEX 637 08000000000000000000000Q0

JIlustrations

HISTORY Between 62 and 63

Independence Hall, Philadelphia Facsimile of Title Page, Franklin's Almanac Wayne's Oath of Allegiance Washington at Valley Forge Birthplace of John Morton, near Chester Fort Pitt Blockhouse, Pittsburgh Birthplace of Daniel Boone, near Reading Wayne Blockhouse, Erie York in i852 Williamsport in i854 Crossing the Alleghenies in i840 Alexander Graham Bell at the Philadelphia Centennial Meade's Headquarters, Gettysburg Reunion of the Blue and Gray at Gettysburg in 1938

COAL, IRON, AND STEEL Between 92 and 93

In the Mines and the Mills Eighty-ton 'Rocking Chair' Steel Cutter Hot Steel Entering Reversing Stand Rolling Steel, Clairton Johnstown's East End Bethlehem Statue of John Mitchell, Scranton A Miner and His Mule Anthracite Miners at Work in Tunnel Anthracite Colliery with Culm Bank in Background Steel Workers Steel Workers Have a Game at Union Headquarters XVi ILLUSTRATIONS INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND TRANSPORTATION Between i86 and i87 Grinding and Polishing Glass, Pittsburgh Sun Shipyard, Chester Lake Steamer Taking on Cargo, Erie Boat Leaving Locks on the Allegheny River Monongahela Waterfront, Pittsburgh Oil Derrick in Northwestern Pennsylvania Portable Sawmill, Central Pennsylvania Titusville Oil Fields in the i86o's Limestone Quarry and Mill, near Hershey Weaving Rugs, Philadelphia In a Textile Mill, Allentown Sizing Hats, Philadelphia Locomotive under Construction, Eddystone Building Giant Bearing, Pittsburgh

EDUCATION AND RELIGION Between 248 and 249 Penn Charter School, Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Old Mai.n, State College Bryn Mawr College 'Old West,' Dickinson College, Carlisle Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh Merion Friends' Meetinghouse Moravian Bell House, Bethlehem Old Swedes' Church, Philadelphia Pulpit and Detail of Door, Ephrata Cloisters Interior of Augustus Lutheran Church, Trappe Graveyard and Cloister Buildings, Ephrata Old Economy Buildings, Ambridge Bryn Athyn Cathedral, Bryn Athyn

PHILADELPHIA Between 3I0 and 3II Statue of Benjamin Franklin Dock Street Area, with Delaware River Bridge in Background Delaware River Waterfront Broad Street at City Hall Rodin Museum Philadelphia Museum of Art Rittenhouse Square ILLUSTRATIONS Xvii PHILADELPHIA-Continued Interior, Poe House Morris House (I786) Pennsylvania Hospital Weighing Coin, Philadelphia Mint

IN THE CITIES Between 372 and 373 November Dawn-The Mill District, Pittsburgh The Golden Triangle at Night, Pittsburgh The Golden Triangle Mellon Institute in Civic Center, Pittsburgh Gulf Refining and Koppers Buildings, Pittsburgh Old Trinity, Pittsburgh Sunbury, as Seen from the Hills Wilkes-Barre Education Building, Harrisburg Hamilton Street, Allentown Public Square, Reading Scranton Airview, Erie Hill District, Pittsburgh Easton: Lehigh River in Foreground

THE FARMLANDS Between 466 and 467 The Residence of David Twining Amish Woman School Children of the 'Plain Sects' Amish Woman 'Speeding' to Market 'Hex' Signs on Pennsylvania German Barn Tobacco Field and Barn Bucks County Barn and Silos Along the Susquehanna, near Amity Hall Rural Landscape, East Central Pennsylvania Tilling Stock Farm Street Scene, Lancaster

FROM THE DELAWARE TO LAKE ERIE Between 560 and 56r The Susquehanna Trail North of Williamsport Delaware Water Gap XViii ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE DELAWARE TO LAKE ERIE-Continued Caleb Pusey House, near Chester Keith House in Graeme Park, near Horsham Town Hall, Forty Fort The Susquehanna's West Branch, North of Hyner Vista America's Longest Stone-Arched Railroad Bridge, near Harrisburg Sleighing in the Alleghenies Hunting in Fayette County Fishing through the Ice on Lake Erie Pennsylvania Turnpike

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Maps

STATE MAP back pocket TOUR MAP front end paper METROPOLITAN PHILADELPHIA back of State map

METROPOLITAN PITTSBURGH back of State map

ALLENTOWN i83

BETHLEHEM i89 CARLISLE '99

CHESTER 207

ERIE 225

GETTYSBURG 233

HARRISBURG 24I

LANCASTER 25I

PHILADELPHIA (Central City) 27I

PITTSBURGH (Golden Triangle) 305

READING 3I9

SCRANTON 327 WILKES-BARRE 339 WILLIAMSPORT 343 YORK 346 VALLEY FORGE 4II S4 !l Practical Information

Railroads:Baltimore & Ohio R.R. (B&O); Central R.R. of New Jersey (Jersey Central); Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R.R. (Lackawanna); Lehigh Valley R.R. (Lehigh); New York Central & Hudson River R.R. (New York Central); New York, Chicago & St.Louis R.R. (Nickel Plate); New York, Ontario & Western Ry.; Erie R.R.; Pennsylvania R.R. (PRR or Pennsy); Pittsburgh & West Virginia Ry.; Reading Ry. There were 27 Class I railroads within the State in I940 in addition to numerous smaller lines.

Highways: 32 national highways cross the State, three of them trans- continental, and four north-to-south. Network of State highways connects every town in Pennsylvania with the main arteries of traffic. No State bor- der inspection. State highway patrol maintained. Water and gasoline abundant throughout State. State gasoline tax 40. (For highway routes see Tour maps.)

Bus Lines: Intrastate, interstate, and transcontinental bus transportation provided by approximately So major bus lines.

Air Lines: American Airlines (Boston to Chicago) stops at Wilkes-Barre and Scranton; Boston to Los Angeles planes stop at Philadelphia. Eastern Airlines (New York to Miami) stops at Philadelphia; New York to Brownsville,Tex., planes stop at Philadelphia. Pennsylvania Central Air- lines (Washington,D.C., Chicago, Milwaukee) stops at Pittsburgh; Wash- ington,D.C., to Buffalo,N.Y., planes stop at Harrisburg and Williams- port. Transcontinental & Western Air (New York, Los Angeles, San Fran- cisco) stops at Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh. United Air Lines (New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle) stops at Philadelphia, Bethlehem, Allentown.

Motor Vehicle Laws: Maximum speed 50 m.p.h. (not subject to change); at dangerous crossings, 20, 25, 30 m.p.h. as indicated by warning signs. Mini- mum age for drivers i6 yrs., with parents' consent. Reciprocal courtesy XXii PRACTICAL INFORMATION extended nonresident drivers with regard to license requirements. Hand signals must be used. Personal injuries or property damage of $50 or more must be reported to department of revenue and nearest police station. Streetcars may be passed on left on one-way streets, on right on two-way streets (io m.p.h.) in cities and towns. Prohibited: Coasting in neutral; parking on highways (two-wheel parking permitted); use of stickers; passing streetcars that are loading and un- loading passengers unless at safety zones. (Fortraffic regulations in metro- politan areas,see information sections in Cities and Towns.) Accommodations: Hotels and accommodations of all types in the larger towns and cities. Tourist camps on most main highways and immediately outside urban centers; in addition to rustic cabins and attractive cottages, many have tearooms, swimming pools, and garage facilities; rates $I to $4; open all year. Restaurants: Country clubs, tearooms, inns, and road cabin eating places within easy reach along main lines of traffic. Climate: Not uniform throughout State. Temperatures of i000 F. or higher occur in southern counties of central and western sections of State in July and August. In eastern counties temperatures seldom rise to ioo0 F., but relative humidity renders conditions oppressive. Garments suggested for this season: silk pongee, linen, cotton, Palm Beach cloth, and other lightweight fabrics. In the northern counties summers are quite mild. In spring and fall, rains cause sudden drops in temperature. Trav- elers should be prepared to meet climatic variations by carrying light top- coats and raincoats. Winters moderately cold, although temperatures of 200 F. below zero and lower are occasionally recorded in the northern high- lands and mountains of central and western Pennsylvania. In this season it is advisable to be equipped with all the accessories of winter wear. Picnicking and Camping Sites: Scattered profusely throughout the State are areas that provide hiking, swimming, boating, fishing, and hunting. The most popular places are along the rivers, streams, and lakes and in the Pocono, Allegheny, and Appalachian hills. In most cases tenting sites are provided, or there are cabins or hotels for tourists. State Parks: Thousands of acres throughout the State have been set aside as parks because of botanical, scenic, or historical interest. Most of them have facilities for camping, picnicking, or other outdoor activities. Impor- tant among the io6 State parks, forests, and recreational areas are: Alan Seeger State Park, I2 miles W. of Milroy; Bear Meadows, 5 miles SE. of PRACTICAL INFORMATION XXiii

Boalsburg; Bushy Run, 7 miles N. of Jeannette; Caledonia, I mile E. of Fayetteville on US 30 (has a 9-hole golf course); Cook Forest, 20 miles NW. of Brookville on State 36; Detweiler Run, 12 miles W. of Milroy; George W. Childs, 3 miles NW. of Dingman's Ferry off US 209; Green- wood, 20 miles NE. of Huntington on State 305; James Buchanan, 4 miles W. of Mercersburg on State i6; Joyce Kilmer, at Hartleton on State 45; Leonard Harrison, SW. of Wellsboro on State 66o; Martin's Hill, I5 miles S. of Bedford on State 326; McConnell's Narrows, 8 miles S. of Aaronsburg off State 45; Mont Alto, 5 miles SE. of Fayetteville on State 997; Mount Logan, 7 miles SE. of Lock Haven; Mount Riansares, 5 miles NW. of Loganton on State 88o; Ole Bull, i8 miles N. of Renovo on State 44; Roosevelt, S. of New Hope on State 32; Sizerville, W. of Sizerville; Snyder- Middleswarth, 7 miles NW. of Beaver Springs on State 929; Valley Forge, 4 miles SE. of Phoenixville on State 23; and Washington Crossing, at Washington Crossing in Bucks County on State 32.

Game Fish: Defined as charr (brook trout), all species of trout and the salmon family, blue pike, pike perch (known as Susquehanna salmon or walleyed pike), pickerel, muskellunge, fallfish, black bass (smallmouthed and largemouthed), green or yellow bass, and other species of fresh-water fish. Open Season: All species of trout except lake or salmon, April I5-July 3I; lake or salmon trout, July i-Sept. 29; bass (smallmouthed and large- mouthed, white, crappie, rock, and strawberry or calico), pike perch, pick- erel, and muskellunge, July i-Nov. 30; yellow perch, sunfish, catfish, suckers, chubs, fallfish, rock bass, and eels, any time of year. Licenses: Resident, $I.50 plus treasurer's fee of ioo; nonresident, $2.50 minimum plus treasurer's fee of ioo or same fee as is charged nonresidents by State in which applicant resides. Special tourist fishing license, per- mitting nonresident anglers to fish in any waters of the State for three con- secutive days, may be obtained for $I.50 plus a treasurer's fee of io*. Apply to Department of Revenue or any county treasurer. Naturalized foreign-born nonresidents must produce naturalization papers when apply- ing for license. No license required for residents under i6 years of age and nonresidents under I2. Limits: All species of trout, except lake or salmon, iO of all combined; lake or salmon, 8; bass (smallmouthed and largemouthed), 6 of both combined; bass (white, rock, crappie, strawberry or calico), Is of all combined; pike perch, 6; pickerel, 8; muskellunge, 2; yellow perch, sunfish, suckers, chubs, and falflish, i5 of each; eels, unlimited. XXiV PRACTICAL INFORMATION Prohibited: To use any species of goldfish for bait; to sell any species of trout or bass; to use poison or explosives; to place in a stream any obstruc- tion that prevents the free migration of fish. Unlawful to take fish by the methods known as snatch-fishing, foul-hooking, or snag-fishing and to angle with more than two rods and one handline with three hooks to each line.

Hunting: Open Season (subject to change): Blackbirds, Oct. 3 i-Nov.26; rail, Sept.I-Nov.3o; woodcock, Oct.I-Oct.3I; Wilson snipe or jacksnipe, Oct.I5-Nov.28; all birds known as wild waterfowl, coots, or mudhens, Oct.I5-Nov.28, and gallinules, Sept.I-Nov.3o; raccoons in all counties Oct.3i-Dec.3I. Wild turkey, male pheasant, Virginia partridge or quail, Gambel's quail, valley quail, Hungarian quail, and gray, black, and fox squirrel, Oct.3i-Nov.26; red squirrel, Oct.3i to Aug.I5; ruffed grouse, Oct.3i-Nov.I2; wild rabbit, Oct.3i-Nov.26; bear over one year old, Nov.I4-Nov.Ig; male deer with two or more points to one antler, Nov.28- Dec.3; male elk with four or more points to one antler, Nov.28-Dec.3. Licenses: Resident $2; nonresident, $15. Nonresident aliens permitted to hunt; fee $I5. Apply to Department of Revenue or any county treasurer. Limits (subject to change): Wild turkey, bear, deer, and elk, I of each in one season; ruffed grouse, 6 in a season. Daily liMit-2 male pheasants (io in one season); 2 raccoons (io in one season); quails or partridges, 4 of the combined kinds (20 in one season); squirrels, including the fox, black and gray, 6 of each (20 of each in one season); wild rabbits, geese, and brant, 4 of each (20 of each in one season); wild ducks, Io of the combined kinds (6o in one season).

Plants:Poison ivy (low, erect shrub, or climbing vine) common in wooded areas, or hidden in long grass and foliage. Poison sumac (shrub or small tree), found in swamps and bogs. Cow parsnip (tall plant with hollow, grooved stem covered with matted white hair; the large deeply lobed leaves are toothed, and the flower cluster is a large white umbel), found commonly in moist places. Other plants that cause severe skin poisoning are snow-on-the-mountain and nettles, found in thickly wooded forest areas, and the primrose, a cultivated house plant.

Poisonous Snakes: Copperheads found in mountainous country in virtu- ally all counties except Philadelphia, Chester, and Delaware. Timber, banded, or common rattlesnakes found mostly in wooded mountainous areas, where rocky ledges upthrust from wooded sections. Specimens ob- PRACTICAL INFORMATION XXV tained from Adams, Butler, Centre, Clearfield, Clinton, Dauphin, Frank- lin, Fulton, Huntingdon, Indiana, Luzerne, Lycorming, Monroe, North- umberland, Perry, Susquehanna, Tioga, Warren, and Washington Counties.

Dangerous Animals: Wildcats found in large stretches of wilderness, prin- cipally in the counties of Bedford, Cameron, Clearfield, Carbon, Clinton, Fayette, Luzerne, Lycoming, Franklin, Monroe, Pike, Potter, Somerset, Sullivan, Tioga, and Wayne. Bears found in Wyoming, Pike, Clinton, Monroe, Bedford, Cameron, Potter, McKean, Sullivan, Columbia, Ly- coming, Tioga, Warren, Elk, and Forest Counties.

Information: Newspaper offices, chambers of commerce, service clubs, and hotels throughout the State can be consulted for any information concern- ing industrial, commercial, social, religious, and athletic activities. Infor- mation pertaining to travel is offered by every travel bureau, railway com- pany, steamship agency, bus station, and air-line ticket office in the State.

Liquor Regulations:State liquor stores, under the jurisdiction of the Penn- sylvania Liquor Control Board, are maintained in every city and town. Known brands of beverages are sold to dealers and consumers with the proviso that liquor is not to be consumed in the stores. l

Ail

1,i Calendar of Annual Events

JANUARY First at Philadelphia Mummers' Parade and Welsh Eisteddfod Seventeenth- at Philadelphia Drexel Days Eighteenth Last week at Philadelphia Annual Exhibition at Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts No fixed date at Pittsburgh Glass Manufacturers Show No fixed date at Philadelphia Saddle Horse Association Indoor Show No fixed date at Harrisburg Farm Show No fixed date at Norristown Annual Ball and Dinner, Veterans of Foreign Wars

FEBRUARY Ninth-Sixteenth at Philadelphia Jewish Youth Week Twenty-second at Valley Forge Boy Scouts Annual Pilgrimage Third week at Philadelphia National Home Show No fixed date at Philadelphia Bok Award Presentation No fixed date at Philadelphia Chinese New Year Celebration (dependent on lunar phase)

MARCH Fourteenth at Philadelphia Engineering and Fine Arts Day at University of Pennsylvania Seventeenth at Edwardsville Welsh Eisteddfod Seventeenth at Reading Tom Hannahoe Commemora- tion (St.Patrick's Day) Twenty-eighth at Philadelphia Annual Concert of the Choral Federation of Philadelphia XXViii CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS Second week at Philadelphia Exhibition of Work by Blind Last week at Philadelphia Flower Show No fixed date at Philadelphia Charity Horse Show No fixed date at Philadelphia Motorboat and Sportsmen's Show

APRIL Twentieth- at Philadelphia Annual Exhibition of St.Mary's Twenty-fifth Institute for the Blind Twenty-fourth at Meadville Founder's Day at Allegheny College Third week at Upper Darby Annual Fine Arts Festival and Spring Choral Festival Last week at Philadelphia Penn Relay Carnival (Friday and Saturday) Last week at Kennett Square Longwood Gardens Pageant No fixed date at Upper Darby Annual Charity Revue and Dance Easter at Philadelphia Sunrise Service Easter at Bethlehem Easter Celebration Easter at Valley Forge Sunrise Service Easter at Erie Sunrise Service at Peninsula State Park Easter at Reading Easter Dawn Service MAY First at Bryn Mawr Maypole Festival Fourteenth at Reading Albright College Greek Festival Fifteenth- at York Apple Blossom Festival, Thirtieth Springwood Farms Twenty-eighth at Whitemarsh Wissahickon Dog Show Thirtieth at Philadelphia and Launching of 'Flower Ship' on Easton the Delaware in Memory of Navy Veterans Thirtieth at Gettysburg Memorial Day Celebration Thirtieth at Lansdowne Memorial Day Exercises First week at Wilkes-Barre Music Festival First week at Valley Forge Dogwood Blossom Time First week at Whitemarsh Whitemarsh Hunt CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS XXiX First week at Lansdowne Music Festival First week at Philadelphia Folklore Festival; Boys Week; Child Health Week Second week at Philadelphia Dewey Day Celebration at Navy Yard; Philadelphia on Parade Second week at Swarthmore May Day Celebration at Swarthmore College Second week at Media Annual Spring Race Meeting Second week at Berwyn Radnor Hunt Third week at Philadelphia Germantown May Market; Flower Mart in Rittenhouse Square Third week at Bethlehem Bach Festival Last week at Devon Horse Show and Dog Show No fixed date at Pittsburgh Welsh Singing Festival No fixed date at Philadelphia Annual Artists' Bal Masque No fixed date at Philadelphia Hobby League Show and Exhibition No fixed date at South Manheim Blessing of the Sowing of Seed Township Festival No fixed date at Langhorne Auto Races (on mile dirt track) No fixed date at Norristown Music Festival, Octave Club

JUNE

Second-Fourth at Sewickley Allegheny County Club Horse Show Fourth at Wilkes-Barre Kirby Day Fourteenth at Philadelphia Flag Day Celebration, Betsy Ross House Fifteenth at Wilkes-Barre Lithuanian Alliance Day Seventeenth at Easton Riding Club Horse Show Eighteenth- at State College Garden Days Twentieth Twenty-first at Pittsburgh Music Jubilee First week at Philadelphia Clothes Line Art Exhibit; Field Mass for Police and Firemen; Wissahickon Day (Riders and Drivers Meet) XXX CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS First week at Wilkes-Barre Ukrainian Day Second week at Philadelphia Historical Pageant and Fete at Old Swedes' Church Second week at Upper Darby St.Vincent Annual Town Fete Second week at Manheim Red Rose Presentation at Stiegel Memorial Second week at Mechanicsburg Farmers' Day Third week at Kennett Square American Legion and Auxiliary Festival, Longwood Gardens Last week at Philadelphia Opening of Robin Hood Dell Symphonic Season; People's Regatta on the Schuylkill No fixed date at Pottsville Corpus Christi Celebration No fixed date at Allentown Pennsylvania German Folklore Festival No fixed date at Easton Field Day Exercises No fixed date at Reading Horse Show No fixed date at Pocono Blossom Time Festival Mountains No fixed date at Reading Rose Festival No fixed date at Reading Music Festival

JULY

Fourth at Philadelphia Independence Day Celebration; Clan-na-Gael Athletic Games Fourth at Wilkes-Barre Slovak Day; All-American Day; Lithuanian Day Fourth at Bloomsburg Automobile Races Fourth at Pittsburgh All Nations Festival Twenty-seventh at Philadelphia Soap Box Derby First and Second at Burnside Raftsmen and Lumbermen weeks Reunion Second week at Shenandoah Our Lady of Mt.Carmel Celebration Last week at Roseto Our Lady of Mt.Carmel Celebration Last week at Lansdowne Tennis Tournament CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS XXXi No fixed date at Allentown Song Festival at Fair Grounds (during Fair) No fixed date at Stroudsburg Pocono Mountains Horse Show AUGUST Fifteenth at Wilkes-Barre Welsh Day Fifteenth at West Chester Feast of the Assumption Sixteenth at Wilkes-Barre German Day Twentieth at Harrisburg Annual Pet Day First week at Wilkes-Barre Irish Day First week at Pittsburgh Scottish Clans of Western Pennsylvania Folk Festival First week at Erie Erie County Farmers' Picnic; German Day First week at Wilkes-Barre Polish Alliance Day; Russian Day Last week at Wilkes-Barre Playground Festival; Italian Day Last week at Harrisburg Romper Day SEPTEMBER Sixth at Philadelphia Lafayette Day at Independence Hall Twentieth at Reading Auto Sprints Twenty-third at Bryn Mawr Horse Show First week at Philadelphia Cannstatter Volkfest Verein (German Celebration); Middle States Regatta (Labor Day) First week at Harrisburg The Kipona (Labor Day Pageant on the Susquehanna) First week at Hegins Labor Day Celebration Second week at Williamsport Flower Show No fixed date at Reading Fair OCTOBER Twelfth at Philadelphia Columbus Day Celebration Twenty-seventh at Philadelphia Navy Day, Open House at Navy Yard XXXii CALENDAR OF ANNUAL EVENTS Thirty-first at Easton and HIallowe'en Parade Allentown First week at Philadelphia Dog Parade ('Mutt Show'); Electric and Radio Show Second week at Philadelphia Ojpening of Philadelphia Orchestra Symphonic Season Second week at Media Fi3x Hunt, Rose Tree Fox Hunting Club No fixed date at Philadelphia F [ood Fair; Better Homes Exposition No fixed date at Pittsburgh 0.pening of International Exhibition of Paintings at Carnegie Institute No fixed date at Philadelphia 0]pening of Philadelphia Forum Season NOVEMBER Second at Easton All Saints' Day Italian Celebration Tenth at Philadelphia Charity Ball Eleventh at Wilkes-Barre Welsh Eisteddfod Twenty-first at Philadelphia Kennel Club Dog Show First week at Reading Antique Show Second week at Philadelphia Automobile Show Last week at Philadelphia Thanksgiving Day Toyland Parade Last week at Philadelphia Army-Navy Football Game (scheduled for Philadelphia 1940-2), Saturday following Thanksgiving Day DECEMBER Twentieth at Lansdowne The 'Nativity' Christmas Pageant Twenty-fourth at Bethlehem Christmas Eve Vigil and Love Feast Twenty-fourth at Philadelphia Christmas Eve Carol Singing Twenty-fifth at Valley Forge Christmas Sunrise Service Thirty-first at Philadelphia Sounding of Liberty Bell (at midnight) No fixed date at Philadelphia Assembly Ball (See Index and Cities and Towns for additional annual events.) 00O000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

PART I The General Background

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Pennsylvania TToday oday

TheyTh y are there,thee, there, there with earth immortal, (Citizens,'.. I give you friendly warning). The things that truly last, when men and time have passed. They are all in Pennsylvania this morning. RUDYA1RDRUDVAaM KIPLINGXrPLWG T1HE1HE striking characteristic of Pennsylvania today, as in the past, is its remarkable diversity. Landscape and natural resources and peo- Tple,-ple, their dialects, manners, customs, andand traditions, their religious beliefs, mental and social attitudes, and occupations, all display a seem- ingly endless variety. Today the mention of Pennsylvania probably calls up, first of all, a pic- ture of an industrial commonwealth, with belching blast furnaces, labor problems, and all the spectacular features of an industrialized civilization. This is a one-sided impression. Pennsylvania's fertile farm lands, with the quiet rural homesteads of Quaker and Pennsylvania Dutch bordering the congested anthracite district, are among the richest and most productive in the Union. There are regions, it is true, where the plow no longer turns the furrow but has been permanently laid aside for the hydraulic drill. Fields no longer tilled have been gutted by quarry or mine shaft, and mountains have surrendered their wealth of coal and iron. Yet such counties as Lan- caster, York, Berks, Bucks, and Chester, out of their rich loam or lime- stone silt, continue to yield year after year abundant cropscrops of corn, wheat, potatoes, and tobacco, with no dust storms or drought, as 'out West,' and no hard stony subsoil, as in New England, to combat. The person with a predilection for history may think of such treasured shrines as Independence Hall, Valley Forge Park, and the Gettysburg Battlefield; the Keystone State always has played, and still plays, a lead- ing role in the Nation's drama. Or there may arise a vision of drab-colored garments and broad-brimmed hats and the peaceful ways ofof Quaker folk. There may even e-Nistexist in some quarters the impression that it is the Quak- ers who still set the general tone for life, not alone in the 'Quaker City,' but throughout a good part of the State as well. This needs correction. Much of the moral influence and spirit of the Society of Friends remains, 4 PENNSYLVANIA and the Society always has been a force for good in Pennsylvania life. But just as the Quaker farmer today not infrequently lives within earshot of mine or factory siren, so do the lingering vestiges of dignity and gentleness that marked the sect of William Penn now stand in sharp contrast with a civilization in many ways more ruggedly competitive than that of Colonial times. Today, Pennsylvania is dotted with countless communities, small and large, each astir with the unceasing life of industry, commerce, and agri- culture. Forest lands of pine and hemlock, of oak and maple, and lakes and mountain streams, such as are to be found on the Pocono Plateau, add to the scenic beauty. There is the lovely Eagles Mere, for example, which lies like a blue jewel near the summit of Prospect Hill on the northern slope of the Alleghenies in Sullivan County. There are the back-country reaches, the 'hinterland,' where life is in some respects like that of the southern Appalachian mountains, where dour inhabitants distil their own 'corn likker' and look askance upon the 'furriner.' Or again, as in Pike County, there are stretches of primitive country where wild game and rattlesnakes abound. In the Pennsylvania Dutch sections, by contrast, the visitor will meet with strange Old World ways and customs, with a speech-the famous 'schoenste lengevitch '-that is like no other living idiom, with a wealth of native folklore, and occasionally with a body of dark and gloomy super- stitution such as that which centers about the 'Hex-woman.' If he goes on to the mining and steel districts, he will encounter immigrants from vir- tually every country of Europe, drawn thither by the lure of employment in the mines and mills and the hope of a high wage, inevitably bringing with them much that is distinctive of their homelands to add rich chords to the State's great social symphony. Standing silently apart from all this are the monuments of a historic and more other-worldly past, such as the Old Swedes' (Gloria Dei) Church in Philadelphia. And there are living memorials, too, of that other-worldly past in the surviving representatives of the various quaint religious sects that have flourished at one time or another on Pennsylvania soil-Men- nonites, Dunkards, Moravians, Schwenkfelders, and others. Unique in dress and manners, one of these sectarians may now and again be sighted in a crowded metropolitan thoroughfare. Many of their communities still exist, though others have long since disappeared. Out of this welter of peoples, faiths, customs, and influences, Pennsyl- vania has somehow wrought the miracle of a homogeneous and, in a large sense, a truly indigenous culture. Colleges, universities, medical schools, PENNSYLVANIA TODAY 5 and law schools are conspicuous throughout the State. Pennsylvania, from the declining years of the eighteenth century, has held an extremely im- portant place in the fields of medicine and scientific research, and the old phrase 'Philadelphia lawyer' meant a good lawyer, a learned one. From early days attention has also been paid to music and the arts. The Phila- delphia Orchestra and the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra are widely known; museums and art schools are numerous; the State has distin- guished itself in the little theater movement; and it has made contribu- tions to literature of which the Nation may well be proud. Surely Kipling was right when he averred that 'they are all in Pennsyl- vania this morning.' From the wildly beautiful Wissahickon to the placid Perkiomen, from the brick houses and narrow streets of the southern towns to the spacious lawns and white frame houses of the north, from the oil country of the west to the flaming steel foundries of the Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania-America's great and original melting pot, home of Revolu- tionary patriot and stouthearted pioneer-exhibits a topographic and hu- man variety perhaps unequaled in any other portion of America.

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The Physical State

PENNSYLVANIA received its name from Charles II of England, who in i68i deeded to William Penn virtually all the land area now A forming the Commonwealth. The name, signifying 'Penn's Woods,' was adopted by King Charles after the Quaker's modest protestations had been silenced by the explanation that Penn's family name was derived from the Welsh word 'penn,' meaning mountain top or highland, and Pennsylvania would therefore be an appropriate designation for the colony.

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY Except for the erratic course of the Delaware River, which forms its east- ern boundary, Pennsylvania is almost rectangular in shape. On the north it is bounded by Lake Erie and New York; on the west by Ohio and West Virginia; on the south by West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware, while New Jersey and the southern extremity of New York lie beyond the Dela- ware River on the east. Along the line of its greatest length, from the west- ern border to the Delaware River opposite Bordentown, the State is 302 miles long; except at its northwest corner, which projects upward to Lake Erie, its width is I58 miles; and it has a total area of 45,I26 square miles. In size it ranks thirty-second in the Union; in population it ranks second, with 9,631,350 inhabitants in I930, and 9,89i,709 in i940, according to the preliminary census figures. One of the Thirteen Original States, it is also one of the Nation's four commonwealths-the others being Massa- chusetts, Virginia, and Kentucky. Pennsylvania's western and eastern boundaries have been unchanged since the time of Penn's original grant. The southern boundary was a source of dispute with Maryland until the Mason-Dixon line was run in I767, and with Virginia until settlement of territorial limits after the Revolution. The northern boundary likewise became modified by action of the British Privy Council in fixing the 42nd degree of latitude as Penn- sylvania's northern limit, by agreement with New York in I789 over addi- tional details, and by purchase of the Erie Triangle in I792. With 67 counties, containing more cities and towns than any other State, Pennsylvania belongs to the Middle Atlantic group and lies in the 6 THE PHYSICAL STATE 7 heart of the great Appalachian chain, occupying a keystone position in the Nation's most important industrial section. Two mountain ranges, the Blue Ridge and the Allegheny, divide the Commonwealth into three dis- tinct topographical sections. The eastern section stretches from the Dela- ware River to the Blue Ridge Mountains; known as the Piedmont Pla- teau, it embraces an area 6o miles wide, ranging from lowland country to an altitude of 8oo feet. The central section, between the Blue Ridge and Allegheny Mountains, is rugged and heavily forested, with scattered cen- ters of population. West of the Alleghenies is a broad rolling plateau that in the northwest dwindles into plains along the shores of Lake Erie.

CLIMATE

Western Pennsylvania's rainfall averages 42 inches a year. Temperatures vary from a summer mean of 660 in the north and 7I' in the south to a win- ter mean of 280 in the north and 300 in the south. Temperatures of i00 or higher are sometimes recorded during July and August; on an average I5 days annually have temperatures of g90 or higher. The winters are long and moderately cold, records sometimes showing ioo or more days with freezing temperatures; temperatures of 20° or more below zero occasion- ally occur in the highlands and mountains. Snowfall in the northwest aver- ages 50 inches, invariably causing spring floods when warm rains add their volume to that of melting snows. In southeastern Pennsylvania rains of torrential character are not in- frequent. Precipitation exceeding seven inches in 24 hours has been re- corded during passage of a West Indian storm along the Atlantic slope in late summer or early autumn. Although attended by high winds, these storms rarely extend beyond the first ridge of mountains. Temperatures of i000 or higher are rare, but the prevailing high humidity often renders con- ditions oppressive. Winters here are mild; the winter mean is about 32° and the snowfall is generally light, The Pocono Mountains in the north- east, however, are subject to low temperatures and have a moderately heavy snowfall. In this northeastern section the winter mean temperature is about 23°, the summer mean about 660. Owing chiefly to surface configuration, climatic conditions in the large central part of Pennsylvania differ considerably from those in the eastern part. The north central portion, together with a belt extending part way down the western border, is made up of high rolling terrain rising i,6oo feet above sea level, with rounded mountains rearing their tops in some places as high as 2,500 feet. In this district the average precipitation, when well distributed, is enough for crop-growing seasons. 8 PENNSYLVANIA The valley lands are comparatively free from damaging frosts. Thus the valley of the Susquehanna's west branch as far north as Lock Haven has an average growing season nearly as long as that of the southern part of the State. Average precipitation for the entire section is 40.74 inches. Snowfall is moderately heavy, averaging about 50 inches in the northern portion and 35 to 40 inches in the southern. Along the western belt the average snowfall is about 6o inches. In this central section the mean temperature decreases about 60 from south to north. In the northern highlands the summer mean is about 670, the winter mean about 240. In the southern counties temperatures of io0e sometimes occur in summer, and winter lows of 200 to 250 sub-zero are re- corded not only in the northern portions but in the mountains southward almost to the State line. Maximum temperatures of go' or higher are re- corded for an average of io days each summer season, and the average number of days with freezing temperature exceeds ioo.

GEOLOGY The oldest part of Pennsylvania is the Piedmont Plateau, made up chiefly of rocks that became dry land at the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, mil- lions of years ago. This land originally was part of a chain of lofty moun- tains stretching from a more extensive land mass in the north. During geological ages it was worn down by running water and transformed into a peneplain. To the west of this mass of old rock there existed throughout most of the Paleozoic Era a vast bay with its western shore in the present State of Ohio, its northern shore the Canadian mass, and the Piedmont Moun- tains as its eastern boundary. In this bay were deposited Paleozoic strata, the most important of which became the famous coal beds of western and central Pennsylvania. Subjected to a series of oscillations, the inundated land rose and subsided at varying intervals. These oscillations culminated in a general upheaval; lateral compression along a line running from the northwest to the south- east buckled and folded the bay beds. The old rock formations of the Piedmont Plateau withstood the terrific pressure exerted against them, and there was formed a series of folds, inclines, anticlines, and synclines, running in a northeasterly-southwesterly direction. The highest folds were created toward the east, immediately adjoining the Piedmont Plateau, while in a westerly direction the folds were less ele- vated, gradually becoming indistinct. This mountain-creating process terminated toward the end of Paleozoic time and resulted in a system of THE PHYSICAL STATE 9 subparallel chains known as the Alleghenies. Since the Paleozoic Era no important change has occurred in folding or warping, except for occasional periods of elevation and subsidence. Pennsylvania has since remained continental land, its surface subjected to the forces of erosion and denuda- tion. The mountains of Pennsylvania, prior to the sinking of Paleozoic forma- tions, were considerably higher than they are today. If the rock strata of eastern and central Pennsylvania were spread out flat as originally laid, and western Pennsylvania stood fast, the Philadelphia region would be shoved across New Jersey and out into the Atlantic Ocean. There are three principal kinds of rock in Pennsylvania: bedded or sedi- mentary (sandstones, shales, and limestones), igneous (granite and trap), and metamorphic (marble, slate, and schists). The sedimentary rocks were formerly beds of sand, mud, and decayed vegetable and animal life at the bottoms of lakes, lagoons, rivers, and coastal swamps. These deposits be- came shale, sandstone, and limestone under the weight of thousands of feet of sand and gravel laid upon them. In the later folding, crushing, and other mountain-creating processes, they were transformed into meta- morphic schists, quartzites, marble, and slate. While a close kinship ob- tains between sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in geologic evolution, igneous rocks stand apart as the solidification of a molten mass thrust toward the surface by subterranean forces. Western Pennsylvania is an almost unbroken bituminous coal field. The eastern part is a labyrinth of parallel and interlocked mountains, valleys of the Devonian and Silurian Ages, and open country of Cambrian and Azoic strata across which runs a broad continuous belt of Triassic or Mesozoic brownstone and trap. Cretaceous rocks underlie a narrow strip along the Delaware River below Trenton, and a mantle of glacial drift covers the surface of many northern counties. Pennsylvania is of special geologic importance because of its valuable coal deposits in the east and west, products of the Carboniferous Age. The coal beds, sometimes reaching a thickness of 3,500 feet, consist of sand- stone, shale, clays, thin limestone, and coal veins. Formation of these veins began at a time when the whole Appalachian region from New York to Alabama was covered with vast forested swamps. In the shallow water rank vegetation grew, died, settled to the swamp floor, and became buried under additional layers of rotted plant life. This mass was com- pacted into peat which later changed into coal, and the coal itself became overlaid with mud and sand. Sedimentation raised the land surface until plant life once more covered 10 PENNSYLVANIA the area, and after hundreds of years the encroaching waters again reduced it to a swamp; this cycle repeated itself again and again until more than ioo superimposed beds had formed in Pennsylvania. As each swamp ac- cumulation was buried deeper and deeper, the vegetal matter condensed, water was squeezed out, and decomposition ceased, though gaseous prod- ucts continued to exude. Ultimately it became young coal, or lignite, and in successive geologic periods underwent further changes. It is estimated that the three periods of the Carboniferous Age spanned almost 400 million years. Then the process of Permian folding and warp- ing began. Gigantic beds of stone were bulged into vertical or sloping strata, sometimes overriding other folds for a distance of several miles be- fore the compression relaxed. In the east the round pebbles in certain con- glomerates were flattened; shales were changed to slate and limestone to marble; the water in clay deposits was driven out, changing clays to feld- spars and micas. Many rocks changed to schists, while coal beds were dis- tilled as though in a gas retort, forming anthracite. Partial distillation farther west created high-carbon or 'smokeless' coal. In the western part of Pennsylvania, carboniferous beds extended northward, possibly to Lake Erie, until glacial action swept the northern strata lo the sea, leaving only isolated patches on the highest land. The anthracite beds of the east have been protected against erosion by the mountains bulking over them. Some geologists assert, however, that by far the greater portion of the anthracite deposits in Pennsylvania has been swept off by denudation, and may now be at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. One of the geologic questions akin to the problem of coal formation is that of the origin of petroleum and natural gas, both found abundantly in western Pennsylvania. Several theories have been advanced to account for these deposits. Some scientists believe that they were derived from vegetable organisms growing in moist places; others, that they derive from marine remains, especially of fish. Lancaster County, with its abundance of limestone soil, is considered the State's garden spot. At one time the surrounding regions must likewise have been covered with limestone, but they became overlaid with Meso- zoic sediments. The geology of Adams, York, Lancaster, and Chester Counties is obscure; this is an area of metamorphic rock, mica-schists, chlorite, and gneiss, interrupted by belts of serpentine and marble carry- ing deposits of kaolin and chrome-iron sand. Mica-schists, chlorites, and gneisses underlie virtually all of Philadel- phia County, the exceptions being the Potsdam sandstone, the Syenite THE PHYSICAL STATE II group, and possibly the limestone to the north. The entire gneissic and micaceous series is believed to belong to one geological formation, the pitch of the rock being generally northwestward, except along the north- ern edge, where a reverse dip is invariably found. The city of Philadelphia is underlaid with rocks dipping toward the Delaware River. They appear to be from io,ooo to I5,000 feet thick, consist of thin-bedded gneiss, mica- schists, and garnets of undetermined age, and are covered with gravels, sands, and brick clays deposited in the Delaware River Valley when it was an estuary of the sea. Pennsylvania experienced its Glacial Age at a comparatively late period in its geologic history, but uncounted years before man first trod its soil. In fact, there may have been successive periods of glaciation, with tem- perate conditions intervening. During the glacial period an ice sheet nearly a half mile thick covered a considerable portion of the northern part of the State. Evidences of its long sojourn can readily be noted. A great glacial groove is apparent on Table Rock at the Delaware Water Gap; glacial scratches are found on the southern slope of Godfrey's Ridge in Monroe County; and a boulder nine feet in one dimension rests upon the crest of Penobscot Knob in Luzerne County-200 feet above sea level.

PALEONTOLOGY Compared with many other States, Pennsylvania has few fossils. Remains of extinct plants, tree ferns, and other forms are found in most of the coal beds, and the limestones usually carry animal remains. Evidences of frog- like amphibians, some as large as alligators, and of the first reptiles occur in the rocks below the Pittsburgh bed. In i884 fossil remains dug up in Westmoreland County revealed the footprints of seven distinct animals, in sandstone belonging to the coal veins. This discovery proved to incredulous paleontologists that air- breathing animals existed in Pennsylvania during the Carboniferous Age. Fragments of mastodons' teeth have been found along the Schuylkill at Reading, and on Mount Penn near by have been found remains of extinct clamlike animals. In and about the coal fields are numerous pieces of coal or coal-slate bearing imprints of fern fronds. Easily recognized are the remains of plants resembling ferns, which in reality are of a treelike group represent- ing a transition between the true fern and the present-day cycads. The fos- sil discoveries in the Pittsburgh coal seam include nine species of trees, thirteen of ferns, and one each of fruit, root, and fungus. Shales of the 12 PENNSYLVANIA upper Kittanning coal seam have yielded more than ico species of plant remains within an area of only a few yards. A Chester County limestone quarry in i870 revealed the remains of nu- merous plants and animals of the Quaternary Period. Represented in the discovery were 34 species of mammals, all but a few now extinct, as well as several species of birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Exploration of a cave near Carlisle some years before had disclosed bones of the lynx, panther, beaver, otter, wild turkey, and wild swan, together with remains of ser- pents and previously unknown salamanders, scattered among fragments of stone arrows and pottery. When Crystal Cave, in a limestone ridge about 20 miles southwest of Allentown, was first explored in i873, the cave floor was found to be cov- ered with black friable earth containing animal and vegetable matter. Siftings revealed the remains of bones, teeth, implements, shells, and pot- tery. Fragments of bone included those of the woodland reindeer and bi- son, together with teeth of the peccary and great beaver. The implements were a bone fishhook, a harpoon head, five bone awls, a bone needle, a spear head of brown argillite, and fragments of a knife. There were also bits of brown baked pottery, of clay and shell, with markings of wicker work outside. Another important discovery was made in York County in i887, when scientists found the tracks of three-toed animals in the Triassic sandstone. Three layers of fossils, with layers of nonfossiliferous sandstone intervening, were unearthed here.

FLORA AND FAUNA In the extent and variety of its flora and fauna, Pennsylvania is almost un- surpassed among the States. Plants native to salt water and coastal plain have invaded the region around Philadelphia; many native to the Far North have been left by glacial action in the bogs and mountains of the northern counties; the western portion abounds in flowers native to the Mississippi Valley and Middle West; and on the shore of Lake Erie grow plants not found elsewhere in Pennsylvania-stemming from seed dropped by migratory fowl. In addition, the State is the northern limit for a number of plants and animals that have migrated up the valleys and tributaries of the Potomac, Susquehanna, and Delaware Rivers. The denuding of woodland tracts accounts in large part for the disap- pearance of elk and moose and the regrettable diminution of other forms of animal life in Pennsylvania. Early settlers found the wilderness teem- ing with game, the lakes and streams filled with fish, while the sun was often obscured for several minutes by dense flocks of migratory fowl. As THE PHYSICAL STATE I3 no game laws existed, wild creatures were wantonly slaughtered, some hunters bagging as many as 5o deer a day. Poison, traps, falls, and fire- arms were used in slaying enormous numbers of animals, many for their hides and fur alone. Scattered throughout the Commonwealth can be found such mammals as the skunk, opossum, mink, weasel, muskrat, groundhog, mole, short- tailed shrew, beaver, deer, rabbit, squirrel, field mouse, and bat. Porcu- pines are still seen in some sections. The catamount, or wildcat, has been reported in virtually every county in the State, although at rare intervals. The panther, which sometimes attained a length of six feet, was the larg- est carnivore but is now extinct. Wolves, once common in forested areas, were exterminated about i850 by hydrophobia contracted from dogs. Black bear, the State's prize game animal and the largest carnivorous ani- mal now inhabiting Pennsylvania, was on the verge of extinction when the Pennsylvania Game Commission instituted protective measures. It is found in the central Allegheny counties and other high-brush country with rocky ledges and mountain-top swamps, especially in the Pocono and Pike County sections. Among the turtles found in Pennsylvania are species of soft-shelled, snapping, box, and pond. Amphibians include five families of the Urodela, including the hellbinder (Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis), which reaches a length of two feet or more and is the only species of this family found in North America; and four families of the Salientia, including Fowler's toad, the burrowing, and the spade-foot toad, as well as the tree, cricket, leopard, and true frog. Only five species of lizards are known to occur in Pennsylvania, and none is found in great numbers. They are the five-lined skink, black skink, ground lizard, six-lined lizard, and common lizard. All the serpents within the State belong to the Colubrinae family, except the rattlesnake and the copperhead, whose habitat is the forested or mountainous sec- tions. The ruffed grouse, the State bird, incorrectly called the native pheasant, is usually found in the hardwood ridges and dense hemlock growths along streams, where it finds its favorite winter food-beechnuts, acorns, wild grapes, and thorn apples. Quail are plentiful, although virtually all are of imported stock because of the almost complete destruction of native stock. Other species of imported birds, such as the English ring-neck pheasant and the Hungarian gray partridge, are becoming numerous. Mi- gratory fowl include ducks, geese, brant, shore birds, and woodcock. Wild turkeys, plentiful in the days of early settlement, are now found 14 PENNSYLVANIA only in the more remote areas, and wild geese sometimes visit the larger waterways and the Lake Erie shore. Wood dove, snipe, teal, and mud hen are hunted in various localities, but the heron and wild swan are rarely found. Virtually all species of nongame birds common to eastern United States abound in Pennsylvania. Favorable geographic and climatic conditions in the State have pro- duced a rich variety of vegetation. Maple, walnut, poplar, oak, pine, ash, beech, chestnut, box elder, linden, sassafras, sycamore, sweet gum, spice hickory, weeping willow, balsam, and elder are among the better-known trees, although the chestnut has suffered almost complete annihilation from blight during recent years. Such fruit trees as the apple, peach, pear, plum, and cherry are found in great numbers, together with a wide variety of such smaller trees and shrubs as dogwood, ironwood, mountain laurel, juneberry, water beech, dotted hawthorn, and New Jersey tea. Buckeye trees grow only in a few western counties, red pine and paper birch are limited to the northern part of the State, and sweet gums flour- ish in the extreme southwestern portions. In the acid soil of the western valleys grow luxuriant elms, willows, birches, greenbriers, and various sorts of vines. On the higher tablelands are the chestnut, walnut, maple, hemlock, and pine. Pennsylvania's hills were once largely covered with forests of hemlock, of which few specimens remain, though it is still the State tree. Wild plants and flowers that grow throughout the State include all species common to the Middle Atlantic area. Mountain laurel grows in such profusion in many parts of Pennsylvania that it has been selected as the State flower. Rhododendron and wild azalea are also found in numer- ous sections. In deep and fertile valleys are many species of ferns. Wild and cultivated berries flourish virtually everywhere in the State, the most com- mon being the huckleberry, raspberry, blackberry, and elderberry. Grapes are cultivated extensively in the State's northwestern section. Abundant in numerous areas are the dewberry, wild columbine, wintergreen, and wild ginger. In addition to the popular anemone, hepatica, bloodroot, wild honey- suckle, dog-toothed violet, spring beauty, and others, there are rarer vari- eties of flowers. In swampy places grows the carnivorous sundew; its arm- like leaves, covered with stout bristles terminating in sticky glands, lure and then imprison the tiny insects on which the plant lives. As though en- deavoring to compensate for man's devastation of primitive beauty, the bouncing bet, hound's tongue, podded silkweed, and the viper's bugloss choose hideous culm banks as their habitat and transform them into THE PHYSICAL STATE I5 flowery mounds. The bouncing bet grows about two feet high and is cov- ered with fragrant rose-colored blossoms. About i6o varieties of fish, either indigenous or introduced for food and sport, are found in Pennsylvania lakes and streams. The most common are the trout, white carp, bass, sucker, yellow perch, sunfish, pickerel, fall- fish, chub, and eel. The much sought muskellunge inhabits only the larger bodies of water; and shad, herring, white perch, and common sturgeon are becoming scarce. The brook trout, found in most mountain streams, is the favorite with fish culturists and anglers; many of the State's trout streams have become nationally famous. NATURAL RESOURCES Pennsylvania possesses an enormous wealth of minerals. It leads all other States in the value of such mineral products as coal, cement, and slate. All of the Nation's anthracite come3 from an area of 484 square miles in the east-central part of the State. Among the more important of the many varieties of minerals are lead, zinc, feldspar, magnetite, nickel, and copper. Deposits of carnotite near Mauch Chunk, where there is an outcropping of massive conglomerate, have yielded extractions of radium. In the southeastern counties are found graphite, kaolin, fluorspar, cyanite, gold, serpentine, nickel, talc, yttrium, asbestos, apatite, barite, copper, magnesium, corundum, and such pre- cious or semiprecious stones as garnet, beryl, and amethyst. In the north, central, southern, and western sections of the State occur manganese, quartz, tungsten, asbestos, pyrite, lead, carnotite, siderite, copper, slate, magnetite, anthracite, petroleum, and bituminous coal. Much of the State's far-flung area is covered with heavy timber. A total of I3,2o6,ooo acres in 34 counties, or about 46 per cent of the entire area of Pennsylvania, contains forests yielding annually about I50,000,000 board feet of lumber, 70 per cent of which is hardwood. Private industry, however, has made such inroads upon forest growth that the Common- wealth has been compelled to take measures to restore denuded areas. When the white man first set foot upon Pennsylvania soil, forests cov- ered virtually its entire area, except for a few natural meadows and the tops of occasional mountains. Settlers in the early days, and giant indus- trial interests afterward, slashed acre upon acre of valuable timberland, until there remains today less than half of the original 29,000,000 forested acres. All of Pennsylvania is well watered by three main river systems. The Delaware drains the eastern region, with the Schuylkill and Lehigh as its i6 PENNSYLVANIA main tributaries. In the central section is the Susquehanna into which the Juniata flows. In the west is the Ohio, with the tributary Allegheny, Mo- nongahela, Youghiogheny, and Kiskiminetas Rivers forming one of the most important drainage systems in the country. The Allegheny River, flowing through two thirds of the western section, has a total length of 3IO miles and drains an area of ii,i6o square miles in Pennsylvania and New York. Its headwaters are at an elevation of more than 2,000 feet. The Kiskiminetas, its largest tributary, drains an area of i,900 square miles; the Youghiogheny and Monongahela drain the re- mainder of the section. Natural lakes and ponds, found in the northern sections of the State, are relatively small. Of these, the largest is Conneaut Lake in the north- west section, with an area of 928 acres. The largest artificial bodies of water are the Pymatuning Lake in the northwest, built to regulate the flow of the Beaver and Shenango Rivers, and Lake Wallenpaupack in the Pocono Mountains, used as a reservoir for hydroelectric purposes (see Tour I). While the amount of water developed at Lake Wallenpaupack has increased in recent years, it constitutes only a small percentage of the total power used in the State. Three hydroelectric plants on the lower Sus- quehanna have a combined capacity of 442,2I3 horsepower-more than three fourths of the total water power used in Pennsylvania. The soils of Pennsylvania are classified in 7 provinces and 47 series. Seventy-five per cent of the soils are of residual origin, 22 per cent are glacial, and the remainder are alluvial and lacustrine. The 47 series repre- sent types ranging from highly productive to nonarable. Sheet erosion is highly prevalent in the State. From 25 to 75 per cent of the surface soil has been lost in Pennsylvania since the land was first cleared and cultivated. Except for some southwestern areas, the most im- portant livestock sections are not badly eroded. Even though most of this land is in grass, the prevailing system of farming is to plow the grass when it becomes thin. Because of the nature of the soil and the sharpness of the slopes, erosion in the southwestern section is serious, despite the fact that plowing of pasture land takes place only once or twice in a dozen years. In the dairy sections of northern Pennsylvania, erosion is not a serious prob- lem because the slopes are less abrupt and the hillsides are kept constantly in sod.

CONSERVATION The need of forest reclamation was not recognized until i898, when the Commonwealth made its first purchase for the protection of a forest area. THE PHYSICAL STATE 17 Throughout various administrations additional acreage was acquired, un- til by i940 there were 36 State forest preserves, containing i,651,979 acres of woodland. The Department of Forests and Waters maintains I44 ob- servation towers for the detection of fires with a force of 55 foresters, 75 forest rangers, and approximately 4,000 fire wardens. State forest nurseries are maintained at Mont Alto, Clearfield, Green- wood Furnace, and Potters Mills, where i5,000,000 seedlings and trans- plants are handled annually. Since establishment of the first nursery in 1902, more than 200,000,000 trees have been distributed to reforest lands throughout the State. The trees are sold by the department for $2 a thou- sand for seedlings and $5 a thousand for transplants, with purchasers agreeing to plant them for timber production or watershed protection only. Maintenance and development of State forests have been greatly aided in recent years by the Civilian Conservation Corps. In I940 there were about So CCC camps in Pennsylvania, 33 of them in State forests. The work accomplished by the CCC includes the construction of approxi- mately 3,000 miles of forest roads and 6,6oo miles of forest trails, and maintenance of 17,200 miles of roadway and 2,I70 miles of telephone lines-in addition to fighting fires, planting trees, improving public camp grounds, and building fire towers, fire cabins, bridges, and fish dams. Pennsylvania contains about 8o primary game preserves, in addition to 50 or more game refuges and IOState-owned fish hatcheries. In one year the latter distributed more than 6oo,ooo,ooo fish. There are about 870 water storage reservoirs in the State, with a com- bined total capacity of 239 billion gallons. These are of value in flood con- trol, in equalizing seasonal stream flow, and in preventing pollution. Thirty-eight flood control projects have been started in the State. On March 3I, I936, the State Planning Board submitted to the governor a proposed long-range program of flood control and river development, call- ing for construction of dams, impounding reservoirs, dikes, and levees at an estimated cost of nearly $ioo,ooo,ooo. More than $io,ooo,o0o has al- ready been spent in carrying through this program. Two dams for flood control on the upper Ohio River have been completed, others are pro- jected, and a number of dikes and levees have been constructed on the Susquehanna. The Indians

MMEDIATELY before the advent of the white man, eastern Penn- ssylvania was inhabited principally by groups belonging linguistically |Lto the Algonquians, who occupied a more extended area than any other linguistic stock in North America. An important tribe within this group was the Lenni-Lenape, or 'original people,' known historically as the Delaware. The tribe consisted of three principal subtribes: The Unami or Wo- namey, the Minsi or Munsee, and the Unalachtigo or Unalatka, each having its own territory and slightly different dialect. According to Lenape tradition, they had migrated into eastern Pennsylvania from the west, the tribal divisions later receiving their names from some geographic or other peculiarity characterizing the region in which they lived. The Unami, using the turtle as their totem, inhabited the Delaware River Valley from the junction of the Lehigh River southward to what is now New Castle, Delaware. The Minsi, or Wolves, occupied the head- waters of the Delaware as far south as the Lehigh. The Unalachtigo, or Turkeys, lived on the west bank of the Delaware, in what is now the State of that name, and on the east bank in the present New Jersey. The Dela- ware had declined in power and dignity by the time Pennsylvania history began, and also had undergone a considerable redistribution in population areas. The Delaware within the present limits of Pennsylvania numbered only a few thousand when Penn came into the territory, and had become the vassals of the Iroquois Confederacy. The Delaware were tall, broad-shouldered, small-waisted, and erect, with tawny reddish-brown complexion and straight black hair. Their hair was usually worn long, but sometimes they burned off all except a scalp lock. They wore no beards; hairs of the face were plucked out with pincers made of clam shells or small fiat stones; their cheekbones were broad and high, and their eyes small and dark. Among their musical instruments were the drum, rattle, gourd, and a sort of flute fashioned from a reed or a deer's tibia. They also had an instrument through which they could emit a howling, melancholy sound. They never developed harmony in instru- I8 THE INDIAN I9 mental music, although, like many other tribes, they achieved harmonic effects in choral singing. In the time of Penn, the Minsi kindled their council fires on Minisink Flats along the Delaware River above the Water Gap; they had a village and peach orchard near the forks of the Delaware, where Nazareth now stands. The principal Lenape village was Shackamaxon, now part of Philadelphia, where Penn and the Delaware tribe presumably made their famous treaty. In later Colonial times the center of Indian influence moved northward to Shamokin, at the confluence of the north and west branches of the Susquehanna River, site of the present city of Sunbury. This Indian village was at one time the 'melting pot' of aboriginal cul- ture, having among its inhabitants not only the belligerent Minsi and rep- resentatives of the crafty Iroquois Confederation, but scatterings of Shawnee, Conoy, Nanticoke, and other tribes. Another interesting tribe was the Shawnee. Linguistically Algonquian and known as the 'people from the south,' the Shawnee were tall and muscular, with coarse features and exceptionally prominent cheekbones. They were diligent cultivators of the soil until expulsion from Kentucky and North Carolina forced them to lead a wandering existence. Permitted by the Delaware and Iroquois to enter Pennsylvania, they settled on the flats below Philadelphia, in the forks of the Delaware as far north as the Minisink, and in the Wyoming Valley. Later they drifted westward to the Ohio Valley and engaged in the Indian wars of a later day. The Shawnee differed from other Algonquian peoples in allowing their women to sit in council. Their implements showed a crude knowledge of metallurgy, and like the Mound Builders and Susquehannock they prac- ticed some sort of funeral ceremony involving cremation. Early settlers in western Pennsylvania found them living on the Monongahela ('the river with skidding banks') and on the Youghiogheny ('the river that flows in a roundabout course'). In later times the Wyandotte and Miami resided in that section. Remnants of the migrant Lenni-Lenape or Delaware tribes lingered in the region, but the Iroquoian influence probably was not felt until the Ottawa accompanied the French southward from Canada in the middle of the eighteenth century. In the bloody battle of Bushy Run in I763, Colo- nel Henry Bouquet's forces were opposed by the Delaware, Shawnee, Wyandotte, Mohican, Miami, Ottawa, and perhaps one or two other tribes. White encroachment, climaxed in I 737 by the perfidy of the 'Walking Purchase' (see Tour ioA), drove the Delaware from their ancestral homes 20 PENNSYLVANIA in eastern Pennsylvania, but the cause of their decline lay partly in their own loose confederacy and chiefly in the dominance of the Iroquois. The Iroquois Confederation consisted of the Onondaga, Cayuga, Oneida, Seneca, and Mohawk until early in the eighteenth century, when a tribe of Southern Indians-the Tuscarora-was taken in as the sixth nation. Although the Iroquois occupied very little of Pennsylvania territory, they held sway over the lands of the Delaware at a time when conditions led not only to bitter misunderstanding with early pioneers, but to strife and bloodshed as well. Subjugation of the Delaware is believed to have oc- curred after the Iroquois obtained firearms from the Dutch in New York, early in the period of American colonization. With these superior weapons they were able not only to subdue the tribes to the south but also to resist encroachment of the French from Canada. The Iroquois, as represented in Pennsylvania chiefly by the Seneca, were powerful in physique, cunning and fierce in warfare, and often treach- erous and overbearing in behavior. Despite these characteristics, they were imbued with a desire for peace, waging war primarily to perpetuate their unified political life and independence. They often allowed van- quished tribes to remain upon conquered territory, yet ruthlessly annihi- lated those who refused to submit to vassalage. It must be understood that the term 'Iroquois,' while generally applied to the confederated nations, includes also the Erie, Susquehannock, and other tribes of Iroquoian origin. The Erie, occupying portions of north- western Pennsylvania, lost their identity as a tribe in i654, when the Five Nations virtually annihilated them. The Huron or Wyandotte also were destroyed as a strong tribal unit; those found in western Pennsyl- vania at the time of Bouquet were remnants of a once strong confederacy in the north smashed by the Five Nations in i642. Of all Pennsylvania's native inhabitants in the early historical period, the least known to ethnologists are the Susquehannock. They appeared along the Susquehanna watershed at the beginning of white colonization, fought bitterly with both the Delaware and the Five Nations, and then faded into obscurity. Though of Iroquoian stock, they recognized no alle- giance to the Massomacks, the Iroquois name for the confederacy. Several explanations are suggested for the derivation of their name, one being that it comes from the Algonquian Sas-k-we-an-og, meaning 'the river that rubs upon the shore.' All the Susquehanna Iroquoian groups, however, were called the Caran- touan by the Five Nations. The most important were the Susquehannock on the lower reaches of the river. Those along the upper river were known THE INDIAN 21

as the Andaste. They were first visited by a white man in i6i6, when Etienne Brul6, Champlain's interpreter, came down from Canada to en- list their aid in a French attack against the Five Nations' strongholds in New York. It was this alliance of the Carantouan and Huron with the French that later led to the destruction of these tribes by the Iroquois. The early Swedes in Pennsylvania called the Susquehannock 'Black Minquas.' This term probably came from the Lenape, who used the Al- gonquian 'mingee or mengwe ('treacherous') as an opprobrious classifica- tion for all detached bands of Iroquois. Corrupted to 'Mingo,' the term was widely and loosely applied by Indian and white settler alike from early Colonial days until long after the Revolutionary War. In some parts of the State entire tribes or their remnants became known as Mingo, while further confusion in classification of tribal units resulted from amalgama- tion, adoption, and intermarriage. The Susquehannock were tall, aggressive, and keen of mind; they had dispersed the Raritan and Piscataway in the Chesapeake Bay area and were in control of that territory when Captain John Smith encountered them in i6o8. Excavations of their early burials indicate that some used platforms on which to place their dead until the flesh had rotted from the bones; the remains were then buried at a depth of three feet, with the skull surmounting the pile. The power of the Susquehannock in Maryland and Virginia was broken by conflict with the whites early in the seventeenth century. In Pennsyl- vania, however, their war activities were centered chiefly against the Five Nations, for whom they had an undying hatred. The seat of their power in Pennsylvania was a stronghold near what is now Washington Borough. In i663 they repulsed an attack of Seneca and Cayuga warriors, and sent the defeated Iroquois back to their Long House bearing messages of derision. By z667, however, the Susquehannock had begun to feel the effects of continued warfare and sickness, and in i670 they sent emissaries to the Five Nations in an attempt to make peace. The enraged Iroquois refused to bury the tomahawk, and hostilities continued until most of the Susquehannock were captured or slain. The main body of the survivors fled to Maryland. Others found refuge along the Susquehanna's west branch, and those remaining were absorbed by tribes of the confederacy. Many years later a group of exiled Susque.- hannock returned to their former home in Lancaster County and became known as the Conestoga. Crowded on all sides by white settlers and by tribes they once held in contempt, the Conestoga diminished in number until in 1763 only a few remained. In that year a band of white rioters, 22 PENNSYLVANIA known as the 'Paxton Boys,' inflamed by accounts of Indian depredations along the frontiers, broke into the Lancaster jail, where the Conestoga had taken refuge, and destroyed all of them (see Lancaster). With this massacre, the last known group of Susquehannock passed out of existence. According to conservative estimate the Indian population of Pennsyl- vania was about I5,000 at the time of the first English settlement; but by 1790 white encroachment and conquest had reduced it to little more than I,ooo. The Powhatan Nanticoke, who entered the Province from Mary- land in i690, drifted northward to New York, after living for a time along the Susquehanna's east branch. The Conoy, another Algonquian tribe more correctly known as the Gawanese or Piscataway, migrated to south- eastern Pennsylvania from West Virginia early in the eighteenth century, but by I765 had removed to New York. The Shawnee and Delaware, the former never numbering more than i,ooo in Pennsylvania, had settled in Ohio by the end of the Revolution. The Indians had then ceased to be an important factor in Pennsylvania history, and those remaining within its borders were chiefly Seneca under the chieftainship of Cornplanter. The Iroquois Confederacy played a minor part in affairs of the Province until I742, when the aid of the Six Nations was enlisted by the Proprietors in expelling the Delaware from territory involved in the 'Walking Pur- chase.' Up to that time William Penn's successors had treated directly with the Delaware, but in 1745 the Iroquois established headquarters at Shamokin for control of Indian affairs in the Province. Thereafter the Lenape had to submit to Iroquois decision in all matters pertaining to the sale of land. Dispossessed Delaware, angered Shawnee, and sympathetic Seneca banded together in western Pennsylvania and Ohio, and took an important part in the Indian uprisings from 1755 to I763. During the French and Indian War, the Six Nations as a confederacy remained neu- tral, although the Seneca, or Mingo, in the region were drawn into the struggle against the British through association with the Delaware and Shawnee. In the Revolutionary War, however, the Iroquois Confederacy, except for the Oneida and about half of the Tuscarora tribe, was allied with the British. Today the red man is little more than a memory in Pennsylvania. The State contains a small Indian settlement on lands granted by the Com- monwealth to Chief Cornplanter (see Tour I). It is on the west bank of the Allegheny River, some 20 miles northeast of Warren, where live about 50 families of Seneca blood. Here is buried Chief Cornplanter, Indian bene- factor and friend of the whites, to whom a monument was erected in i866 by special act of the Assembly. Several hundred descendants of other THE INDIAN 23 tribes are scattered throughout the Commonwealth, their tribal identities all but lost through fusion with the white man's culture and participation in modern industry. One thousand descendants of the Delaware are with the Cherokee and Wichita in Oklahoma; some are with the Stockbridge in Wisconsin and the Chippewa in Kansas, and still others are with the Iroquois in Ontario, Canada. For a time a nonreservation Indian school (see Education) was maintained by the United States Government at Car- lisle, but this institution was discontinued in i9i8. Philadelphia contains two small plots of ground said to have been set aside originally as camping sites for Indian delegations visiting the city. One plot, formerly a part of the Penn lawn, is just off Second Street, be- tween Walnut and Chestnut; the other is behind the Ritz-Carlton Hotel on Broad Street. Both are believed to have been granted long ago to the Six Nations; but whatever claims the Indians may once have had upon these plots, the grants now have a legendary rather than a legal base. In I922 a delegation of Blackfeet, Oneida, and Ojibway Indians visited the city and held a conclave on the Second Street tract. At that time, John Gaskell Hall, a descendant of Penn, 're-dedicated' the old camping site to the Indians in the presence of Governor Sproul and Mayor Moore. Evils may be laid at the door of William Penn's successors, but Penn himself took pride in treating the Indians fairly, and his policy of amicable settlements in all purchases of land was carried on throughout his life. It is significant that his Swedish predecessors had pursued a similar policy. Even before he had met and learned to love them, he had entrusted to Thomas Holme a letter addressed to the Indians in Pennsylvania, in which he wrote: The great God, who is the power that made you and me, incline your hearts to righteousness, love and peace with one another, which I hope the great God will in- cline both you and me to do .. . I have already taken care that none of my people sell rum to make your people drunk ... I am your loving friend, William Penn, England, 2ist of the Second month, x682. One of Penn's first acts on arriving in Pennsylvania,, it is said, was to make a treaty with the Delaware and Susquehannock tribes, probably at Shackamaxon, on a site now marked by a marble obelisk. Voltaire referred to this compact as 'the only treaty never sworn to, and never broken.' Indeed, between the early settlers and the Indians a spirit of love and friendship endured until the white men's greed had destroyed the attach- ment that years before had led Captain Smith to write: 'They adore us as gods.'