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DORISEA WORKING PAPER ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 BOUNLEUTH SENGSOULIN THE LAO OF LUANG PRABANG AND THEIR SOCIAL ROLES IN THE POST-1975 PERIOD 9

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 DORISEA WORKING PAPER SERIES

EDITORS Peter J. Bräunlein Michael Dickhardt Karin Klenke Andrea Lauser

BMBF Competence Network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA)

The research network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA) is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and coordinated by the Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology at the Georg-August-University of Göttingen. Scholars from the Universities of Göttingen, Hamburg, Münster, Heidelberg and Berlin (Humboldt University) are involved in several projects that investigate the relationship between religion and modernity in Southeast Asia.

How to cite this paper: Bounleuth Sengsoulin (2014): The Lao Sangha of Luang Prabang and their Social Roles in the Post-1975 Period. In: DORISEA Working Paper Series, No. 8.

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BOUNLEUTH SENGSOULIN

THE LAO SANGHA OF LUANG PRABANG AND THEIR SOCIAL ROLES IN THE POST-1975 PERIOD

ABSTRACT The members of the Lao Sangha, monks as well as novices, do not only stay in their monasteries for spiritual purposes, for chanting and meditating many hours a day. In fact, they are also obliged to participate in numerous activities which connect them to the daily lives of the local laypeople on whose constant support they rely. The monasteries function as schools or centres of training and learning. The monks are teachers and instructors of young novices and devout laypeople alike. For this purpose, the members of the Lao Sangha seek for answers to a variety of social and developmental issues in the Buddhist scriptures. This paper seeks to explore how the Buddhist institutions, from the highest levels of the Sangha hierarchy to Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) in December 1975. According to the policy of individual monasteries, have defined their social responsibilities since the founding of the main tasks of defending the country and developing it. As an inseparable part of Lao society, the leadingLao Sangha Lao People’saims to contributeRevolutionary to this Party, task the in multi-ethnic its own ways. Lao Based nation on has hitherto to fulfil unknown the two primary sources recently discovered in the holdings of various monasteries in Luang Prabang, this paper intends to shed new light on the social roles of the Lao Sangha after the founding of the Lao PDR.

Luang Prabang is located in the north of Laos. This ent-day India, and to explain which was the role of province borders on several other provinces: Phong Sali in the north, Hua Phan and the Vietnamese prov- After attaining enlightenment, the Buddha con- ince of Suen La in the northeast, Xiang Khuang in the the first Sangha. pañcavaggī) east, Vientiane in the south, Xayabouli (Xayaburi) in - the west, and Oudomxay in the northwest. People of ma,sidered and that Ajasi his – first would five bedisciples very suitable (: for listen- all ethnic groups from these neighbouring regions ing– namely, to what Koṇḍañña, he had come toVappa, know. He Bhaddhiya, gave them hisMahānā often travel to the town of Luang Prabang to con- dhammacakkappavattana sutta duct business activities here. Furthermore, Luang (Swearer 1981, 19–20), which is generally known as Prabang province functions as an educational centre dhammafirst sermon,­cakka thesutta or the ‘Wheel of the Dhamma for the northern part of Laos. Souphanouvong Uni- Discourse’. In this sermon, the Buddha discussed the in 2003, is located in this town, in order to provide higherversity, education one of five for universities students from in Laos, the eightestablished north- formerMiddle Way,disciples the Noblehad respectively Eightfold Path, gained and athe “dham Four- ern provinces. In addition, various monasteries in maNoble eye”, Truths. and attained By the enlightenment. end of the sermon, From allthis of time his Luang Prabang offer monastic education, known onwards, was propagated and spread as sangha schools (Lao: hong hian song-ໂຮງຮຽນສົງ), worldwide. The Buddhist Sangha was established which include both primary and secondary school levels. Apart from mainly religious subjects such as Sangha had the mission to propagate Buddhism. dhamma, - (Wijayaratna 1990, 1─17). In particular, the first jects such as mathematics, history, and literature, ara- among others, are, Pāli, also etc., mandatory a number for of thesecular students sub hantaMost), including importantly, the Buddha the Sangha himself; mentioned i.e., all of above them of these schools (cf. BAD-12-2-1984.013/14/15). werewas formed arahanta by. theLater, six the “Awakened number Ones”of Buddha’s (Pāli: dis- Before discussing the social role of the Lao Sang- ciples sharply increased. It is said that about seven present how the Buddhist Sangha was established Day, the full moon of the third lunar month, a total moreha of than Luang 2500 Prabang, years ago, it may in the be helpfulterritory to of briefly pres- ofmonths 1,250 after arahanta the first, who sermon had received was given, their on ordina Māgha-

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ehib- lifetime, now this task fell to the Sangha. In other hikkhu upasampadā), simultaneously assembled at thetions Buddha’s directly place from withoutthe Buddha prior himself appointment. (Pāli: This named Subhadda, who had been ordained in his old number indicates a strong increase in the number age,words, tried just to after break the the Buddha’s Sangha’s Parinibbāna, discipline by a openly monk of Buddhist monks, and with it a massive growth of telling the other monks that they could just do what they wanted and did not have to do what they dis- of Buddhism. In other words, the religion of the liked. Upon hearing this, the chief of the Buddha’s Buddhathe Sangha, became during well the established first year withinof the emergencea relatively very worried about the discipline in the sangha. As The rapid growth of the Sangha continued. adisciples, result of Mahākassapa, his concerns, fellhe proposedin deep sorrow that a and council was Theshort newly-ordained time (Wijayaratna monks, 1990, who 1─17). were not yet ful- of the sangha should be convened. This proposal ly enlightened, had to carry out two main duties: ganthadhura) the patron of the council (Hazra 1982, 25–6). vipas- was also supported by King Ajātasattu who became sanādhurathe duty of scriptural learning (Pāli: studyand the the duty doctrine of training and the in disciplinemeditation laid (Pāli: down by similarThe consequenceto the situation of thewhich appearance occurred of after the firstthe ). To fulfil the first duty, the monks had to- Council of the Buddhistsangha Sangha. At that was time, more the or Bud less- er guidance and methodology for spiritual practice. Thethe Buddha.latter constituted Moreover, the they practical were also aspect given of higher prop toemergence go forth ofand the teach first the dhamma3 (Lao: thamma religious life. The monks were encouraged to en- -dha ທໍາມະ himself had directly asked his first five disciples It is gage in scriptural learning and meditative exercise, understood that the dhamma they preached was in order to experience the supreme happiness of ) to the world (Gombrich 1988, 18─19). nibbāna, which means to have gained knowledge cattāri into the true nature of things (Swearer 1981, 80). ariyasaccānithe same first sermon they had been given byduk the- An important turning point in the function of the khaBuddha, i.e., the Four Noble Truthssamudaya (Pāli: ), the ) which comprisednirodha suffering), and (Pāli: the path 1, which was allegedly ), the cause of suffering (Pāli: magga). heldBuddhist in the Sangha year following was marked the Buddha’s by the first Council of Thecessation path toof achievesuffering this (Pāli: includes eight steps which the Buddhistparinibbāna Sangha).2 (CBS) leading to the cessation of suffering (Pāli: ariyo had to take responsibility for the collectionParinibbāna and pu- aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo). The eight parts of the Path are (Pāli: For’s theteachings. first time, While the disputed Sangha theare following: called The Right Noble Understanding Eightfold Path (sammā-diṭṭhi (Pāli: ), Right Thought (sammā-saṅkappa), Right Speech rification of the Buddha (sammā-vācā), Right Action (sammā-kammanta), points had been clarified by the Buddha during his Right Livelihood (sammā-ājīva sam- - mā-vāyāma sammā-), and 1 Up to now, six Councils of the Buddhist Sangha (CBS) sammā-samādhi), Right )Effort (Piyadassi ( have existed. The first CBS was convened in 544 B.C., at Satta 1964, 77–86).), Right ( paṇṇa Cave in the city of Rājagaha (modern India), under the Right Concentration ( - patronage of King Ajātasattū. The second CBS was convened- Similar to the first disciples’ task, one hundred years after the Buddha’s Parinibbāna (i.e., 443 ings, monks of all ranks were directly or indirectly B.C.), at the city of Vesāli (modern India), under the patron askedafter the to continueCouncil had to teach collected the dhamma the Buddha’s to all human teach age of King Kālāsoka. The third CBS was convened around beings, in order to propagate Buddhism. 250 B.C., at Asokārāma in the city of Pāṭaliputta (modern According to the tradition, the dissemination of Patna in India), under the patronage of Emperor Asoka. The - fourth CBS was convened around 29 B.C., in Tambapanni of Sri Lanka, under the patronage of King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi. The fifth or , who ruled over almost all of the Indian CBS was convened in 1871 A.D., in Māndalay in Myanmar, Buddhism beyond India was initiated by the Emper- under the patronage of King Mindon. And the sixth CBS was convened in 1954 A.D., in Kāba Aye in Yangon in Myanmar,- Subcontinent ca. 269–232 B.C. Ashoka was the pa under the patronage of the Government of Myanmar, led by electtron ofa thenumber third ofCBS, monks which who was wereconvened well aroundversed Prime Minister U Nu (The Chaṭṭha Sangāyanā Souvenir Al 250 B.C. There, the Emperor asked the Sangha to bum, Union Buddha Sāsana Council Press, Yegu, Rangoon, in the Buddha’s teachings – who could recite the Buddha’sUnion of Myanma, life. This 1954). word has been used as the name of The Dhamma and Vinaya by heart – to be appointed as 2 Parinibbāna is a Pāli term used for the end of Lord- ered to as “The Great Passing” or “The Buddha’s Last Days”, were sent to preach the Dhamma and establish the Mahā-parinibbāna Sutta: in English literature sometimes ref- Sanghaso-called in Dhammadūta. nine different These realms. Dhammadūta It is said that monks two ing the Sutta Pitaka of Buddhism. It concerns the - endwhich of isGautama Sutta 16 Buddha's within the life Dīgha and Nikāya, is the longest a scripture Sutta belong of the - able Uttara, were sent to the area of present-day sorted to as the principal source of reference in most stand- Dhammadūta monks, Venerable Soṇa and Vener ardPāli accountsCanon. Because of the Buddha's of its attention death (Walshe to detail, 1995, it has 231–278). been re 3 Lester provides us the meaning of dhamma: “the dham- ma is what the Buddha taught through his life and his words. It is not simply a system of ideas to be grasped intellectually, Sutta:Moreover, mahamunla-nipphannasut a number of palm-leaf manuscripts(BAD-13-1-0308, found BAD-13-1- in Sathu but a path to be taken up, a way of going, a way of moving in 0310Nyai ),Khamchan’s and munlani abode­pphannasut provide ( BAD-13-1-0309us with variant). titles of this thought, feeling, word, and deed” (Lester 1973, 23).

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 5

addition, he also made a royal decree to announce throughout Lan Xang the abolition of the old ani- founder,Myanmar Buddhism (Burma). had Emperor reached Asoka South thus and causedSouth- –134; Sila 2001, eastBuddhism Asia to(Hazra flourish. 1982, Not long37–41, after 49–78; the death Swearer of its –10). These accounts indicate 1995, 64–91). thatmistic the beliefs replacement (Manich of 1967,animism 131 was a clear inten- The more Buddhism spread to different regions, tion46, 63; of theEvans introduction 2002, 9 of Buddhism into Lan Xang, the more the number of monks from local origins and the outstanding role of the monks at that time grew. When the Sangha was established in different was to propagate Buddhism. However, even nowa- countries, its structure and function was adapted days traits of this type of belief can still be seen in the everyday lives of Lao people of all ethnicities. primary function of the Sangha institution was to As mentioned above, in the early days of Bud- provideto the local newly needs ordained and circumstances. monks with an At ideal first, set the- dhism, the members of the Buddhist sangha were ting for the practice of the Buddha’s teachings, the all Arahanta , enlightened monks. Later, Dhamma. Over time, the role of the sangha became the number of Bhikkhu who were still practising to more and more concerned with social issues. In oth- other types of Buddhist disciples – i.e., novices (Pal: sangha divided into two sects, orthodox sāmanera,reach enlightenment Lao: samanen steadily - ສາມະເນນ increased.), white-robed Nowadays, ander words, unorthodox after the(Hazra Second 1982, Buddhist 28). This Council may be (443 un- anāgarika; Lao: phò khao – ພໍ່ຂາວ), derstoodB.C.), the as division into those monks who, at that and nuns (Lao: mae khao - ແມ່ຂາວ) – are also con- time, practiced and followed the Buddhist teachings sideredpostulants members (Pāli: of the Buddhist sangha. However, conscientiously, whereas some other monks might when talking of the sangha institution, it seems that Lao people acknowledge monks and novices (Lao: to their own communities. phasong samane or khuba aichua – ພະສົງສາມະເນນ ຫຼື haveThe practised monks thedid rules not only“insufficiently”, teach the Dhamma responding to ຄູບາອ້າຍຈົວ) stronger than female sangha members. laypeople but also performed ceremonies for the In this paper, the term ‘Lao sangha’ refers to the laity, especially at important events in life (Lao: phi- monks and novices of Laos, while the term ‘Lao thikam pacham sivit - ພິທີກໍາປະຈໍາຊີວິດ), such as births sangha of Luang Prabang’ (Lao: phasong samanen (Lao: kan koet-ການເກີດ), ordinations (Lao: kan buat - müang luang phabang – ພະສົງສາມະເນນເມືອງຫຼວງພະບາງ) ການບວດ), and deaths (Lao: kan tai - ການຕາຍ) (Swearer is related to the monks and novices of Luang Pra- 1995, 52–61; Khamphun 2011, 13, 34–40, 217–28). bang, Laos. However, the major emphasis is put on Furthermore, the presence of monks at the opening the monks. ceremony of a new business was (and still is) con- sidered auspicious. These tasks of the sangha have remained until the present day. As we can see in nu- LUANG PRABANG merous Buddhist countries today, they are request- ed, for instance, to bless new houses, new cars, or Before the emergence of the kingdom of Lan Xang, even small vehicles such as new motorbikes. The the area of present-day Luang Prabang was the loca- - tion of a settlement of an indigenous people, called ple’s needs. However, the two foremost duties of Swa or Sua. Therefore, their müang (principality) Buddhistfunctions ofmonks monks remain in society scriptural often reflect learning the peoand meditation training. 4 was asked for help by a ruler In order to understand the role of the Lao Bud- was called Müang Swa/Sua. In A.D. 757, Chao Khun dhist monks today, a brief history of the presence of Lò of Müang Ka Long 5 Thus, he led may be helpful. Present-day Laos of his dependent Thao Fa Huan in Müang Tum Vang- originated from Lan Xang, a kingdom established to suppress the army of Khun Chüang. - his army to Müang Tum Vang to rescue his subor dinate. On the battlefield he met and fought Khun- in A.D. 1353 by Chao Fa Ngum. It is said that Bud Chüang in person. Finally, Chao Khun Lò pierced dhism was officially introduced into the Lao realm Khun Chüang and killed him on the neck of his el twice during the Lan Xang era. The first time, Chao ephant. Seeing this, Khun Chüang’s forces scattered variousFa Ngum’s types queen, of animist Pha Nangic practices Kaeo Keng popular Ya, who in wasLan and Chao Khun Lò and his men pursued them until Xang.of Cambodian In A.D. 1359,origin, six was years resolutely after theopposed emergence to the they reached Müang Sua, ruled by Khun Kan Hang. of Lan Xang, she asked the king to send royal en- - ravong's History of Laos (1964), translated from the Laotian by4 theThe U.S. exact Joint location Publications is unknown. Research However, Service, Maha informs Sila Vius Buddhismvoys to her in father, Lan Xang.Pha Chao Buddhism Nakhòn was Luang introduced (a king toof ancientLan Xang Cambodia), for a second to ask time for in the A.D. introduction 1523, when of that Müang Ka Long is Müang Xiang Hung of today (Jinghong, twoXishuangbanna, very distinguished Yunnan familiesprovince ruling of China) over (1964, the kingdom 23). of 5 According to Manich, Khun Chüang was the head of

King Phothisalalat sent envoys to Chiang Mai, then Phayao and the kingdom of Chiang Saen (modern Phayao and the capital of the kingdom Lan Na, to ask for the Chiang Saen of Thailand), which later became known as Lan Tipitaka (Pāli Canon) to be givenDORISEA to Lan Working Xang. Paper, In ISSUE 9,Na 2014, kingdom ISSN: (Manich2196-6893 1969, 40–1). Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 6

the number of Khmu in Laos makes up over eight per cent (8,33%) of the total population of Laos Chao Khun Lò attacked and conquered Müang Sua. He then raised Müang–30; SuaSila to2001, the status28); alternative of capital city of Lan Xang and named it Müang Xiang Thòng of(The the National main language Geographic families Department, in Laos. TheNGD, Khmu 2010). – (Manich 1969, 27 inThey former belong times to the known Mon-Khmer as kha linguistic(roughly family,translated one namesAs mentioned sometimes before, used by Buddhism local people was introducedare Müang as “slave”), and recognized as Lao Theung – are Xiang Dong or Xiang Thòng. Well-educat- believed to be the original inhabitants of Laos. The ed members of the Buddhist sangha of the Khmer to Lan Xang via Cambodia in 1359. Buddha image of Pha Bang. They were warmly wel- Lao ‒ the largest ethnic group in Laos, the majority- kingdom (ancient Cambodia) came and brought the landof which valleys prefer and toLuang be state-officials, Prabang town. and The in Hmongformer Along came three unordained senior Buddhist times were known as Lao Lum ‒ live mostly in low scholarscomed to and Xiang a number Thòng, ofthe their capital followers city of (Sila Lan 2001,Xang. largest ethnic group in the province of Luang Pra- bang.‒ in former They residetimes knownmainly asin Laothe mountainousSung ‒ are the areas. third Luang Prabang is well-known for the preserva- 46). Much later, in A.D. 1560, Chao Sayasetthathilat,sangha (Lao: tion of the Lao PDR’s cultural heritage, especially in phawith sangkhachao the consent of- ພະສັັັງຄະເຈົ້າ his high-ranking), and transferred officials, gave the terms of architecture. The majority of the buildings Müang Xiang Thòng to the Buddhist are wooden constructions, following the traditional styles, while some are built of brick in the colonial capital city of Lan Xang from Müang Xiang Thòng- fashion. These remarkable buildings often have one age)to Müang and Pha Viang Saek Chan Kham (present-day with him to Vientiane). the new cap He- or two storeys, with balconies and other decorative ital,brought but not Pha the Kaeo Pha Mòlakot Bang image. (emerald This Buddhamight have im features made of wood. In fact, the addition of Luang been the case because the Pha Bang was brought to Laos about six years after the emergence of the Lan in 1995 indicates that Luang Prabang is recognized asPrabang an important town to townthe UNESCO’s not only Worldlocally, Heritage but also list in Therefore, this Buddha image was also recognized terms of international interest in culture. Xang kingdom and placed in the city of Xiang Thòng.- dhist monks were asked to associate themselves withas an the auspicious administration symbol of of the the old city. capital Moreover, city. FromBud THE LAO SANGHA OF LUANG PRABANG

Like the Lao sangha throughout the country, the 2001,that time 73). onwards, Müang Xiang Thòng was called Lao sangha of Luang Prabang is a branch of the Lao MüangThe political Luang Prabang and religious (Manich centre 1969, of 140;the town Sila Buddhist Fellowship Organization (LBFO), which was founded in the year following the national lib- eration in 1975. LBFO is an organization supported of Luang Prabang was namthe peninsula, kkòng kap defined nam khan by a- by the state. It has branches in every province and ນໍ້າຂອງກັບນໍ້າຄານdefensive wall). According built from to the the Mekong local narrative, river to the in the capital city. The name of a local LBFO-branch BuddhaNam Khan smiled river when (Lao: he rested there for a day dur- consists of the names of the provinces or the name ing his travels. He predicted that one day it would of the capital city added to the name of the LBFO; for be the location of a rich and powerful capital city, instance, the Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization which is expressed in Lao as follows: chak kai pen müang hung hüang nai phai na - ຈັກກາຍເປັນເມືອງຮຸ່ງເຮື Fellowship Organization of Luang Prabang prov- ອງໃນພາຍໜ້າ inceof Vientiane (LBFO-LP), Capital etc. The (LBFO-VC), Lao Buddhist the Lao organization Buddhist of the location to two hermits who, attracted by its of a district (müang) is named in the same way; for natural beauty,. Yet anothergave it the legend above ascribes mentioned the choice name example, the Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization of Luang Prabang District, the Lao Buddhist Fellow- phanya nak sip ha to -Xiang ພະຍານາກສິບຫ້າໂຕ Dong or Xiang) and theirThòng. attendants, It was inhabited who became first Buddhist organization of a monastery is, however, theby fifteen Guardian hybrid Spirits beings of the(Lao: city (Lao: phi mahesak namedship Organization in a differed of way:Nam ‘theBāk OrganizationDistrict, etc. The System Lao lak müang or phi müang - ຜີມະເຫສັກຫຼັກເມືອງ ຫຼືຜີເມືອງ) of Vat […]’, followed by the name of the monastery. This clearly shows that the administrative system human beings came and settled in this location. of the LBFO is similar to the secular one. It consists when they died. Much later, according to the legend,of of similar levels of administration: the centre, the the province with the same name. Luang Prabang province, the district, and the monastery. provinceNowadays, comprises Luang overPhrabang seven is per the centcapital (7,12%) city The boards of administration of the LBFO of the cen- of the nation’s territory, and over seven per cent tre, province and the district contain a president, (7,19%) of the total population of Laos. The Khmu a vice-president, and a committee (Lao: pathan - are the largest ethnic group in this province and ປະທານ, hòng pathan - ຮອງປະທານ, khana - ຄະນະ, or kam- make up the majority of the provincial population; makan - ກໍາມະການ

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893), as well as a specific number of Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 7 board members for each level. The board of admin- senior or well-conducted monks, are the intellec- istration of a monastery includes the abbot and the tual apparatus for Lao people of all ethnic groups. vice-abbot (Lao: chao athikan vat - ເຈົ້າອະທິການວັດ lae They teach the dhamma to the people and educate hòng chao athikan vat - ຮອງເຈົ້າອະທິການວັດ), and some- them, to ensure them to be good human beings with times a committee. According to the report of the high moral standards (for those familiar with Lao LBFO for 2007-2008 (R-LBFO07-08), the LBFO had Language, in order to understand this, please see 4,147 committee members throughout the coun- the respective footnote).7 try. The central level had 15 committee members, the time of the national liberation in 1975 onwards, including 9 advisers of senior monks. The province the members of the Lao Buddhist Most importantly, sangha have fromsub- and capital city level consisted of 106 committee stantially expanded their own role, both at the na- members. The district level comprised 595 commit- tee members. function as social centres which integrate people of In 2007/2008, the LBFO had 8,055 monks, in- manytional differentand the international ethnicities, but level. they Not also only cooperate do they cluding 1,050 newly ordained monks, and 11,740 with the governmental administrative organiza- novices, including 2,766 newly ordained novic- es. Furthermore, there were 4 anagarikas anāgārika; Lao: phò khao - ພໍ່ຂາວ), 410 nuns (Lao: maintions tasks,and the i.e., Lao national Front defencefor National and developmentConstruction 6 mae khao - ແມ່ຂາວ), and 485 monastery boys (Pāli:(Lao: (R-LBFO07-08).(LFNC) at all levels, To sum in orderup, the to Lao contribute Buddhist to sang two- sangkali - ສັງກະລີ). There were 4,140 monasteries ha has two main tasks to carry out, a religious and (Lao: vat – ວັດ) registered by the LBFO in all of Laos a secular one. (R-LBFO07-08). Generally speaking, like all Lao men through- out the country, most young men in Luang Prabang THE SOCIAL ROLES OF THE LAO SANGHA OF who have reached the age of twenty, traditionally LUANG PRABANG become monks for a certain period of time, in or- The tasks of the Lao Buddhist sangha can be further twenty can live in a monastery as novices as long divided into two main categories: obligatory tasks asder they to studywish and/or Theravāda according Buddhism. to their Those parents’ under de- laid down in the vinaya and more secular tasks. The former is based on the tradition, whereas the latter in a monastery to learn the Buddhist doctrine and broadly depends on the changing and complicated sire. Monks and novices spend their religious lives demands of the Buddhist community. Some monks needed to preserve and maintain their monastery who prefer the former always try their best to serve andpractices. its ritual Moreover, objects. They they learnare respected the artistic by people skills Buddhism and to work hard until their last breath, of all occupations for being knowledgeable in the - tion. They are not very visible to the public, but ratherso great keep is their to the spirit tradition of self-sacrifice of silent service, and dedicaquietly trainedBuddhist themselves teachings andwell having while expertisein the Buddhist in fine arts or- - der,as well. have Numerous become artists, former architects, monks and local novices scholars, who ity and continuity of Buddhism – instead of aiming etc., after disrobing. They are considered the master working for the benefit of others – i.e., the prosper builders and craftsmen of Luang Prabang town. This also be recognized as contributors to the demands is because the Buddhist community of Luang Pra- offor the personal Buddhists, benefits even andif their fame. lives In are fact, said they to can be bang profoundly values and respects the knowledge separate from the community. In other words, Bud- of former monks and novices. On the other hand, a dhists want to respect a monk and a novice who are former monk and novice leaving the monastery for laity-life at an old age is somewhat more challenged who prefer to focus on more secular tasks have to begood publicly in following present Lord because Buddha’s their teachings. presence Monks is be- scholars of the community. lieved to bring good luck and auspiciousness. Fur- in findingSimilar a to job. the But members they are of also the recognized Buddhist sangha as the thermore, the members of the Lao Buddhist sangha throughout the country, the members of the Lao are required to provide guidance and leadership in Buddhist sangha of Luang Prabang, especially the - tic buildings, or Buddha images, as well as thea variety construction of fields, ofsuch hospitals, as the restoration schools, health of monas cen- different objectives, who live in a monastery but are not tres and roads, among other things (R-LBFO07-08). 6 Monastery boys are laypeople of different ages and with ordained as monk or novice. In ancient times, a man who Sometimes the restoration and construction of wanted to be ordained as a novice or a monk had to leave his family and reside in a monastery for a number of months or monastic buildings are directly placed under cer- years before being admitted to the Buddhist order. In this pe- tain monks’ auspices (BAD-12-2-1984.007/016; riod, he had to study the basic and scripts, and

monasteries in big cities function as residences for many 7 Pen khon di mi sintham - ເປັນຄົນດີມີສິນທໍາ, or pen phon- laypeopleshow good who conduct have following left their the homes monastic for receiving rules. Nowadays, a higher lamüang di khòng sat lae pen sasanikason thi di khòng sasa- education. na-ເປັນພົນລະເມືອງດີຂອງຊາດແລະເປັ ນສາສະນິກະຊົນທີ່ດີຂອງສາສະໜາ.

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 8

1985.006/ 007/009). Based on these contributions, of the sangha the Lao Buddhist sangha constitutes a vital part of their own monasteries, they are usually invited to Lao society, their members’ participation in social be present at numerous. Not only doreligious the committees festivals (Lao: work b uinn projects being very common and of inestimable val- - ບຸນ ue to their communities. Buddhist festivals – e.g., for the celebration of a new- Insightful information about the functions of ly constructed) (BAD-12-2-1977.001). monastery wall Moreover,, a new allkuti important (monk’s the Lao Buddhist sangha of Luang Prabang can be cell) or a new temple, among other festivals – would gathered from the reports of the annual meeting of not be thriving unless a senior monk had been invit- the LBFO, convened in Vientiane, in late 2007. This ed to preside over the appropriate ceremonies dur- thitthang ing the duration of such a festival. The festival for nathi - ທິດທາງໜ້າທີ) of the LBFO for the following year. the celebration of a temple hall is very important. Specialmeeting attention defined was the drawn orientation to a number (Lao: of impor- It is believed that a temple hall (Lao: sim - ສິມ) is a tant tasks, such as (R-LBFO07-08): pillar of the monastery. A monastery without a sim may easily be abandoned at any time. • The administration of the sangha; The document BAD-12-2-1977.001 provides • The education of the sangha; plenty of important information on the Buddhist • The dissemination of the dhamma and mo- sangha of Luang Prabang in the 1970s. In early rality codes; 1977, Pha Khamchan ( • The practice of meditation; President of the LBFO-LP), was invited to preside • The management of the public utility of the over the festivals for templeSathu Nyaihall celebrations Khamchan, thein sangha, including the raising of funds for the four villages, located in the northern part of Luang preservation and propagation of Buddhism Prabang town. This might be taken as evidence that and the attention to health care and tradi- monks of the Buddhist sangha of Luang Prabang tional medicine, as well as the preservation regularly participated in such religious festivities. of the environment; Furthermore, the Buddhist laypeople who had set- • The improvement of foreign relations. tled in those villages were still devout. They were happy to contribute to the construction of monastic The tasks of the LBFO will be further explained in buildings like temple halls, in order to keep Bud- the following sections. One important issue related to the administra- tiondhism of flourishingthe sangha in is their the census own villages. of monastic mem- The administration of the sangha have to be re-listed every year (BAD-12-2-1984.006, After the liberation of the country in 1975, the uni- BAD-12-2-1984.009,bers. Monks, novices, BAD-12-2-1984.011, nuns, and monastery BAD- boys 12-2-1988.005). These lists provide us with data – i.e., the Buddhist sangha of the liberated zones on the number of members of the monastic order andfication the ofsangha the two of theorganizations previous Royal of Lao Lao Buddhism govern- ment – became the main priority of the Lao Bud- their names, surnames and age, the number of dhist sangha. Luang Prabang was no exception in yearsand its since composition. their ordination, Catalogued their were, educational, for instance, so- this context. The Buddhist sangha had to improve cial, and ethnic backgrounds, the number of their and enhance its inner structure, otherwise the Lao obligations, among other aspects. Furthermore, all Buddhist sangha would not be able to function as members of the LBFO have to live according to the the centre of the intellectual apparatus of the Lao Buddhist rules ( vinaya; Lao: vinai - ວິໄນ), as well Buddhists throughout the country (Lao: sao phut as the additional rules of their monastery (BAD-12- lao thua thang pathet-ຊາວພຸດລາວທົ່ວທັງປະເທດ). Three 2-1981.006). In Pāli:order to strengthen the sangha, the aims shall be mentioned here: (1) to preserve Bud- committees of the LBFO at all levels have to be elect- dhism in Laos according to the nikaya of Lao Bud- ed by the monks (BAD-12-2-1982.002). The LBFO dhism, which has only one sect; (2) to observe the has to meet regularly, presiding over all matters behaviour of monks and novices in order to ensure which concern the sangha and to solve occurring that they follow the monastic rules; and (3) to com- problems (BAD-12-2-1987.010). Whenever people, pile a list of monks, novices, nuns, monastery boys, both from Laos and abroad, face serious problems palm-leaf manuscripts, Buddha images, etc. (R-LB- in their lives, especially when caused by natural FO07-08). This indicates that some monks whose disasters, the LBFO helps them with generous do- main tasks were important to the sangha adminis- nations. The LBFO organisations of Luang Prabang tration may not have paid attention to their work; can be considered representative for the LBFO or- rather, they preferred to live in accordance to their ganisations in all of Laos (BAD-12-2-1986.003). own ways. In Luang Prabang town, the committees of the -

LBFO at all levels ‒ i.e., province, district, and mon asteries ‒ pay much attention to DORISEAthe administration Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 9

The sangha education who have completed their studies at sangha colleg- The LBFO committees of all levels are to devote esfounded, or sangha all runteacher by thetraining LBFO. schools Monks will and be novices sent to themselves as prominent administrators and edu- work and serve Buddhism throughout the country cators to serve the education of the sangha. They (BAD-12-2-1985.02). have to ensure that the monks and novices under It might seem as if the Lao Buddhist sangha pays their supervision learn to preach and chant (Lao: much more attention to teaching the basics of peda- hian thet hian sut - ຮຽນເທດຮຽນສູດ) (R-LBFO07-08). For instance, monks and novices of all ages, including the sangha Higher Secondary School have to com- newly-ordained ones, have to be able to read palm- pletegogy thanat least secular one schools.course onAll final-year-studentspedagogical subjects, of leaf manuscripts, and to give laypeople blessings which shall enable them to conduct educational (Lao: nyatha sapphi dai - ຍະຖາສັບພີໄດ້). Somlith has work and serve as propagators of Buddhism. In ad- pointed out that one obligation of the young monks dition, they have to take either a meditation training and novices is to study; they have to learn lessons course or study meditation subjects for at least one aloud until late at night (Somlith 1955, 76). These week (R-LBFO07-08). This may also be one of the various answers to the question why numerous for- cannot accomplish these basic tasks will not be con- mer monks and novices who graduated from high- sideredare the basic respectful requirements. Sangha members. Monks and novices who er secondary schools and teacher training schools – this educational background is remarkable – are society as a whole have more demands on the Sang- generally considered as being ready to become Nowadays, the Buddhist community and the Lao teachers. Ladwig indicates that in the 1950s and just required to be experts in Buddhist teachings 1960s, novices and children in the Vientiane area andha than to have in the a goodpast. conduct,Monks and they novices are authoritatively are no longer were often taught together in the temple by a monk asked also to study numerous secular subjects. In working as a teacher (Ladwig 2011, 197). Further- fact, a number of subjects not included in the cur- more, the senior monks’ main responsibility was riculum of Buddhist teaching – i.e., architecture, teaching, and former monks could be recruited as medicine, magic, etc. – have been familiar to monks teachers, even if they were probably not specialists and novices since ancient times (this aspect will be in any particular subject (Somlith 1955, 76, 79–80). discussed later in the sections d), f), and g). Ladwig At present, it is also not unusual that monks and (2011, 204) has demonstrated that the subjects novices run their own private courses, or teach var- taught in the monastery were, in our modern sense, ious subjects at monasteries. not only religious. This is strongly supported by the 9 Khamchan, who also held [Board of] Buddhist Advisors’ discussion – held in the position of Head of the sangha Vientiane in 1961 – which concluded that the cur- BoardIn 1984,of Luang Sathu Prabang, Nyai organized a professional riculum of the sangha school had to improve simi- training course for teachers of the sangha Educational primary lar to that of the secular one (BAD-12-2-1961.035). schools in the province (BAD-12-2-1984.014). Dur- ing this twenty-two-days training period, the train- sangha kan sammana song phak nüa, Following this, in May 1968, the seminar of the Lao convened at the monastery of Siphutthabat Luang 9 According to the tradition of the people of Luang Pra- Prabang, of wherethe North, numerous papers were present- sadhu (good; virtuous; prof- ed in relation to various secular topics (BAD-01- 0014)8. This was a response to the fact that monks royalbang, lineageSathu ‒ orderived a monk. from While Pāli this word is used before the itable) – is used as a title/prefix, placed before the name of a and novices are increasingly required to have more name of a monk who has already received an anointment, the knowledge of secular subjects. Thus, two sang- for the one who has not yet received an anointment. In other ha colleges and a number of sangha schools were words,other word, the Buddhists Mòm, is usedof Luang for the Prabang newly-ordained do not prefer monk, ‘Phra’ or to place before the monk’s name, they rather adopt ‘Sathu’ 8 According to Phamaha Sukan Thammarangsi’s paper instead. When a monk has lived in a monastery for more than payot khὸng twenty Buddhist years, or phansa, Sathu can – traditionally – khan süksa thang tham), nine subjects were taught at the sangha“the benefits primary of theschool. religious The subjects education” were (Lao: 1) theology and morality; 2) sanitation; 3) Lao language; 4) arithmetic; 5) thebe followed monk is by not Nyai. only The required word ‘Nyai’ to remain itself means in monkhood ‘big; senior; for atimportant’. least twenty The years,traditional he must rule alsois that be to good be called in following Sathu Nyai the The curriculum of the sangha secondary school comprised history; 6) geography; 7) science; 8) French; and 9) Pāli. - 6) technology; 7) geography and history; and 8) pedagogy. erableBuddhist Phra teachings. Khamchan Sathu Virachitto. Nyai literally means senior monk. Presented1) theology; by 2) Phamaha Lao language; Sukan 3) were Pāli; only 4) French; the names 5) English; of the In this paper, Sathu Nyai Khamchan is used to represent Ven- subjects taught at the sangha school, not the whole numbers of learning and teaching hours of each subject. However, he me) In if practice,the speakers both are Sathu monks; and Mòmthey arecan usedbe used as theas person second told us that a number of secular subjects was taught at the personalal pronouns. pronoun They (you) represent if the themonks first are personal spoken pronounto; and they (I/ sangha school on both primary and secondary school levels. are used as the third personal pronoun (he/him) if the monk This account strongly indicates that the Lao sangha school is being referred to. This should be considered, as the Bud- dhists of Luang Prabang have their own tradition in address- the secular schools since the 1960s. ing themselves and each other. has – officially – developed its curriculum similar to that of DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 10 ees improved their knowledge of the following four are devout but lack a deeper understanding of Bud- subjects: vinaya, dhamma, school management, dhism, think that they can gain (Lao: dai bun - ໄດ້ບຸນ 1984.013). From this list of subjects we can con- do not pay much attention to the contents of the cludeand the that writing the trainees of official were documents required to (BAD-12-2-thoroughly sermon) by but just rather hearing enjoy a sermon. the pleasant Consequently, sound and they the know and understand the meaning and contents personalities of the preachers. This can be clearly of the subjects they would teach. Otherwise, they seen during the Vessantara Festival11 (VF) (Lao: would not be able to pass on the Buddhist teach- bun phavet - ບຸນພະເຫວດ ings to their students. This might also indicate that dānapāramī; Lao: thanapala- the LBFO committee of Luang Prabang was more mi - ທານະປາລະມີ ). Not only is thebodhisatta perfection; concerned about the teachers’ understanding of Lao:of the phaphothisat charity (Pāli: - ພະໂພທິສັດ ) honoured during the Buddhist teachings than about their pedagogical celebration of the) of Vessantara the Bodhisatta Festival, (Pāli: the VF is also abilities. Furthermore, it may demonstrate that the famous for the cheerful performances of laypeople. traditional way of teaching, used and transmitted A very popular traditional way to propagate - Buddhism is the compilation and copying of Bud- temporary monastic education, which includes nu- dhist texts. Among the members of the Buddhist merousover many secular generations, subjects is10 still. However, sufficient other for subjectsthe con community this work is known under the term sang - nangsü (ສ້າງໜັງສື), which refers to the compilation, ing of papers, making use of a variety of teaching copying, or donation of a written work, generally aids,related knowing to specific how teaching to further skills develop – such the as students’the writ transmitted in manuscript-form. The compiler, cop- skills and evaluate their knowledge – would also be yist, or donor is sometimes a monk or novice (BAD- among the subjects taught during the training pe- 13-1-0128, BAD-13-1-0055), but usually a devout riod. In fact, the course was supported by a secular government organisation. The head of the provin- manuscripts sponsored by laypeople are usual- cial education division of Luang Prabang gave his lylayperson donated (BAD-13-1-0309, to the sangha. By BAD-13-1-0099). compiling or copying Most religious texts, the Buddhist teachings have been Khamchan to receive funds from the government preserved and spread directly and continuously. In (BAD-12-2-1984.014).support to the training which enabled Sathu Nyai the case of Lao Buddhism of Luang Prabang, Sathu Another outstanding senior monk who has dealt with the dissemination of Buddhism and the sang- ha education in Luang Prabang and thus should be Nyai Khamchan is one of the monks involved in this 11 - en and talked to the bodhisatta god who will come down to be Kittiphattho-Sitthivong. He is currently elected bornIt as is the said next that Lord a long Buddha. time ago The Pha god Malai told traveledhim that to the Heav one Presidentrespectfully of presentedthe LBFO committee here is Sathu of Luang Nyai OnePrabang Keo thing that should be done by a human being who wishes to be province and has built and developed the forest born within his age was to complete listening to the story of monastery of Pha O, located in Ban Pha O. The mon- Vessantara in one day (BAD-13-1-0109/0110). Thus, devout astery is open to the ordination of young boys from Buddhists follow this story and together celebrate the Ves- santara Festival, up to the present day. The VF is recognized all ethnic groups whose residences are far away as one of main Buddhist festivals in Laos. Usually it is held between the fourth and the sixth lunar month and lasts three accesses to higher education. A number of monks days. On the last day, the story of Vessantara is preached. This andfrom a the much town greater and who number have ofdifficulties novices, inattending gaining story is very long and takes many hours to preach. There- primary or secondary education, reside there. Fur- fore, it is divided into many parts and preached by different monks and novices according to their experience. thermore, at a corner of this monastery a school Some central episodes of the story of Vessantara shall building is under construction. In the near future, be presented here. Vessantara was the crown prince of King this school might become a centre for higher educa- Sonxai and Queen Phutsadi. He had been giving alms since tion, or maybe the sangha college for the northern part of Laos. The temple is to become a centre for - he was young. He married princess Mathi, and they got two meditation training. ed the auspicious elephant to the eight Brahmans of the oth- erchildren, müang Kanha, and this and action Chali. Oneangered day, theprince people Vessantara of his müang donat. Thus, they asked King Sonxai to punish prince Vessantara by

Dhamma dissemination their children headed toward the mountain of Vongkot to go intoexiling a retreat. him out Four of the of city.them So became Vessantara, hermits. including Mathi and Talking about the dissemination of the dhamma During the period of being a hermit, Vessantara donated and morality codes in Laos means talking about - turned to him and their children were taken to the Kingdom the preaching (Lao: kan thet-ການເທດ), which takes ofboth Sonxai. Mathi The and king their redeemed children tohis Brahmans. grandchildren But Mathi and gave was there place during various types of festivals and special Brahman a big ransom. Then, he ordered his high-ranking of-

return to the city. Later on, prince Vessantara succeeded his ceremonies. Many laypeople, especially those who father,ficials andand peoplethe people to go of in his procession müang were to invite happy Vessantara because heto 10 For more details about the monastic education in Laos ruled the müang dasa-rājadhamma). by following the Ten Duties of a King (Pāli: today, especially higher education, cf. McDanielDORISEA Working 2009, Paper,64–8. ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 11

eling, sculpturing and painting for six years. As an religious writings, he is also often asked to be the abbot, he led monks and novices under his respon- receiverwork. Not of onlymanuscripts does he (Lao:himself sang compile thwai sathu and copy nyai sibility to complete the restoration work of the tem- khamchan - ສ້າງຖວາຍສາທຸໃຫຍ່ຄໍາຈັນ) (BAD-13-1-0107, ple hall and other buildings at Vat Khili. Further- BAD-13-1-0206). more, Buddha images cast by him can be admired in a number of monasteries in Luang Prabang town (BAD-12-2-1987.002). Construction of monastic buildings

High religious life: Vipassanā lay community demands from a monk. They pay less It is very interesting to see what qualifications the As mentioned above, the main tasks which the show more interest in the construction of the local members of the Buddhist sangha have always car- monasteriesattention to the instead. monks’ This religious tendency qualifications, is stronger but in ried out are the study of the Buddhist scriptures and meditation practice. The members of the Bud- Lao proverb ‘buat bò sang bò sa chak si buat pai het dhist sangha of Luang Prabang town, especially nyang!remote (villagesບວດບໍ່ສ້າງບໍ່ສາຈັກຊິບວດໄປເຮັດຫຍັງ than in cities. This is!)’. reflected Literal transin the- the senior monks, take these tasks very seriously. However, the daily life in a monastery usually does not build your own monastery!’ This demonstrates not support meditation practice for one or more of thatlation: a monk ‘You shouldwho is notleave good the atmonkhood, teaching the if youDham do- the following reasons: the monastery is located in ma but knows how to lead laypeople in erecting a village, crowded, full of visitors; monastic build- their own monastery is honoured and respected. ings are under construction or repair, and other Traditionally, the construction of monastic distracting factors.12 Therefore, many monks and buildings is practised via the cooperation of a mon- novices who live in a large monastery do not gain astery and a village, i.e., of the monks and novices much result from their meditation. However, they and the laypeople. This is a challenging work for the know the correct way to practise it from their study - of the scriptures. One of the best ways of learning how to meditate community because it needs firm solidarity and suf - thatficient some funds. necessary Sometimes, materials the work might is stoppednot be avail for a- ableperiod on of the time local due market to financial further problems. complicates The factthe is to find a person who has experience in this mat- construction of monastic buildings. In 1985, a num- ta),ter. Mettanandawho he should (1999, venerate 25) clearly with respectful stated, “Then words he ber of roof tiles for a monastic building in Luang andshould should search render for his him dear all good services, friend ...(kalyāṇamit He should Prabang, ordered from Vientiane, were transport- as well ask for meditation instruction until he un- ed by boat over a distance of 430 km (BAD-12-2- derstands it thoroughly. Then he should choose a 1985.007). This shows that also at that time the construction work was by no means an easy under- taking. properspecific place meditation for his techniquesown seclusion.” that This suits indicates his own Just like the construction of new buildings, the thattemperament practising (carita), meditation before strongly he proceeds requires to findprop a- restoration of monastic buildings is also under the er guidance. For the beginner, it is useful to follow direct responsibility of the sangha. In fact, monks and novices learn craftsmanship from one anoth- therefore it is essential to focus the attention upon er, and pass their skills on from one generation to Vajirañāṇa’s work (1962, 57) “In the very beginning the next. “Learning by doing” (Lao: hian pai nam passions, in order to draw a pure mental picture. het pai nam/thang hian thang het - ຮຽນໄປນໍາເຮັດໄປນໍາ/ Thisan object picture (ārammaṇa) the meditator entirely retains dissociated as his ideal, from and the ທັງເຮັດທັງຮຽນ), is one of the methodologies they prac- trains his mind to concentrate upon it. The mind be- - comes pure or impure, not through its own nature, nastic buildings themselves. Up to the present day, but through the arising of pure or impure thoughts.” monkstise. Consequently, and novices they in Luang are able Prabang to repair town their and mo in Whenever the conditions for staying in a quiet all of Laos take part in both the construction and the place are satisfactory, especially in the dry season, repairing of monastic buildings. place and time for the meditation practice would be Apart from the above mentioned, numerous - monks and novices complete their training by learn- tunity to apply the theory they have learnt at their ing with their teachers (Lao: hian nam phò kò nam monasteryscheduled. Monksto the andactual novices meditation then have training. the oppor This khu - ຮຽນນໍາພໍ່ກໍ່ນໍາຄູ, literal translation: “learn with the usually takes place once a year, and is known in Lao father, build with [the help of] the teacher”). Sathu - 12 For more details see 1929, The Path of ident of the LBFO and former abbot of Vat Khili of Purity: Being a Translation of Buddhaghosa’s LuangNyai Khamfan Prabang, Sīlasangvara, can be mentioned former in honorary this context pres as by Pe Muang Tin - a monk with various artistic skills. He studied mod- 138–43. . Part II: Of Concentration, Pāli Text Socie ty, Great Britain: Billing and Sons, Ltd., Guilford and Esher, DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 12 by the term khao vipatsana (ເຂົ້າວິປັດສະນາ) or khao or herbal medicines have been planted on monastic thudong (ເຂົ້າທຸດົງ). The monks and novices leave grounds (R-LBFO07-08). their own monastery and stay at a forest monas- tery or in the jungle. Usually they stay at such places traditional treatment do not have any medicines for about one month. During this time, they con- in stock.Many Whenevermonks who a sickare believedperson or to their be experts relatives in centrate on meditation in order to attain spiritual ask them for medicine, the monks would go and provide them with fresh medicinal substances. It is from the palm-leaf manuscripts of Dhutangavatta (Lao:insights. thutangkhavat Meditation-practices - ທຸຕັງຄະວັດ can) (BAD-13-1-0058, also be studied (Lao: hak-ຮາກ), bark (Lao: püak-ເປືອກ), leaf (Lao: baibelieved-ໃບ that each plantdòk has-ດອກ specific), fruit (Lao: parts mak – i.e.,-ໝາກ root), some palm-leaf manuscripts of Dhutangavatta in seed (Lao: met-ເມັດ), etc. – that can be used for the hisBAD-13-1-0059). monk-cell it can As be Sathu said Nyaithat he Khamchan himself had stored ac- creation), flower of medicinal (Lao: substances. These substanc- tively practised meditation. es are believed to have no effect unless the plants have been picked at an auspicious moment. In other words, the time and means for picking the substanc- Monks and Health Service (2009, 21) states that: Traditionally, a number of Lao Buddhist sang- es considerably influence their behaviour. Tomecko ha members are very skilled in the use of various Great care goes into selection of the ingredients types of Lao traditional medicines. In ancient times, and the recipes are frequently kept secret. […] people who were confronted with health problems Harvesting must also be timed precisely. For ex- or diseases of their relatives turned to monks for ample, the moon is said to have an effect on the - medicinal potency of plants and the quality of ing all kinds of treatment. Furthermore, Buddhist their essential oils, so certain phases of the moon monkshelps. Monks– including were Lord the Buddha medical himself experts, – performhave had are selected for harvesting. experience in healing since Lord Buddha’s lifetime. Following Birnbaum, what the Buddhist texts say Some monks are unable to remember all plants on healing can be discussed from three points of and substances used for medical purposes. In re- view: (1) the cure of disease through healing agents sponse to this, a number of palm-leaf and paper (herbs and foods), surgery, and other physical manuscripts about the medical use of different means; (2) spiritual causes and the cure of diseases; herbs, plants and substances have been written and and (3) the healing process as a metaphor for spir- are kept in monastic manuscript collections. Some itual growth, with the Buddha named as Supreme monks-cell Physician and the Buddhist teachings termed the (BAD-13-1-0056, BAD-13-2-002, BAD-13-2-005). were found in Sathu Nyai Khamchan’s - interested in traditional medicine. At least it pro- ditionalKing of Medicines medicine. (BirnbaumThe reason 1997, why 1).monks are be- videsThis maycircumstantial indicate that evidence Sathu Nyaifor the Khamchan engagement was lievedMany to have supernatural better medical beliefs skills are part than of laypeople Lao tra of the Lao Buddhist sangha in health service. In fact, can be found in some of these beliefs. One example a number of Lao monks and nuns – especially those is the common belief in the healing powers of loving who regularly reside in forest monasteries – have kindness mettā). sīla) and con- been called mò ya, medicinal doctor. Tomecko un- samādhi) are prerequisites for the doubtedly states that “forest monasteries frequent- development(Pāli: of mettā. MoralityFurthermore, (Pāli: the purer the ly have a resident monk doctor who is responsible centrationmind, the easier (Pāli: it is to develop metta. for the preparation of pills and other traditional follow strict moral rules, laid down in the vinaya, medications. He might also include psychological and consistently purify their mind by Monksdeveloping who counseling or the use of sacred Buddhist chants to concentration, are therefore believed to have much heal the sick” (Tomecko 2009, 11). more mettā than ordinary people. It is believed that mettā can be projected to other beings. This helps that a practitioner of traditional medicine cannot in the healing of various diseases – especially psy- applyMost his importantly,knowledge unless a common he has local performed belief says the chosomatic sicknesses – and strengthens the body ceremony of paying respect to his teacher (Lao: tang in general. Therefore, monks would treat their pa- khai hian ao - ຕັ້ງຄາຍຮຽນເອົາ). Objects or offerings for tients with both, medicines and mettā (BAD-13- worship would be used in this ceremony depending 2-048). The Lao word mettatham (ເມດຕາທໍາ) was on the type of medicine needed to apply. In other selected to name a project which was launched in words, a lay person may know many types of medic- inal herbs from books or other sources, but without the proper performance of the ceremony of paying noviceslate 2001: and the nuns Metta in the Dhamma use of herbal Project, medicines supported for respect to one’s teacher (Lao: bò tang khai hian ao - theby UNICEF. treatment This of project HIV/AIDS. aims For at training this project, Lao monks, a vari- ບໍ່ຕັ້ງຄາຍຮຽນເອົາ), all medicine provided by this person ety of plants used to produce medicinal substances would have no effect. Psychologically, a practitioner

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 13 providing medicine without worship offerings (Lao: from the bottom part. This may relate to psycholog- khai - ຄາຍ) would not be accepted by the patient. It ical and ideological aspects of curing because of the is customary that the sick person provides the prac- meaning of the Lao words hua (head; top) and kon titioner with some objects used for the ceremony (bottom). This aspect, however, may be left for fur- of paying respect to the practitioner’s teacher (Lao: ther studies. busa khu - ບູຊາຄູ), candles (Lao: dòk mai thian khu - ດອກໄມ້ທຽນຄູ່). If not, the medicine he orat she least takes one might pair not of flowersprove to and be Monks and native beliefs as powerful as expected and the state of his or her illness would therefore not improve. As mentioned above, Lao Buddhism has exist- Talking about the ceremony of paying respect to ed side-by-side with pre-Buddhist animism and the teacher, an important information on the third groups, whether or not they claim to be Buddhists, Khamchan’s abode, BAD-13-2-005, clearly shows believeBrahmanic in a practices.rich supernatural Most Lao world. people When of all encoun ethnic- thatpage the of apractitioner leporello manuscript did not forget found to innote Sathu the Nyaidate tering serious problems in their lives, they may ask of the performance and his teacher’s name. It reads for the aid of a spiritual practitioner who is believed van 1 haem 13 kham düan 6 pi tao si […] tang khai sit to be able to protect them from many kinds of harm. ao ya viset nam hua phò thit […] ban lak kham vai pen Some senior monks, being respected because of mung khun […] “ວັນ ໑ ແຮມ ໑໓ ຄໍ່າ ເດືອນ ໖ ປີເຕົ່າສີ […] ຕັ້ງຄາຍ their seniority and devotion to the Buddhist teach- ສິດເອົາຢາວິເສດນໍາຫົວພໍ່ທິດ […] ບ້ານຫຼັກຄໍາໄວ້ເປັນມຸງຄຸນ [...]”. This ings, are believed to have supernatural powers. literally translates to: ‘On Sunday, the thirteenth Thus, it is not unusual that monks with good behav- waning day of the sixth lunar month, the year of Tao iour and knowledge of the Buddhist teachings are Si, […] performed the ceremony of paying respect to believed to have the spiritual power to eliminate - all kinds of evil (Lao: kamchat patpao sing bò di - lage of Lak Kham), [in order to be allowed to] learn ກໍາຈັດປັດເປົ່າສິ່ງບໍ່ດີ). withTeacher him Hua magical Phò medicines,Thit […] of [and Ban carryLak Kham them (aon] vil as Of the various non-Buddhist practices which are auspicious things […]’. This can be understood to in- deemed appropriate for monks to perform, we have dicate that the student (Lao: phu hian - ຜູ້ຮຽນ) did not to mention magic (Lao: khatha akhom - ຄາຖາອາຄົມ), only learn about medicines from his teacher, but he the removal of misfortune (Lao: kan sia khò sadò nam might have also learned secret words and/or magic. - ການເສຍເຄາະສະເດາະນາມ), the calculation of auspicious We can make this assumption because many tra- moments (Lao: kan lai lük lai nyam - ການໄລ່ລືກໄລ່ຍາມ), ditional medicines have often been used alongside and predictions (Lao: kan thamnai - ການທໍານາຍ). A with secret words. It is also said that medicine can- number of palm-leaf and paper manuscripts found not be fully effective unless the practitioner speaks an incantation on it (Lao: pao mon sai - ເປົ່າມົນໃສ່). aspects (BAD-13-1-0057, BAD-13-1-0062, BAD-13- This is another reason why monks are believed to be 1-0079,in Sathu BAD-13-1-0081,Nyai Khamchan’s BAD-13-2-047, cell are relevant BAD-13-2- to these better suited for applying Lao traditional medicine 056, BAD-13-2-057, BAD-13-2-058, BAD-13-2-069, than laypeople as they have developed a particular- etc.). All these manuscripts, whether or not they ly strong mind through their meditation practice. The magical words uttered by them are therefore also considered as more powerful (BAD-13-1-0080, were used by Sathu Nyai, should be recognised as BAD-13-1-0330). beneficial sources for further study. Apart from what has been discussed above, the CONCLUSION use of a variety of herbs should be presented in more detail. It is said that not every part of a plant, Buddhism was introduced into the Lao community - many centuries ago and played an important role nal component. For instance, the information on the i.e., flower, fruit, seed etc., can be used as a medici Buddhism then became very useful for the preser- a detailed description of how to use a ripe coconut vationin the unificationand development of the Lao of Laokingdom culture. of LanA monas Xang.- asfifty-first a medicine. pages It of reads BAD-13-2-005 mak phao provideshao tat thòng us with ao tery has always been an institution that provides thòng hua thim thòng kon khut laeo khua sai […] the community with basic as well as vocational kin “ໝາກພ້າວຫ້າວຕັດຖ່ອງ ເອົາຖ່ອງຫົວຖິ້ມຖ່ອງກົ້ນ ຂູດແລ້ວຂົ້ວໃສ່ education; a place to educate people to ensure that […] ກິນ”. Literal translation: ‘A ripe coconut [has to they live in accordance to their moral obligations be] cut into two parts. Take the top part and throw (Lao: mi sin tham - ມີສິນທໍາ), are kind-hearted and away the bottom part, scrape the nut [from its shell generous (Lao: mi metta kaluna lae üafüa phüaphae and] fry [it] with [… then,] eat [it]’. According to this - ມີເມດຕາກະລຸນາແລະເອື້ອ ເຟື້ອເຜື່ອແຜ່), and keep away from information, only one half of the whole ripe coco- a variety of evil deeds (Lao: lik ven chak kan katham nut can be used to produce medicine, whereas the bap - ຫຼີກເວັ້ນຈາກການກະທໍາບາບ). rest of the nut can be used as food. In other words, In Laos, two types of the Buddha’s disciples have the top part of a ripe coconut has effects different existed and lived alongside each other, i.e., monks,

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 9, 2014, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 14 novices and nuns live in a monastery, whereas the this, one of the obvious tasks of the monastic mem- laypeople reside in their own homes. They live in bers is that they help to solve the problems of the lay the same community or village (Ban). The former people through counselling. Tambiah (1970, 135) provide the latter with moral guidance. In turn, the furthermore states that “while the monastic mem- latter provide the former with food, clothes and res- bership and the village households are two distinct idence. The more a community develops, the more communities, they are formally linked through the new demands of the community become increasing- vat committee for the facilitation and regulation of ly challenging. The basic tasks of all disciples, laid their reciprocal communication.” down a long time ago, do not cover all these new In fact, the Buddhist monks of Luang Prabang and of Laos as a whole also help to provide various and the lay community aim to understand and help social services for the lay community. The Bud- eachdemands. other, Consequently,in order to preserve the monastic and propagate community Bud- dhist monasteries have an important role to play in the education of the young and even today there the main task of the Buddhist monastic community are Buddhist schools functioning alongside state isdhism, to preserve to keep and the practise religion Lordflourishing. Buddha’ In teachings. addition, schools. In addition, Buddhist monks and nuns help It is said that the Buddha himself had indicated that in the running of free clinics, orphanages, homes for the survival of the teachings depended upon the ex- the aged and the sick, and other welfare organisa- istence of the monastic community. tions. The monastic community of Luang Prabang – similar to that of other regions in Laos – still has an Contact: [email protected] important contribution to make to the welfare of the lay community and the society as a whole. For

REFERENCES

Archival sources

BAD-12-2-1978.002, BAD-12-2-1981.006, BAD-13-1-0079, BAD-13-1-0080, BAD-12-2-1982.002, BAD-12-2-1984.006, BAD-13-1-0081, BAD-13-1-0099, BAD-12-2-1984.009, BAD-12-2-1984.011, BAD-13-1-0107, BAD-13-1-0109, BAD-12-2-1984.013, BAD-12-2-1984.014, BAD-13-1-0110, BAD-13-1-0128, BAD-12-2-1984.015, BAD-12-2-1985.007, BAD-13-1-0206, BAD-13-1-0308, BAD-12-2-1986.003, BAD-12-2-1987.002, BAD-13-1-0309 BAD-13-1-0310, BAD-12-2-1987.010, BAD-12-2-1988.005. BAD-13-1-0330. BAD-13-1-0055, BAD-13-1-0056, BAD-13-2-002, BAD-13-2-005, BAD-13-2-047, BAD-13-1-0057, BAD-13-1-0058, BAD-13-2-048, BAD-13-2-056, BAD-13-2-057, BAD-13-1-0059, BAD-13-1-0062, BAD-13-2-058, BAD-13-2-069.

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