Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin,

Dr. P.M. Radhamany Professor Department of Botany University of Kerala, Karyavattom

Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Kerala

2019

File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018

Team of Experts with Relevant Background

Dr. P.M. Radhamany is currently working as Professor at the Department of Botany of University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. She has more than 30 years of research experience in the field of , phytochemistry and pharmacology, and teaching experience in the post graduate and M.Phil leavel. Dr. Radhamany has handled many research projects from state and central sectors. She has also guided six Ph.D and other eight doctoral students are aiming Ph.D under her mentorship. More than 40 resaerch publications, few book chapters, numerous conference papers are the other credentials of Dr. Radhamany. Besides that, she acts as the member in boards and panels of numerous academic and socio-cultural organizations.

Dr. Jose Mathew is Assisatant Professor, Department of Botany, Sanatana College, and consultant in CNERM, . He is the recipient of IDEA WILD grant and SERB N-PDF. He introduced 31 new taxa to plant science and made few rediscoveries and new distributional records of from Kerala part of . He wrote two scientific books, 30 research articles in scientific journals, 50 articles in popular magazines and presented 20 papers in national and international conferences.

Technical Assistance Dr. Valsala (Herbarium Curetor (Retd.), KUBH, University of Kerala) Dr. T.J. Roby Mrs. Remya Krishnan Mr. Sam Alex Miss. Arundhathi

Contents Page No.

1.1.1. Introduction 111

1.1. Riparian zones 1 1.2. Significance of riparian zones 1 1.3. Achankovil River 2 1.4. Need and significance of the study 5 1.5. Objectives of the study 7 222.2... RRReview Review of earlier works 202020 2.1. Flora 20 2.2. Endemic plants 21 2.3. Medicinal and economically important plants 22 2.4. Invasive plants 23 333.3. Methodology 252525 3.1. Categorization of the River Bed 25 3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora 25 3.3. Assessment of Conservation status 26 3.4. Surveying and mapping 26 3.5. Vegetation studies 27 3.6. Assessment of the flood impact 28 4.4.4. Results and Discussion 2229 2999 4.1. composition 29 4.1.1. Floristic analysis 29 4.1.1.1. Angiosperms 29 4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants 32 4.2. Rare and endemic species 56 4.3. Weed invasion in the study area 74 4.4. Effect of flood in biodiversity 88 4.5. Recommendations 92 References 94

Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

1.1.1. INTRODUCTION Riparian Ecosystem The word riparian is related to living in, or located on the bank of natural water coarse usually a river, sometime a lake or tide water. A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between the land and the river. Plant communities along the river margins are called riparian vegetation. In a tropical riparian ecosystem, the species composition is an assemblage of evergreen, deciduous, shola and riverine components. 1.1. Riparian Zones 1. CMZ: Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone). True hydrophytes can be seen here. Free floating, rooted free floating, submerged floating, rooted submerged and rooted emergent hydrophytes can be seen here. Woody debris and living vegetation provides shelter, feeding and spawning habitats for birds, fishes and invertebrates. 2. Core zone: Transition zone in between the water and land ecosystem. The vegetation can have both mesophytic and hydrophytic adaptations. Herbs and grasses are the dominant vegetation. Vegetation of this zone provides organic matter to the stream. This filter stream reduces the water temperature. 3. Inner zone: Herbs, shurbs and trees were found here and their roots act as a binding system for the soil and by doing so reduces bank collapse and erosion. 4. Outer zone: Flood plain. This stream side plants play a vital role for river health. Here plants perform a filtering function and prevent sediments and nutrients from entering the stream. Vegetation and leaf litter slow overland water runoff, thus helping to prevent erosion.

1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones Diversity and distribution of riparian plants influence the morphology and hydrological characters of the rivers and its aquatic functions by way off: • Acting as vegetative filter strips to filter the non-point source pollution. • Prevents soil erosion • Promote sediment deposition • Stabilize the stream banks • Manage floods

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• Maintaining water quality parameters • Provides habitats for wildlife and aquatic life form Studies on riverine ecosystem deserve special significance to explore much more hidden potential with multidisplenary relevance on sustainable development comprising climatology, agricultural and fishery management, aquatic bio resources, watershed and energy management, runoff, eutrophication and population ecology.

1.3. Achankovil River The Achankovil River drains the southern part of the Achankovil Forest Division. The Kallar River on the other hand drains the northern part of the tract finally joins the Achankovil River at Mukkada. The converged and swelled up Achankovil River continues its westward flow through the territory of Konni forests.

The Kallar River is the main tributary of Achankovil River This name is derived from the rocky character of its bed. It effectively drains the Kallar valley, through a net work of rills and rivulets. Numerous streamlets and rills flowing down from the western slope of the main ridge between Aruvithalamottai and Uranimottai, join together to form the Mangala Aar. During its westward course, many more brooks such as Vazhaperiyar, Manjapparathodu, Kooramalathodu and Naadukanithodu converge and the watercourse swells up and Kallar River begins to emerge. The Kanayar River that originates from the northern ridges flows in a southerly direction and converges with Kallar River at Kanayarmoozhi. The originating from the ridges near Kadamankunnu, drains the northwestern part of the valley, flows in a southerly direction, and converges with Kallar River at Pulikayam. Thenparathodu, Arambathodu and Muthuvanthodu that drain the northwestern part of the tract also join this River at the western boundary, making it a perennial watercourse of this tract. At Mukkada, on the western boundary, this River merges with Achankovil River.

Achankovil RiverRiver: : Its total length is 138 kms. Having an extend of 1340.400 sq.kms, the water shed area of this River spreads over 50 villages in , , and Alappuzha Districts. Its average annual sediment load is 77130 ton. The River emanates by the convergences of several streamlets flowing down from the slopes of Pasukkidaimettu, a ridge near Kottavasal (Elevation 700 m above MSL) on the western slope of the main ghats. During its westward course

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many more brooks from the northern side (Kumbavuruttythodu, Kalluruttythodu, Aruvikkarathodu, Kumbalamparathodu, Karadipparathodu) as well as the southern side of the valley (Pallikondan Aar, Muthalathodu, Chittarthodu etc) join the River. At Mukkada, it joins with Kallar River and continues its journey in the westwards to join finally with at . The river thereafter flows northward and falls into lake.

1.3.1. Topography of the basin: Like all the river basins in Kerala, the Achankovil basins also can be divided into three natural zones based on elevation, consisting of low land or sea-board, midland and high land. The coast for a short distance along the borders of lakes is flat, retreating from it the surface roughens up into slopes which gradually combine and swell into mountains on the east. The low land area along sea coast is generally swampy and liable to be flooded during monsoon inundation. The plains/midlands succeed low land in gentle ascents and valleys interspersed with isolated low hills. The high land on the eastern portion is broken by long spurs, dense forests, extensive ravines and tangled jungles. Towering above all their slopes are Western Ghats that form eastern boundary of the basins.

1.3.2. Geology of the basin: As per the Geological Survey of publication No. 30 the most prominent rock formation at the Achankovil site is of Archaean age Charnockites. The major rock types of this tract are Magmatitic Gneissic, Charnockite and Khondalite of Archaean complex. Quartz, Garnet, Hornblende, Feldspars and Black Mica are also found as constituents in these formations. These rocks have suffered intensive deformation like faulting and folding during the different phases of orogeny, most probably due to tectonic disturbances. The general foliation trend shows NW ‐ SE direction, with steep dip towards SW. The heavy rainfall and high temperature, causing alternate cycles of wetting and drying phenomena favour the process of laterization. The major soil types met with in this tract are Red loamy soil, Laterite soil, Alluvial soil, Sandy loam and Clayey soil.

1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: Generally, the climate in this area is moderately hot and humid. The low ‐lying area enjoys a healthy and fairly moderate climate, with not much appreciable variation in either seasonal or diurnal temperatures. However, the interior areas experience a little more climatic variations. The three distinct seasons noted in this tract are cold, hot and wet seasons. The hottest season is noted during February to May and the coldest from December to

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January. In the upland area the temperature declines towards elevated regions. Variations in the radiant energy of the sun with respect to seasons, cloudiness, altitudes, latitudes and diurnal changes were also noted. The temperature varies from 20° C to 36° C in the lower stretches and 17°C to 30 °C at higher altitudes. Mist is common on the higher slopes during November to January.

1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : Achankovil forests region get heavy rain showers from both south ‐west monsoon (June to mid ‐August) and north-east monsoon (mid ‐September to mid ‐November). Bulk of the precipitation is from the south ‐west monsoon. The average rainfall received during the last ten years is 2800.10 mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 131. Maximum rainfall is observed in June, July, and October and lowest during December, January and February months. The tract also receives pre ‐monsoon showers, preceded by thunderstorms, during April ‐May.

1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: There are two prevailing winds blow on in this tract, following the monsoons. From March ‐April onwards, the tract experiences a light wind which will gradually develop into south ‐west monsoon round about the beginning of June. Westerly winds that blow during the south ‐west monsoon are mild and harmless. But, the easterly winds in months of January and February are much violent and strong. They cause much havoc and damage to the forest crops growing on the hilltops. The desiccating effect of these winds cause much damage to the forests and may act as the driving force to spread the accidental forest fires.

1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone: The profound rainfall and bright sunshine cause a humid and warm climate. Humidity varies from 65 to 98 % in different localities in accordance with time and season. The highest relative humidity is noticed during the months of June, July, and August (south ‐west monsoon) and the lowest in February, when precipitation is kept minimum. General relative humidity is lower in the afternoon and highest during the early morning hours, when the atmospheric temperature will be the minimum.

1.3.7. Temperature: There is no observatory located with in the catchments of diversion points. However, there is an IMD observatory at Alleppey in the vicinity of these basins. The mean daily

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o o temperature observed at Alleppey various from 26.1 C to 29.1 C. During April, which can be

o taken as representative of summer months, the mean daily minimum temperature is about 25.5 C

o and mean daily maximum temperature is about 32.7 C. During July, which can be taken as

o representative of monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.3 C, while the

o mean daily maximum temperature is 28.8 C. During October, which can be taken as

o representative of post monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.8 C and the

o mean daily maximum temperature is 29.7 C.

1.4. Need and Significance of the study Most of the low lying areas in Achankovil River beds experienced severe floods especially , Panthalam, Cheruthana, Payippad, Chambakkulam and Veeyapuram. The basic cause of flood is the incidence of heavy monsoonal rainfall and the resultant large concentration of run- off, which exceeds river systems. Besides that, the heavy floods, landslides, soil erosion, depletion of slit and sand etc also affected the biodiversity, especially the riverine area. Elevation of water level, eutrophication, deforestation, stream narrowing, loss of stream ecosystem services, invasion of weeds are some of the factors that may lead to near extinction of a good number of endemic plants species. In this context, assessment of the effect of flood on flora of the fragile areas is the need of the hour. The impact of plant diversity on environmental and climatic dimensions are adequately represented by way of floristic and vegetation analysis and of the influence of anthropogenic activities, which address the needs and opportunities for eco-restoration and conservation of the plants and animal species, especially of the RET category with special reference to the biodiversity. In order to achieve the above mentioned objective and also to formulate suitable proposal for conservation of plant resources of the concerned study area, there is an urgent need to document precise information regarding the floristic composition, ecological status and spread biology of the plant species of riverine area. Some other significant factors about the study area • Achankovil River is one of the major tributary to the Vembanad Lake, which is the largest wetland (Ramsor site) in India.

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• (Rice bowl of Kerala) is the complement of the rivers viz., Pamba, Achankovil and Manimala Rivers. • The mangroves in the Vemband Lake are the brooding site of numerous indigenous/ endemic fishes, crustaceans and several animals. • Achankovil forest division (Achankovil River originate here), situated inside the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is one of the centres in the Western Ghats with a high percentage of endemism (Nayar, 1997). • It is one of the Heritage Sites in Western Ghats identified by UNESCO (Clara, 2012). • Achankovil Shear Zone (AKSZ) is considered as a continuum of Mozambique belt (Pan African origin) that extends from Madagascar to Sri Lanka (Rajesh et al., 1998). It is expected that floristic analysis of the study area would provide valuable evidences to validate the Indo- Sri Lankan botanical linkage hypothesis ( Bossuyt et al., 2004) • The River link project (RLP) proposed by National Water Development Authority (NWDA): Pamba- Achankovil- Vypaar, passes through the study area of Achankovil forest division. Three huge concrete dams, power generating units and a concrete tunnel across the Western Ghats to are proposed in this project. • High rate of rarity and endemism of the riparian vegetation along the River Achankovil and its tributaries. • Achankovil forest is listed under ecologically fringed land (EFL) in Kasthurirangan and Madav Gadgil committee reports. • Recent discovery of new genera and species from Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve area shows the importance of intensive floristic exploration (botanization) of the study area. • The evergreen catchment areas at the upper stretches of Achankovil River feed numerous irrigation projects. It also provides water coolent for NTPC, . • Numerous famous temples resides the shore of Achankovil. Myths and History of these lands merged with the River Achankovil. The river segment near is very famous for the boat race in connection with Celebrations of Kerala. • Flood and landslides happened in 2018, caused much havoc in biodiversity to these islands. • Fast invasion of weeds to this precious area have been also noticed.

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• Indigenous people of in and around the bounds of Vembanad Lake are dependent to the lake via., their belief, culture, myth and livelihood. Any disturbance to this unique ecosystem may lead to the extinction of the rich diversity of endemic species and the indigenous people.

Considering the above mentioned significant aspects of the study area, it is expected that the present floristic enumeration would bring out the importance of conservation priorities to be implemented to safeguard this highly fragile ecological region. It is also expected that the data generated would provide a guide line for future conservation studies.

1.5. Objectives of the study The major objectives of the present study are: • To prepare a database on riparian flora of the Achankovil River basin after the flood and assessment of the impact of flood and landslides on ripriane flora. • To assess the status of endemic, medicinal, economic and RET plants in the Achankovil River basin. • To assess the invasion of weed plants in the riparian zones • To suggest riparian buffer system management strategy for the conservation of Achankovil river basin.

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PLATE 2: Map showing the Rivers of south Kerala. Achankovil Forests and River marked in the map.

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PLATE 4: Map of Achankovil River. 3 zones of the study area marked

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PLATE 7: a.Thooval Mala, b. Kottavasal (Achankovil River originate here

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PLATE 8: a.Kaippattoor, b. , c. Venmony, d. Konathumoola, e.Kandiyoor, Thazhoorkadavu

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PLATE 9: a. Paayippad, b. Veeyapuram, c & d. Shargarakkavu, e. Mesthirikkana, f. Sanchyakkadavu

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Plate 10: Field study images

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PLATE 11: Field study images

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PLATE 12: Field study images

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2.2.2. REVIEW OF EARLIER WORKS

A brief review of literature with special reference to earlier works on flora, medicinal & economic importance, rarity & endemism and studies on invasive plants are presented below under appropriate heads.

2.1. Flora The European countries particularly Spain, UK, and Portugal showed keen interest in the plant wealth of India, especially from southern part of Western Ghats. Coloquis dos Simples (a checklist of medicinal plants of India) written by Garcia de Orta (1565) is considered as the first published Botanical work on the plants of Western Ghats. Realizing the importance of spices and medicinal plants of Malabar region, Hendrich Adrian Van Rheede (1636-1691), the then Dutch admiral of Malabar, took special interest to collect and document the plant wealth of Malabar area. He took strenuous effort to document the indigenous uses of plants with the help of local traditional vaidyans viz., Itti Achuthen, Appu Bhat, Ranga Bhat and Vinayaka Panditt. Detailed descriptions of 781 plants species with sketches, habit, habitat, medicinal and other uses were published in 12 volumes during 1678-1693.

Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis published in six volumes during the period 1838-1853, Illustrations of Indian Botany published in the year 1840 and the work in collaboration with Walker-Arnott (1834) viz., Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis are some important classical works on the flora of Peninsular India by Wight (1838-1853, 1840, 1834). The classical works of Beddome (1868-74, 1869-74) on angiosperm flora of India are: ‘Icons Plantarum Indiae Orientalis’ published during the period 1868-1874 and ‘The Flora Sylvatica for Southern India’ during the period 1869- 1874. The work of Roxburgh (1820, 1824), Flora Indica was a landmark towards the compilation of the flora of India. The seven volume work, ‘The Flora of British India’ by Hooker (1872-1897) dealt with the flora of erstwhile British India. It is followed by ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay’ by Cooke (1901-1908) and ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Madras’ by Gamble (1915-1936). The work of Gamble (1915-1936) is considered as the best among the regional floras. Meanwhile, the first comprehensive work on 582 indigenous trees of entitled The Forest Trees of Travancore, was published by Bourdillon (1908). Subsequent floristic works were done by Rao (1914), Lushington (1915), Fischer (1921) and Fyson(1932). The works

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin of Burkil (1965) entitled ‘The Chapters on the History of Botany in India’ and that of Joseph (1977) on ‘Floristic studies in India-with special reference to Southern Circle of Botanical Survey of India’ are the compilation of the contributions of various botanists. Many studies were undertaken on the regional floras by the initiative of Botanical Survey of India primarily with the objective of preparing a complete and comprehensive flora of India. The Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. Vol. I-III (Nair & Henry, 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1989) was published as part of aforementioned project. Subsequent works on regional floras of Kerala either completed or being completed are: Floristic studies of (Vivekananthan, 1981); The Flora of Calicut (Manilal & Sivarajan, 1982); Flora of Quilon District (Mohanan, 1984); Studies on the Flora of Division, Cannanore District (Ansari, 1985); Flora of Palghat (Subramanian et al., 1987); Flora of Silent Valley (Manilal, 1988); Flora of Cannanore (Ramachandran & Nair, 1988); Flora of District (Antony, 1989); Flora of District excluding Forests (Babu, 1990); Flora of Palghat (Vajrevelu, l990); Observations on the Aquatic Angiosperms of Malabar (Joseph, 1991); Flora of (Anil Kumar, 1993); Flora of Thiruvananthapuram (Mohanan & Henry, 1994); Flora of Forest Division (Subramaniyan, 1995); Flowering Plants of Forests (Sasidharan & Sivarajan, 1996); Flora of Nilambur (Sivarajan & Mathew, 1996); Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1997); Epiphytic Flora in the Tropical Ecosystem of Western Ghats (Muktesh, 1998); Tiger Reserve (Sasidharan, 1998); Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1999); Floristic Studies in (Pradeep, 2000); Studies on Flowering Plants Diversity of , Kerala (Sunil &Sivadasan, 2000), The flora of protected areas such as Agasthyamala (Mohanan & Sivadasan, 2002); Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 2002); Flowering Plants of Kerala (Sasidharan, 2004); Floristic Study of with special emphasis on conservation of rare and threatened Flowering Plants (Narayanan, 2009); Riverine flora of Pamba River Basin (George, 2013) and Flowering plants of Kerala (Sasidharan, 2013).

2.2. Endemic Plants Endemic taxa are essentially restricted to a specified geographical area. Tropical forests show a igh degree of species richness and endemism (Orians & Groom, 2005). Endemic plant species in India has been estimated as 33% with ca . 140 endemic genera but no endemic families (Sheeba & Narasimhan, 2013.). Out of 150 important botanical sites identified for conservation

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin action by the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC), five locations are in India including the Western Ghats (IUCN, 1987). The high percentage of endemism in the Western Ghats resembles oceanic islands (Subramanyam & Nayar, 1974). The species richness in the Western Ghats is due to varied latitudinal and altitudinal gradients with varied rainfall and temperature. These geographical peculiarities also favour a high degree of endemism. As Nayar (1996) rightly point out endemic species in peninsular region are paleoendemics that are found in hills of Peninsular India. Rarity is also considered as another natural phenomenon that arises by physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic intrusions. Many studies were done by earlier researchers to assess the rare and endemic angiosperms (Cooke, 1901 – 1908; Chatterjee, 1939, Chatterjee, 1940; Wherry, 1944; Henry et al., 1978; Rao, 1972, 1979; Jain & Sastry, 1980, 1982, 1984; Nayar, 1980, 1982; Bhaskar, 1981; Abraham & Mehrotra, 1982; Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1987; Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990; Vajravelu, 1987, 1988; Binojkumar & Balakrishnan, 1991; Ramesh et al., 1991; Bhattacharyya & Kumar, 1992; Sarkar, 1995; Nayar, 1996; Ramesh & Pascal, 1997; Ahmedullah, 2000; Gopalan & Henry, 2000; Sasidharan, 2004; Joshi & Janarthanam, 2004; Nayar et al., 2006; Krishnan & Davidar, 2007; Mitra & Mukherjee, 2007; Ramachandran et al., 2010. In a resent investigation, Sasidharan (2013) documented 5091 taxa of flowering plants from Kerala of which 1709 are listed under endemic category and 493 under rare and endangered category. Narayanan (2009) had enumerated 2034 plants from Wayanad District. Among them 596 plants are endemics (29 %) and 138 are facing various threats.

2.32.32.3.2.3 Medicinal and economically important plants In AD 77, Dioscorides documented 600 useful plants of Mediterranean in his classical work ‘De Materia Medica’ (Choudhary et al., 2008). In the 18 th century, Carolus Linnaeus, the Swedish biologist, who invented the modern system of botanical classification, travelled to Saamiland to study the Saami people. He lived with the people as a member of their tribe, wearing their clothes, sharing their food, and studying the plants they used. In the 19 th century, British explorer and ethnobotanist Richard Spruce spent 17 years in the Amazon and Andes regions of South America. He discovered hundreds of new plant species and conducted important research on plants used as hallucinogens for religious purposes by Amazonian tribes. Spruce also collected specimens of the cinchona tree that were later used to establish quinine plantations in . Richard Evans Schultes was an authority on useful plants viz., coca, palms and orchids.

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Since 1930 Schultes has conducted research among native American tribes in North, Central, and South America. His studies of the mushroom used by the Mazatec peoples of southern Mexico led to the development of the heart drug Visken (Schultes, 1976). As Sinha (1996) point out, there are many records of ethnobotanical uses of plants from Indian subcontinent such as for worship, medicine, food, fuel and for agriculture as mentioned in ancient Indian literature/religious texts viz., , , , , , Charakasamhitha (100 AD), Sushruthasamhitha (100-800 AD) and Dwanwanthari Nighanthu (1200 AD). Catalogue of Indian Medicinal Plants and Drugs (Fleming, 1810); Indigenous Drugs of India (Chopra, 1933); Indian Materia Medica (Nadkarni, 1955); Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Nayar et al., 1956); Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1981); Bibliography of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1984); A Manual of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1987); Ethnobotany in South Asia (Maheswari, 1996); Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1997); Ethno-Medico-Botany of the Southern Western Ghats of India (Henry et al., 1996); Indian Folk Medicines and other Plant-Based Products (Singh, 2007) have laid milestones in Indian Ethnobotany. Ethnobotanical studies on the indiagenous tribes with special reference to southern Western Ghats were reported by Ramachandran & Nair (1981); Pushpangadan & Atal (1984); Binu et al. (1992, 2011); Sivarajan & Balachandran (1994); Radhakrishnan et al. (1996); Sajeev & Sasidharan (1997); Jery & John (1999); Nayar et al. (1999); Balakrishnan et al. (2003); Nadankunjidam (2003); Ayyanar & Ignacimuthu (2005, 2013); Muraleedharan & Sasidharan (2005); Ramachandran & Vijayan (2006); Johncy & Francis, 2007a, 2007b; Ramachandran (2007); Yesodharan & Sujana (2007); Rasingam & Rehel (2009); Rajith & Ramachandran (2010); Binu (2010); Amuthavalluvan, 2011 ; Narayanan et al. (2011); Sasi et al. (2011); Ajesh et al. (2012a, 2012b); Diana (2013); Varghese et al. (2013); David (2014); Xavior et al. (2014).

2.4. Invasive Plants It is only in the last three or four decades that the focus of conservation in India has broadened to include not only species, but unique habitats and ecosystems. Invasive plant species in Indian protected areas have received relatively little attention. Only few studies were undertaken on the protected areas in India for which published information on invasive alien plants is available. Of which, most of the studies were concentrated only on Lantana camera , Chromolaena odorata and Prosopis juliflora . Studies in Kalakad Mundanturai Tiger Reserve (Chandrasekaran &

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Swamy , 2010); Protected forests of Anamalais (Joshi et al ., 2009); Greater Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (Babu & Leighton, 2004); North-eastern India (Gogoi, 2001); Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (Sahu & Singh, 2008; Shukla et al. , 2009); (Mahajan & Azeez, 2001; Ramaswami & Sukumar 2011); Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve (Murali & Setty, 2001; Sundaram & Hiremath, 2012; (Puyravaud et al., 1995; Prasad,2009; 2010; 2012); Melghat Tiger Reserve (Sawarkar,1984); Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (Giradkar & Yeragi, 2008); Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (Waite et al., 2009); Ranthambore National Park (Dayal, 2007); Corbett Tiger Reserve (Babu et al ., 2009; Love et al. , 2009); Rajaji National Park (Rishi, 2009; Kimothi & Dasari, 2010; Kimothi et al., 2010); Valley of Flowers National Park (Saberwal et al., 2000; Kala & Shrivastava, 2004); Mukurti National Park (Zarri et al., 2006; Srinivasan et al., 2007; Srinivasan, 2011); Kaziranga National Park (Vattakkavan et al. , 2005; Lahkar et al. , 2011); Orang National Park (Lahkar et al ., 2011); Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (Lahkar et al ., 2011); Manas National Park (Lahkar et al., 2011); Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (Lahkar e t al. ,2011); Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary (Lahkar et al .,2011); Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve (Bagla, 2008; Chandrasekaran et al ., 2008; Namboothri & Shankar 2010) were published and are considered as the relevant studies on the invasive plants species in India. Besides that, a comprehensive list of invasive species in India has been prepared by Reddy (2008). The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt.of India has also collected information on invasive species in India (www.apfisn.net). Sankaran & Suresh (2013) have given comprehensive information on invasive plants in the forests of Asia - Pacific.

In Kerala, only few studies on invasive plants in protected areas were carried out (Abraham & Abraham, 2005; Sajeev et al., 2012; Sankaran et al ., 2001; Sankaran and Srinivasan, 2001 and Chandrashekara, 1999). In addition to that, Handbook on Invasive plants of Kerala (Sankaran et al. , 2012) has been prepared.

Many studies on plant invasion have been undertaken by earlier researchers. However, a perusal of these literatures revealed that no in-depth studies on inventory and evaluation of spread ecology of the weeds in riparian zones in south Kerala. It is expected that the present investigation will provide additional information for conservation measures to be employed to protect the indigenous biodiversity.

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

3.3.3. METHDOLOGY

3.1. Categorization of the River Bed

The whole river bed categorized into three zones based on the elevation viz., Upper zone, Middle zone and Lower zone. Before the comprehensive study, a pre survey conducted in these zones.

Zone (Upper zoner: 150 - 1300 msl): Kallar, Kanyar, Kumbharuvatty, Manalar, Mukkada & Forest nursery Zone 2 (Middle Zone: 60-150 msl)-Thumpaman, Konathumoola, Sharngakkaavu, Venmony, Kallimel, Kandiyoor, Sanchayakkadavu & Mesthirikkaana Zone 3 (Lower zone 10 – 60 msl): Paayippad, Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, ValiyaPerumpuzha, Vaazhakoottam Kadavu & Naalukettum Kavala. A presurvey was conducted by the expert team to familiarize the location as well as to make a general assessment of the occurrence of the flowering plants so as to work out a field survey schedule.

Training to Research Associates The Research fellows were selected for the study possessed sufficient background for plant species identification, survey and collection of data. They were however given two week of intensive training for the identification of plant species and their mapping.

3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora Collection trips of duration 1- 3 days were conducted at regular intervals during 2018-2019 to different zone of Achankovil River beds. The specimens were collected in polythene bags to prevent desiccation. The field data with respect to habit, habitat, phenology, colour and morphology, of the collected specimens were noted in the field book. Phenological details were noted during subsequent visits. Photographs were taken using Canon EOS 500D, Coolpix S 210 and Canon Power Shot SX 260 HS. Two specimens of each species were collected from different locations to study the range of variations. Field data including height, colour and nature of bark, colour of latex/exudates, presence of buttress, odour and colour of vegetative and floral parts were recorded in the field book. Separate collections were made for both male and females. The

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin collected specimens were preserved using 70% methylated alcohol/ 5% solution of formaldehyde by wet method (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965). The herbarium specimens were prepared as per the standard specifications (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965; Bridson & Forman, 1991). The collected specimens were brought to lab, critically analyzed using WILD M3Z Leica Stereo 19 microscope and described. The specimens were provisionally identified by using pertinent literatures and cross-compared with authentic herbarium specimens of the Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Calicut University (CALI), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical Garden (TBGT) and CMS College, Kottayam. Selected specimens were compared with protologues. Type specimens were also consulted in few required cases.

3.3. Assessment of Conservation status Rarity: Conservation status (extinct, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and threatened) of the collected specimens has been evaluated using as per IUCN norms (IUCN, 2003, 2006, 2014) and pertinent literatures (Nayar 1980a, 1980b, 1982, Nair & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990; Sasidharan, 2013).

Endemics: Endemism and species richness are provided since these data have much significance in global prioritization for conservation efforts. A checklist of endemic plants and animals from the study area was prepared based on the earlier works (Rao, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 2010, Nair 1980a, 1980b; Sasidharan, 2013; and online repositories). The Status analysis of each specimen was done by cross comparison with the authentic herbarium specimens/pertinent literatures. Relevant information on distribution aspects (Asiatic, Indian, South Indian, Peninsular Indian, Western Ghats and southern Western Ghats) of endemic species were gathered from pertinent literature.

3.4. Surveying and mapping Detailed survey was conducted by going around the sites in boats and by entering the sites wherever possible. Actual counts of the plants species were also made using standard methods stated below. Location maps provided by water shed management used for the study. The plants could be mapped using latitude-longitude data collected using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

But there was severe limitation as dense swamp was limiting GPS usage. For each boundary, few reference points were also collected and checked to ensure accuracy.

3.5. Vegetation studies Spread ecology of vegetation conducted based on quadrate analayis. Qudrates of 20 x 20 m size which including different zones of the riparian beds viz, Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone), Core zone, Inner zone, Outer zone. This quadrate analayis used to assess the vicinity of the true riparian plants and the invasion of weeds. 10 quadtares from each zone were subjected for this investigation. The data collected from the quadartes were summarized through database and spreadsheet programs. Summary table were further processed to get pictograms, IVI tables, biodiversity indices, density, frequency, abundance, IVI (Importance Value Index) were calculated by using formulae:-

Density measures: i) Density (No. of individuals/ha)[D] = Number of Individuals encountered I x 10000 Total area sampled in m 2 ii) Relative Density ( RDi ) = Number of individuals belonging to species I x 100 Total number of individuals

iii) Percentage Frequency ( Fi ) = Number of plots in which Species i was present x 100 Total number of plots sampled Fi iv) Relative Frequency ( RFi ) =  Fi BAi v) Relative Basal Area (RBAi) = BP Where BAi = Sum of basal area of the trees belonging to species i BP = Sum of basal areas of all the trees in a plot Basal area of a tree = π r2 ; r = gbh/2 π vi) Importance Value Index ( IVI )

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[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

It is used to express dominance and ecological success of any species. IVI = Relative Density (RDi ) +Relative Frequency ( RFi ) +Relative Basal Area ( RBA i)

3.6. Assessment of the flood impact

Soil analysisanalysis: Changes in the soil analyzed by PH assessment. 10 samples from each zone were collected and assessed through general protocol.

Semi structured interviewinterview: Effect of flood in the islands were assessed by a series of interview. During the field trips, interviews were conducted with old men, fishermen and women in the riparian bounds of the Achankovil using a semi structured interview schedule (Annex.1). The information collected from them was cross checked with prior data inscripted.

Cross checking of secosecondaryndary datadata: An earnest attempt made by cross compared the collected data with secondary data such as Mohanan (1984), AnilKumar (1993),Sunil & Sivadasan (2009), and Mathew (2015).

Biodiversity lossloss: A close observation conducted on the bounds of Achankovil for the assessment of the biodiversity loss. soil erosion, landsliding, loss of plants in flood, invasion of weeds etc. examined in detail.

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

4.4.4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The floristic and phytosociol ogical studies conducted in three zones of Achankovil River Basin were subjected to systematic treatment and reasoning. The results emerged from the analysis are described here. 4.1. Species composition A detailed survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify the general status of the plants of riparian zones. The results obtained from the survey during the year 2018 -2019 are presented here. A comprehensive checklist with due emphasis on dominant families, endemism, threatened plants etc are given in separate sections.

4.1.1. Floristic analysis Floristic elements of the islands were collected and identified by taxonomical methods. Plants in the Ach ankovil River bounds were categorized and examined as flowering plants, pteridophytes and gymnosperms. 614 Angiosperms, 20 Pteridophytes and 2 Gymnosperm s were enumerated from the study area. Categorization of floristic elements presented below. 4.1.1.1. AAngiospermsngiosperms The floristic analysis resulted in the documentation of 614 flowering plants belonging to 549 genera of 130 families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens, majority of the species fall under herbs (5 6%) followed by trees (1 7%), shrubs (16 %) and climbers (11%).

11%

16% Herbs 56% Shrubs 17% Trees Climbers

FIG.1 ::: Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

As revealed from the study, Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division has 319 species coming under 276 genera. In the same manner, Middle Zone holds 345 species of 29 8 genera. In Lower Zone , its number is reduced to 305 species under 276 genera.

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Species 319 345 305 276 298 276

FFFIGFIGIGIG....2222.... Bar diagram shows the wealth of angiosperms in each zones of the Achankovil River Zones

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Fabace Poacea Euphor Acanth Astera Rubiac Morac Convol Orchid Scroph Cypera ae e biacea aceae ceae eae eae vulace aceae ulariac ceae e ae eae Series1 38 30 30 30 23 21 17 17 16 14 14

FIG. 3. Dominant families shown in the Diagram

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

Fabaceae, with 38 taxa is the largest family followed by Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae and (30 taxa from each family). bags third position with 23 representations. Rubiaceae with 21 taxa is coming next largest family. and Convoluvalaceae have 17 Euphorbiaceae representation. While Orchidaceae family has 16 elements, Cypreaceae and Scrophulariaceae shares 14 members. These 11 familes contributes 236 elements and which contributes 38% of the entire flora of the riparian zones.

Endemism and Rarity As revealed from the study, 104 elements in the Achankovil Riparian Zones are endemic to Peninsular India. Of which 20 taxa are facing various threats. Besides that, 125 Asiatic elements are also present here. 36 species among them are Indo-Sri Lankan elements.

Non indigenous taxa of the study area Out of 614 plants identified from the study area, 389 plant taxa are non indigenous including naturalized plants, alien/invasive plants, transformers and weeds. The flora of India as a whole has been enriched by the intrusive elements from other parts of Asia, Europe, tropical Africa, tropical America and (Mani, 1974). The non indigenous taxa of these zones exhibit a trend of affinity of Pantropical elements (96 spp.) > Tropical elements (74 spp.) > Paleotropic elements (56 spp.) > African elements ( 48 spp.) > American elements (42 spp.) > Australasia (27 spp.) > Orientals/Asia (21 spp.) > Cosmopolitan (19 spp.) > European (6 spp.). Most of the African- American species located in the study area are fast spreading weeds. Commelina benghalensis, Centotheca lappacea, Synedrella nodiflora and Spermacoce articularis are examples of African elements. Alternanthera brasiliana, Centrosema molle and Eleutheranthera ruderalis are American elements. Lantana camara, Mikania cordata, Mimosa diplotricha and Chromolaena odorata are fast spreading aggressive weeds observed in the study area. Medicinal Plants Medicinal and economically important plants in the river beds also enumerated. 107 plants of these areas are coming under this category (Table 1). Highly medicinals such as Piper

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

longum , Embelia tsjeriam-cottam, Cyclea peltata , Sida acuta, Asparagus racemosus, Salacia fruticosa etc. are the examples.

3% 1% 3% Indigenous 4% 7% Pantropicals 37% Tropicals 8% Paleotropics African 9% American Australasia 12% 16% Orientals/Asia Cosmopolitan European

Fig.4. Phytogeographic affinities of the flora of Achankovil Riparian zones

4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants 20 Pteridophytes coming under 1 8 genera of 10 families were enumerated from the study area. 12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical an d tropical components. And in the case of Gymnosperm, Gentum and Cycas are enlisted from the study ar ea.

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Table 1. PLANTS A.A.A. FLOWERING PLANTS Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status Medici - nals Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.) √ √ E 1 Alston 2 Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees √ √ 3 Asystasia dalzelliana Sant. √ √ √ Asystasia gangetica (L.) Anders. ssp. √ √ √ 4 gangetica Hook. f. Acanthaceae 5 Barleria courtallica Nees √ E 6 Dicliptera cuneata Nees √ 7 Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh. √ √ 8 Dipteracanthus prostrates (Poir.) Nees √ √ E 9 Eranthemum capense L. √ √ 10 Hygrophila ringens (L.) Steud √ √ √ Hygrophila schulli (Buch. -Ham.) M. R. & S. √ √ 11 M. Almeida 12 Hygrophila triflora (Roxb.) Fosb. & Sachet √ 13 Justicia betonica L. var. betonica Hook. f. √ √ 14 Justicia japonica Thunb. √ √ √ 15 Justicia procumbens L. √ Lepidagathis incurva Buch. -Ham. ex D.Don √ √ 16 var. incurva Manilal & Sivar. 17 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. √ √ 18 Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet. √ √ √ Pseuderanthemum malabaricum (Clarke) √ 19 Gamble 20 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz √ √ Ruellia tuberosa L. √ √ 21 22 Rungia apiculata Bedd. √ √ Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees √ 23 33

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees √ √ √ 24 25 Rungia repens (L.) Nees √ 26 Strobilanthes barbatus Nees √ E 27 Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees √ √ E 28 Strobilanthes lawsoni Gamble √ E 29 Strobilanthes luridus Wight √ E 30 mysorensis (Wight) Anders. √ 31 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae √ √ Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. Alangiaceae √ 32 hexapetalum (Lam.) Wang. 33 Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch. Alismataceae √ 34 Achyranthes aspera L. var. aspera Hook. f. √ √ √ √ 35 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. √ √ √ √ 36 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight √ 37 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss √ √ 38 Alternanthera brasiliana (L. ) Kuntze Amaranthaceae √ 39 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Grisb. √ √ 40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. √ √ √ 41 Amaranthus spinosus L. √ √ 42 Amaranthus viridis L. √ √ 43 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume √ √ √ √ 44 Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. Amaryllidaceae √ √ 45 Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. √ √ 46 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae √ √ 47 Buchanania lanceolata Wight √ √ VU Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. √ √ √ E 48 49 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr √ √ √ √ 50 Mangifera indica L. √ 51 Nothopegia aureo-fulva Bedd. ex Hook. f. √ E & CR 52 Semecarpus auriculata Bedd. √ 53 Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz √ √ 54 Annona glabra L. Annonaceae √

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55 Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair √ E 56 Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi √ √ E 57 Phaeanthus malabaricus Bedd. √ E 58 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. √ Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Hook.f. & √ √ 59 Thoms 60 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae √ √ √ √ 61 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br . Apocynaceae √ √ √ 62 Anodendron paniculatum (Roxb.) A. DC. √ 63 Cerbera odollam Gaertn. √ √ 64 Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston √ Holarrhena pubescens (Buch. -Ham.) Wall. √ √ 65 ex G. Don Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton √ √ 66 Parsonsia indoora (Lour.) M. R. & S. M. √ 67 Almeida 68 Rauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra √ E & EN √ Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex Wight √ E 69 Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. √ √ √ E √ 70 Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl. & Krause Aponogetona - √ 71 ceae 72 Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad. √ E 73 Anaphyllum wightii Schott √ E √ 74 Ariopsis peltata Nimmo √ 75 Arisaema leschenaultii Blume √ E 76 Caladium bicolor (Ait. ex Dryand.) Vent. √ 77 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott √ √ 78 Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. √ √ 79 Pistia stratiotes L. √ √ crassipedunculatus Sivad. & N. √ 80 Mohanan 81 Pothos scandens L √ √ √ √

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82 Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott √ Schefflera wallichiana (Wight & Arn.) Araliaceae √ 83 Harms Areca catechu L Arecaceae √ √ √ 84 85 Arenga wightii Griff. √ E & VU √ 86 Borassus flabellifer L. (Introduced) √ 87 Calamus thwaitesii Becc. √ 88 Caryota urens L. √ 89 Cocos nucifera L. √ √ √ 90 Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep √ E √ Aristolochia indica L. Aristalochiacea √ 91 e √ 92 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou √ √ 93 Asclepias curassavica L. √ 94 Ceropegia elegans Wall. Asclepiadaceae √ E Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. √ √ √ 95 96 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. √ 97 Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. √ √ 98 var. indica Manilal & Sivar √ √ Tylophora tetrapetala var. tetrapetala Sasidh. √ 99 & Sivar. 100 Wattakaka volubilis (L. f.) Stapf √ √ 101 Ageratum conyzoides L. √ Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce var. √ 102 spectabilis (DC.) Randeria Asteraceae 103 Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins. √ √ √ √ Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) √ 104 S.Moore 105 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. √ √ √ 106 Elephantopus scaber L. √ √ √ √ 107 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. √ √ √ √ 108 Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. √

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109 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. √ √ √ 110 Mikania micrantha Kunth √ √ √ 111 Phyllocephalum scabridum (DC.) Kirkman √ √ 112 Sphaeranthus africanus L. √ √ √ 113 Sphaeranthus indicus L. √ √ √ 114 Spilanthes ciliata HBK √ 115 Spilanthes radicans Jacq. √ 116 Struchium sparganophorum (L.) O. Ktze √ √ √ 117 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. √ 118 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray √ 119 Tridax procumbens (L.) L. √ √ √ 120 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. √ √ √ √ 121 Vernonia elliptica DC. √ √ 122 chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. √ √ √ 123 Wedelia trilobata (L.) A. S. Hitchc. √ 124 Xanthium indicum Koenig √ 125 Impatiens cordata Wight √ E Impatiens diversifolia B.Heyne Balsaminaceae √ √ E 126 ex Wight & Arn. Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. √ E & VU 127 128 Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. Begoniaceae √ VU 129 Begonia malabarica Lam. √ 130 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Bignoniaceae √ √ 131 Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schum. √ √ 132 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Bombacaceae √ 133 Cullenia exarillata Robyns √ 134 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae √ √ √ 135 Cordia cylindristachya Roem. & Schult. √ 136 Heliotropium indicum L √ √ 137 Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Brassicaceae √ 138 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern √ 139 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae √ √

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140 Burmannia coelestis D.Don Burmanniaceae √ √ 141 Cabomba caroliniana Gray Cabombaceae √ √ 142 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Campanulaceae √ 143 Capparis rheedei DC. √ E & VU 144 Cleome burmannii Wight & Arn. √ 145 Cleome monophylla L. Capparaceae √ √ 146 Cleome viscosa L. √ √ 147 Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC. √ √ 148 Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq. √ Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Caryophyllacea √ √ 149 Sehweinf. e 150 Euonymus dichotomus Heyne ex Roxb. √ E 151 wightianum Arn. √ √ 152 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae √ √ Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs. var . √ √ √ 153 gummi-gutta Mohanan 154 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Combretaceae √ √ 155 Quisqualis indica L. √ √ 156 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. √ √ Terminalia catappa L. √ √ √ 157 158 Belosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ E 159 Commelina benghalensis L. √ √ √ 160 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. √ 161 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet √ √ √ √ Commelinaceae 162 Dictyospermum montanum Wight √ E 163 Floscopa scandens Lour √ Murdannia crocea (Griff.) Faden √ 164 ssp. ochracea (Dalz.) Faden 165 Murdannia pauciflora (Wight) Brueck. √ 166 Murdannia vaginata (L.) Brueck √ 167 Connarus monocarpus L. Connaraceae √ √ 168 Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √

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169 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae √ √ 170 Cuscuta chinensis Lam. √ √ 171 Erycibe paniculata Roxb. √ √ 172 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. √ √ √ 173 Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh √ √ 174 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. √ √ 175 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet √ √ Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp . fistulosa (Mart. √ √ 176 ex Choisy) Austin 177 Ipomoea hederifolia L. √ √ Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Manitz, f . √ 178 marginata Babu Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. ssp. pes- √ 179 caprae Gamble 180 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker -Gawl. √ √ 181 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. √ 182 Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ 183 Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. √ √ 184 Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ √ 185 Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples √ 186 Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith Costaceae √ √ √ 187 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz Crassulaceae √ √ √ 188 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight √ √ √ 189 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae √ 190 Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. √ √ √ 191 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roem. √ √ 192 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi √ 193 Trichosanthes nervifolia L. √ √ √ 194 Bulbostylis barbata ssp . barbata Gamble Cyperaceae √ √ 195 Carex filicina Nees √ 196 Cyperus compactus Retz. √ 197 Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Sur. √ √ √ 198 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. √

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199 Cyperus javanicus Houtt. √ √ 200 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. √ √ Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl ssp. aestivalis √ √ 201 Hook. f. 202 Fimbristylis microcarya Muller √ 203 Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. √ √ Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. var . brevifolia; √ √ √ 204 Hook. f. Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R & G. Forst.) Dandy √ √ 205 ex Hutch. & Dalz. 206 Pycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees √ √ 207 Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye √ 208 Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. Dasticaceae √ √ 209 Acrotrema arnottianum Wight √ 210 Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. √ √ 211 Dioscorea bulbifera L. √ √ 212 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Dioscoreaceae √ √ 213 Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. √ E & VU √ 214 ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Dipterocarpa √ E & VU Ceae 215 Hopea parviflora Bedd. √ E & VU 216 Vateria indica L. √ √ E √ 217 Dracaena terniflora Roxb. Dracaenaceae √ Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult. & Schult. f. √ 218 Drosera indica L. Droseraceae √ 219 220 Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis Ebenaceae √ E 221 Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke √ Elaeocarpus serratus L. var. serratus Hook. Elaeocarpaceae √ √ √ 222 f. 223 Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. √ 224 Muntingia calabura L √ √ 225 Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud. Eriocaulaceae √ E 226 Eriocaulon sexangulare L. √

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227 Erythropalum scandens Blume Erythropalaceae √ 228 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae √ √ 229 Acalypha malabarica Muell. -Arg. √ 230 Agrostistachys indica Dalz. √ E 231 Antidesma acidum Retz. √ 232 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √ 233 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell. -Arg. √ E 234 Bischofia javanica Blume √ 235 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston √ √ Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume √ 236 237 Croton bonplandianus Baill. √ 238 Croton hirtus L'Herit. √ 239 Croton tiglium L. √ Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. var. lawianus √ E 240 (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. & Balakr. Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & √ 241 Hoffm. 242 Euphorbia heterophylla L. √ √ √ 243 Euphorbia hirta L. √ √ √ 244 Euphorbia rosea Retz. √ √ √ 245 Euphorbia thymifolia L. √ √ 246 Excoecaria agallocha L. √ Glochidion hohenackeri (Muell. -Arg.) √ E & VU Bedd. var. johnstonei (Hook. f.) Chakrab. & 247 Gangop. 248 Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. √ 249 Homonoia riparia Lour. √ 250 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell. -Arg √ √ √ 251 Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. √ √ 252 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Muell. -Arg √ √ √ 253 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. √ √ √ 254 Phyllanthus urinaria L. √ √

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255 Ricinus communis L. √ √ √ √ 256 Tragia involucrata L. √ √ 257 Trewia nudiflora L. √ 258 Bauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn., –Sub √ E 259 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Family: √ 260 Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. Caesalpiniaceae √ 261 Cassia fistula L. √ 262 Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene √ 263 Humboldtia vahliana Wight √ E & EN 264 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. √ √ 265 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link √ √ 266 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. √ √ √ 267 Tamarindus indica L. √ √ 268 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae: √ √ 269 Adenanthera pavonina L. Subfamily: √ 270 Entada rheedei Spreng. Mimosaceae √ 271 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit √ √ 272 Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle √ √ √ 273 Mimosa pudica L. √ √ √ 274 Racosperma auriculiforme (Benth. ) Pedley √ √ 275 Racosperma mangium (Willd.) Pedley √ 276 Aeschynomene aspera L. √ √ 277 Abrus precatorius L. √ √ √ 278 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Fabaceae: Sub. √ √ 279 var. vaginalis Hook. f. Family : √ 280 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Papilionaceae √ 281 Canavalia cathartica Thouars √ √ 282 Centrosema molle Benth. √ √ √ 283 Crotalaria verrucosa L. √ 284 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. √ √ √ 285 Derris trifoliata Lour. √ √ 286 Desmodium biarticulatum (L.) F.v. Muell. √ √

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287 Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. √ √ 288 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. √ √ 289 Indigofera longiracemosa Boiv. ex Baill. √ Kunstleria keralensis C.N. Mohanan & N.C. √ E 290 Nair 291 gigantea (Willd.) DC. √ 292 Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight √ E 293 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston √ √ 294 Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. √ √ 295 Vigna adenantha (Meyer) Marechal √ 296 Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Flacourtiaceae √ E Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch. -Ham.) √ √ √ E √ 297 Oken 298 Flagellaria indica L Flagellariaceae √ Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem. & Gentianaceae √ 299 Schult. 300 Exacum atropurpureum Bedd. √ E & VU 301 Aeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC. Gesneriaceae √ E 302 Didymocarpus humboldtiana Gard. √ Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. var. √ E & VU 303 hispida Clarke 304 Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt √ Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis (Andr.) √ Jessop Haemodoracde 305 ae 306 Hippocratea arnottiana Wight Hippocrataceae √ 307 Salacia fruticosa Wall. √ E √ 308 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitace √ √ 309 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. ae √ 310 Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara √ Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydrophyllacea √ 311 e 312 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae √ √ √

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313 Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. √ 314 Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer √ Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) √ 315 Mabb. 316 Wight & Arn. √ √ √ 317 Anisochilus carnosus (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth. √ Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae √ √ 318 319 Hyptis capitata Jacq. √ √ √ 320 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. √ √ √ 321 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link √ √ √ 322 Ocimum americanum L. √ Platostoma hispidum (L.) Paton √ 323 324 Pogostemon pubescens Benth. √ √ 325 Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. √ 326 Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr. Lauraceae √ E & VU Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) √ √ √ E √ 327 J.Presl 328 Litsea bourdillonii Gamble √ E & EN Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook. √ E 329 f. 330 Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisner) Gamble √ E 331 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. √ √ 332 Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. Lecythidaceae √ √ 333 Couroupita guianensis Aublet √ 334 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Leeaceae √ √ √ √ 335 Lemna perpusillaTorrey Lemnaceae √ 336 Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog & Plas √ 337 Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea √ 338 Utricularia striatula Smith e √ 339 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae √ √ √ √ 340 Gloriosa superba L. √ √ √ 341 Hugonia mystax L. Linaceae √

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342 Lobelia alsinoides Lam Lobeliaceae √ √ 343 Lobelia heyneana Schult. 344 Lobelia zeylanica L. √ 345 Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. Loganiaceae √ √ 346 Strychnos minor Dennst. √ √ 347 Strychnos nux-vomica L. √ √ √ 348 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh . Loranthaceae √ √ 349 Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser √ √ 350 Scurrula parasitica L. √ E Ammannia baccifera L. ssp. baccifera Lythraceae √ 351 Koehne 352 Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth √ Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight √ E 353

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 354 √ Lawsonia inermis L. 355 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne √ 356 357 Rotala macrandra Koehne √ E 358 Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. Malvaceae √ 359 Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff √ √ Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.var. rosa-sinensis √ √ 360 Hook. f. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. var . schizopetalus √ 361 Dyer 362 Hibiscus sabdariffa L. √ √ 363 Hibiscus surattensis L. √ √ √ 364 Sida acuta Burm. f. √ √ √ 365 Sida alnifolia L. √ √ √ 366 Sida cordifolia L. √ √ √

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367 Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming √ √ √ E 368 Talipariti tiliaceum (L.) Fryxell √ √ √ 369 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. √ √ √ 370 Urena lobata L. √ √ Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan Marantaceae √ 371 & Borchs. 372 Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Melastomatacea √ 373 Medinilla beddomei Clarke e √ E 374 Melastoma malabathricum L. √ √ √ Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & √ E 375 Arn. Memecylon randerianum SM & MR √ E 376 Almeida Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. √ √ 377 Sonerila grandiflora R. Br. ex Wight & Arn. √ 378 E & VU Sonerila rheedei Wight & Arn. √ E 379 380 Sonerila versicolor Wight √ E 381 Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A. Juss.) Benth. √ 382 Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms Meliaceae √ E & VU 383 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker √ 384 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. √ √ 385 Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms √ E 386 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. √ √ 387 Swietenia macrophylla King √ √ 388 (L.) Wight & Arn. Menispermacea √ √ √ Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & e √ √ √ 389 Thomson Tiliacora acuminata (Poir.) Miers ex √ √ √ 390 Hook.f. & Thoms. 391 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. √ √

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392 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) O. Ktze. Menyanthaceae √ √ 393 Nymphoides indica (L.) O.Ktze. √ √ 394 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. Molluginaceae √ √ 395 Mollugo pentaphylla L √ 396 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae √ √ √ 397 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam √ √ E Artocarpus incisus (Thunb.) L.f. √ 398 399 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. √ 400 Dorstenia indica Wall. ex Wight √ 401 arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. √ E Ficus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens √ √ 402 (Roth) Corner 403 Ficus heterophylla L.f. √ √ √ 404 Ficus hispida L. f. √ √ √ Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) √ E 405 Corner 406 Ficus pumila L. √ 407 Ficus racemosa L. √ √ √ 408 L. √ √ √ Ficus tinctoria G. Forst.ssp. parasitica (Koen. √ 409 ex Willd.) Corner 410 asper Lour. √ 411 Streblus taxoides (Heyne ex Roth) Kurz √ 412 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Moringaceae √ √ 413 Musa x paradisiaca L. Musaceae √ √ Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook.f. & Myristicaceae √ 414 Thoms.) Warb. Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.) √ E √ 415 Warb. 416 Ardisia littoralis Andr. Myrsinaceae √ 417 Embelia ribes Burm. f. √ √ 418 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) √ √

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DC. 419 Eugenia mooniana Wight Myrtaceae √ 420 Psidium guajava L. √ √ 421 Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston √ 422 Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston √ 423 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels √ √ 424 Syzygium malaccense (L) Merr. & Perry √ 425 Syzygium munronii (Wight) Chandrab. √ E 426 Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. √ √ 427 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae √ √ √ √ 428 Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Nymphaceae √ 429 Nymphaea pubescens Willd. √ 430 Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. √ 431 Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis Ochnaceae √ √ Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S. √ E Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. 432 Green 433 Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. √ 434 Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. √ 435 Jasminum flexile Vahl √ 436 Myxopyrum smilacifolium (Wall.) Blume √ √ 437 Olea dioica Roxb √ √ E 438 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara Onagraceae √ 439 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell √ √ 440 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven √ √ 441 Cansjera rheedei Gmel. Opiliaceae √ Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & Orchidaceae √ √ 442 McCann 443 Aerides ringens (Lindl.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ 444 Bulbophyllum tremulum Wight √ E 445 Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. √ 446 Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger √ E 447 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. √

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Dendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et. √ E 448 Yohannan Goodyera procera (Ker. -Gawl.) Hook. √ 449 450 Habenaria longicorniculata Graham √ E 451 Habenaria longicornu Lindl. √ E 452 Liparis viridiflora (Blume) Lindl. √ 453 Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann √ E 454 Seidenfia rheedei (Sw.) Szlach. √ 455 Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames √ 456 Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. √ 457 Zeuxine longilabris (Lindl.) Trimen √ √ √ Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Orobanchaceae √ E 458 Hook. f. 459 Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch Oxalidaceae √ √ √ √ 460 Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. √ √ 461 Oxalis corniculata L. √ √ √ 462 Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Pandanaceae √ 463 Passiflora foetida L. var. foetida Gamble Passifloraceae √ 464 Sesamum radiatum Schum. Pedaliaceae √ √ 465 Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. & Schult. Periplocaceae √ 466 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. √ √ √ √ 467 Rivina humilis L. Phytalocaceae √ √ 468 Lepianthes umbellata (L.) Rafin. Piperaceae √ 469 Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth √ E 470 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth √ √ √ 471 Piper longum L. √ √ 472 Piper nigrum L. √ √ 473 Piper velayudhani E.S.S.Kumar √ 474 Piper schmidtii Hook.f. √ E 475 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae √ √ √ E 476 Acroceras munroanum (Balansa) Henrard Poaceae √ √ E 477 Arundo donax L. √ √ √

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478 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. √ √ 479 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss √ √ √ 480 Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl. √ √ 481 Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. √ √ 482 Cenchrus echinatus L. √ 483 Chloris barbata Sw. √ √ 484 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. √ √ 485 Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ E 486 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. √ √ √ 487 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. √ √ 488 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler √ √ 489 Digitaria radicosa (Pers.) Miq. √ √ Diplachne fusca (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & √ √ 490 Schult. 491 Echinochloa frumentacea Link √ √ 492 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. √ √ 493 Ischaemum barbatum Retz. √ √ 494 Ischaemum muticum L. √ √ 495 Ischaemum timorense Kunth √ 496 Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. √ √ 497 Oplismenus composites (L.) P. Beauv. √ 498 Panicum notatum Retz. √ 499 Pennisetum pedicellatumTrin. √ 500 Perotis indica (L.) O. Ktze. √ 501 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. √ √ 502 Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vickery √ 503 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. √ √ 504 Saccharum spontaneum L. √ √ 505 Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf √ 506 Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara Polygonaceae √ √ 507 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez, √ √ 508 Persicaria pulchra (Blume) Sojak √ √ 509 Persicaria strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai √

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Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. √ 510 511 Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl √ 512 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulaceae √ √ √ Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Aschers √ √ 513 & Schweinf Potamogeton octandrus Poir. Potamogetonac √ 514 eae 515 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC Ranunculaceae √ √ √ 516 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae √ √ 517 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. √ √ 518 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae √ √ Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.) Rubiaceae √ √ 519 Alston 520 Canthium rheedei DC. √ √ E Chassalia curviflora var. ophioxyloides √ √ 521 (Wall.) Deb & B. 522 Dentella repens (L.) J. R. & G. Forst. √ √ 523 Ixora coccinea L. √ √ √ 524 Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. √ 525 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. √ E 526 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. √ E 527 Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. √ 528 Morinda citrifolia L. √ √ √ 529 Morinda umbellata L. √ 530 Morinda reticulata Gamble √ E & EN 531 Mussaenda frondosa L. √ √ E Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) √ √ E & VU 532 Ridsd. 533 Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K. Schum. √ √ 534 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. √ √ 535 Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. √

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536 Pavetta indica L. √ Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.) √ √ √ 537 Leroy 538 Spermacoce hispida L. √ √ 539 Spermacoce ocymoides Burm.f. √ 540 Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Rutaceae √ √ 541 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa √ √ Atalantia racemosa Wight var. bourdillonii √ E 542 K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar 543 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. √ √ √ Melicope lunu- ankenda (Gaertn.) √ 544 T.G. Hartley 545 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. √ √ Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson √ √ 546 547 Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb. Santalaceae √ E 548 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae √ √ √ 549 Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk. √ E 550 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. √ 551 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Sapotaceae √ 552 Isonandra lanceolata Wight √ √ 553 Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam √ 554 Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. Scrophulariacea √ 555 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell e √ √ √ 556 Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston √ 557 Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. √ √ √ 558 Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. √ 559 Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell √ 560 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston √ √ 561 Lindernia caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi √ 562 Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines √ √ 563 Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Mukerjee √ √ 564 Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small √

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565 Scoparia dulcis L. √ √ √ √ 566 Torenia bicolor Dalz. √ E 567 Torenia hirsuta Willd. √ √ E 568 Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston Simaroubaceae √ 569 Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Nooteb. √ √ √ √ 570 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae √ 571 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae √ √ 572 Datura stramonium L. √ 573 Physalis angulata L. √ √ √ 574 Solanum americanum Mill. √ 575 Solanum capsicoides All. √ 576 Solanum torvum Sw. √ 577 Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae √ √ √ 578 Melochia corchorifolia L. √ √ 579 Sterculia foetida L. √ √ 580 Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex G.Don √ 581 Sterculia villosa Roxb. √ 582 Waltheria indica L. √ √ Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore Symplocaceae √ √ 583 ssp. laurina (Retz.) Nooteb. 584 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae √ 585 Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi √ √ 586 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 587 Triumfetta annua L. √ 588 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq √ √ √ 589 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae √ √ 590 Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew Urticaceae √ √ Pilea microphylla (L.) √ √ √ 591 Liebm. 592 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. √ √ √ 593 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Verbenaceae √ √ √ 594 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. √ √ 595 Lantana camara L. √ √ √

53

596 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene √ √ 597 Premna serratifolia L. √ √ √ 598 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl √ √ 599 Tectona grandis L. f √ 600 Vitex pinnata L. √ √ 601 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. Violaceae √ √ 602 Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Vitaceae √ √ 603 Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. √ 604 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) A. Juss. ex Gagnep. √ 605 Cissus latifolia Lam √ √ 606 Cissus trilobata Lam. √ Xyris pauciflora Willd. Xyridaceae √ 607 608 Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.) Rosc. Zingiberaceae √ 609 Amomum muricatum Bedd. √ E 610 Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. √ 611 Curcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu √ E √ 612 Globba sessiliflora Sim. √ 613 Zingiber nimmonii Dalz. √ E 614 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. √ √ √ TOTAL 614 Species; 549 Genus F: 1 30 S: 319 S: 3 45 S: 305 S:104 S : 107 ( G: 276) (G:298) (G: 276)

B. PTERIDOPHYTES Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status 1. Adiantum capillus-veneris L Adiantacdeae √ √ √ 2. A diantum concinnum Humb. √ & Bonpl. ex Willd 3. Adiantum philippense L. √ √ 4. Asplenium crinicaule Hance Aspleniaceae √ 5. Asplenium te ne ru m G. Forst. √

54

6. Blechnum occidentale L. Blechnaceae √

7. Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd. √ √ 8. Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. Cyatheaceae √

9. Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. Lygodiaceae √ 10. Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae √ √ 11. Osmunda hugeliana C.Presl Osmundaceae √

12. Leptochilus decurrens Blume Polypodiaceae √ √ √ 13. Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. √ √ 14. Microsorum pteropus Blume √ √ √ 15. Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price √ √ √ 16. Acrostichum aureum L. Pteridaceae √ √ √ 17. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook & √ √ √ Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins 18. Vittaria elongata Sw. √ √ √ 19. Azolla pinnata R. Br. Salviniaceae √ 20. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch √ √ F: 101010 TOTAL S: 20 (G: 18) S: 12 (G: 11) S: 14 (G: 12) S: 13 (G: 12) S: 1

C. GYMNOSPERM Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status 1 Cycas circinalis L. Cycadaceae √ EN 2 Gnetum edule (Willd.) Blume Gnetaceae √ E F: 222 S :1 S :1 S:2 TOTAL S: 2 (G: 2) (G : 1) (G : 1)

55

Rare and Endemic species

4.2. Rare and Endemic Species Distribution : Southern Western Ghats Checkilist of rare and endemic species are Status : Endemic enlisted here. Fl. & Fr. : October-December

444...2.222.1..1. Rare and Endemic floweflowerrrringing plants 6.6.6. Strobilanthes lawsoni Gamble Habit : Shrub Family: Acanthaceae Habitat : Evergreen forests Distribution : Southern Western 1.1.1. Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.) Ghats Alston Status : Endemic Habit : Herb Fl. & Fr. : October-Decdember Habitat : Openings in 7.7.7. Strobilanthes luridus Wight evergreen and semi- Habit : Shrub evergreen forests Habitat : Evergreen and shoal Distribution : Western Ghats forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Southern Western Fl. & Fr. : July – September Ghats 2.2.2. Barleria courtallica Nees Status : Endemic Habit : Shrub Fl. & Fr. : October-April Habitat : Evergreen and semi- evergreen forests Family: Anacardiaceae Distribution : Western Ghats 1. Buchanania lanceolata Wight Status : Endemic Habit : Tree Fl. & Fr. : January – May Habitat : Semi-evergreen and 3.3.3. Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees evergreen forests, also Habit : Shrub in the plains Habitat : Degraded forest Distribution : and areas, also in the plains Status : Vulnerable Distribution : Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. : November- March Status : Endemic 2. Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F Fl. & Fr. : February – Habit : Tree November Habitat : Semi-evergreen and 4.4.4. Strobilanthes barbatus Nees Habit evergreen forests, also : Shrub in the plains Habitat : Evergreen forests Distribution : Southern Western Distribution : Western Ghats Ghats Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : September- Fl. & Fr. : December- July December 3. Nothopegia aureoaureo--fulva--fulva Bedd. ex 5.5.5. Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees Hook. f. Habit : Shrub Habit : Tree Habitat : Evergreen and semi- Habitat : Evergreen forests evergreen forests Distribution : Southern Western

56

Rare and Endemic species

Ghats sacred groves Status : Endemic & Critically Distribution : Southern Western Endangered Ghats Fl. & Fr. : December- July Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : September- January 3. Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. Family: Anonaceae Habit : Tree 1. Meiogyne pannosa (Dalzell) J. Sinclair Habitat : Moist deciduous Habit : Tree forests, also in sacred Habitat : Evergreen forests groves Distribution : Western Ghats Distribution : Southern Western Status : Endemic Ghats Fl. &Fr : Throughout the year Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : April- October 2. Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi Habit : Shrub Family : AraceaAraceaeeee Habitat : Evergreen forests 1. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad. Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats Habitat : Evergreen forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. : January- August Status : Endemic 3. Phaeanthus malabaricus Bedd. Fl. & Fr. : May - September Habit : Shrub. Habitat : Evergreen forests 2. Anaphyllum wightii Schott Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats (Kerala) Habitat : Evergreen and semi- Status : Endemic evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year Distribution : Southern Western Ghats Family : Apocynaceae Status : Endemic 1. Rauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra Fl. & Fr. : January - February 3. Arisaema leschenaultii Blume Habit : Shrub Habit :Herb Habitat : Evergreen and semi- Habitat :Margins of evergreen evergreen forests forests, sholas and Distribution : Southern Western grasslands Ghats Distriution :Southern Western Status : Endemic & Ghats Endangered Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :January- June Fl. & Fr . : July - September 2. Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex Wight Family ::ArecaceaeArecaceae Habit : Climber 1.1.1. Arenga wightii Griff. Habitat : Evergreen and semi- Habit : Tree evergreen forests and Habitat :Evergreen forests

57

Rare and Endemic species

Distribution :Western Ghats Distribution :Southern Western Status : Endemic & Ghats Vulnerable Fl. & Fr. :July - September 3.3.3. Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. Habit :Herb Family : Aristalochiaceae Habitat :Grasslands 1.1.1. Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Distribution : Southern Western Pradeep Ghats Habit :Climber Status : Endemic & Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Vulnerable evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : November- January Distribution :Southern Western Ghats (Kerala) Family : Begoniaceae Status :Endemic 1.1.1. Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year Habit : Herb Habitat : Evergreen forests Family : Asclepiadaceae Distribution : Peninsular India 1. Ceropegia elegans Wall. Status : Endemic Habit : Climber Fl. & Fr. : July- August Habitat : Deciduous forests Status : Vulnerable Distribution : Peninsular India Fl. & Fr. : January- November Status :Endemic Fl. & Fr. :March- April Family : Capparaceae Family : Balsaminaceae 1. Capparis rheedei DC. 1.1.1. Impatiens cordata Wight Habit : Shrub Habit :Herb Habitat : Evergreen forests Habitat : Near water courses Distribution : Western Ghats in evergreen forests Status : Endemic & Distribution : Southern Western Vulnerable Ghats Fl. & Fr. : September - March Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : December- March Family : Celastraceae December 1. Euonymus dichotomus Heyne ex 2.2.2. Impatiens diversifolia B.Heyne ex Roxb. Wight & Arn. Habit : Shrub Habit : Herb Habitat : Evergreen forests Habitat : Damp, moist areas Distribution : Western Ghats Distribution : Western Ghats Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : September - March Fl. & Fr. : June- November Family : Bombacaceae Family : Commelinaceae 1.1.1. Cullenia exarillata Robyns 1.1.1. Belosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C. Habit :Tree Fisch Habitat :Evergreen forests Habit : Herb

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Rare and Endemic species

Habitat : Evergreen forests Ghats Distribution : Western Ghats Status : Endemic & Status : Endemic & Vulnerable Vulnerable Fl. & Fr. :January- June Fl. & Fr. : August - December 4. Vateria indica L. 2.2.2. Dictyospermum montanum Wight Habit :Tree Habit :Herb Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Habitat : Evergreen and semi- evergreen forests, also evergreen forests in the plains Distribution :Peninsular India Distribution :Western Ghats Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : July- October Fl. & Fr. :March- August

Family : Ebenaceae Family : 1. Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis 1. Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. Habit :Tree Habit :Tree Habitat :Evergreen forests Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Distribution :Southern Western evergreen Ghats forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Southern Western Fl. & Fr. : March- December Ghats Status : Endemic & Family : Eriocaulaceae Vulnerable 1. Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud. Fl. & Fr. : January- June Habit : Herb 2. Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Habitat : Marshy grasslands Habit :Tree Distribution : Southern Western Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Ghats evergreen Status : Endemic forests, along in the Fl. & Fr. : November- January plains in sacred groves Distribution :Southern Western Family : Euphorbiaceae Ghats 1.1.1. Agrostistachys indica Dalzell Status : Endemic & Habit : Shrub Vulnerable Habitat : Evergreen and shola Fl. & Fr. :March- June forests Distribution : Central and 3. Hopea parviflora Bedd. Peninsular India Habit :Tree Status : Endemic Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Fl. & Fr. : February- March evergreen 2.2.2. Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) forests, along in the Muell.-Arg. plains in sacred groves Habit : Tree Distribution :Southern Western Habitat : Evergreen and semi-

59

Rare and Endemic species

evergreen forests Status : Endemic & ` Distribution : Peninsular India Endangered Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : October- March Fl. & Fr. : January- June 3.3.3. Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. var. Sub Family : Papilionaceae lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. & 1.1.1. Kunstleria keralensis C.N.Mohanan Balakr. & N.C.Nair Habit : Tree Habit :Climber Habitat :Evergreen forests Habitat : Evergreen and Distribution :Peninsular India semi- evergreen Status : Endemic & forests, also in Vulnerable sacred groves Fl. & Fr. : December- Distribution : Southern Western September 4.4.4. Glochidion hohenackeri (Muell.- Ghats (Kerala Arg.) Bedd. var. johnstonei (Hook. Status : Vulnerable Fl. & Fr. : April- June f.) Chakrab. & Gangop. Habit : Tree 2.2.2. Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight Habitat :Semi-evergreen and Habit :Climber evergreen forests Habitat : Moist deciduous and Distribution :Southern Western semi-evergreen forests, Ghats also in the plains Status :Endemic Distribution : Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. : April- November Status : Endemic evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : September- Distribution : Western Ghats December Status : Endemic Family: Flacourtiaceae Fl. & Fr. : October- March 1. Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Habit : Tree Family : Fabaceae Habitat : Evergreen and Sub Family : Caesalpiniaceae semi-evergreen

1. Bauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn. forests Habit :Climber Distribution : India Habitat :Evergreen and semi- Status : Endemic evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : April- June Distribution :Western Ghats 2. Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Status : Endemic Oken Fl. & Fr. : December- April 2. Humboldtia vahliana Wight Habit : Tree Habit : Shrub Habitat : Semi-evergreen Habitat : Evergreen forests and moist Distribution : Southern Western deciduous forests, Ghats also in the plains Distribution : Western Ghats

60

Rare and Endemic species

Status : Endemic Family: Lauraceae Fl. & Fr. : December- May 1. Actinodaphne bourdillonii Gamble Habit : Tree Family: Gentianaceae Habitat : Shola and 1.1.1. Exacum atropurpureum Bedd. evergreen forests Habit : Herb Distribution : Southern Western Habitat : Grasslands and Ghats scrub jungles in Status : Endemic & laterite hillocks Vulnerable Distribution : Peninsular India Fl. & Fr. : April- March Status : Endemic & 2. Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Vulnerable J.Presl Fl. & Fr. : November- Habit : Tree January Habitat : Evergreen and semi-evergreen Family: Gesneriaceae forests, also in the 1.1.1. Aeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC. plains Habit : Shrub Distribution : Southern Western Habitat :Evergreen and Ghats shola forests Status : Endemic Distribution :Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. :March- April Status : Endemic 3. Litsea bourdillonii Gamble Fl. & Fr. : November- January Habit :Tree 2.2.2. Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. Habitat : Evergreen forests var. hispida Clarke Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats Habitat : On wet rocks in Status : Endemic & grasslands Vulnerable Distribution : Peninsular India Fl. & Fr. : December- May Status : Endemic & 4. Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Vulnerable Hook. f. Fl. & Fr. : May- October Habit : Tree Habitat : Semi-evergreen Family: Hippocrataceae forests and sacred

1.1.1. Salacia fruticosa Wall. groves Habit : Climber Distribution : Peninsular India Habitat : Evergreen and Status : Endemic semi-evergreen Fl. & Fr. : December- January forests, also in the 5. Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisner) sacred Gamble groves and plains Habit : Tree Distribution : Western Ghats Habitat : Evergreen and Status : Endemic shola forests Fl. & Fr. : February- May Distribution : Southern Western

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Rare and Endemic species

Ghats 1.1.1. Medinilla beddomei C.B.Clarke Status : Endemic Habit : Shrub Fl. & Fr. :January- May Habitat : Moist deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests Family: Loranthaceae Distribution : Southern Western 1. Scurrula parasitica L. Ghats Habit : Epiphytic herb Status : Endemic Habitat : Evergreen and Fl. & Fr. : May- June moist deciduous 2.2.2. Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex forests, also in the Wight & Arn. plains Habit : Shrub Distribution :Western Ghats Habitat : Evergreen forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Southern Western Fl. & Fr. : December - March Ghats Status : Endemic Family: Lythraceae Fl. & Fr. :March- June 1.1.1. Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 3.3.3. Memecylon randerianum SM & MR Habit : Tree Almeida Habitat : Moist deciduous Habit : Shrub forests, also in the Habitat : Evergreen and plains semi-evergreen Distribution : Western Ghats forests, and also in Status : Endemic sacred groves Fl. & Fr. : June - February Distribution : Southern Western 2.2.2. Rotala macrandra Koehne Ghats Habit : Herb Status : Endemic Habitat : Marshy areas and Fl. & Fr. :February- May ponds 4.4.4. Sonerila grandiflora R. Br. ex Wight Distribution : Southern Western & Arn. Ghats Habit : Herb Status : Endemic Habitat : Evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : September- Distribution : Southern Western December Ghats Status : Endemic & Family: Malvaceae Vulnnerable 1. Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming Fl. & Fr. : November- Habit : Shrub December Habitat : Wastelands 5.5.5. Sonerila rheedei Wall Distribution : Peninsular India Habit : Herb Status : Endemic Habitat : Evergreen and Fl. & Fr. : July- September semi-evergreen forests Family: Melastomataceae Distribution : Southern Western

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Rare and Endemic species

Ghats Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : August- April Fl. & Fr. : July- August 3.3.3. Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa 6.6.6. Sonerila versicolor Wight (Miq.) Corner Habit :Herb Habit : Climber Habitat :Evergreen forests Habitat :Evergreen and Distribution :Southern Western shola forests Ghats Distribution : Southern Western Status : Endemic & Ghats Vulnerable Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :August- November Fl. & Fr. : August- April

Family: Meliaceae Family: Myristicaceae 1.1.1. Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms 1.1.1. Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Habit : Shrub War Habitat : Evergreen forests Habit : Tree Distribution : Indo-Malesia Habitat :Evergreen and Status : Vulnerable semi-evergreen Fl. & Fr. : November- June forests 2.2.2. Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms Distribution :Western Ghats Habit :Herb Status : Endemic Habitat :Evergreen forests Fl. & Fr. : December- June Distribution :Southern Western Ghats Status : Endemic Family: Myrtaceae Fl. & Fr. :August- November 1.1.1. Syzygium munronii (Wight) N.P.Balakr. Family: Moraceae Habit : Shrub 1.1.1. Artocarpus hirsutus Lam Habitat :Evergreen forests Habit : Tree Distribution :Western Ghats Habitat : Semi-evergreen Status : Endemic and moist Fl. & Fr. : December- May deciduous forests, also in the plains Family: Oleaceae Distribution : Southern Western 1. Chionanthus malamala--elengi--elengi (Dennst.) P. Ghats S. Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. Status : Endemic Habit : Tree Fl. & Fr. : December- March Habitat : Semi-evergreen, 2.2.2. Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. evergreen and shola Habit : Tree forests Habitat : Evergreen and Distribution : Southern Western shola forests Ghats Distribution : Southern Western Status : Endemic & Ghats Endangered Fl. & Fr. : January- May

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Rare and Endemic species

Habitat :Grasslands and 2. Olea dioica Roxb moist deciduous Habit : Tree forests Habitat :Semi-evergreen and Distribution :Peninsular India moist deciduous Status : Endemic forests, also in the Fl. & Fr. : September- plains October Distribution :India 6.6.6. Habenaria perrottetiana A. Rich Status : Endemic Habit : Herb Fl. & Fr. : November- April Habitat :Grasslands Distribution :South India Family: Orchidaceae Status : Endemic 1.1.1. Bulbophyllum tremulum Wight Fl. & Fr. :September- Habit : Herb October Habitat :Semi-evergreen and 7.7.7. Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann evergreen forests Habit : Herb Distribution : Western Ghats Habitat :Evergreen forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Southern Western Fl. & Fr. : June- September Ghats 2.2.2. Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Status : Endemic Brieger Fl. & Fr. :April- January Habit : Herb Habitat :Evergreen forests Family: Orobanchaceae Distribution :Western Ghats 1.1.1. Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. Status : Endemic ex Hook. f Fl. & Fr. :September- Habit : Herb December Habitat : Evergreen and 3.3.3. Dendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et. shola forests Yohannan Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats Habitat :Evergreen forests Status : Endemic Distribution :Peninsular India Fl. & Fr. :: July- August Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :July- August Family: Piperaceae 4.4.4. Habenaria longicorniculata J.Graham 1. Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth Habit : Herb Habit : Herb Habitat :Grasslands and Habitat : Moist deciduous, moist deciduous semi-evergreen and forests evergreen forests Distribution :Western Ghats Distribution : Peninsular India Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :July- August Fl. & Fr. : July- December 5.5.5. Habenaria longicornu Lindl. 2. Piper schmidtii Hook.f. Habit : Herb Habit : Climber

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Rare and Endemic species

Habitat : Semi-evergreen Habit : Shrub and evergreen Habitat : Evergreen and forests shola forests Distribution : Southern Western Distribution : Southern Western Ghats Ghats Status : Endemic Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : December- March Fl. & Fr. : November- March 2.2.2. Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. Family: Polygalaceae Habit : Shrub 1. Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Habitat : Semi-evergreen Habit : Tree `forests and sacred Habitat : Evergreen and groves semi-evergreen Distribution : Western Ghats forests, also sacred Status : Endemic groves in the plains Fl. & Fr. : January- May Distribution : Western Ghats Status : Endemic 3.3.3. Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the Habit : Shrub year Habitat : Semi-evergreen and moist Family: Poaceae deciduous forests 1.1.1. Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.) and sacred groves C.E.C.Fisch. Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats Habitat : Grasslands Status : Endemic & Distribution : Peninsular India Vulnerable Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :October- March Fl. & Fr. : October- January 4.4.4. Morinda reticulata Gamble Habit : Climber Family: Rubiaceae Habitat : Semi-evergreen 1. Canthium rheedei DC. forests Habit : shrub Distribution : Peninsular India Habitat : Rocky areas in Status : Endemic & semi-evergreen and Endangered moist deciduous Fl. & Fr. : April- May forests, 5.5.5. Mussaenda frondosa L. also in sacred Habit : Shrub groves Habitat : Moist deciduous Distribution : Southern Western and semi- Ghats evergreen forests, Status : Endemic also in the plains Fl. & Fr. : March- August Distribution : Peninsular India 1.1.1. Hedyotis leschenaultiana DC. var. Status : Endemic leschenaultiana Deb & Dutta Fl. & Fr. : September- March

65

Rare and Endemic species

6.6.6. Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsd. Habit : Tree Family: Sapotaceae Habitat : Riverine forests 1. Palaquium ellipticum (Dalzell) Baill. Distribution : Western Ghats Habit : Tree Status : Endemic & Habitat : Evergreen forests Vulnerable Distribution : Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. : August- January Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : February- Family: Rutaceae July 1. Atalantia racemosa Wight var. bourdillonii K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar Family: Scrophulariaceae Habit : Shrub 1. Torenia bicolor Dalz. Habitat : Evergreen and Habit : Herb semi-evergreen Habitat : Marshy areas forests Distribution : Western Ghats Distribution : Southern Western Status : Endemic Ghats Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year Status : Endemic 2. Torenia hirsuta Willd Fl. & Fr. : January- April Habit : Herb Habitat : Marshy areas Family: SaSaSantalaceaeSa ntalaceae Distribution : Southern Western 1.1.1. Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Ghats Mabb. Status : Endemic Habit : Tree Fl. & Fr. : February-March Habitat : Evergreen and semi-evergreen Family: Zingiberaceae forests 1. Amomum muricatum Bedd. Distribution : Southern Western Habit : Herb Ghats Habitat : Evergreen forests Status : Endemic Distribution : Western Ghats Fl. & Fr. : February- July Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. : March- May Family: Sapindaceae 2. Curcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu 1.1.1. Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Habit : Herb Radlk. Habitat : Grasslands Habit : Tree Distribution : Western Ghats Habitat : Evergreen and Status : Endemic semi-evergreen Fl. & Fr. : April -October forests 3. Zingiber nimmonii (J.Graham) Distribution : Southern Western Dalzell Ghats Habit : Herb Status : Endemic Habitat : Moist deciduous Fl. & Fr. : February- July forests, also in the

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Rare and Endemic species

plains Distribution : Western Ghats Status : Endemic Fl. & Fr. :July- October

4.2.2.4.2.2.GymnospermGymnospermGymnospermssss

Family :Cycadaceae 1. Cycas circinalis L. Habitat :Wastelands and moist deciduous forests Distribution : Southern India Status : Endangered

Family :Gnetaceae 1. Gnetum edule (Willd.)Blume Habitat :Evergreen and semi- evergreen forests, also in sacred groves in the plains Distribution : Peninsular India Status : Endemic

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 13: a. Homonoia riparia Lour., b. Begonia malabarica Lam., c. Aerides ringens (Lindl.) C.E.C. Fisch., d. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham, e. Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep, f. Humboldtia vahliana Wight

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 14: a. Habenaria longicornu Lindl., b. Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook., c. Helicteres isora L., d. Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Corner, e. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br., f. Impatiens cordata Wight

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 15: a. Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi, b. Zingiber nimmonii Dalz., c. Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. , d. Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight , e. Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms , f. Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S. Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. Green

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 16: a. Lophopetalum wightianum Arn., b. Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann, c. Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f., d. Strobilanthes luridus Wight, e. Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida, f. Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 17: a. Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & Arn., b. Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, c. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook & Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins, d. Barleria courtallica Nees, e. Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger, f. Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC.

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

PLATE 18: a. Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr.., b. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad., c. Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch., d. Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis, e. Gnetum edule (Willd.) Blume, f. Anaphyllum wightii Schott

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

4.3. Weed invasion in the study area A survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify the general status of the weed invasion in the riverbeds of Achankovil. The results obtained from the survey during the year 2018-2019 are presented here.

4.3.1. Invasive weeds Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the riverine bounds viz., Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Camonea vitifolia, , Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin.

4.3.1.1. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Synm. Chromolaena barranquillensis ; Chromolaena odorata f. odorata ; Chromolaena odorata f. squarrosa ; Chrysocoma maculata ; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Eupatorium affine ; Eupatorium atriplicifolium ; Eupatorium barranquillense ; Eupatorium brachiatum ; Eupatorium conyzoides ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. incanum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. phyllocephalum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. scaberulum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. tambillense ; Eupatorium dichotomum ; Eupatorium divergens ; Eupatorium floribundum ; Eupatorium graciliflorum ; Eupatorium klattii ; Eupatorium odoratum ; Eupatorium odoratum var. brachiatum ; Eupatorium odoratum var. cubense ; Eupatorium odoratum var. mallotophyllum ; Eupatorium odoratum var. pauciflorum ; Eupatorium sabeanum ; Eupatorium stigmatosum ; Osmia atriplicifolia ; Osmia conyzoides ; Osmia divergens ; Osmia floribunda ; Osmia graciliflora ; Osmia odorata . Common NameName: Siam weed, bush, devil weed, camphor grass, common floss flower, communist green a nd triffid. Communist pacha () Family: Asteraceae Distribution: Chromolaena odorata is native to the Caribbean and Latin America. It has been introduced to tropical Asia, west Africa, and parts of Australia. Kerala: All Kerala Description: HHHerbs,H dense tangled bushes to 1.5-3.0 m in height. The older stems are brown and woody near the base; tips and young shoots are green and succulent. The root system is fibrous and does not penetrate beyond 20-30cm in most soils. stems terete, pubescent; leaves opposite, flaccid- membranous, velvety-pubescent, deltoid-ovate, acute, 3-nerved, very coarsely toothed, each margin with 1-5 teeth, or entire in youngest leaves; base obtuse or subtruncate but shortly decurrent; petiole slender, 1-1.5cm long; blade mostly 5-12cm long, 3-6cm wide, capitula in sub-corymbose axillary and terminal clusters; peduncles 1-3cm long, bracteate; bracts slender, 10-12mm long; involucre of about 4-5 series of bracts, pale with green nerves, acute, the lowest ones about 2mm long, upper

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

ones 8-9mm long, all acute, distally ciliate, flat, appressed except the extreme divergent tip; florets all alike (disc-florets), pale purple to dull off-white, the styles extending about 4mm beyond the apex of the involucre, spreading radiately; receptacle very narrow; florets about 20-30 or a few more, 10-12mm long; ovarian portion 4mm long; corolla slender trumpet form; pappus of dull white hairs 5mm long; achenes glabrous. The seeds of Siam weed are small (3-5mm long, ~1mm wide, and weigh about 2.5mg seed-1. ImpactImpactssss:::: Chromolaena odorata can be considered as a very serious weed in all types of plants species in the humid areas of the Palaeotropics. C. odorata is a typical pioneer species of secondary forest succession with a strong heliophilic character and vigorous vegetative development. lnitially C. odorata spreads by seed, but after establishment it may also reproduce vegetatively from lateral branches; regrowth occurs after slashing and burning. It flowers at the end of the rainy season and after flowering the leaves fall and the stems die back. The ripe seeds are wind dispersed, although adherence to the fur of animals, clothes and machinery, and the contamination of planting material are also important mechanisms for seed dispersal over large distances. C. odorata may easily invade open spaces. In heavily disturbed environments, it competes effectively with other plants and crops, and may become the dominant species.

4.3.1.2. Lantana camara L. Synm. : Camara vulgaris ; Lantana camara f. albiflora ; Lantana camara f. caffertyi ; Lantana camara f. camara ; Lantana camara f. nana ; Lantana camara f. rubelloflavescens ; Lantana camara var. camara ; Lantana camara var. nana ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana glandulodissima ;Lantana glandulosissima f. aculeatissima ; Lantana glandulosissima f. parvifolia ; Lantana glandulosissima var. grandis ; Lantana mexicana ; Lantana polyacantha ; Lantana scabrida ; Lantana spinosa ; Lantana spinosa ; Lantana tiliaefolia ; Lantana tiliaefolia var. glandulosa ; Lantana tiliaefolia var. scabra ; Lantana urticifolia subsp. urticifolia. Common Name: Big-sage , wild-sage, red-sage, white-sage and tickberry. Kongini, Aripoo (Mal.) Family: Verbenaceae Distribution: Native of Central and South America; it has been introduced and now it has a cosmopolitan range. Kerala: All Kerala Description: Deciduous shrub, to 2 m (6 ft) ormore, with stems square, covered with bristly hairs when green, often armed as well with scattered small prickles. Leaves opposite, simple, with petioles to 2 cm (0.8 in) long; blades oval, rough hairy, to 15 cm (6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, with margins blunt-toothed and blade bases broad, squared off (truncate); leaves strongly aromatic. Flowers small, multicolored, in stalked, dense, flat-topped clusters to 4 cm (1.5 in) across; corolla a narrow tube with 4 short spreading lobes; flowers in a single cluster may be white to pink or

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

lavender, yellow to orange or red, changing color over time. a round, fleshy, 2-seeded drupe, about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, green turning purple then blue-black. Impacts: Its infestations alter the structural and floral composition of native communities. As the density of Lantana camara in forest increases, allelopathic interactions increase and hence there is decline in species richness. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets and tends to eliminate the native species. L. camara become the understorey species in disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in biodiversity. L. camara often causes a reduction in yield or impedes harvesting in plantations. Also, species has potential to contaminate the gene pool of the rare plant species. Allelopathy characteristics of species enable it to survive secondary succession and become monospecific thickets. Fire regimes are altered immensely by the presence of the Lantana camara in natural systems. The species burns readily in hot and dry conditions. Its occurrence on forest margins are seen as major threat to community, as a result of increased in roads of fire into the land.

4.3.1.3. Camonea vitifolia (Burm.f.) A.R.Simões & Staples Synm. : Convolvulus angularis ; Convolvulus vitifolius ; Ipomoea vitifolia ; Ipomoea vitifolia var. angularis ; Merremia vitifolia; Tirtalia vitifolia. Local Name : Grape-leaf Wood Rose Family: Convolvulaceae Distribution: E. Asia - , India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, , Myanmar, , , , , , . Kerala: All Kerala . Description: TTwinning or prostrate herb. The stems are purplish when old, and grow to 4 m long. Leaf blade is circular in outline, 5-18 by 5-16 cm, cordate at the base, palmately 5-7-lobed. Flower- buds narrow-ovoid, acute. Flower tube is funnel shaped -6 cm long, glabrous, bright yellow, paler towards the base. Pedicel 1–1.6 cm, thicker distally. Sepals oblong or ovate-oblong, 1.4–1.8 cm, enlarged in fruit, ± leathery, ± shiny, pitted adaxially, pellucid glandular, apex obtuse or ± acute; outer 2 hirsute abaxially; inner ones glabrous. Corolla yellow, paler in tube, funnelform, 2.5–5.5 cm, glabrous outside; limb ± 5-angled. Stamens ca. 1.1 cm; anthers spirally twisted. Ovary glabrous. Capsule straw colored, ± globose, ca. 1.2 cm, papery. Seeds black-brown, trigonous-ovoid, ca. 7 mm, gla-brous. Impacts: Found all over the open forests, thickets, and hedges, in teak-forests, along edges of secondary forests, on river-banks and waysides. Camonea vitifolia become the understorey species in disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in indigenous phytodiversity.

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Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin

4.3.1.4. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski

Synm. : Acmella brasiliensis ; A. spilanthoides ; Aster strigosus ; Buphthalmum heterophyllum ; B. procumbens ; B. repens ; B. strigosum ; carnosa (Rich.) Poir.; P. carnosa var. carnosa ; P. crenata ; Seruneum paludosum ; S. trilobatum ; Silphium trilobatum ; Sphagneticola ulei ; Stemmodontia carnosa ; S. trilobata ; Thelechitonia trilobata ; Verbesina carnosa ; V. carnosa var. aspera ; V. carnosa var. carnosa; Verbesina carnosa var. triloba ; V. tridentata ; Wedelia brasiliensis ; W. brasiliensis var. brasiliensis; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa var. carnosa; W. carnosa var. glabella ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. crenata ; W. paludicola ; W. paludosa ; W. paludosa var. paludosa; W. paludosa var. vialis ; W. pedunculata ; W. pedunculata ; W. tannensis ; W. triloba ; W. trilobata ; W. trilobata ; W. trilobata var. hirtella ; W. trilobata var. pilosissima ; Wollastonia trilobata Local Name: Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye, daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing daisy, and wedelia. Family : Asteraceae DistributionDistribution: Native of Tropical America, but now grows throughout the Neotropics. Kerala: All over. DescriptionDescription: Perennial herbs, prostrate, diffuse, rooting at nodes; stems glabrous or pubescent. Leaves 3-10 x 3-7 cm, elliptic-obovate, usually with 3 angular lobes with toothed margins, acute at apex, basally cuneate, glabrous to sparingly pubescent; petiole short, upto 5 mm. Heads radiate, 2- 2.5 cm across, solitary on ebracteate 4-15 cm long peduncles. Involucre green; bracts lanceolate, 1- 1.5 cm long, ciliate; inner narrower. Ray florets 5-8; corolla bright yellow, 1.5-2.0 x 0.5-0.7 cm, 3-4 denticulate; tube short. Ovary trigonous; stigma bilobed. Pappus connate into a spathiform, fimbriate cup at the apex, devoid of awns. Disc florets many; corolla yellow; tube 5-8 mm long, 5- lobed; lobes deltoid, densely pubescent within. Anthers black, syngenecious. Style branches flattened and marginally pubescent. Achenes blackish, warty, 4-6 mm long, crowned by the persistent pappus cup. ImpactsImpacts: Sphagneticola is one of the most significant dominant invasive plant species. The presence of invasive plant species such as S. trilobata in the terrestrial ecosystem poses a major threat to the biodiversity of a given community and ecosystem functions. S. trilobata was found to prevent regeneration of co-occurring species and damage riverbanks and wastelands. This could have been attributed to the allelopathic effect of S. trilobata leachates and residues that caused substantial reduction in germination and growth rate of native plants. One of the reasons S. trilobata is more aggressive and dominant in the invaded region is because of the lack of natural enemies which are capable of controlling its population growth.

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4.3.1.5. Mikania scandens Willd. Synm. : Eupatorium orinocense var. batataefolium ; E. scandens ; Mikania angulosa ; M. batataefolia ; M. menisperma ; M. menispermea ; M. mikanoides ; M. pubescens ; M. scandens var. pubescens ; M. scandens var. scandens ; Willoughbya scandens ; W. scandens var. normalis ; W. scandens var. pubescens Local Name: Mikenia, Bittervine, Chinese Creeper, Climbing Hempweed. Vayara ( Mal.) Family: Asteraceae Distribution: Native to the eastern and central United States and it is spread all over pantropical. KeralaKerala: All Kerala . DescriptionDescription: Climbers, stem glandular-hispid. Leaves simple, opposite, 5-8 x 4-6 cm, ovate, apex acute, base cordate, crenate, glabrate; petiole 2-4 cm long. Heads 5 mm long, in axillary panicles; bracts biseriate, outer 2 smaller, inner 3-5, 4 x 1.5 mm, ovate, obtuse. Flowers 3-5, similar, bisexual; corolla 3 mm long, tubular, lobes 5, glandular, white; anthers linear. Achenes 2 mm long, 5-ribbed, black, glabrous; pappus 4 mm long, many, hispid. ImpactsImpacts: Its rapid spread is a threat to natural environments, where it kills or reduces growth of preferred species, severely impacting on biodiversity and production. Large numbers of wind- dispersed seeds and ability to propagate vegetatively from stem fragments facilitate rapid invasion. Management of M. micrantha is difficult.

4.3.1.6. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright Synm. ::: Mimosa invisa ; Morongia pilosa ; Schrankia brachycarpa ; Schrankia pilosa Local Name: Giant sensitive plant Family: Fabaceae, Mimosaceae Distribution: Native to t Native of Tropical America; a weed in India. Kerala: All Kerala Description: Rambling shrubs, stem pubescent, prickles short, in 4-rows. Leaves to 10 cm long; pinnae opposite, to 5 cm long; leaflets to 35 pairs, to 5 x 1 mm, oblong, truncate at base, glabrous; rachis prickled. Head to 1.5 cm across, in terminal racemes, peduncled. Flowers many, 3 mm long, pink; stamens 10, filaments 6 mm long. Pods 2-5 cm long, bristly, black when mature. Impacts: It has the ability to climb over and smother other plants and can shade out light- demanding species, preventing the natural regeneration of other plants, and it constitutes a wildland fire hazard when dry. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets and tends to eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread through winds are another threat to the indigenous flora.

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4.3.1. 7. Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin Synm. : Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy; Ipomoea crassicaulis (Benth.) Robins.; Batatas crassicaulis Benth Local Name: Neyveli katta (Mal.); Bush Morning Glory ,Shrub Ipomoea Family: Convolvulaceae Distribution: Native of America; now Pantropical Description: Erect to subscandent shrubs; stems fistulose at maturity, tomentose. Leaves ovate- lanceate, 4-14 by 2.5-9 cm, base cordate, apex gradually acuminate, lateral veins 8-10 pairs, prominent. Cymes many-flowered, axillary or subterminal; peduncle c. 10 cm long; calyx lobes subequal; corolla pale pink, c. 9 cm long. Capsule ovoid. Seeds pubescent. Impacts: Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets and tends to eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread through winds are another threat to the indigenous flora.

4.3.2. Aquatic and sssemisemi aquatic wwweeweeeeeedsdsdsds Some aggressive aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes were also shows invasive nature in islands. Native biota was highly affected by them. Sometimes, water transport highly affected by the high abundance of Cabomba and Eichornia in the water course. It is also affecting the inland fishing too.

4.3.3. Likely invasive species (L.IAS) These plants are non-native, having biological potential for rapid or widespread dispersal and naturalized in the islands. These plants also have invasion history in other protected areas. However, there is no major invasion in the study area noticed. Plants species such as Xanthium indicum , Urena lobata, Hygrophila ringens, Microstachys chamaelea, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Persicaria glabra, Ludwigia peruviana, L. hyssopifolia, Cleome viscosa, Tridax procumbens, Achyranthes aspera, Ipomoea hederifolia, Mimosa pudica, Aerva lanata and Evolvulus alsinoides are the invasive species with potential to be a noxious weed, identified from the islands. 4.3.4. Spread eeecologyecology and ppphytosociologyphytosociology of the nnnoxiousnoxious weeds in the study area The data collected for the present study were analyzed to throw light on the answers to the specific questions raised in the study. As based on the criterion we have used, 11 invasive alien plants species were enumerated. An earnest attempt is made to study the spread ecology of these weeds of the entire region. The details emerged from the study are presented below.

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Table 444:4: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Upper Zone

Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD 1 1 5 3 7 7 2 1 20 4 3 9 2 4 5 5 6 11 5 3 6 3 11 7 4 8 4 9 25 10 8 4 11 2 5 12 2 3 1 13 14 7 2 3 15 3 15 16 6 17 2 7 11 18 7 2 19 6 1 20 1 20 4 3 16 Total 45 40 35 105 27 25 277 Abundance 3.52 3.42 3.01 9.16 2.63 2.61 Standard Deviation 2. 82 2.36 2.5 6.32 1.36 1.62 Density 1.3 0.86 1.3 8 0.61 1.6 Relative Density 1.73 0.9 1.08 4.33 0.7 1.19 Frequency 30 21 33 25 21 17 Relative Frequency 1.7 3. 21 3.35 3.01 2.03 1.79 Relative Dominance 0.31 0.30 0.17 0.71 0.21 0.19 RIVI 3.74 4.41 4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17

Table 555:5: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Middle Zone

Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE 1 3 2 3 11 8 3 2 4 5 2 6 25 4 7 6 2 14 6 22 5 8 3 18 2 10 6 9 14 14

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7 10 18 14 4 8 16 4 5 9 20 9 10 21 5 27 10 10 4 16 11 7 11 6 9 12 14 4 9 13 21 14 16 3 14 14 8 2 9 18 15 21 15 9 4 16 21 9 7 17 3 16 15 18 14 25 2 4 19 13 1 18 7 15 20 21 9 3 2 3 11 Total 156 135 91 126 71 68 98 85 856 Abundance 14.2 12.17 9.11 11.45 6.45 11.33 8.9 7.71 Standard Deviation 9.86 8.27 6.86 7.12 5.04 6.59 6.06 5.14 Density 8.95 7.05 4.4 6. 42 3.55 3.4 4.9 4.12 Relative Density 3.28 3.95 3.08 4.42 2.49 1.83 2.44 2.12 Frequency 65 70 60 55 54 30 55 60 Relative Frequency 3.51 2.86 4.16 3.81 3.76 1.25 2.81 1.65 Relative Dominance 0.942 0.74 0.46 0.66 0.37 0.0003 0.51 0.06 RIVI 7.732 6.55 7.7 8.89 6.62 2.50 5.76 3.43

Table 666:6: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Lower ZoneZone Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE CC EC PS 1 5 5 80 500 2 10 15 300 3 10 135 235 4 8 9 25 5 15 4 17 26 58 6 6 9 96 7 15 152 8 11 8 75 700 9 6 300 10 4 24 6 24 250 11 11 23 80 210 12 8 10 20 25 120 72 60 13 96 14 11 60 600 15 10 7 9 125 85

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16 15 14 21 85 17 8 10 110 25 18 8 5 20 6 51 71 25 19 20 13 9 200 85 20 7 2 10 18 10 90 100 15 Total 59 103 92 33 99 167 254 522 1137 1542 1830 5838 Abundance 5.6 9.1 7.2 3.26 8.53 10.26 11.6 16.65 21.6 22.6 26.3 Standard Deviation 3.1 4.6 3.6 1.23 2.59 3.25 4.56 94.3 265.2 302 256 Density 9.1 5.1 4.6 1.65 4.28 11.52 6.35 11.25 16.25 15.2 19.1 Relative Density 1.2 2.3 2.63 1.02 2.53 4.16 2.96 2.15 4.15 3.15 2.32 Frequency 8.1 3.6 4.5 5.02 5.75 2.3 5.85 3.58 5.26 3.25 2.15 Relative Frequency 1.2 1.3 2.01 1.14 1.59 2.03 2.65 1.53 1.15 2.56 1.96 Relative Dominance 0.03 1 0. 5 0. 032 0. 04 0.02 0. 08 1.23 0.59 1.26 0.26 1.26 RIVI 2. 431 4.16 4.96 2.20 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16 5.15 4.26

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE CC EC PS

CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE CC EC PS Upper Zone 3.74 4.41 4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17 Middle Zone 7.732 6.55 7.7 8.89 6.62 2.5 5.76 3.43 Lower Zone 2.431 4.16 4.96 2.2 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16 5.15 4.26

FIG.FIG.7777:::: RIVI of the noxious weeds in the study area

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4.3.4.1. Spread ecology of weeds Chromolaena odorata is widely acknowledged as a major economic and ecological burden to many tropical and subtropical regions of the world including India. In three zones of the study area, this noxious weed is spreading at an alarming rate. The research revealed the decrease of species diversity in the invaded habitats. As denoted by Ambika and Jayachandran (1980), C. odorata produces a variety of allelochemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and to suppress the crops. Lowland Vayals are also prone to the invasion. When compared to other habitats, salt invaded area is less infested. Lantana camara L. a notorious global invader, has spread rapidly in many of the 60 regions of the world and is listed among the world's one hundred worst invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000). Morphological and ecological characteristics that have contributed to its successful spread in Tropical countries. These include prolific flowering and production of fleshy fruit throughout the year features that are particularly important as frugivorous birds are important dispersal vectors. Endozoochory (i.e. the dispersal of seeds after passage through the vertebrate gut) has been shown to increase seed germination rates and vigor (Jordaan et al., 2011).In three zones of the Achankovil Rivers, L. camera is naturalized. However, modest invasion noticed there. Camonea vitifolia was not an aggressive weed until the last two decades. But, these plants acclimatized in Indian forest especially the Western Ghats and proliferate at an alarming rate. C. vitifolia grows particularly well on forest margins and rapidly colonises forest gaps created by dead trees and tree falls. It can even cause death of shrubs and small trees. Roots emerges out from each node of the plant and will spread over the thickets and gaps. The research revealed that, C. vitifolia is a destructive weed even in swamps. The lowland Vayals also provide habitat for them. Urgent preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora. Sphagneticola trilobata was able to adapt to different environments. The mean phenotypic plasticity index of S. trilobata was higher than that of other invasive plant species. As revealed from the study S. trilobata spread all over the habitat except sacred groves. It denoted that, this species is highly adapted for these habitats and may spread over shades also. It having a greater biomass and higher rates of transpiration compared to the indigenous vegetation it also reduces water run-off in water catchments. The spread of Mikania scandens suppresses indigenous vegetation through physical smothering and allelopathy. M. Scandens forms a higher plant biomass than the indigenous vegetation on swampecosystems. Another noteworthy result observed in the study that, M. scandens is slowly invaded into the mangrove forest also. Mikania scandens threatens the habitats of animal taxa too.

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Mimosa diplotricha is a fast-growing, sprawling annual although behaves as a short-lived perennial shrubby leguminous vine. This plant forms dense, tangled clumps up to 2 m high. It produces enormous seeds and these seeds remain dormant for up to several years. There are no potential enemies to Mimosa diplotricha and their seeds spread through winds and easily grow everywhere. Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa is a pantropical weed, was able to adapt to different environments. In different habitat of the islands it spreads its distribution at an alarming rate. When compared to other zones, no such invasion of Ipomoea carnea in uppeerzone. However, urgent preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora. Aquatic weeds are highly infested in lower zone. Of which Cabomba and Eichornia are denoted as notorious weeds. Its bulky vicinity in the water course makes nuisance. Water transport, inland fishing, local flora and fauna are highly affected by their growth. Urgent preventive measures should be employed at the earliest.

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PLATE 19: a. Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins., b. Lantana camara L., c. Mikania micrantha Kunth, d. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., e. Asclepias curassavica L., f. Ageratum conyzoides L.

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PLATE 20: a. Cabomba caroliniana Gray, b. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss , c. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott , d. Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin , e. Alternanthera brasiliana ( L. ) Kuntze , f. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl

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PLATE 21: a. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl., b. Urena lobata L., c. Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples, d. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle, e. Xanthium indicum Koenig, f. Ricinus communis L.

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4.4.4.44. 444.. Effect of flood in biodiversity Flood in 2018 made much havoc in Kerala. The impact of flood in river bounds of Achankovil is subjected to investigation. Results revealed from the study are enlisted here.

• Invasion of weeds Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the study area viz., Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Camonea vitifolia, Sphagneticola trilobata, Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin. Besides that, 4 aggressive aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes numerous likely invasive species are growing at an alarming rate. Few more Likely Invasive Weeds shows its fast spreading capacity throughout the bounds of the river.

• Invasion of aquatic organisms

The invasive fishes like African Catfish, Redbelly, Cattla etc. makes the serious problem in the indigenous biodiversity.

• Declining of fish population As revealed from the long term investigation and questionnaire survey, the population of indigenous fishes likes Etroplus, Kayal Prawns, Valves, Gastropods etc. facing a serious declination. • Loss of vegetation Flood caused the destruction of plants even the mangrove vegetation. Numerous plants fallen down. Besides that, plant diseases such as yellowing and various insect diseases were also noticed. Stretches of Humboldtia vahliana and Crataeva magna were washed out in the heavy flood.

• River channelization Because of heavy landslides, sand & soil deposition and tree fallen in the flood, river channelization and dechananelization takeplace. It causes loss in the biodiversity and minerals.

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• Plastic accumulation Kilograms of plastics and bottles were accumulated in the bounds of Achankovil River. Heavy deposition occurred in Panthalalam, Sharngadharakkavu and Veeyapuram regions. It will affect this biodiversity rich area. Besides the plastics, large deposition of glass bottles noticed in the agriculture field of Kuttanadu. Broken glass piece causes injury to farmers and laborers.

• Diseases and infections Numerous diseases noticed throughout the field such as Mahali, Yellowing, leaf curling & leaf buring in paddy, blast in crops and damping off in tubercrops. Invasion of numerous insects and moths are also observed. • Lost seeds Seeds of agricultural crops and stocks are destroyed. Seed stocks of pisum, rice, tapioca, yams, banana and seasonal crops are lost. It will be affect for the upcoming farming seasons. • Water contamination and acidification

Water bodies and wells are covered with oily layers in lowland zones and vayals. Besides that, the pH of water changed to acidic forms. This change will affect in living components of the ecosystem.

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PLATE 22: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood

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PLATE 23: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood

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4.4.4.54. 555.. Recommendations 4.4.4.54. 555.1..1. Ecosyestem restoration Riparian vegetation plays a significant role in controlling erosion and improving water quality of the area. Riparian vegetation are known to provide shelter, act as nursery grounds and are also habitats for economically important fishes, prawns, crabs and molluscs. Flood 2018 caused much destruction in bounds of the Achankovil River. Riparian zones restoration is the need of the hour. Aspects to be paid attention to

1. Identification of appropriate sites for restoration (soil stability, flooding regime, elevation, extent of pollution) 2. Selection of species/species assemblages suitable for the soil and hydrological conditions of the site 3. Quality of the planting material 4. Adoption of an appropriate planting technique 5. After-care practices 6. Mechanisms to obtain local community participation and support for restoration

4.4.4.54. 555.2..2. Methods to control of Invasive Alien Species The following methods are proposed to control and prevent the invasion and the expansion of the weed plants. 4.5.2.1. Prevention of spread For preventive measures which have already established in some areas and immediate eradication is difficult, efforts should be focused on preventing their spread by: 1) Restricting the movement of soil and plant parts from infested areas to un-infested areas and 2) Removing the weeds manually or mechanically (cutting or pulling) before flowering and fruiting and burning them at the site. 3) Integrated weed management 4). Introduction of eco-friendly pathogens or insects which is harmful to these weeds 5). Application of biological herbicide 5). Application of herbicide

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4.5.2.2. Habitat restoration Manual/mechanical control may be difficult, costly and unsustainable for exotic weeds which have established in large areas. In such cases, systematic restoration strategies should be taken up. To achieve this, remove the weeds manually or mechanically (pulling along with roots/tubers) in small areas at a time and subsequently plant the area with fast growing native species. Assisted regeneration may also be attempted in such areas. 4.5.2.3. Silviculture Practices Introduction of saplings in open areas of the swamps and ensure facilities for its growth. It will help to reduce the radius of the open areas and such a way we can prevent the expansion of weeds. 4.5.3. PlasPlastictic removal Accumulated plastic in the islands should be collected and recycled. For the same, self help groups, NGO s etc. can be participate.

4.5.4. Application of limestone in agriculture field will get positive result in soil problems. 4.5.5. Monitoring and conservation of endemic and endangered plants in the riparian bounds of Achankovil with the help of BMCs, and NGOs.

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