Universalismo, Diferencia E Invisibilidad Ensayo Sobre La Noción De Raza En La Historia De La Francia Contemporánea1

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Universalismo, Diferencia E Invisibilidad Ensayo Sobre La Noción De Raza En La Historia De La Francia Contemporánea1 RAZA E HISTORIA Universalismo, diferencia e invisibilidad Ensayo sobre la noción de raza en la historia de la Francia contemporánea1 Tyler Stovall Proponer un estudio de la historia de la idea de raza en Francia es como pasearse por un campo de minas. Muchos desearían negar la posibilidad de aplicar este concepto, incluso su misma validez, a la experiencia francesa, de modo que no se puede adoptar a priori ningún acuerdo sobre los términos y conceptos. Al mismo tiempo, la cuestión de las diferencias raciales se ha convertido en un tema central en la vida pública francesa durante el último cuarto de siglo, adquirien- do así un carácter de urgencia política. En los últimos tiempos, resulta casi una perogrullada el señalar que los investigadores franceses tienden a recular frente a cualquier consideración racial en la vida nacional.2 Para explicar este hecho se han propuesto diferentes razones, entre ellas la creencia mítica en la incapacidad francesa para ver la diferencia de color, el énfasis puesto en la clase como línea de separación social y política y, el factor más importante, la tradición del univer- salismo republicano.3 A diferencia de los investigadores británicos, alemanes y sobre todo estadounidenses (frente a cuya experiencia se contraponen a menudo los debates sobre la idea de raza en Francia), sus colegas franceses parecen curio- samente haber enmudecido ante esta cuestión.4 Pero esta discreción ya no se sostiene. De la misma forma que después de un silencio prolongado Vichy y la Ocupación se han convertido en una especie de obsesión nacional, se ha desarrollado, aunque en menor medida, una nueva investigación sobre las cuestiones raciales en Francia. Preocupados especialmen- te por las tensiones raciales en la Francia contemporánea y sus relaciones con las concepciones de la identidad nacional francesa, escritores tan diversos como Alain Finkelkraut, Julia Kristeva, Maxime Silverman, Michel Wieviorka y Tahar Ben Jelloun debaten sobre el lugar de la raza en la herencia nacional.5 Sin em- bargo, es cierto que pocos historiadores franceses han integrado tales debates en una revisión del pasado de Francia. De hecho, la obra de un historiador en particular, Fernand Braudel, ha servido recientemente de pararrayos contra quie- 6 RAZA E HISTORIA nes sostienen que las diferencias raciales son una parte de la herencia nacional.6 Esto resulta aún más chocante cuando se hace la comparación con la historiogra- fía de outre-Atlantique: no solo porque esta haya consagrado desde hace tiempo una enorme atención a la raza, sino porque muchos especialistas en la historia de Francia estadounidenses han comenzado recientemente a explorar la historia colonial de Francia, olvidada durante mucho tiempo.7 Este contraste transatlán- tico subraya la ausencia de un análisis racial entre los historiadores franceses, planteando, entre otras, las cuestiones de cómo abordar, o incluso si es posible hacerlo, el estudio de este tema. En un contexto tan denso, las discusiones sobre la raza corren el riesgo de de- generar en un diálogo de sordos. Los investigadores que se interesan en este tema deben proponer sus propias perspectivas y posiciones de una forma prudente pero franca.8 Dado que no es posible esbozar el tema aquí sino muy brevemente, he orientado mi reflexión hacia algunos aspectos centrales. En este artículo sos- tengo que la raza ha tenido un papel importante en la Francia contemporánea, aun siendo muy diferente del que ha desempeñado en los Estados Unidos.9 En realidad, me gustaría ir más allá y afirmar que los debates apasionados sobre la identidad nacional que a menudo han convulsionado a Francia y que cons- tituyen una importante aportación francesa a la civilización moderna, poseen una dimensión racial. Además, me gustaría rebatir el clásico tópico que opone el racismo biológico anglosajón a la postura cultural francesa, afirmando que no solo el pensamiento racial en Francia presenta elementos de ambos, sino que la distinción entre racismo biológico y cultural resulta en sí misma dudosa.10 Finalmente, sostengo que no se puede realmente captar la importancia de la idea de raza en la historia de Francia sin replantearse fundamentalmente la distin- ción tradicional entre la Francia metropolitana y las colonias.11 Si se sustituye el modelo de las esferas herméticamente cerradas y separadas por una visión de la metrópoli y de sus colonias como una unidad interactiva, la Francia imperial, se puede comprender más fácilmente cómo las cuestiones raciales han moldeado la vida allí donde ondeaba la bandera francesa. En resumen, se concebiría un estudio de la historia de la raza en Francia no como una amenaza para las con- cepciones reverenciales de la unidad francesa, sino como un elemento clave de la construcción de la nación moderna. Durante la larga historia de Francia, el término «raza» ha tenido generalmente dos sentidos principales. Uno de ellos, más familiar para los lectores contempo- ráneos, se refería a las diferencias biológicas de color de piel u otras características físicas hereditarias. En Francia, esto derivó en una distinción entre europeos y no europeos. El otro sentido utilizaba el término raza para distinguir entre las diferentes castas, clases, regiones u otros grupos en el interior de Francia y de Europa. Esta concepción de la raza no ha desaparecido con el tiempo, pero se ha confundido poco a poco con el nacionalismo para elaborar el modelo del pue- blo francés considerado como una raza distinta. Aunque sostengo que la primera 7 concepción de la raza ha pasado a ser dominante en la época contemporánea, la segunda también ha ejercido alguna influencia, de modo que se puede considerar la interacción de estas dos corrientes en la historia del pensamiento racial francés. Los historiadores han descubierto la primera mención francesa del término raza a finales del siglo XV. Como ha expuesto Pierre Boulle recientemente, durante el siglo XVI el término pasó de hacer referencia simplemente a ciertos caracteres hereditarios del rey o la reina y sus descendientes a la caracterización de la no- bleza en general como grupo separado del resto de la sociedad.12 Durante este periodo, las ideas de «nobleza» o «gentilidad» evolucionaron de simples referen- cias a la aristocracia a rasgos de carácter que sin embargo ponían en valor el linaje familiar. Aunque mucho más flexibles que las antiguas concepciones de las razas como entidades inmutables, las nociones aristocráticas de raza en la edad mo- derna consideraban igualmente las diferencias hereditarias como determinantes de la condición de los hombres. La idea de la nobleza como una raza distinta se imponía entre un grupo social cuyos privilegios se veían cada vez más atacados tanto por los plebeyos como por la monarquía. Esta aproximación la ilustra Ra- belais en su visión de una sociedad utópica. […] Las gentes libres, bien nacidas e instruidas, que en honesta compañía con- viven tienen por naturaleza un instinto y aguijón que siempre les impulsa a prescindir del vicio y a acometer los hechos virtuosos y a esto llaman honor.13 Estas nociones de raza no surgieron al margen de los contactos (o como prelu- dio a estos) entre franceses y no europeos. La presencia de no blancos en Francia se remonta a la época romana, cuando los datos censales reflejaban la existencia de africanos en la Galia romana. William Cohen señalaba la presencia de negros en Francia ya desde el siglo XIII, y añadía que hacia finales del siglo XVI, «fueron llevados a Francia un gran número de africanos».14 Quizás más significativo fue el descubrimiento por los franceses a principios de la edad moderna de un vasto corpus literario que recopilaba relatos maravillosos sobre el mundo que existía más allá de Europa. Del mismo modo que el Renacimiento había favorecido el redescubrimiento de los textos de la Antigüedad griega y romana, los franceses entraban en contacto con las obras clásicas sobre África y Asia. Es destacable la influencia que ejerció Herodoto, cuyas Historias describían a los africanos como salvajes fantásticos e inhumanos. También el Islam, con presencia en el África subsahariana, Asia occidental y el Mediterráneo, constituía una fuente de infor- mación sobre el mundo exterior. En general, cuando los franceses pensaban en los no europeos se interesaban principalmente en el mundo islámico, dedican- do mucha menos atención a Asia y, menos aún, a África. Las Lettres persanes de Montesquieu, que critican la sociedad francesa a través de los ojos de los persas, estereotipos de la violencia y la misoginia, son el mejor ejemplo de la fascinación de Francia por el «Otro» no europeo en los albores de la época moderna.15 8 RAZA E HISTORIA En el siglo XVIII, la idea de raza ligada principalmente a las diferencias físicas, y la de que los pueblos de colores distintos forman razas distintas, había comen- zado a penetrar en el pensamiento francés. En 1684, el médico François Bernier publicaba en el prestigioso Journal des Savans un artículo titulado «Nouvelle Divi- sión de La Terre par les différentes Espèces ou Races d’hommes qui l’habitent...». En este artículo, basado en los viajes y observaciones del autor por el norte de África y la India, proponía por primera vez en Francia una nueva concepción de la raza, basada en la idea de que los pueblos de diferentes tonos de piel cons- tituían razas separadas. Aparte de Bernier, otros sabios franceses empezaron a esbozar una visión de la raza que separaba a los europeos de los otros pueblos. A mediados del siglo XVIII, el abate Prévost publicó bajo el título Histoire générale des voyages una monumental colección de relatos de viajes que recopilaba los relatos de varios exploradores sobre diversos pueblos de todo el mundo. En general, el trabajo del abate Prévost hacía generalizaciones radicales, a menudo negativas, sobre los no europeos, contraponiéndolos desfavorablemente a los pueblos de Europa.
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