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Archaeological Evidence chapter 3 Archaeological Evidence Introduction attributed to the ‘Roman or Byzantine’ period, solely on the basis of construction technique. More recently, Archaeological evidence of Roman-style bathhouses is surveys and small excavation campaigns in Egypt have ubiquitous across the entire Mediterranean. Not only provided much-needed reliable archaeological data, the larger Roman cities, but also the smaller settle- mainly based on ceramic studies. In Palestina, the urban ments were equipped with public baths. As bathhouses (re)development of the region began only after the cre- often had sturdy walls and foundations—especially ation of the state of Israel, meaning important build- in the heated parts where insulation was of utmost ing activity mainly took place in the second half of the importance—their chance of survival is quite high. 20th c. and still continues today. The recent decades Furthermore, hypocausts lay underneath Roman walk- saw an increase in salvage archaeology, generating a ing level, which increased the survival chance of this wealth of archaeological data, especially for the late an- very characteristic element. Hence the bathhouses were tique period. often identified among the mass of buildings, in contrast Each separate bathhouse is discussed at length in to others with less ‘recognizable’ features. the Gazetteer. Besides the baths that were built in Late The most important problem about the remains of Antiquity, a concise overview is given of the existing baths is the lack of reliable excavation data and secure baths that remained in use. When possible, late antique dating evidence. Roman sites were often discovered long changes to the original layout are highlighted. For a se- before the standardization of archaeological field meth- lect number of sites, the corpus of newly built baths and ods and typo-chronological studies of material culture. baths with a continued use is studied within its larger Late antique levels were also considered of lesser impor- urban context. The focus is hence shifted from the ar- tance, hardly worth mentioning in concise excavation chitectural, technological and decorative programme to reports. The latter only offer very basic descriptions of the functioning of the baths within a complex fabric of the standing remains and the extraordinary finds. In streets, public and private space, water supply and dis- the absence of inscriptions, the date of buildings was posal, etc. In the following chapter, the baths in Rome, determined on the basis of design, construction tech- Ostia, Cuicul, Thamugadi, Carthage, Sufetula, Ptolemais nique or decorative schemes (mosaics, wall paintings). and Scythopolis will be presented. At the end of this An additional problem for Roman sites is the continued chapter, there is an overview of the archaeological evi- occupation of many Roman cities until this day, mean- dence of early hammams. ing that Roman remains lie buried underneath several metres of occupied ground. This is especially problem- atic in the Italian Peninsula, where important late an- Rome tique cities such as Mediolanum (Milan), Ravenna and Rome, remain concealed under the modern cities. Concise History of the Urban Fabric In contrast, the archaeological remains of Roman cities The history of Rome cannot be summarized in just a in North Africa are among the best-preserved examples in few pages. The 3,000 years of history that started with the Mediterranean. The so-called ‘ghost towns’ offer Bronze Age settlements perched on the mythic hills and unique opportunities to study urban transformation continue to this day have been told and retold in an in- from foundation to eventual decline. This rich archaeo- credible amount of scholarly literature. Simply enumer- logical heritage caught the interest of the colonial pow- ating the most important works would be a daunting ers, who set out to unearth treasures for the various task.1 For the present research, a concise overview of national museums in their home countries. It was these the most important urban developments up until Late early ‘excavations’ at the end of the 19th and beginning Antiquity will suffice. of the 20th c. that revealed most of the large monuments As capital of the Roman empire, Rome had always that are central in importance to these archaeological benefitted from the munificence of its rulers. From the sites today. In Egypt and Cyrenaica, the late antique and Early Islamic layers were often brushed aside in search of 1 For a select bibliography on the classical history of Rome, see the Greek or pharaonic phases of a site. Several small bath- entry ‘Rome (history)’ in Oxford Classical Dictionnary (4th ed., houses have been identified and subsequently hastily 2012). See also Storia di Roma (Giardina and Schiavone (1991)). © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���0 | doi:��.��63/97890044�94��_005 92 chapter 3 time of the first kings, the city was continuously chang- Flavium (or Colosseum) was built.7 To the north, the ing, with new buildings being erected while others Baths of Titus (see below, p. 97) may have replaced the were restored or demolished (map 4). The urban fab- private bath complex of Nero.8 Under Domitian, three ric of Rome looked—and admittedly still looks—like gladiatorial schools (ludi) were constructed east of the a big building wharf, permanently under construction. Colosseum. The Baths of Trajan were a milestone in the The forum Romanum, more so than any other area in architecture of the imperial type bathhouse (see above, Ancient Rome, has seen continued building activity and chapter 1), built on the filled-in remains of Nero’s Domus remodelling. It embraces the Augustan regiones VIII Aurea. Some 80 m to the east, the large water reservoir and part of IV. The valley between the Campidoglio and now called ‘Sette Sale’ received water from the Aqua Palatine hill was first ‘urbanized’ in the 6th c. BC, when Iulia to feed the baths. To the north, the porticus Livia is the swampy area of the Velabrum river was drained by only known through the marble Forma Urbis.9 South of the Cloaca Maxima. From this oldest phase, the Temple the Palatine, the Circus Maximus was restored and ex- of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitolium was the panded several times during the 1st c. AD. North-west of most important monument. The forum was hence di- the Circus, the forum Boarium (cattle market) was sur- vided into two distinctive parts: a religious-political area rounded by several temples. A small arch, dedicated to at the foot of the Campidoglio and a commercial zone the argentarii (bankers), dates from the early 3rd c.10 further east.2 All of the buildings on the forum were fre- Regio I evolved around two important traffic arter- quently restored and remodelled during their long pe- ies: the Via Appia and the Via Latina. Along both roads, riod of use. the funerary monuments of important Romans and co- At the end of the Republic, the forum Romanum had lumbaria were erected. Regio II was dominated by the become too small to cope with the political, religious and temple of Divus Claudius on the Caelian hill, dedicated commercial needs of the city. Julius Caesar was the first to the deified Claudius after his death in AD 54 and fin- to plan a new forum, just north of the forum Romanum.3 ished under Vespasian. In the vicinity must have been Several other emperors would expand the economic and situated the macellum magnum, built under Nero, al- political heart of Rome by adding their own forum: the though its exact location remains unknown.11 The area Forum of Augustus, the forum transitorium or the Forum between the Caelian and the Lateran was dotted with of Nerva and the large Forum of Trajan with an adjacent residential buildings and crossed by the Aqua Claudia.12 commercial complex (‘Trajan’s market’). Towards the porta Asinaria stood a residential neigh- To the south of the forum Romanum, the Palatine hill bourhood developed in the 2nd and 3rd c. with two seems to have been the preferred location for the resi- bathhouses: the Lateran Baths and the Baths under the dences of the elite.4 Especially in the 2nd and 1st c. BC, Lateran baptistery (see below, p. 101). At the end of the the large domus of consuls, such as Cicero, were located 2nd c., the imperial cavalry was housed in the Castra here. Octavian was even born here and decided to stay nova equitum singularium.13 and live there even when he became emperor.5 Under Between the Lateran and the porta Praenestina, the Tiberius, the Flavians (especially Domitian) and the Castra priora equitum singularium stood in a largely resi- Severans, large domus were built and expanded until dential neighbourhood. Around the porta Maggiore, the most of south-eastern part of the hill belonged to the Castrum amphitheatre (Severan era) may be identified imperial palace.6 Elagabalus ordered the construction with the Vivarium, a park-like area for games.14 The Baths of a large temple dedicated to the sun god Elagabalus. of Helena (see below, p. 97) date from the Severan pe- On the southern and eastern slopes, towards the forum riod. By going north towards the Esquiline, one crossed boarium, several horrea were built. residential neighbourhoods with several parks (horti), The valley between the Caelian, Palatine and Esquiline which were incorporated in the imperial estates from hills was used as the site of Nero’s ‘golden house’, but was returned to the people of Rome by the Flavian dynasty. The artificial lake of the imperial complex was filled 7 Rea (1993). 8 Coarelli (2008) 204. up and a gigantic amphitheatre, the amphitheatrum 9 Slab VIII-3, 10o-r in Rodríguez Almeida (1981) plate 18.
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