A New Modern History of East Asia (Vol

Eckhardt Fuchs / Tokushi Kasahara / Sven Saaler (eds.): A New Modern History of East Asia (Vol. 1)

Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC-ND 4.0 © 2018, V&R unipress GmbH, Göttingen ISBN Print: 9783847107088 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737007085 Eckhardt Fuchs / Tokushi Kasahara / Sven Saaler (eds.): A New Modern History of East Asia (Vol. 1)

Eckert. Expertise Georg-Eckert-Institut für internationale Schulbuchforschung

Band 7

Herausgegeben von Eckhardt Fuchs

Redaktion Ralf Kasper und Wendy Anne Kopisch

Eckhardt Fuchs /Tokushi Kasahara / Sven Saaler (eds.)

ANew Modern History of East Asia

Volume 1

Edited by the Trilateral China-Japan-KoreaHistory Textbook Editorial Committee

TranslatedbyMaya Ileto and Roger Prior

With 70 figures

V&Runipress

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Contents

List of Tables and Figures ...... 9

Preface to the English Edition ...... 15

Preface of the Trilateral China-Japan-Korea History Textbook Editorial Committee ...... 23

Foreword to the English Translation ...... 31

Note on Transliteration ...... 33

Acknowledgments ...... 35

Chapter 1: The Impact of the West and the Destabilizationofthe Traditional Order in East Asia ...... 37 1. Political Transformations and Regional Order in East Asia in the Seventeenth Century ...... 38 2. Aggression of the Western PowersinEast Asia ...... 51 3. East Asia’sReactiontothe West ...... 63 4. The Destabilizationofthe Regional Order in East Asia ...... 70 Timeline ...... 86

6 Contents

Chapter 2: The FirstSino-Japanese War and the Dissolution of the Traditional Order in East Asia ...... 87 1. Transformations in East Asia during the 1880s and the Korean Problem ...... 88 2. The First Sino-Japanese War, 1894–95 ...... 99 3. The Treaty of Shimonoseki and Relations between China, Japan, and Korea ...... 112 Timeline ...... 127

Chapter 3: The Russo-Japanese War and the Struggle for Hegemony in East Asia ...... 129 1. Rivalries among the PowersinEast Asia after the First Sino-Japanese War ...... 130 2. Causes and Outcomes of the Russo-Japanese War ...... 139 3. The Treaty of Portsmouth...... 150 4. Major Transformations in East Asia ...... 157 Timeline ...... 172

Chapter 4: The FirstWorld War and the Washington System .... 173 1. The First World War and the Twenty-One Demands...... 174 2. The End of the Great War, Nationalist Movements in East Asia, and the Continuation of the Siberian Intervention ...... 186 3. The Formation and Decline of the Washington System ...... 197 Timeline ...... 217

Chapter 5: East Asia and Japan’sWar of Aggression ...... 219 1. Japan’sInvasion of Manchuriaand the International Response. 220 2. All-Out War between Japan and China ...... 232 3. The Second World War and the Asia-Pacific War ...... 243 4. East Asia at the End of the Asia-Pacific War ...... 252 Timeline ...... 265

Chapter 6: The Formation of the Cold War System and its Influence on East Asia ...... 267 1. US and USSR Postwar Policies in East Asia and Changes in Japan 268 2. The Chinese Revolution and the Escalation of the Cold War ... 277

Contents 7

3. Partition and Waronthe Korean Peninsula...... 285 4. Intensification of the Cold War and the Non-Aligned Movement . 295 Timeline ...... 312

Chapter 7: Transformations in the Cold War System in East Asia .. 313 1. Deepening of Sino-Soviet Hostility and Transformations in the East Asian Cold War ...... 314 2. Revision of the US-Japan Security Treaty and the Conclusion of the Japan-South Korea Treaty on Basic Relations ...... 322 3. The Vietnam War and East Asia ...... 332 4. Detente and Changes in Relations between China, Japan, and South Korea ...... 341 Timeline ...... 360

Chapter 8: East Asia after the End of the Cold War ...... 361 1. East Asia and the End of the Cold War ...... 362 2. Globalization and Political Transformation in East Asia ..... 373 3. Economic Cooperation and Civil Interaction in East Asia ..... 387 4. Tasks for Peacebuilding in East Asia ...... 392 Timeline ...... 407

The Authors of thisBook /Members of the Trilateral China-Japan-Korea History TextbookEditorial Committee ..... 409

Name Index ...... 413

Place Index ...... 419

List of Tables and Figures

Figure 1: Circulation of silver in the sixteenth and seventeenth century.

Figure 2: Trade factories in eighteenth-century Canton. Courtesy of the Korean TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 3: The First and Second Opium Wars.

Figure 4: Article about Commodore Perry’sexpedition to Japanfrom the Illustrated London News. Source:private collection.

Figure 5: The Western Powers’ encroachment into the Korean peninsula.

Figure 6: Aweaponsfactory in Nanjing founded in 1865. Courtesy of the Korean TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 7: The key figures in the IwakuraMission. Source:CharlesLanmen, The Japanese inAmerica (1872),courtesy of Yamaguchi Prefectural Archives.

Figure 8: Japanese troops duringthe invasion of Taiwan. Source: Saigototoku to Kabayama Sukenori (1936).

Figure 9: The Battle of Ganghwa. Source: Meiji taiheiki,vol. 11/1 (1876).

Figure 10:The central actors of the Gapsin Coup. Courtesy of the Korean Text- book Editorial Committee.

Figure 11:Image of the conference held to revise the unequal treaties. Foreign MinisterInoue Kaoru is announcing Japan’spolicy to variousforeign ambassadors. Source:Monbusho¯ ,Ko¯ t o¯ sho¯ gaku kokushi, gekan,1929, p. 124.

10 List of Tables and Figures

Figure 12: “Fishing,” by Georges Bigot, in Tobae, February15, 1887.Source:private collection.

Figure 13:The leader of the Donghak peasant revolution, Jeon Bong-jun. Courtesy of the Korean Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 14:The Sino-JapaneseWar.

Figure 15:The massacreatLushun (Port Arthur), as photographed by Count Kamei Koreaki. Source: Meiji 27–8nen sen’eki shashincho (1907).

Figure 16:The signing of the Shimonoseki Treaty. Courtesy of the Korean Text- book Editorial Committee.

Figure 17: “Major Assault at Keelung, Taiwan,” woodblockprint by Kokuni Masa.

Figure 18:China under threat of division. Courtesy of the KoreanTextbook Edi- torial Committee.

Figure 19: The Independent (Hangul versionand Englishversion)

Figure 20:The signing of the Boxer Protocol and the signaturesonthe document. Courtesyofthe Korean Textbook EditorialCommittee.

Figure 21:The Russo-Japanese War.

Figure 22:Russo-Japanese tug-of-war.Courtesy of the Korean TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 23:AKorean mobilized to transport Japanese military goods. Courtesy of the Korean Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 24:Commemorative postcard marking the conclusionofthe Treaty of Portsmouth. Courtesy of the Korean TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 25:The Righteous Militias Movement fought against the Japanese army. Courtesyofthe Korean Textbook EditorialCommittee.

Figure 26:The Revolution of 1911 in China. Courtesy of the Chinese Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 27:Poster announcing the birth of the Republic of China, with Sun Yat-sen. Courtesyofthe Korean Textbook EditorialCommittee.

List of Tables and Figures 11

Figure 28:RepresentativesofChina and Japan signing various treaties as aresult of the Twenty-One Demands of May 1915.Source:private collection.

Figure 29:Lenin giving aspeech during the October Revolution in Russia. Source: private collection.

Figure 30:The Siberian Intervention:Japanesetroops parading in Vladivostok. Source:private collection.

Figure 31:The heads of government of the countries participating in the Paris Peace. Courtesy of theKorean Textbook EditorialCommittee.

Figure 32:March First Independence Movement. Source:Dong-A Ilbo.

Figure 33:May Fourth Movement. Source:private collection.

Figure 34:The Washington Conference. Source:private collection.

Figure 35:The inaugural issue of the Comintern’sbulletin, The Communist International (German-languageedition). Source:privatecollection.

Figure 36:The Northern Expedition.

Figure 37:The Government-GeneralofKorea. Courtesy of the Korean Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 38:The Government-General of Taiwan.Courtesy of the KoreanTextbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 39:The Lytton Commission. Source: private collection.

Figure 40:The Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army and arepresentative of “Manchukuo” sign the Japan-Manchukuo Protocol. Source:private collection.

Figure 41:Tanks of the Imperial Japanese Army enter Nanjing. Source:private collection.

Figure 42:The Battle atthe Pingxingguan Pass (September 25, 1937). Courtesy of the Chinese TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 43:The Korean Liberation Army, founded in Chongqing in 1940. Courtesy of the Korean Textbook Editorial Committee.

12 List of Tables and Figures

Figure 44:Childreninbases of anti-Japanese resistance in Northern China. Courtesyofthe Chinese TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 45:The surprise attack by the Japanese Navy’sair forceonPearl Harbor in Hawaii, the base for America’sPacific Fleet. The battleship USS Arizona is on fire. Courtesy of Mainichi Shinbun.

Figure 46:Delegates at the Greater East Asian Conference held in November 1943. CourtesyofMainichi Shinbun.

Figure 47:The Theater of the Asia-Pacific War.

Figure 48:The mushroom cloud from the atomic bombdropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Courtesy of the Nagasaki Atomic BombMuseum.

Figure 49:Mamoru Shigemitsu, the Japanese foreign minister, signing the sur- render instrument aboard the American battleship USS Missouri, Tokyo Bay, on September 2, 1945.Source:World War II Database/ United States National Archives.

Figure 50:The outcomesofthe war crimes trials for Class A, B, and Cwar criminals.

Figure 51:Prisoners freed from Sodaemon Prison in Seoul celebrate on Liberation Day. Courtesy of the Korean Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 52:Artilleryattack by the UN army during the Korean War. Source:private collection.

Figure 53:The Development of the Korean War.

Figure 54:The signing ceremony for the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Courtesy of Kyodo NewsAgency.

Figure 55:Propagandaposter advertising the Great Leap Forward in China. Courtesyofthe Chinese TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 56:The Bandung Conference.Courtesy of the Chinese Textbook Editorial Committee.

Figure 57:Red Guards from all over the country assemble on Tiananmen Square in Beijing during the Cultural Revolution to see Mao Zedong.Courtesy of the Chinese Textbook Editorial Committee.

List of Tables and Figures 13

Figure 58:Anti-SecurityTreaty demonstrations surroundthe Japanese Diet. CourtesyofAsahi Shinbun.

Figure 59:Troop strength of nations involved in the Vietnam War.

Figure 60:American B-52s taking off from Kadena Airbase in Okinawa, the largest US militarybase in the Far East. CourtesyofMainichi Shinbun.

Figure 61:Meeting between Nixon and Mao Zedong.Courtesyofthe Chinese TextbookEditorial Committee.

Figure 62:Demonstrations by citizens of East Germany demanding democracyin the immediate aftermath of the fall of the Berlin Wall (Alexanderplatz, Berlin, November 19, 1989). Courtesy of Yomiuri Shinbun.

Figure 63:Military alliances and security in East Asia.

Figure 64:Meeting between Kim Dae-jung and Kim Jong-il in Pyongyang (2000). CourtesyofKyodo NewsAgency.

Figure 65:Regional Organizations in East Asia.

Figure 66:Expanding Sino-Japanese-KoreanExchange.

Figure 67:The border between North Korea and South KoreaatPanmunjom. CourtesyofIshikawa Bunyo.

Figure 68:Deployment of U.S. troops stationedinEast Asia to Southeast Asia and the Middle East.

Figure 69:Heixiazi Island in the Heilongjiang (AmurRiver) on the Sino-Russian border.

Figure 70:The East Asia Summit Conference held in Bali, Indonesia, in November 2011. Courtesy of the Cabinet Office (Japan).

Preface to the English Edition

International textbook activities first emerged within the context of the international peace movement at the end of the 19th century. It was, however, only after the First World War that these activities were taken up more comprehensively, both by the League of Nations and by other international organizations. It was then that the role played by education in fostering a peaceful coexistence of nations, the essential conceptatthe heart of peace education, became amorewidespread aspect of the discourse in national and international contexts than hitherto imagined. It also soon became clear, however, that the topic of textbook revision was one of the most sensitive areas of international cooperation, addressing not onlyissues underlyingpolitical rivalries, but also touched upon an area traditionally dealt with under the exclusivenational authority of individual states. The very idea that leading historians be permitted todevelop auniform international history textbook, somethingthat had been proposed as early as the beginning of the 1930s, was met with abhorrence, not only by national school authorities but was also seen by manyhistory scholars as en- croaching upon the freedom of researchand teaching methodologies. Re- vising national textbooks in accordance with specifically defined criteria appeared,however, to be more acceptable.This wouldoften include such measures as excluding chapters of military or nationalistic content, for instance. The revision of textbooks therefore becamethe main strand of international textbook activities after 1945. International organizations such as UNESCO and the Council of Europe but also national institutions such as the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research have been

16 Preface to the English Edition major actors in this field up to the present day. They have developed handbooks and guidelines, and coordinated numerous international textbook commissions and projects. The Franco-German Textbook Commis- sion, founded in 1951, is one of the most successfulexamples of such long- term activities. Whereasthe revision of textbooks dominated the international debate for most of the Cold War era, over the course of the past decades the focus of textbookactivitieshas shifted away from the issue of revising textbooks towards strategies of how to improve them with regard to new challenges societies are facing today, such as diversity, human rights, sustainable development, or gender equality. In addition, the rise of new nationalism and the advent of what is sometimes called the “postfactual age” have led to a new series of controversies surrounding textbooks, particularly history books. These take place within asociety or across national borders and emphasize issues of neo-national tradition, the protection of societies’ self- legitimisation, the construction of new identities, and the glorification and mythologization of history. Such controversies transcend the level of academic debate to resonate with wide sections of society and frequently give rise to heated discussion. However, theideaofproducing common or shared (history) textbooks – between twoorevenmorecountries – hasremained an important part of cross-national textbook activities,despite theinitial strong opposition from the1930s.Thisisespeciallytrueofregionswhere therehas notyet been a reconciliation processregarding thehistory or histories of differentcountries whichmay be shared yethighlycontroversial.Therehavebeensuccessful attempts to create common textbooks.One exampleisDaseuropäische Ge- schichtsbuch (EuropeanHistory), whichwas writtenby14authors from 13 European countries, publishedin1992and translated intomorethan20 languages.1 Anotherexample is theFranco-German historytextbookthatwas publishedinthree volumesbetween 2006 and2012. This book hasbeen translated intoJapaneseand Korean andisconsidereda“master copy”, especially forjoint textbook activities in East Asia.The Israeli-Palestinian textbook constitutes afurther example. TheGeorg Eckert Institutehas been

1Frédéric Delouche (ed.), Das europäische Geschichtsbuch. Von den Anfängen bis heute [1992],new revised and extended edition (Stuttgart 1998).

Preface to the English Edition 17 involved in almost allofthese joint textbook initiatives. More recently it has begunthe coordination of ajoint German-Polish HistoryTextbook, thefirst twovolumes of whichwerepublished in 2016/17and will encompass four volumesintotal.Equally noteworthy is thecommonhistory of theBalkan region (Joint HistoryProject), currentlybeing writtenbyhistoriansfroma dozenBalkanstates. Conflictshavecharacterized thehistory of theregion, from theprehistoryofWorld WarIto thecivilwar followingthe dis- integrationofYugoslaviainthe 1990s. However, historians have demon- stratedthatitispossible to shareand accept each other’sviews andpresent a common history, whichisnow freely accessibleinelevenlanguages as an online publication. TheCenterfor Democracyand Reconciliation in South- east Europe,where theproject is based, wasawarded theFriedrich-Ebert- Stiftung HumanRightsAward in 2013,and confidentlyreferstothe project todayasthe “gold standard in multi-perspectivehistory teaching”.2 It is difficult to measure the impact of these shared textbooks on conflict resolution, reconciliation and multiperspectivity in the history classroom because they all have adifferent status; some are officially approved textbooks while others are supplementary teaching material or textbooks for the private sector, etc. However, they all reflect the attempt to overcome cross- national controversies surrounding history. In East Asia,debates on the interpretation of the modern history of the region continue to affect international relations today, and history textbooks constitute aprincipal “battlefield” of these controversies. Whilethe second half of the twentieth century saw constant improvement of history education in East Asia – progress in terms of reducing divergences in historical interpretationswhile expanding the scope of transnational dialogue – the emergence of historical revisionism, in Japan since the 1990s, in Korea since the 2000s, and in China since the 2010s, has led to an escalation of the situation ratherthan to adeepening of reconciliation. While the history textbook controversy received widespread attention in the 1980s and 1990s, in the 2000s experts and politicians begantospeak of a “history problem” in East Asia. Since 2014, publications have increasingly referred to “history wars”,testifying to an escalationofthe rhetoric on all sides.

2See http://cdrsee.org/projects/education-projects/joint-history-project, accessed Au- gust 2017.

18 Preface to the English Edition

Before thisbackground, the significanceofefforts on the part of historians, politicalscientists, educators and concerned citizens to engage in trans-border dialogue regarding the history of the East Asian region, to deepen their mutualunderstanding regarding their shared past, and to formulate ashared historical consciousness have grown significantly in importance. This book, the “New History of East Asia”,isaresult of these efforts. Its key message is that, while some differences might remain, a common broad understanding regarding the history of East Asia between countries, but also between individuals of different national backgrounds can be brought about. The book is amajor contribution to efforts towards reconciliation in the region. As the first English-language textbookonthe history of East Asia written by scholars from East Asia, it is also highly recommended for use in an anglophone teaching environment. Chinese-Japanese-Korean efforts to produce acommon textbookor teaching material go back to the 1980s, when the history textbookcon- troversy first becameamajor international issue in East Asia. Whilegov- ernment initiatives to present acommon understanding of the past were hampered by political considerations, communication between established historians, primarily of an academic nature, proved to be highly fruitful. Books written by multinational groups of historians and educators were published from the 1990s onwards, culminating in the completionofA History to Open theFuture in 2005, which has been available in English as an e-book since 2015.3 Whilethe book was afirst step on the path to the creation of acommon, or at least mutual, understanding of the East Asian past that transcends narrow nation-centered histories, the authors realized that there was still much to be done.Continued exchanges resulted in the plan to write atwo-volume “History of Modern East Asia”,which was eventually published in 2012 in Chinese, Japanese and Korean. We decided that this work deserved to be presented to an English-speaking audience, began to translate and edit the text in 2013, and completed the work on this project in late 2016.

3The China-Japan-Korea History Textbook Tri-National Committee (ed.), AHistory to Open the Future:Modern East Asian History and RegionalReconciliation (Honolulu: School of Pacific and Asian Studies, University of Hawai’iatManoa, 2015). An Esperanto version was published in 2014.

Preface to the English Edition 19

The book is amilestone in the process of Chinese, Japanese and Korean historians working towardsthe formulation of ashared understanding of the past of the East Asian region. Whileitmay seem natural that historians would engageinthis kind of dialogue, in an age of increasing internation- alization of research and of deepening academic networks, the fact that common wisdom still holds that “national history” is limited to one nation presents amajor obstacletothis kind of transnational cooperation. Before this background, it is all the more important to demonstrate that transnational dialogue is possible and fruitful. The successful work of the partic- ipants in this project shows that an exclusive “Japanese”, “Chinese” or “Korean” view of the past is difficult to uphold, just as scientists of previous centuries eventuallyhad to admit that something like a “national biology” or “national physics” was simply not possible.4 Similarly, the history of a war, by definition ahistorical event in which at least two nations are involved, should not be written by only one or the other side;ideally it is a synthesis of multipleperspectives and of the analysis of multiple archive sources. This academic and historical approach has been under attack in East Asia since the 1990s, when “historical revisionism”,amovement led by politicians and some public intellectuals, but not supported by any influential historians, emerged as an important force in public discourse.InJapan, the movement started with the foundation of the Committee for the Re-Ex- amination of History in the Liberal Democratic Party in 1993, but it is also not unknown in Korea and has recently gained strength in China.5 The book

4These tendencies were certainly not rare in the nationalist nineteenth century, culminating in the emergence of pseudo-sciences such as “racial studies,” but also remained popular in the twentieth century, when,for example, Austrian scholar Philipp Lenard (1862–1946) propagated the idea of “German physics.” 5Onhistorical revisionism in Japan, see Sven Saaler, Politics, Memory and Public Opinion (Munich:Iudicium, 2005);Sven Saaler, “Nationalism and History in Contemporary Japan,” in Jeff Kingston (ed.), Asian Nationalisms Reconsidered (London:Routledge, 2016), 172–185;onhistorical revisionisminChina, see Gilbert Rozman, “Historical Memoriesand InternationalRelations in Northeast Asia,” in Daniel Chirot, Gi-Wook Shin, and Daniel Sneider (eds), Memories of World War II. European and Asian Legacies (Seattle and London:University of Washington Press, 2014), 211–233. See also the chapters in section IV of Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (eds), Routledge HandbookofModern Japanese History (London:Routledge, 2018).

20 Preface to the English Edition in hand is, amongst other things, an attempt to stem this wave of historical revisionism and to reconfirm the authority of history scholarship in discussions about the past of the East Asian region. The authors show that narrowly framed explanations limited to the explorationofonly one side of the story are not only academicallyquestionable, but also pose ahindrance on the road to reconciliation and stability in the region. Notwithstanding the general agreement regarding the importance of connectinghistorical understanding to reconciliationinthe context of international relations, the chapter about the representation of the past in the public sphere in this volume was the most contested one. Historical revisionism has been more successful than history scholarship in assuming a key role during discussions on historical memory. State-led ceremonies to commemorate historical anniversaries, such as the end of the Second World War in East Asia, have been strongly characterizedbyone-dimensional approaches, and have often been described as offensive to neighboring states. The resumption of visits by Japanese prime ministers to the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo in the early twenty-firstcentury, after amoratorium of 15 years, has been seen as aprovocative step because of the extremely narrow historicalnarrative represented by the shrine, which dramatically contra- dicts interpretations of Japan’swartime past presented by academic historians. Similarly, China’smilitary “victory parade” to celebrate the 70th anniversaryofthe end of the “War against Japanese invasion” was seen as counterproductive in terms of reconciliation. Chapter8of this book deals with the display of historical memory in the public sphere and discusses issues of public memory and museums in East Asia. Heated discussion characterized the drafting of thischapter, as the reader will notice. Even- tually, the Korean version of this chapter was included in all versions of this book as acommon draft could not be agreed upon. However, the Chinese and Japanese versions include comments by the authorsfrom these two countries, which were added to the unreviseddraft. Since the book in hand is atranslation from the Japanese version, the editors decided to leave the text as it is. For the subject matter is instructive in itself;we believe that it is telling that, while historians can agree on shared narratives of the past, they remain at odds with the often highly politicized question as to how history is represented in the public sphere. During the process of translatingthe Japanese edition into English, ed-

Preface to the English Edition 21 iting the English version and confirming the contents with the authors from Japan, China and Korea, the editors of this translation noticed,inaddition to the fundamentally different chapter 8, subtle differences in several places. While this English translation is based on the Japanese version, we took into account requestsbythe Korean and Chinese authors (in consultation with theJapanese authors) to adjust the English text in cases where theirversions differed substantially from the Japanese edition. We also added footnotes addressed to Western readers less familiar with the subject matter than the originallyintended audience, and we dropped some footnotes included in the Japanese version that seemed unnecessary for aWesternaudience. While the English translation of AHistory to Open the Future includes a detailed list of differences in the wording of the texts of the Japanese, the Korean and the Chinese versions, we have decided to leave it to researchers of history education and textbook issues to analyze the detailsand what these tell us about differences in historical consciousness prevalentinthe societies of these three East Asian countries. Overall,wehope that thispublication will be of interest not only to scholars of history education and textbooks, but that it will also find its way into the classroom of courses on Modern East Asia, International Relations or the historiesofJapan,China and Korea. While in many countries history continues to be taught within anational framework, this book is also highly recommendable for classes in Modern Chinese History, ModernJapanese History, and ModernKorean History, because it presents national histories embedded in the framework of regional interaction and the globalsystem of international relations. The late nineteenth and the twentieth centuries, which constitute the principal timeframeofthis textbook, were already characterized by intensive cross-border interaction. However, the need to understand such developments is even greater in the twenty-first century, an era in which forces of globalism and nationalism continue to influence our daily lives, necessitatinganunderstanding of the historical background of contemporary developments.

Eckhardt Fuchs and Sven Saaler Braunschweig and Tokyo, August 2017

Preface of the Trilateral China-Japan-Korea History Textbook EditorialCommittee

As we embarked onthe twenty-firstcentury after acentury of invasion, war, and conflict, we hoped it wouldbeacentury of reconciliation and peace. However, that expectation was soon betrayed by conflict, amongst other things, over historical consciousness and history textbooks. It was then that we decided to collaborate to compile and publish ahistory textbookthat could replace those that were focusedonour own national perspectives. We felt that to aim at ashared awareness and reconsideration of history by deepening our mutual understanding was the best way to create abrighter future for East Asia. In May 2005, we published Mirai ohiraku rekishi (A History to Open the Future), which was edited by ateam of Chinese, Japanese, and South Korean historians. The response to it exceeded our expectations by far, and over 300,000 copies in total were sold in China, Japan, and Korea. It is used as a teaching resource in some junior high and high schools, as well as in some universities. It drew interest not only from within the three countriesbut also from academic societies and history educators in Americaand Europe. People reacted positively to the efforts of researchers from China, Japan, and Korea to open the way to afuture of peace, human rights, and democracy based on ashared historical consciousness. However, the limits and problems in the process of compiling AHistory to Open the Future have also received attention. Some feltthat there was not enough of ashared historical awareness in the book, and that too much emphasiswas placed on criticizing Japan’smistakes rather than working toward afuture peace. In particular, it was argued that,while the book claimed to look at history from the perspective of “East Asia,” in fact it did

24 Preface of the Editorial Committee no morethan look at the modern history of China, Japan, and Korea side by side, acritique that indicated amajor problem of our undertaking. At almost the same time as the publication of this book, anumber of different efforts beganinEast Asia to try and resolve the conflict surrounding historical consciousness. Several history textbooks were published as aresult of collaborative efforts between Japanese and Korean scholars, increasinginterest in the history of the neighboring countries. Exchange between historians also increased as they tried to solve the dis- putes over our history and reach ashared historical understanding,and further seminarsand symposia were held on the theme of East Asian history. “East Asian History” becameanofficialhigh school course in Korea and has been taught since 2012 after the necessarytextbooks were developed. Growing interest from society, as well as the increasing exchanges regarding history, greatly encouraged our efforts to create ashared historical consciousness, and we decided to take up the spirit of AHistory to Open the Future and work together oncemore to make anothernew history textbook. At an international conference held in Kyoto in November 2006, we agreed to collaborate and compileanew textbook. This new book was created to refine the contentand our methodology in order to furtheran understanding of East Asia’smodern history and promote ashared awareness of history. We also agreed to make it astepping-stonetoward writing acomplete, systematic history of modern East Asia that would form the basis of acommon historical awareness in China, Japan, and Korea. In AHistory to Open the Future, the focus was placed on helpingstudents and the generalpublic to accurately understand East Asia’smodern history. Therefore, we structured the content around topics and facts that were disputed by the three countries. In the new book, we emphasize asystematic understanding of East Asia’smodern history by linking the historical shifts in the region with the general flow of worldhistory. To achieve this, we refused to adopt amethod in which members from each country undertook the writing of their respective country’shistory;instead we decided to divide up the writingbychapter, narrating history with an emphasis on the structural changes. We focused our attention on understanding structural changes in the state systems of each of the three countries, as well as their interrelationships within the context of international relations in East Asia.

Preface of the Editorial Committee 25

Particular emphasis was placed on understanding them within the context of their relations with Europe and America. However, in ahistorical narrative concerned with only structural changes, the tangible figure of the commonpeople who lived through them is likely to be buried;furthermore, there is adanger that it becomes difficult to see how individuals’ activities and interactions with each other affected the course of modern history. We therefore decided to create asecond volume that looked at the daily lives and mutual exchanges of the people of China, Japan, and Korea. Thus, the first volume of the new book is a chronological study of the structural changes in China, Japan,and Korea’s modern history, whereas the second volumeexamines the lives and interactions of the people, based on avariety of topics. While research collaborations tend to emphasize continuous oppor- tunities for exchange among scholars and improved results, our efforts focused on producing ajoint work. Our aim was to make the fruits of our collaboration ashared social heritage rather than asimple mishmash of individual research. For this reason, the process consumed agreat deal of time and effort. Our work was supported by aconsensus that we were contributing to the development of an “East Asian Peace Community,” and from 2002 this was our driving force. Today there is lively debate in the three countries regarding the “East Asian community.” This was not the case when we beganworkingtogether to create theseresources for teaching history. We would like to see these two volumes contribute to resolving the conflicts between the three countries and establishing peace, because that is the path toward afuture in which the people of East Asia can interactwitheach other, share culture,and exchange ideas. We also hope that the readers of this work further discuss the problems that we have raised. We would like the book to play arole in fostering an awareness of history that looks to the future, helping people understand the history of East Asia and consider the history of countries different from their own in anew light. It is with this sentiment that we have published this new two-volume textbookinChina, Japan,and Korea. We hope that this provides an opportunity for renewed exchange and fruitful dialogue con- cerning historicalawareness of East Asia’spast.