CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Women generally are accorded low status in human societies. It is with the systematic intellectual approach, which contemporary women struggle for better life, attention and equal opportunities with men that the problem is now being addressed. Before now, women development efforts had centered largely on providing the needs of members of the family. Today, these efforts have gone beyond the family level. Women have been seen as a unique potential source of economic, social and political focal point of power if only they are properly tapped. Society is dynamic in nature and the changes that occur affect the economic and socio-political life of the people. Change in this context means passing from one state or condition to another. Every human society at every stage of its evolution, experiences constant movement and changes in response to internal and external factors. Historical evidence has shown that the phenomenon of change began in Igbo land over millennia, long before the advent of European colonialism.1 Abundant evidence exists to show that African societies and economies were receptive and responsive to changes and innovations in their development processes as against the views of most Euro-centric writers who portrayed Africans and African societies as static, backward, primitive and under-developed.2 Africans reacted differently to innovations and change both as individuals and as groups. Endogenous 1 agents of change existed in traditional Igbo society of which Abakaliki is a significant part. This study therefore debunks the view, which either attributes these changes to entirely European impact or assesses them on Western models. Trade, both local and long distance, warfare, occupational specialization and skill, technological innovations or improvements, population density and demographic shifts, as forces or agents often associated with transition, were operative in Abakaliki traditional society, as in other Igbo communities prior to the advent of Christianity and Western education3. Ottenberg observed that the Igbo are probably the most receptive to culture change among any large group in Nigeria4. They possess tremendous ability to integrate external borrowings into their indigenous formations and practices. Thus, Ottenberg concluded, ‚of all Nigerian peoples, the Ibo have probably changed the least while changing the most‛5. Abakaliki women were not left out; they demonstrated their adaptive capacity in their various economic, social and political pursuits. For instance, well organized network of markets and trade routes existed in traditional Igbo societies that nineteenth century European observer remarked: That such immense crowds should meet day after day in perfect harmony and order (in West Africa Markets) and transact their affairs like one great family without fighting and bloodshed is more wonderful because it stands out in such bold contrasts to what is even in lands boasted of civilization and good government6. 2 This organized system led to the development of a dynamic exchange economy, new bonds of relationships, flow of ideas and cultures. The advent of iron technology and the production of iron implements by some Igbo communities facilitated the fight to control the environment and revolutionalized agriculture, hunting and warfare. Diversification and professionalization of occupations also developed and social institutions emerged and expanded7. These factors impacted both positively and negatively on the people, especially women, making for conflict, order, stability and progress. However, ‚the degree and pace of change may not have been fast because technological innovation was low or less advanced.‛8 Despite the evident changes exhibited by traditional Igbo society, the Euro-centric scholars portrayed Africa as a dark continent in order to justify the European colonization and subsequent exploitation of its human and natural resources. Colonialism no doubt, was not a civilizing mission to Nigeria. The British mission in Nigeria was unarguably exploitative9. Nnamdi Azikiwe cited in Enuka describe the British ‚as the white pests who came to waste Africa and not to West Africa, they came for our goods and not for our good‛10. However, colonialism had its advantages and limitations, ‘good and evil and ‘progress and damage’. For example, Isichei and Suret-Canale argue that while the limited funds provided by capitalist investment and the new imports from Europe helped to raise the standards of living of the colonized peoples to some appreciable degree, they also led to the decline and 3 eventual ruin of traditional industries and perfected the colonial pattern of exploitation11. Nevertheless, that colonialism brought about some changes in African societies cannot be disputed. The nature and extent of the changes however, differed from one society to another. Towns that became colonial administrative headquarters and those that embraced western education and Christianity, changes in their economic, political and social life was faster than communities in which these opportunities did not present themselves either early enough, or were thrown away. Christianity and western education introduced some ideas and values, which encouraged and promoted the pace of political, economic, social and cultural change of Igbo land, yet some Igbo communities did not allow their traditional institutions and values, which had sustained them over the ages to succumb easily to the innovations brought about by colonialism. Rather, they responded to these changes with a great deal of resentment, tact, wisdom and caution. For instance, Anyanwu observes, that decades after the establishment of colonial rule the people of Ezza, a major clan in Abakaliki ‚rejected western education‛, ‚an institution like ritual circumcision remained unchanged in the face of colonial assault‛ while Christianity up to 1960 remained the religion of a minority‛.12 Thus, change microscopic as it might be in Abakaliki society, was not as a result of colonialism alone. Abakaliki women have, in time and space, and under the changing conditions, made vital contributions to societal development. 4 Statement of the Problem The subject of change and development is a topical issue of considerable interest to scholars, especially geographers, sociologists, economists, philosophers, political scientists and historians. However, in spite of the accelerated pace of internally and externally induced change in the status of Abakaliki women in particular and Igbo women in general, the study of this phenomenon has received little attention from scholars, particularly historians. They have however paid scant attention to the changing position of Abakaliki women, thus rendering this aspect of their history incomplete. Moreover, the negative impression by other culture groups about the Abakaliki area as a backward and stagnant society is also a contributing factor to lack of studies of the people and their women. Thus, this study is designed to fill the gap in our knowledge of the rapidly changing status of Abakaliki women, and the contributions they have made to the socio-economic and political development of Abakaliki. Purpose of the Study At every state of human societal evolution, there are forces inducing change and forces opposed to change. The main purpose of this work therefore is to: carry out an in-depth study of the changing status of Abakaliki women in the spheres of socoi-economic and political development; 5 identify and examine the internal and external dynamics of change and their impact on Abakaliki women; highlight the problems associated with the changes in the status of women and suggest measures to tackle the ever increasing challenges confronting women; and correct the misconception that the Abakaliki women are conservative and slow to respond to agents or forces of change. Significance of the Study This study will help to lay a comprehensive historical foundation for the subject of changing status of Abakaliki women. This study would contribute to a better appreciation of Abakaliki women as active participants and agents in the process of socio-economic and political development of Abakaliki society. This study would help to accord women their deserved recognition and position in the development process of the Igbo nation. This study is also relevant because it will help to show that Abakaliki people generally and the women in particular are both receptive and responsive. The work will add to the body of existing knowledge and make good reading material to the public just as it will serve as a reference study to researchers on gender related disciplines. 6 Fig i: Map of old Abakaliki Division Scope of the Study This work is a gender study, which canvases women issues from the historical perspectives. The study area is old Abakaliki division of the Ogoja province or currently the two sentorial zones of Ebonyi North and Central. It covers the period from 1929-1999. The two dates are 7 significant historical landmarks in two major respects. The base year (1929) was the year igbo women revolted against British hegemony. This is referred to as ‚The Aba Women’s Riot‛. The perplexing nature of the revolt inspired interests in studies on women in Igbo society. The choice of 1999 terminal period is also unique in its own way because it marked the end of the 20th century, and epoch that witnessed profound and unprecedented changes on status of Abakaliki women. Sources and Methodology This