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45404 Public Disclosure Authorized DIRECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT Public Disclosure Authorized Human Development Girls’ Education in the 21st Century Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth Public Disclosure Authorized Mercy Tembon and Lucia Fort, Editors Public Disclosure Authorized Girls’ Education in the 21st Century Girls’ Education in the 21st Century Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth Mercy Tembon and Lucia Fort Editors © 2008 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 5 11 10 09 08 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclu- sions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting por- tions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to repro- duce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@ worldbank.org. ISBN-13: 978-0-8213-7474-0 eISBN-13: 978-0-8213-7475-7 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-7474-0 Cover photo: © World Bank/Curt Carnemark Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Girls’ education in the 21st century : equality, empowerment, and growth. p. cm. 1. Women--Education--Developing countries. 2. Women--Education--Economic aspects--Developing countries. 3. Educational equalization--Developing countries. I. Title: Girls' education in the twenty-first century. LC2572.G57 2008 371.822--dc22 2008029785 Contents Foreword xvii Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Contributors xxv Abbreviations xxvii Part I Education Quality, Skills Development, 1 and Economic Growth Chapter 1 Overview 3 Mercy Tembon Structure of the Book6 Note 21 References 21 v vi Contents Chapter 2 Schooling, Gender Equity, and Economic 23 Outcomes Eric Hanushek Schooling as an Investment in Human Capital 24 Policy Objectives 32 Conclusion 35 Notes 36 References 37 Chapter 3 Student Learning Outcomes in Mathematics 41 from a Gender Perspective: What Does the International PISA Assessment Tell Us? Andreas Schleicher Introduction 41 Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance 43 Policy Implications 47 References 52 Chapter 4 Returns to Education: The Gender Perspective 53 Harry Patrinos Calculating the Rate of Return to Education 54 The Social Benefits of Schooling 58 Gender Differences 58 Conclusions 64 Note 64 References 64 Chapter 5 Is Female Education a Pathway to Gender 67 Equality in the Labor Market? Some Evidence from Pakistan Monazza Aslam, Geeta Kingdon, and Mans Söderbom Examining the Education-Occupation 69 Relationship in Pakistan Education, Labor Market Transitions, and 73 Occupational Attainment Education and Earnings 82 Conclusion 86 Notes 89 References 91 Contents vii Part II Equity in Education: What Is Holding 93 Countries Back? Chapter 6 Inequalities in Education: Effects of Gender, 95 Poverty, Orphanhood, and Disability Deon Filmer Data and Methodology 96 Poverty 97 The Pattern of Educational Attainment: Survivor Profiles 99 Urban or Rural Residence and Gender 102 Orphanhood 105 Disability 108 Conclusion 112 Notes 112 References 113 Chapter 7 The Double Disadvantage of Gender and 115 Social Exclusion in Education Marlaine Lockheed Socially Excluded Groups 116 Social Exclusion and Education 117 Creative Ways of Reaching and Teaching 119 Excluded Girls Practical Actions to Promote Education for 123 Excluded Girls Notes 124 References 124 Chapter 8 Promoting Education Quality through 127 Gender-Friendly Schools Changu Mannathoko Introduction 127 Bringing Girls and Women into Schools and 129 Learning Spaces through WID School and Society as Gendered Power 130 Structures The Poststructuralist Challenge to Gender, 134 Sexuality, Education, and Development viii Contents Transformative Action through Rights to 135 Education and Gender Equality Concluding Remarks 139 References 140 Chapter 9 Combating Gender-Based Violence in Benin 143 Michele Akpo Benin and Millennium Development Goal 3 145 GBV in Benin—A Culturally Accepted 146 Practice with Major Health and Human Rights Implications Policy Frameworks to Address GBV in Schools 149 Why GBV in Schools Persists and Ways to Overcome It to Promote Girls’ Education 150 Note 151 References 151 Chapter 10 Addressing Gender Disparities in Education in 153 Contexts of Crisis, Postcrisis, and State Fragility Jackie Kirk Challenges and Opportunities: Gender Issues in 155 Education in Emergencies and Fragile States Promising Policy Developments at the Global 161 Level Implications: Learning for Peace and Equality 168 Conclusions 172 Annex 10A: Classroom Assistants in Guinea 172 and Sierra Leone Annex 10B: The Gender Equity Support Project 174 of the Sudan Basic Education Program Annex 10C: An Integrated Approach to 175 Addressing Sanitary Protection Needs: IRC Ethiopia’s Intervention Notes 176 References 177 Contents ix Part III Experiences from the Field: How Was 181 It Done? Chapter 11 Building a Better Future for Afghanistan 183 through Female Education Sakena Yacoobi The Situation of Afghan Women Past and Present 184 The Context in Which Afghan Women Live 187 Improving the Circumstances of Afghan Women 188 A Strategy to Empower and Educate Afghan 190 Women Conclusion 197 References 198 Chapter 12 The Effects of a Reduction in User Fees on 201 School Enrollment: Evidence from Colombia Felipe Barrera-Osorio The Effect of User Fees on Enrollment 202 Some Ideas on Targeting 205 Note 206 References 207 Chapter 13 Holy Alliances: Public Subsidies, Islamic High 209 Schools, and Female Schooling in Bangladesh Mohammad Niaz Asadullah and Nazmul Chaudhury Madrassa Reform in South Asia 210 The Madrassa Reform Scheme in Bangladesh 213 Conclusion and Policy Implications 225 Annex 13A: Variable Description, Summary 229 Statistics, and Regression Results Notes 235 References 237 xContents Chapter 14 Cultivating Knowledge and Skills to Grow 239 African Agriculture Richard Johanson, William Saint, Catherine Ragasa, and Eija Pehu The Context for Agricultural Education and 239 Training in Africa Agricultural Education Is Vital for African 241 Development African AET in Perspective 241 Constraints on Building AET Capacity 242 Priorities for Modernizing Agricultural Education 245 Different Approaches for Different Levels 246 of Training The Time to Act Is Now 247 Notes 251 References 251 Chapter 15 Quality and Gender Equality in Education: 253 What Have We Learned from FAWE’s 15 Years of Experience? Codou Diaw Introduction 253 Background and Evolution of FAWE 254 Overview of Girls’ Education in Sub-Saharan 256 Africa FAWE’s Major Achievements 257 Components of FAWE’s Gender-Responsive 259 School or Center of Excellence (COE) Model Challenges Related to the Achievement of 260 FAWE’s Strategic Objectives 2002–06 Lessons Learned 263 Conclusion and Way Forward 265 Notes 267 References 267 Contents xi Chapter 16 Strategies for Gender Equality in Basic and 269 Secondary Education: A Comprehensive and Integrated Approach in the Republic of Yemen Tawfiq A. Al-Mekhlafy Where Are We Now? 270 Current Interventions 271 Obstacles to Universal Education 274 A Concluding Word 276 References 277 Chapter 17 Conclusion and Recommendations for the 279 Way Forward Mercy Tembon Strategic Directions for the Future 280 Implications for the World Bank 298 References 302 Index 305 Figures 2.1 Improved GDP with Moderately Strong Knowledge 33 Improvement 2.2 Inequality of Educational Quality and Earnings 34 3.1 Growth in Baseline Qualifications 43 3.2 Gender Differences in University Attainment, in Percentage Points 44 3.3 Performance of Males and Females on the Mathematics 45 Scale in PISA, 2006 3.4 Performance of Males and Females on the Reading 46 Scale in PISA, 2006 3.5 Gender Differences in Mathematics and Other 48 Learning Characteristics as Measured by Effect Sizes 4.1 Typical Age-Earnings Profiles 54 4.2 Rate of Return to Additional Years of Schooling 55 in Selected Countries xii Contents 4.3 Returns to Education in Developing Countries, by 56 Level of Education 4.4 Returns to Schooling, by Region 57 4.5 Declining Returns to Schooling, 1970–2000 57 4.6 Returns to Schooling in Selected Countries, by Gender 60 4.7 Gender Differences in Years of Schooling in 60 Developing and Industrial Countries 4.8 Returns to Schooling, by Level and Gender 61 4.9 Average Scores on