Strengthening Education in the Muslim World Country Profiles and Analysis PPC ISSUE WORKING PAPER NO. PAPER WORKING PPC ISSUE 1
Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination April 2004
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RELATED PUBLICATIONS
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World: Summary of the Desk Study (PN-ACT-009) Strengthening Education in the Muslim World Country Profiles and Analysis
April 2004
Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms v
Preface vii
Uzbekistan 1
Egypt 9
Morocco 17
Yemen 25
Bangladesh 31
Pakistan 43
Indonesia 55
Malaysia 65
Nigeria 73
Guinea, Mali, Senegal 81
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank Afr. Dev. Bank African Development Bank AusAID Australian Agency for International Development BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee CIDA Canadian International Development Agency Comm. Sec. Commonwealth Secretariat DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DEO District Education Officer (Pakistan) DFID Department for International Development (U.K.) EU European Union FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency FMG Federal Ministry of Education (Nigeria) GNI Gross National Income GTZ German Aid Agency—Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit HDI Human Development Index HuT Hizb-ut-Tahrir (Uzbekistan) IAIN State Institute of Islamic Studies ICG International Crisis Group IESAB Islamic Education and Social Affairs Board (Nigeria) IFES International Foundation for Election Systems IMU Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JUI Jamiet-e-Ulema-e-Islam (Pakistan) LEAP Literacy Enhancement Assistance Project MNE Ministry of National Education (Morocco) NEP National Education Philosophy (Malaysia) NWFP North West Frontier Province (Pakistan) ppp purchasing power parity PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RFA Request for Assistance (USAID) SDF Social Development Fund (Yemen) SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SO Strategic Objective (USAID) UBE Universal Basic Education (Nigeria) UNDP United Nations Development Programme
v Strengthening Education in the Muslim World
Preface
To advance USAID's understanding of how better to support the educational needs of the Muslim world, the Office of Development Evaluation and Information in USAID's Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination (PPC) undertook a three-month desk study to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of secular and Islamic educational systems in 12 Muslim countries. Its methodology was based on secondary research and interviews with a small sample of experts. The major findings and conclusions of this study appeared in Strengthening Education in the Muslim World: Summary of the Desk Study (PN-ACT-009) by Sharon Benoliel.
The country profiles in this report are based on research and a preliminary report prepared by Matt Seymour, Uzma Anzar, Nina Etyemezian, and Victor Farren. Revisions were made by Sharon Benoliel, Maxine Pitter Lunn, Emily Gosse, and Katie Croake. Revisions included correcting some inaccuracies found in the country profiles in the preliminary report and providing additional information on Islamic schools. Time constraints and the desk study format limited the amount of data that could be collected and analyzed, the extent of revisions, and the comprehensiveness of citations. Nevertheless, the report contains information and analyses that may be very useful to USAID field missions. For further information, contact [email protected].
Editorial, design, and production assistance was furnished by IBI-International Business Initiatives, Arlington, Va.
Sharon Benoliel
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World vii
1. Uzbekistan
Table 1.1. Uzbekistan Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 24.8 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 88 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 39 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 63.1 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $2,360 Total fertility rate ...... 2.6 Human Development Index...... 0.7
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 100 Primary gender parity index ...... – Primary net enrollment ratio...... 100 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... – Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... – Primary student/teacher ratio ...... – Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio...... 95 Secondary gender parity index ...... – Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate...... – Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... – Adult tertiary completion rate...... – Literacy Adult literacy rate ...... – Female adult literacy rate...... – Male adult literacy rate ...... – Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 7.7 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 21.1 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure ...... –
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 1 Introduction Characteristics f the 15 new countries that became inde- One year after independence, the Government of pendent from the Soviet Union in 1991, Uzbekistan introduced new curricula and text- Uzbekistan has the third largest population books, a new testing system, and new accreditation O methods for colleges and universities. The (25 million) and the fourth largest land area. About 45 percent of the population is under 20. Education Act of 1992 also mandated compulsory Ethnically, the country’s population is approximate- education for nine years. Although UNESCO ly 80 percent Uzbek, 5.5 percent Russian, 5 percent notes that the National Program of Personnel Tajik, 3 percent Kazakh, 2.5 percent Karakalpak, Training is working toward 12 years, other sources 1.5 percent Tatar, and 2.5 percent “other.” Some say the government has no plan to mandate more ethnic minorities live in enclave areas with native- than nine. In addition, a new emphasis was placed language institutions such as schools. Most on courses in Uzbek history and culture and Uzbeks—88 percent—are Muslim, primarily Sunni, increasing the supply of Uzbek language textbooks while 9 percent are Eastern Orthodox.1 in many fields.
The Uzbek Government’s program to restructure a Recently, two new types of schools have been intro- Soviet-era centralized education system is hampered duced in Uzbekistan: a three-year lyceum (or lycée) by declining budgets, crumbling infrastructure, that prepares students for higher education and a teacher attrition, and declining public confidence. three-year professional college. The college trains In 2001, there were 5.6 million students at the pri- students for professional careers in industry and mary level and 364,971 at the secondary level, but services, leaving open the possibility of further these numbers are dropping.2 State investment in higher education. The government has invested education as a percentage of the GDP is also drop- significant sums in building new specialized and ping, though not as precipitously as in other vocational schools, though some claim this comes Central Asian Republics.3 at the expense of basic education. An estimated 7 million pupils will enroll in these new schools over the next 10 years. In sharp contrast with the past, Public Education System the European Union (EU) reports an unprecedent- The education system in Uzbekistan is well devel- ed 90 percent of these pupils will enroll in voca- oped and accessible to all. The country’s literacy tional education and training.4 Other sources feel rate is nearly 100 percent and nine years of basic this is an overly optimistic projection, given real education is compulsory for both boys and girls. and perceived problems with modernizing the However, quality is definitely on the decline. Fewer vocational education curricula. children attend preprimary education than in the Soviet era due to fewer opportunities, changing Challenges family dynamics (resurgence of traditional gender Access. There are access challenges at all levels of the roles), and economics (fewer state enterprises will- system. Old buildings are deteriorating and lack ing to finance preschools). Schooling in years adequate sanitation, but money to upgrade them is 10–12 is available at academic lycées (university-ori- in short supply. In 1992, about 8,500 schools in ented high schools), technical colleges, and special- rural areas ran on double shifts because money to ized and vocational schools. The languages of build new schools was not available.5 Traditionally, instruction are Uzbek and Russian. For minority state-owned enterprises—not the education min- schools, Uzbek and Russian are compulsory, in istries—funded preprimary schools. As state enter- addition to the minority language of the school. In prises privatized and cut back on such activities, 1993, the law transferring written Uzbek to Latin enrollments dropped to one-half the 1990 level, script came into effect; Latin script was introduced with fewer and fewer opportunities for rural chil- to all first graders during the 1996–97 academic dren.6 Moreover, even though there is universal year. basic education coverage, the Ministry of Public
2 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Education reports that some rural and poor children leasing to help needy families cut costs. In addition, are dropping out of school in order to work and to improve the financial situation of teachers, the increase family incomes. government relieves them from paying utility bills. According to UNESCO’s “Education For All” coun- Quality. The quality of public school education in try reports, Uzbekistan is also committed to restruc- Uzbekistan has been declining. According to a turing staff training system to align it with the coun- USAID education system assessment report,7 cur- try’s social and economic development needs, the lat- riculum changes in Uzbekistan and other Central est achievements in science, and new technological Asian republics have failed to introduce new meth- advancements.8 To supplement the current educa- ods of teaching and learning. The curriculum tion budget, the government also plans to develop remains encyclopedic and information-based, allow- and launch certain fundraising mechanisms, such as ing for few question-and-answer sessions. In fact, it encouraging foreign investment in the continuous is usually considered impolite for students to ask education and staff training systems. questions in class or interrupt their teachers. The teaching-learning environment in most classrooms Donor Assistance therefore fails to nurture a positive student attitude The following donors have been implementing pro- toward learning. In addition, curriculum changes grams to support Uzbekistan’s education sector. have not been matched by needed changes in ■ The ADB has taken a lead role in supporting teacher training. The decline in educational quality primary and secondary education, and is pro- is also related to the decline in teachers’ status and viding support for vocational and technical salaries. education. Management. With support from the EU, USAID, ■ The U.K. Government’s Department for the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and other International Development (DFID) invited the donors, Uzbekistan is moving toward decentraliza- British Council to manage an academic partner- tion of the education system. However, funding at ship project that helps higher education institu- local levels remains problematic, with limited tions in Central Asia prepare their degree pro- opportunities to raise revenues. In principle, fiscal grams to match the needs of the region’s emerg- and curriculum management authority will rest ing new economies. Five of 16 partnerships are eventually with local education officials and head in Uzbekistan. The project has been running for teachers of schools. In practice, however, Uzbekistan about five years. The followon project began in is still the least advanced of the Central Asian January 2001, and focused on disseminating the republics along this path. Additionally, decentraliza- materials developed to a wider selection of high- tion raises the possibility for regional disparities er education institutions.9 based on local economic conditions. ■ The EU has also provided significant support to the education sector, focusing on vocational and Policy Reforms. Over the years, the Government of technical education. Uzbekistan has placed a strong emphasis on reform- ing the educational sector through curriculum and ■ The Japan International Cooperation Agency textbook revisions, improved and equitable access for (JICA) has provided substantial sums for educa- rural and lower economic groups, and staff training. tional exchanges and training programs. The introduction of new textbooks with special ■ The Korean Government has provided some aid emphasis on economics, language, and environmen- to the Uzbek Government to improve teacher tal education demonstrates the government’s interest education. in preparing Uzbekistani youth for greater participa- tion in the global economy. The government also ■ The five Central Asian countries are invited to adopted a number of equity measures. It provides take part in Swedish International Development free textbooks to all grade 1 children and textbook Agency (SIDA)-financed regional training pro-
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 3 Table 1.2. Donor Assistance to Education in Uzbekistan
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank* ■■ USAID* ■■ ■ UNICEF ADB* ■■ ■■■■■ ■■ EU ■■■■■ ■■ UNESCO* ■■■ CIDA GTZ/KFW JICA ■■ Korea ■ DFID ■■ SIDA* ■
* Denotes active involvement in project or planned work
grams, including journalism and democracy, con- Strengths and Weaknesses for flict solution, water management, and seed pro- Preparing Students for Civic duction. With financing from SIDA, the Swedish Participation and Employment Institute is managing a scholarship program for Employment. Uzbekistan no longer has a command academic studies in Sweden for, among others, economy. Although slowly and gradually moving in students from the Central Asian countries.10 the right direction, until 1998 the country had not ■ UNESCO has done work in special education, done much to improve education for employment training teachers to educate students about in a free market. Only recently, with support from HIV/AIDS. UNESCO also held a regional donors under the decentralization programs, are col- forum on distance education, hoping to engage leges and universities being encouraged to create Uzbekistan in the future. partnerships with local entrepreneurs to open job opportunities for college graduates.11 ■ USAID announced a program supporting basic education in January 2003. Civic Participation. No information emerged in the ■ The World Bank is planning to support a dis- literature review indicating that the government’s tance learning program. public school curriculum includes courses that pro- mote civic participation. However, some students
4 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 are being prepared for civic responsibilities through The formal network includes madrasas that begin as their participation in civic education and democracy Koranic education for children of primary school building programs implemented in Uzbekistan by age and continue to include more specialized several donors. Islamic subjects for students of secondary school age. These schools are available to boys and girls, One example is described as follows: taught separately. There are also two higher educa- tion institutes that teach Islam: the Tashkent Islamic In January 1998, the International Foundation Institute, which produces Islamic scholars who gen- for Election Systems (IFES) formally opened an erally become imams; and Tashkent Islamic office in Tashkent. With funding provided by the University, a secular institute that grants standard United States Agency for International university diplomas.13 Development (USAID), this on-site presence allowed IFES to serve as a dependable source of In addition, loose networks of informal religious information for the Central Election study are reportedly organized and convened by reli- Commission, the Oliy Majlis (Parliament), gious leaders within communities, notwithstanding NGOs, and others working in the areas of elec- that religious education outside the formal network toral sector reform and civic education. In July is illegal. Amendments made to the law on religion, 1999 IFES and its local NGO partner, the Public adopted in May 1999, outlawed private religious Education Center (PEC), conducted a 10-day teaching, including teaching in mosques, except Summer Democracy Camp in Syr-Darya for stu- with the special permission of the muftiate. These dents representing all regions of Uzbekistan. The restrictions were reportedly in response to govern- project promoted greater engagement in democra- ment fears that imams were teaching Wahhabi ide- cy building among the country’s young and ologies or were sheltering Hizb ut-Tahrir (HuT) future leaders, and encouraged these young lead- activities. According to the International Crisis ers to take an active interest in the peaceful and Group (ICG): democratic development of their country. After the Camp, IFES continued to play an important In the absence of formal education in mosques, an role in the development of civil society in old tradition of informal (and illegal) learning has Uzbekistan through civic and voter education reemerged. This traditional form of learning, projects. IFES was able to contribute to OSCE’s known as hujra, was widely practiced in Soviet Education for Women project by providing infor- times, and came from an older tradition of family mation on Civic and Voter Education and by learning of Islam. In some cases hujra groups are publishing and distributing a brochure on conducted by imams or by men who know the women’s rights for regional training sessions.12 Koran well, sometimes with religious education. There are also women’s groups led by traditional teachers of Islam, known as otin-oyi, or by wives of Islamic Schools imams. There are also hujra where children learn the basic prayers and fragments from the Koran.14 Levels and Types There is very limited reliable information available Given the government’s concerns about the Islamic about Islamic schools in Uzbekistan: many sources revival taking place in Uzbekistan, most religious are problematic because of data inconsistency or education is provided in a subdued manner with political agendas. Generally, most Islamic schools low visibility. In a similar vein, the sources of fund- appear to teach only religious subjects and are ing for Islamic education in Uzbekistan are not therefore considered as a supplement to public or clear. While some portion likely comes from the private secular schooling. Reportedly, there are two local community and expatriates, some analysts types of Islamic schooling in Uzbekistan: formal maintain that funding is increasingly coming from and informal. foreign sources, including the Gulf States.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 5 Trends In light of the radicalization of neighboring Though the exact number of religious schools in Afghanistan, the Uzbek Government viewed its own Uzbekistan is not available, several sources confirm Islamic revival as threatening. In 1992, the govern- that it is on the rise. In a June 3, 1995 Los Angeles ment banned the opposition party, the Islamic Times article “Taking an Eager Step Back,” Carol Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) claiming it was Williams reported: “In the three years since affiliated with terrorism and later with an assassina- Uzbekistan proclaimed independence from the shat- tion attempt against President Karimov. tered Soviet Union, 15,000 mosques and madrasas The campaign against “unofficial” Islam began in —segregated schools for religious education— 1994–1995, with the harassment and arbitrary have been built in Uzbekistan by foreign Islamic detentions of men wearing beards and the “disap- 15 benefactors.” pearance” of popular independent Muslim clerics, and intensified in 1997, with the closing of Influences—Sects mosques and a broader crackdown on Islamic Close to 90 percent of Uzbekistan’s population is leaders and other practicing Muslims not affiliated Muslim. During the Soviet era, the central govern- with officially sanctioned Islamic institutions. The ment strictly regulated all religious practices, though media, under the thorough control of the govern- some people managed to practice their religion ment, stigmatized strictly observant Muslims as privately. terrorists and fanatics. At least one university closed its Islamic studies department. Symbols of According to a 1999 Human Rights Watch report, religious piety, including beards and headscarves, With independence in 1991 came the opportuni- became signs of political partisanship.17 ty for Muslims in Uzbekistan to practice freely and openly in accordance with their beliefs. Currently, Uzbekistan officially embraces Sufism, Mosques were built with community donations the more mystical and less political form of Islam and foreign aid, religious schools were opened, that originated in Central Asia. As the government and young people began to learn more about clamped down on unofficial religious movements, Islam. Outside observers predicted a “Muslim external influences—such as money from Gulf renaissance.” States and Saudi Arabia—countered the govern- ment’s actions by funding more religious schools The revival of Islamic adherence came in a variety and clandestine groups who want to practice a par- of forms not easily grouped together. Many citi- ticular version of Islam. Over the years, Wahhabism zens continued to follow a primarily secular path, has expanded in Uzbekistan, especially in the adopting the Muslim appellation and identity Ferghana Valley.18 without corresponding religious practice… Some, particularly younger Muslims, chose a stricter Affiliation with Radical Groups form of religious practice: they undertook reli- According to a report from Human Rights Watch, gious education and adopted religious dress and extensive foreign funding is available from potential- other obligations prescribed by a conservative ly violent Wahhabi sects in the Gulf for militants to interpretation of Islam. Still others saw Islam as open clandestine religious schools, fund teachers, 16 the basis for an alternative political system. and purchase weapons.19 However, despite evidence documenting the existence of extremist Islamic Even though the government regulated religious groups based in Uzbekistan, it is unclear if and to institutions, some communities opened their own what extent they are affiliated with the country’s mosques with private and foreign funding, appoint- religious schools. ed their own imams, and followed what the com- munity perceived to be appropriate religious The possibility exists because at least two extremist practices. Islamic groups—the IMU and the HuT—are native
6 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 to the region and have deep-pocketed funding Parental Incentives sources. Now headquartered in Tajikistan, the IMU In free Uzbekistan, people could practice their reli- operates in all three Central Asian republics. Some gion openly. This enthusiasm to practice and learn of its operatives allegedly launched crossborder about Islam is perhaps the most important precur- incursions into Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan in 1999. sor to the rise in the number of madrasas and reli- The HuT, established in 1952 and based on the gious study groups. Egyptian branch of the “Muslim Brotherhood,” emerged in Central Asia in 1999.20 The Ferghana Strengths and Weaknesses for Valley, straddling Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Preparing Students for Civic Uzbekistan, has been a popular launching pad of Participation and Employment operations for both the IMU and the HuT. Both Uzbekistan’s Islamic schools focus mostly on reli- groups have swelled their ranks with followers and gious topics. Secular and civic subjects are generally contributed to ethnic tensions. not taught, although some entrepreneurial schools may have begun offering such enrichment subjects Governance as computer skills or English. Islamic schools and informal religious study groups fall outside the government’s public education sys- Donor-Funded Work with Islamic tem. Government regulation of Islamic education is Schools and Results strict, taking place through a special agency in the Apart from some suggestion of Gulf-based funding Office of the Presidency or through the Ministry of sources, no reliable information on donor work Religious Affairs. with Islamic schools emerged from the literature review. ■
1 Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, 2002. 9 British Council, “Uzbekistan: Projects and Partnerships.”
6 Open Society Institute, op. cit. 15 Carol Williams, “Taking an Eager Step Back,” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1995. 7 Citation unavailable. 16 Human Rights Watch, “Uzbekistan—Class Dismissed: 8 UNESCO, Education for All. Discriminatory Expulsion of Muslim Students,” Human Rights Watch Report 11 (12D) (1999).
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 7 17 Ibid.
18 “Wahhabism” is used here as a customary term for all fun- damentalist sects in Central Asia, not necessarily those strictly aligned with the Wahhabi sect. See Islamic Supreme Council of America, Invitation to Uzbekistan, 2001.
19 Ibid.
20 Central Asia Caucasus Institute. “Is Hizb-ut-Tahrir Going Public in Its Struggle?” Central Asia Caucasus Analyst (Johns Hopkins University) (July 18, 2001).
8 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 2. Egypt
Table 2.1. Egypt Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 64 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 94 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 37 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 54.8 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $3,670 Total fertility rate ...... 3.28 Human Development Index...... 0.64
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 100.20 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.92 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 92.36 Apparent gross intake rate ...... 90.00 Adult primary completion rate...... 6.9 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... 6 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 24 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 81.02 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.93 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... 67 Adult secondary completion rate ...... 10.5 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 1,895 Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 4.3 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 56.9 Female adult literacy rate ...... 45.9 Male adult literacy rate...... 67.8 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 4.27 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 14.9 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure ...... –
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 9 More than 90 percent of the females in this age Introduction group were illiterate. gypt operates two parallel education systems: the secular system and the Al-Azhar (Islamic) The Free Officers [who led the 1952 Revolution] Esystem. Concerted efforts by the Government dramatically expanded educational opportunities. of Egypt and donors have resulted in universal pri- They pledged to provide free education for all cit- mary education throughout the country. Education izens and abolished all fees for public schools. is compulsory until grade 8. The net enrollment They doubled the Ministry of Education’s budget ratio of 67 percent at the secondary level is also in one decade; government spending on educa- impressive. Nevertheless, overall adult illiteracy tion grew from less than 3 percent of the gross remains high—43 percent—and the rate for women domestic product in 1952–53 to more than 5 is even higher at 54 percent. Quality remains an percent by 1978. Expenditures on school con- issue at all educational levels. struction increased 1,000 percent between 1952 and 1976, and the total number of primary 1 Public Education System schools doubled to 10,000. A Library of Congress Country Study summarizes Characteristics the history of education in modern Egypt: Egypt’s secular education system is organized as 2 Prior to the nineteenth century, the ulama [reli- follows : gious leaders] and Coptic clergy controlled Egypt’s traditional education. The country’s most Preprimary, Elementary, and Preparatory. Preprimary, important institutes were theological seminaries, a new type of school, enrolled 328,142 students in but most mosques and churches—even in vil- 1999. Elementary education, also known as “pri- lages—operated basic schools where boys could mary,” covers the first five years of state-sponsored learn to read and write Arabic, to do simple arith- schooling. “Preparatory” referred to three years of metic, and to memorize passages from the Koran postprimary education when elementary education or Bible. Muhammad Ali established the system consisted of two stages—primary and preparatory. of modern secular education in the early nine- Now, for all practical purposes, they are combined teenth century to provide technically trained as a result of a 1984 law that extended the number cadres for his civil administration and military. of years of compulsory education from five to eight. His grandson, Ismail, greatly expanded the system by creating a network of public schools at the pri- General Secondary. This category covers three addi- mary, secondary, and higher levels. Ismail’s wife tional years, dividing students between three-year set up the first school for girls in 1873. Between general academic secondary schools and three- or 1882 and 1922, when the country was under five-year vocational schools. While academic schools British administration, state education did not are the preferred placement, increasing numbers of expand. However, numerous private schools, students are enrolling in vocational schools. At the including Egypt’s first secular university, were beginning of grade 10, academic school students established. After direct British rule ended, Egypt must choose whether they will study the arts or adopted a new constitution that proclaimed the sciences through grade 11. state’s responsibility to ensure adequate primary schools for all Egyptians. Nevertheless, education Higher Education. This category comprises universi- generally remained accessible only to the elite. At ties, which now contain teacher training colleges the time of the 1952 Revolution, fewer than 50 that were once separate institutes. percent of all primary-school-age children attend- ed school, and the majority of the children who Challenges were enrolled were boys. Nearly 75 percent of the Access. Egypt has done remarkably well at the basic population over ten years of age was illiterate. education level: net enrollment ratios are about 92 percent. At the secondary level, net enrollment
10 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Table 2.2. Classrooms and Students in riculum and examination system and in deficient 4 Egypt, 2001 pedagogical skills. Another factor contributing to poor quality is that teachers must organize their les- Level Classrooms Students sons according to national directives on lesson plan- ning instead of the learning needs of their students. General In addition, strategies that incorporate good science Elementary 173,700 7,142,000 and technology programs at the higher education Preparatory 100,880 4,279,000 level are not yet in place.5 General Secondary 266,500 1,087,500 Total General 541,080 12,508,500 Management. During the past decade, the resources and attention devoted to the education sector have Technical been impressive. Education expenditure rose from Industrial 25,110 894,900 12 percent of the national budget in 1991 to about Commercial 24,660 953,600 20 percent in 2001.6 Though expenditures have Agricultural 24,660 203,400 increased, the highly centralized nature of Egypt’s Total Technical 74,430 2,051,900 management of education presents an obstacle to Grand Total 615,510 14,560,400 more effective utilization of funding. Although Egypt has been trying to decentralize its schooling Source: Egyptian State Information Services,
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 11 Table 2.3. Donor Assistance to Egypt’s Public Education Sector, 1993–2003
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■■■■■■ ■■■ ■ USAID ■■ ■■■■ ■■ ■ UNICEF ■■ ■■■■ ■ ■ ADB EU ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■ UNESCO CIDA ■ ■■■■■■ GTZ/KFW ■ ■ JICA ■ DFID ■■ DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
* Information not available.
invested in technical education development. potential workers joined the ranks of the unem- UNICEF’s programs in Egypt are mostly communi- ployed.8 ty based and tend to have a significant impact on girls’ education. Japanese Government assistance in Civic Participation. A consensus that students are Egypt’s education sector is mostly concentrated in not learning civil society building skills in most facility construction and technical skills exchange Arab countries is reflected in the UNDP Arab programs. Although many donors are focusing on Human Development Report. It states: improving educational quality, much remains to be The most worrying aspect of the crisis in educa- done, especially at the secondary level, which also tion is education’s inability to provide the require- needs concerted efforts and resources. ments for the development of Arab societies. This could mean not only that education loses its Strengths and Weaknesses for power to provide a conduit for social advance- Preparing Students for Civic ment for the poor within Arab countries but also Participation and Employment that Arab countries become isolated from global Employment. The issue of employment in Egypt is knowledge, information and technology. If the not so much of production of a labor force than the current situation is allowed to continue, the crisis absorption of educated people into the labor mar- can only worsen—this at a time when accelerated ket. Between 1988 and 1998, the number of work- acquisition of knowledge and formation of ers increased by 523,000 per year but the system advanced human skills are becoming prerequisites could absorb only 435,000. Annually, 88,000 for progress. If the steady deterioration in the
12 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 quality of education in the Arab countries and the inability of education to meet the require- Islamic Schools ments of development are not reversed, the con- sequences for human and economic development Levels and Types With the advent of Islam in Egypt, the reading of will be grave. Comprehensive action to reform the Koran became an integral part of a Muslim’s education systems is therefore urgent.9 life. The study of the Koran was carried out in mosques, homes, under trees, and in open places, The authorities in Egypt also claim to be “threat- following ancient traditions of the Arabian ened” by active civil society participation. The Peninsula. The congregations served socialization threat of perceived Islamization of the masses is and educational purposes. Once students memo- keeping the government from opening up the pub- rized the Koran, they could attend higher instruc- lic debate on social and political issues or encourag- tional classes where they learned the Koran in terms ing such debate in schools or colleges. As Amnesty of Islamic law, logic, and the Prophet’s traditions. International reported: Koranic schools were the only means of primary In the last few years, the Egyptian authorities education for children until the introduction of the have managed to muzzle civil society by threaten- Western form of education in late 1800s. ing with detention and imprisonment those who oppose or publicly criticize the government’s poli- The Shiite or Fatimid version of Islam was most cies. Journalists, writers, human rights defenders, prevalent in Persia and Egypt. Al-Azhar University nongovernmental organization (NGO) activists was established to propagate this version through and political activists have been and continue to higher level scholarship and schooling. When the be particularly at risk of being detained in con- Sunni Seljuks conquered Egypt, they abolished the nection with “offences” which merely amount to Shiite system of education, reformed teachings at the exercise of their rights to freedom of expres- Al-Azhar University, and introduced the Sunni ver- sion and association. Over the past decade new sion of Islam throughout the country. laws and decrees have curtailed rights to freedom of expression and association. Human rights The Al-Azhar education system maintains separate activists have been detained on the basis of dubi- facilities for male and female students. It is responsi- ous charges, such as “disseminating false informa- ble for religious education as well as other compo- tion abroad that would harm Egypt’s interests.” nents of the secular curriculum. Primary school Journalists have been imprisoned for libel of extends over the first six years, and preparatory officials.10 school extends over the next three. Students who
Table 2.4. Registered Students and Existing Classrooms in Egypt’s Al-Azhar Education System
Levels No. of Admitted Students No. of New Classrooms
1981–82 1994–95 1981–82 1994–95 Primary 128,048 701,979 3,355 19,780 Preparatory 66,344 187,326 1,783 5,816 Secondary 99,757 168,830 2,519 5,684 Teacher Education 3,241 9,445 – 224 Koranic Recitations 1,428 6,497 – 224 Total 298,818 1,074,077 7,657 31,728 Al-Azhar University 83,034 102,300 31 faculties 49 faculties
Source. http://www.sis.gov.eg/public/achieve/html/ach04.htm
13 Table 2.5. Expected Number of New Trends Students in Government and Al-Azhar The number of religious schools has increased. State Systems of Education in Egypt, 2001–02 Information Service statistics for 2001 show a large number of students enrolling in religious schools: Level New Al Azhar New Public 25 percent at the school level, and 29 percent at the School Students School Students university level. In addition to the Al-Azhar school system, 6 percent of all private schools are religious Elementary 118,961 708,431 schools in which girls also enroll. Preparatory 119,982 331,444 General Secondary 110,332 268,058 Influences—Sects Total 349,275 1,307,933 Sunni Islam is the only form of Islam taught in Al- University Level 126,000 420,037 Azhar schools. Grand Total 475,275 1,727,970 Affiliation with Radical Groups Source: Egypt State Information Services,
14 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 and take charge once again by going back to Islam. in instituting brutal and all-pervasive internal In addition, graphic coverage of events in Palestine, security structures as a root cause of Islamic Iraq, Bosnia, Kashmir, and other parts of the world opposition.16 where Muslims tend to be victims prompts some Arabs to ask whether the secular system of the gov- Adding to this turmoil is the increase in the number ernment and education is the answer to their sur- of students at the tertiary level and limited job vival. The idea of returning to an Islamic way of life opportunities in the labor market. Many agree that continues to provide some consolation. For many, the deteriorating social conditions and the widening obtaining religious education and becoming well gap between rich and poor have greatly contributed versed in Islam is one way of achieving that goal. to radicalism on Egyptian university campuses. This radicalism is reflected in the demands by students— Some even think that strict secular education makes interestingly, a vast majority of whom did not attend one a slave of the West. The “democratic” dictator- any religious school—to give Islam a chance. ship in Egypt is viewed as a secular, educated pup- pet of the West, which does not allow true democ- 14 Strengths and Weaknesses for racy to prevail and riches to flow to the needy. Preparing Students for Civic Many Egyptians are increasingly questioning their Participation and Employment affiliation to the state instead of religion. Many Employment. The Islamic education system is no believe that by returning to their Islamic roots they better prepared than the secular system to produce may be able to lift themselves up from poverty and students who will be absorbed into the job market. submission to their government.15 However, students who graduate from higher levels of Islamic schooling at least have a greater chance of Though many people in the Muslim world believe employment in the religious sector. Some Al-Azhar that the growing Islamic resurgence is largely rooted University graduates become renowned scholars and in the perception that “Arabs are losing,” others sug- serve as muftis (Islamic teachers and scholars) and gest that internal forces play a much greater role. spiritual leaders within and outside the country. Richard Bulliet, a social historian of Islam, writes: Civic Participation. No information was available. Many have argued, for example, that the failure of these regimes to defeat Israel or secure the material blessings of modernization sapped their Donor-Funded Work with Islamic ideological legitimacy and made an Islamic Schools and Results No information was available. ■ resurgence possible. I would not point to these undeniable failures, but to the regimes’ success
1 Library of Congress, “Egypt, A Country Study.” 4 World Bank, Egypt Country Assistance Strategy (June 5,
2 From a World Bank website maintained by the Ministry of 5 World Bank, Secondary Education Enhancement Project, Education in Cairo,
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 15 8 Samir Radwan, Employment and Unemployment in Egypt: Conventional Problems, Unconventional Remedies, Egyptian Center for Economic Studies, Working Paper No. 70 (August 2002), 2.
9 UNDP, Arab Human Development Report 2002 (New York: United Nations Development Programme, 2002).
10 Amnesty International, Egypt: Muzzling Civil Society, Country Report (London: Amnesty International, September 2000), 1.
11 U.S. Department of Education,“Education Around the World: Egypt,” Office of International Affairs website.
12 Bradley J. Cook, “Egyptian Higher Education: Inconsistent Cognition,” Ph.D. dissertation (University of Oxford, 1999).
13 Ibid.
14 Several sources confirm this view: see Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001); Geneive Abdo, No God But God (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
15 Cook, op. cit.
16 Richard W. Bulliet, “Twenty Years of Islamic Politics,” The Middle East Journal 53 (Spring 1999).
16 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 3. Morocco
Table 3.1. Morocco Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 28.7 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 99 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 34 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 43.9 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $3,450 Total fertility rate ...... 2.89 Human Development Index...... 0.6
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 97.04 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.81 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 79.45 Apparent gross intake rate ...... 92 Adult primary completion rate ...... – Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment...... 12.00 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 28 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 39.54 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.79 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate...... – Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 1,180 Adult tertiary completion rate...... – Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 50.8 Female adult literacy rate ...... 38.3 Male adult literacy rate...... 63.4 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 6.24 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 24.9 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 34.6
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 17 Preschool education has traditionally been the Introduction domain of Koranic schools (also known as kuttab), orocco has one of the largest populations although the Ministry of National Education among North African countries. It con- (MNE) has been introducing a preschool level into tends with complex socioeconomic and M the public primary school system.2 Vocational and demographic issues, including rapid urbanization, an technical training institutes are also available, but increasing dichotomy between rural and urban areas, their usual locations in urban or semiurban areas growing income disparities, and a young population, constrain access for rural youth. almost 50 percent of which is under 20.
The government’s concerted efforts over the past Challenges five years have improved the educational landscape Access. Geographical and gender disparities persist in overall; however, enrollment rates, even at the pri- Morocco. Enrollment in primary school is almost mary level in rural areas, continue to exhibit high universal in urban areas, but not in rural areas. In gender disparities. At the secondary level, the prob- the past five years, the Government of Morocco, lem is more acute, and is compounded by the dis- with assistance from the donor community, has tance of secondary schools from most rural areas undertaken an aggressive campaign to increase pri- and the general shortage of secondary schools. mary enrollment rates in rural areas, particularly for Literacy levels remain very low: 63 percent for men girls. The gross enrollment rate in rural areas and 38 percent for women. Illiteracy is a particular reached 77 percent in 2000–01 and rural girls’ problem for women in rural areas, where nine out enrollment reached 47 percent—a large improve- of 10 women are illiterate. In comparison with ment from 28 percent in 1992. The number of other lower middle-income countries, Morocco’s Moroccan girls enrolled in primary education social indicators are low: the UNDP’s 2003 Human increased by 6.6 percent between 1999–2000 and Development Index ranks Morocco at 126 out of 2000–01. In rural areas, the number of girls in 3 175 countries.1 school increased by 10.3 percent. Access to middle and secondary schools is limited and inequitable Although Morocco is considered an Arab country, it because of shortages in the number of schools and is actually over 50 percent Berber. Berbers speak a their distance from most rural communities. language that bears little resemblance to Arabic. Many Berbers, particularly rural women, do not Quality. Assessments of learning achievement show speak any Arabic. Berber children, therefore, are declining student performance in basic subjects in unlikely to speak or understand Arabic when they all schools. The problem is particularly acute among enter the first grade of the public school system, students in rural schools. The MNE spends most of where all subjects are taught in classical Arabic. its budget on salaries and other recurrent costs, resulting in poorly maintained schools and an inad- equate supply and quality of instructional materials Public Education System and textbooks. The poor quality of education is exacerbated by Arabic-Berber language issues. Since Characteristics the Moroccan Government and the donor commu- Morocco’s education system consists of six years of nity are concentrating their efforts on education in primary school, three years of lower-middle school, rural areas, the rapidly expanding urban and periur- three years of secondary school, and a tertiary (high- ban education sector is not receiving much atten- er) education system. Primary education begins at tion. Although access to primary level education in age 6 and is free and compulsory. However, the out- urban areas is almost universal, schools suffer from of-pocket costs of sending children to school (such overcrowding and poor quality. as fees for schoolbooks and uniforms) as well as the opportunity costs (loss of a child’s labor at home) Management. The MNE is decentralizing its func- make schooling unaffordable for poor rural families. tions to regional levels created in 1999, when 72 provinces were subsumed into 16 regional adminis-
18 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 trative units. Responsibility for provision of health cent of the curriculum so that it is locally relevant. and education services has been slowly devolving to The central level of the MNE continues to manage the regional level, which has an administrative struc- the other 70 percent.4 ture resembling a mini-ministry. This decentraliza- tion process is supposed to be accompanied by more Policy Reform. The Moroccan Government and local autonomy for the regions in ensuring that edu- King Mohammad VI are strongly committed to cation programs are responsive to regional needs social development and, in particular, to improving and realities and the budget is administered locally. public education services. In 1999, the Royal Each region has a Regional Academy for Education Education Council, appointed by the late King and Training and a regional director who is senior to Hassan II, provided the government with recom- provincial delegates within the region. mendations for reforming the system. The council’s recommendations included: 1) increasing the partic- Although the MNE’s central level will continue to ipation of rural girls, 2) improving quality, 3) allow- have responsibility for the school curriculum, ing Berber to be used in grades 1 and 2 to help stu- teacher training curriculum, national examinations, dents make the transition to learning in classical and education policy development, the regional Arabic, and 4) introducing a countrywide preschool academies are slated to take over teacher recruit- education system. The recommendations were ment, training, and assignment. The regional acade- adopted by the government and are currently being mies will also be responsible for developing 30 per- implemented by the MNE.
Table 3.2. Donor Assistance to Morocco’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■ ■■■■■ USAID ■ ■■■ ■■■ UNICEF ■■■ ADB EU UNESCO ■ CIDA French Cooperation ■■■■■ ■■ ■ GTZ/KFW JICA DFID DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 19 Donor Assistance crafts (such as pottery, rug weaving, and jewelry A number of donors and partners are implementing making) that are popular with tourists. Young chil- programs supporting the MNE’s basic education dren—some as young as 9 or 10—usually appren- priorities. Since 1996, USAID/Morocco has been tice with master craftsmen and craftswomen to working in basic education on an integrated pri- learn trades such as rug weaving. Consequently, mary education program targeting rural girls. The many children never enter or complete primary program elements include school or develop adequate literacy or numerical skills to participate in Morocco’s growing modern ■ delivering preservice and inservice teacher economy. Furthermore, the country’s education sys- training tem is based on a highly theoretical model, which ■ strengthening the local capacity of the MNE in means that university graduates often lack the prac- eight provinces tical skills needed to compete successfully in the labor market.6 ■ supporting the development of parent-teacher associations and strengthening community Civic Participation. The curriculum for all levels participation in pilot school catchments includes a class on civic participation. This subject ■ promoting public-private partnerships with the is lumped in with history and geography and taught NGO community and the private sector beginning in the grade 3 of the primary system. The objectives of civic education, as stated by the MNE, USAID is also coordinating with UNICEF to are to educate children on 1) their national and support the MNE’s new approaches: the Agency at social responsibilities, 2) the different institutions teacher training colleges and UNICEF at the school that make up the nation and the government, and level. The World Bank continues to provide assis- 3) how to use and understand different government tance for infrastructure upgrades and teacher train- documents, such as edicts, administrative proce- ing, using, for the most part, USAID-trained per- dures, and laws.7 The literature review did not sonnel from the MNE as trainers. France provides reveal any information on the impact of this class the most education assistance, with programs that on civic behavior. support primary, secondary, and tertiary education. UNESCO has the lead in working with the Moroccan Government to followup on recom- Islamic Schools mendations from the Dakar “Education for All” conference.5 Levels and Types Moroccan Islamic schools are divided into two main Strengths and Weaknesses for categories: Koranic preschools and “Original Preparing Students for Civic Education,” a limited Islamic school system that Participation and Employment covers grades 1–12. Koranic schools were initially Employment. There is a discrepancy between the established to teach the Koran, the Islamic religion, education system’s outputs and the development and the Arabic language. After independence, their and labor market needs of the country. For example, role changed to the provision of preschool educa- the tourism industry is a burgeoning sector of the tion in rural and urban areas. In recent times, their economy, but hotels, restaurants, car rental compa- function has been to safeguard the basic precepts of nies, and other tourist industry staples are poorly Islam by teaching the Koran to children—both boys managed and lack qualified and properly trained and girls—and prepare them for entry into the pub- 8 staff. The high illiteracy rates show the education lic primary school system. Although the public system is not reaching all Moroccans, especially in school system was modernized half a century ago, rural areas. Many children drop out of school—or Koranic schooling remains very popular: approxi- never enroll—because of a prevalent apprenticeship mately 80 percent of all children attend some form tradition that can be classified as child labor. of Koranic school for a portion of their school 9 Morocco has a wide range of traditional arts and years.
20 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Through Koranic schools, children learn the basic Influences—Sects Arabic alphabet and begin the process of becoming Morocco is a religiously homogenous country. With literate in Modern Standard Arabic. Studies con- the exception of an extremely small minority of ducted in Morocco on the pedagogical impact of Christians and Jews, Moroccans adhere to the Sunni Koranic schools found that children attending Muslim faith. Koranic preschools outperform non-preschooled children in Arabic reading achievement.10 Although Affiliation with Radical Groups Koranic preschooling has a positive impact on liter- The literature review did not yield any information acy achievement in the early years of elementary on possible affiliation between radical movements education, this difference diminishes by the time and Original Education schools or Koranic schools. children reach grades 4 and 5. For Berber children, This is not surprising, since Koranic schools are Koranic preschool is their first exposure to the only at the preschool level and Original Education national language of their country and any form of schools are government-run and part of the public written script. education sector.
Original Education schools teach Islamic religion, Governance tradition, and the Arabic language to those who Koranic schools in urban areas fall under the control want to enter the religious sector. These schools are of the MNE. In rural areas, they are managed by also three-tiered: four years of primary, three years the communities, with loose oversight from the of middle school, and a secondary level that requires MNE and the Ministry of Religious Affairs.12 In its specialization in particular areas of Islamic studies. informational materials, the MNE combines There are approximately 45 of these schools preschools with primary schools in terms of educa- throughout Morocco. They combine a religious and tional objectives and the rights of children. The secular curriculum that includes Islamic studies; MNE outlines the objectives of preschool education Arabic language; history, geography, and civic edu- as follows: cation; philosophy and Islamic thought; mathemat- ics and sciences; languages (French, English, or ■ learning a number of Koranic verses 11 Spanish); and physical education. ■ initiating students into the principles of an Islamic education One additional type of Islamic school is worth not- ing, though there is little available information. The ■ preparing for access to the primary education msid Islamic schools are typically found in rural level areas underserved by the public education system. ■ acquiring educational habits and notions of Msid schools are privately funded, and vary widely spatial organization and orientation in size and scope. Generally, students attend these schools to complement traditional schooling. ■ learning attention and expression aptitudes ■ developing manual competencies13 Trends Although the Government of Morocco is commit- Original Education schools are official public ted to universalizing preschool education, budget schools and are managed by the Division of constraints make this objective extremely difficult to Original Education in the MNE’s Directorate of achieve. To provide preschool education, the min- Curricula. istry is therefore relying on private schools, particu- larly in urban areas, and Koranic and other types of Parental Incentives community schools in rural areas. It is hard to gauge The incentive for sending children to Koranic whether Koranic preschools have been increasing in schools is clear. Alternative preschools are not widely number or simply maintaining their current levels available, so parents want to give their children because local NGOs and other community-based some preparation for the public school system and organizations are also providing preschool education.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 21 provide the beginning of a religious education opt Koranic schools by providing students with a link to to enroll them in Koranic schools.14 Parents also the past and a sense of cultural and national identi- consider Koranic memorization to be particularly ty.16 Some Koranic schools teach national songs, beneficial to the spiritual and emotional develop- which also contributes to the formation of a nation- ment of the child. They want their children to al identity. Overall, preschool education prepares adhere to the path of Islam and grow up to be pro- young children for the formal school system and ductive community members. Parents believe allows them to acquire some learning and studying Koranic verses serve as points of reference, guiding skills. The curriculum in Original Education schools children in the right direction as they grow up.15 includes social studies, encompassing civic educa- The Arab proverb “memorizing in youth is like tion along with history and geography. engraving on stone, and memorizing when old is like engraving on water” illustrates the popular per- Donor-Funded Work with Islamic ception that this type of education is important at a Schools and Results young age. There is extensive interest in the donor community in working with Koranic and other preschools in Strengths and Weaknesses for Morocco. The MNE is extremely open to programs Preparing Students for Civic targeting this level of education, as it lacks the funds Participation and Employment to do so and preschool education is part of its man- Employment. Original Education schools couple an date. Recently, Children’s Resources International, Islamic education with almost all the secular sub- Inc., met with MNE officials to discuss preschool jects taught in the public school system. Original programs that might be undertaken by the organiza- Education schools also place great emphasis on tion. The Bernard van Leer Foundation has also acquisition and mastery of foreign languages. The worked with preschools in Morocco, but in a limit- graduates of these schools have the skills to be ed capacity and only in urban areas. The literature employed both in the labor market and in the reli- review did not yield any information on donor sup- gious sector. Koranic preschools, on the other hand, port to Original Education institutions. ■ are only for children under 6, making the employ- ment factor irrelevant.
Civic Participation. Since Koranic schools are only for children under 6, there is little room for formal civic education. However, today’s Koranic schools represent a continuation of traditional Moroccan
1 UNDP, Human Development Report 2003 (Geneva: UNDP, 5 USAID/Morocco, USAID/Morocco: Results Review and 2003).
2 Mourad Ezzine, Basic Education Project, Staff Appraisal 6 Helen Boyle, “The Growth of Qur’anic Schooling and the Report (Washington, DC: World Bank, May 1996). Marginalization of Islamic Pedagogy: The Case of Morocco,”
22 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 8 Khadija Bouzoubaa, “An Innovation in Morocco’s Koranic Pre-Schools,” Working Papers in Early Childhood Development, No. 23 (The Hague: Bernard van Leer Foundation, 1998).
9 Boyle, op. cit.
10 Daniel Wagner, “Putting Second Language First: Language and Literacy Learning in Morocco,” in Literacy Development in a Multilingual Context, ed. Aydin Yücesan Durgunoglu and Ludo Verhoeven (Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1998).
11 Ministry of National Education.
12 IFC, EdInvest News, January 2002 (World Bank: International Finance Corporation).
13 Ministère de l’Education Nationale, “Composition des programmes de l’enseignement prescolaire et primaire.”
14 Dominique Zemrag, “Islamic Education Study,” email (USAID/Morocco, 10 October 2002).
15 Boyle, op. cit.
16 Boyle, op. cit.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 23
4. Yemen
Table 4.1. Yemen Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 17.5 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 100 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 48 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 75.3 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $)...... $770 Total fertility rate ...... 6.16 Human Development Index...... 0.47
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 77.92 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.55 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 61.02 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... – Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... – Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 30 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 45.3 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.36 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... 35.22 Adult secondary completion rate...... – Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 419 Adult tertiary completion rate...... – Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 48.9 Female adult literacy rate ...... 28.4 Male adult literacy rate...... 69.5 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 7 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure ...... – Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure ...... –
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 25 Introduction Public Education System orth Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. The British, Characteristics Nwho had set up a protectorate around the The education structure in the Republic of Yemen southern port of Aden in the 19th century, with- consists of three tiers: basic, secondary, and higher. drew in 1967 from what became South Yemen. The basic education system is divided into a pri- Three years later, the southern government adopted mary level (grades 1–6) and a preparatory level a Marxist orientation. The massive exodus of hun- (grades 7–9). The secondary level is three years dreds of thousands of Yemenis from the south to (grades 10–12). Higher and university education the north contributed to two decades of hostility. follow. At the basic education level, boys and girls The two countries were formally unified as the study together, but at the secondary level the sexes Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionist are segregated: girls and boys study in separate facil- movement in 1994 was quickly subdued. In 2000, ities. After their first year of general secondary level Saudi Arabia and Yemen agreed to a delimitation education, students choose a scientific or literary of their common border.1 track for the remaining two years.
Yemen is the only low-income country in the Arab Yemen has some technical secondary schools and Middle East and North Africa region: its economic three vocational training institutions. There are also and social indicators are comparable to those of sub- religious institutes that focus on Islamic education Saharan Africa. Literacy rates are 70 percent for only. The government finances and supervises all men and 28 percent for women, and gender dispari- schools through the Ministry of Education (MOE). ties are prevalent throughout Yemeni society, includ- ing the education system. Yemen’s 3.5 percent popu- Challenges lation growth rate means that the country will expe- Access. Yemen’s constitution stipulates that educa- rience the highest population growth in the world tional opportunities should be provided to all citi- between 2000 and 2015. The country’s population, zens on an equitable basis. Unfortunately, poor currently almost 18 million, is projected to reach people living in isolated parts of the country do not 49.4 million by 2031. Three-fourths of Yemen’s have access to education. This is especially true for population live in rural areas. However, the urban girls, who tend to drop out even when there are population is growing at twice the national rate—a schools near their homes. Additionally, at the sec- result of rapid urbanization caused by internal ondary level, the number of schools for boys out- migration.2 strips those for girls, making equal access impossi- ble. Thirty-eight percent of school-age children are Yemen lacks a diversified economy and the human still out of school, and girls constitute 56 percent of resources to support its development: it is heavily that number.4 Urban and rural disparities in access dependent on oil exports and remittances from to education are especially wide. Poverty, need for Yemenis abroad. The UNDP 2003 Human children’s labor, and inaccessibility are widely cited Development Index ranks Yemen 148 of 175 coun- reasons for non-attendance at school. tries. The country’s geography also contributes to high poverty levels and low social indicators. Yemen Quality. Inequitable distribution of qualified teach- is arid, with severe water shortages and a mountain- ers has resulted in uneven educational quality and ous terrain difficult to penetrate, particularly for poor educational attainment. Qualified teachers social services that the government may be able to prefer the better living conditions in urban areas. provide. Northern Yemen is extremely rugged, con- In rural areas, teacher absenteeism is quite high.5 tributing to its relative isolation and tribal character- Drop-out and repetition rates have been increasing istics. The south, historically a trade route for cara- steadily over the past five years. In a 1998 standard- vans and ships, is more open to the world.3 ized achievement test for fifth graders, satisfactory levels were achieved by only 3 percent in
26 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 mathematics, 14 percent in science, and 5 percent higher percentage of urban teachers than rural in Arabic.6 teachers.8 The MOE is currently training almost 100,000 teachers in new basic education curricula Until 1994, a large number of teachers, especially at developed during the last three years.9 the secondary level, were “imported” from other Arab countries such as Sudan, Egypt, Syria, and Management. The government is undertaking a Jordan, a strategy that burdened the government’s decentralization strategy. For development planning, scarce resources for education. In 1988, approxi- resource allocation, and management decisions, the mately 60 percent of the teaching labor force was new Local Authority Law decentralizes authority to foreign.7 After unification, the government placed a governorate and district levels. The government is heavy emphasis on hiring teachers with a secondary also streamlining its operations by delegating more education and expanding teacher training programs, responsibilities to the governorate level of education which included training at the college and universi- management. Since the MOE lacks a comprehensive ty level. This ambitious program has resulted in a management information system with reliable data, surplus of teachers, many of whom are not properly it is working with donors on improving the educa- qualified. About 25 percent of teachers were desig- tion management information system’s data gather- nated “unqualified.” More women than men fell ing, dissemination technology, and procedures.10 into that category, along with, surprisingly, a slightly
Table 4.2. Donor Assistance to Yemen’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■■ ■■■ ■ USAID ■■■■■ UNICEF ADB EU ■ UNESCO CIDA French Cooperation ■■■■ Islamic Dev. Bank ■■ GTZ/KFW ■■ JICA ■■ DFID DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
Strengthening 27 Education in the Muslim World Policy Reform. In a letter to the president of the ■ stimulate parent and community support for World Bank dated September 6, 2000, the MOE schools and female education11 stated the government is placing high priority on basic education, with special emphasis on girls’ Strengths and Weaknesses for education. In the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Preparing Students Civic (PRSP) developed with the World Bank, the gov- Participation and Employment ernment sets out its education priorities as Employment. The current state of Yemen’s educa- ■ improving the educational environment tion sector is not conducive to producing out- comes that respond to the country’s development ■ improving the management of the sector and its needs. Growth of the basic education sector is orientation toward decentralization not keeping up with population growth, and the ■ giving priority to basic education sector will be hard pressed to meet expected educational needs during the population explosion ■ focusing on the education of girls predicted over the next three decades. The absorp- tive capacity of vocational and technical training Donor Assistance institutions needs to be expanded, and the existing Yemen is fortunate to have a comprehensive pro- institutes and centers require development and gram of donor-funded support that is planned and modernization. being implemented within the education sector. A significant amount of donor funding is channeled to The Yemeni unemployment rate of 18 percent will the Social Development Fund (SDF), an surely increase because almost half the population is autonomous body that has adopted a holistic under 20. High unemployment is due to low pro- approach focusing on community-driven develop- ductivity, stemming, at least in part, from a lack of ment. The SDF does not implement programs appropriate skills. Because access to education is directly, but works through partner organizations, limited and the quality of existing schools is low, including civil society and government agencies. rural Yemenis in particular lack the human capital to diversify the sources of their income or enter pro- Most other donor support targets improved access fessions in which they would be less economically to basic education through school construction and vulnerable. rehabilitation, particularly in rural areas. The World Bank has a secondary teacher training project. Civic Participation. No information on civic educa- USAID has supported the development of new tion programs emerged during the study. texts and teacher manuals, and has promoted quali- ty improvement initiatives, especially in training head teachers. USAID has also supported training Islamic Schools for female teachers in rural primary schools, non- formal education programs, and adult literacy pro- Levels and Types grams for women. In 2002, USAID issued a Yemen was once considered the center of Islamic Request for Assistance (RFA) for an integrated learning. The southern city of Tareem had numer- health and education program with an education ous libraries that provided Islamic education to stu- objective of “Improved Quality and Increased dents from all over the Arabian Peninsula. Enrollment, Especially of Girls in Basic Education Although information from Yemen on the subject in Targeted Districts.” This program’s main compo- is sparse, it is clear that madrasas at the primary nents are to and secondary level exist. Their exact number and distribution are unknown. ■ improve educational quality and relevance through training of teachers, school administra- tors, and education officials
28 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Trends The government is also keeping a watchful eye for Madrasas have proliferated over the past 20 years. trouble, and is wary of the kind of mistakes made in Sectarian tensions between Sunnis and Shiites and Pakistan with “runaway” madrasas. Anxiety over the between Salafis and Zaydis and other groups have possibility that the country might be seen as a led to a growth in madrasas that reflect these differ- breeding ground for radical groups may also explain ent Islamic orientations.12 a recent crackdown on visa violations by foreign stu- dents studying Islam. Already, 100 foreign students Influences—Sects (including six U.S. citizens) have been sent home Yemen is divided into two general religious streams: because they lacked documentation.17 The govern- the Shiites in the northern highlands and the Sunni ment has also shut down hundreds of religious Shafiis on the Red Sea Coast and in the southern schools with suspected links to Islamic militants.18 mountains of the highlands and Aden. Recently, a Despite these efforts, the government continues to new Islamic political party, the Islah Party, has been face difficulties exerting control over both private established with strong roots in the Wahhabi and and public religious schools.19 Muslim Brotherhood streams of Islam.13 This reformist Islamic movement has become increasing- Relationship to Public School System. Information on ly popular: it has a strong following in the northern the subjects taught in Islamic schools in Yemen is Province of Sadah (which borders Saudi Arabia), limited, and further study in this area is needed. It and has been spreading steadily throughout the is unclear whether any or some madrasas teach the country, particularly among young Yemenis. same secular subjects as the public school system.
Affiliation with Radical Groups Parental Incentives Information on the affiliation of Yemeni madrasas Many factors make Yemeni religious schools viable with radical Islam is limited, but several reports sug- —and perhaps desirable—options for parents. gest links between some schools and militants and Sectarian tension that has plagued the country has radicals. In the 1980s, a Salafi movement—conser- resulted in the establishment of more madrasas. vative and orthodox—was introduced to the Parents who want to ensure that their children learn Province of Sadah by local men who had converted their sect’s values, precepts, and traditions send to the Wahhabi stream of Islam while studying in them to the madrasa that corresponds to their sect. Saudi Arabia or fighting with the mujahidin in Afghanistan. During the past two decades, Salafis A 1998 ethnographic study on Koranic schooling in established many madrasas (number unknown) in Yemen showed that public schools are viewed as a Yemen.14 One report describes students armed with route to economic development, whereas Koranic Kalashnikov rifles at one Salafist school. Another schools serve a supplemental function.20 Koranic report from the ICG draws a clear connection schools facilitate intergenerational discourse, pro- between the roots of Yemeni militant Islam and the mote spiritual and emotional growth, and instill a system of religious schools.15 sense of confidence and autonomy in students that serves them well in the public schools. The people Governance interviewed in this study emphasized that Koranic Relationship to Government. The curriculum of the education provides a common educational experi- Yemeni madrasas is controlled by the Islah Party, as ence for children and parents since many Yemeni is the appointment of imams at government-run parents have not attended modern schools. The cur- mosques.16 The party and the government do not riculum and teaching methods fill a void that many have purview over private madrasas such those in parents feel exists in public schools—Islamic values Sadah and Tareem, but the government has been and respect for their culture. While modern school- working to modify the public madrasa curriculum ing is viewed as benefiting students in this life, to prevent fueling extremist ideology. Koranic education prepares them for the afterlife.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 29 Another key factor is unavailability of public it is unclear whether they prepare their students to schools, particularly in rural Yemen. Parts of the enter the national labor market. country such as the northern mountains are hard to reach and sparsely populated. Establishing schools Civic Participation. No information on civic educa- in these areas presents the government with a diffi- tion programs emerged during the study. cult resource allocation problem. Yemen has been undergoing drastic economic deterioration due to Donor-Funded Work with Islamic the costs of unification, the aftermath of the Gulf Schools and Results War, and the costly 1994 civil war. Madrasas may Although several donors, including the World Bank, simply be filling the void that the public education are active in Yemen, available information suggests system cannot fill. the international development community has car- ried out few direct or indirect programs with the Strengths and Weaknesses for country’s Islamic schools. ■ Preparing Students for Civic Participation and Employment Employment. Although Islamic schools may prepare some Yemenis for professions in the religious sector,
1 Central Intelligence Agency, World Fact Book, 2003. 11 Ibid.
9 USAID, “RFA—Yemen Basic Health and Education 19 ICG, op. cit. Program,” op. cit. 20 Boyle and Abbas, 1998. 10 Ibid.
30 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 5. Bangladesh
Table 5.1. Bangladesh Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 131 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 83 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 38 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 75.5 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $1,590 Total fertility rate ...... 3.13 Human Development Index...... 0.47
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 122.42 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.96 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 103.93 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... 9 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... – Primary student/teacher ratio ...... – Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 47.46 Secondary gender parity index ...... 1.09 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate...... 4 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... – Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 1.4 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 42.6 Female adult literacy rate ...... 31.2 Male adult literacy rate...... 53.4 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 2.3 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure ...... – Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 44.8
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 31 1980s did literacy and population growth see some Introduction positive changes. Between 1981 and 1995, the adult angladesh has outperformed its South Asian literacy rate increased to 43 percent and the popula- neighbors on all social indicators, including tion growth rate declined—from roughly 2 percent education. It has near universal primary edu- B in the 1980 to 1.59 percent by 2002.2 Close to 50 cation and high enrollment rates for girls at the sec- percent of children in all types of schools are girls. ondary level. This strong performance is the result Despite economic constraints, Bangladesh has per- of the government’s commitment to education formed exceptionally well in expanding educational reforms and an active NGO sector that is encour- access during the last two decades. The role played aged by the government to deliver social services, by civil society in all aspects of development is com- especially education, to rural and underserved popu- mendable. lations. Tempering this optimistic assessment, how- ever, is the fact of unreliable data, along with the absence of the requirement to collect birth registra- Characteristics tions and other basic data. These shortcomings There are four principal types of school systems in underscore the importance of observation and eye- Bangladesh. witness accounts in assessing development progress ■ Public Schools. The large public school education in Bangladesh. And despite impressive educational system predominates, serving roughly 90 per- achievements, poverty poses challenges to all devel- cent of all students. Based on the colonial edu- opment plans, including those for education. The cational model, the system covers primary, sec- World Bank Country Strategy Paper for Bangladesh ondary, and higher education. Early childhood states that the country has the highest incidence of education is a relatively new emphasis. Tables poverty in South Asia and the third highest number 5.2 and 5.3 show government schools and stu- of poor in the world, after India and China. Unless dents by province. concrete measures are taken to reduce poverty by ■ opening up the job market and diversifying the Private Schools. These are mostly confined to country’s economy, problems in every social sector urban centers and operated by private entrepre- will persist. neurs and educators. The small but expanding private “English medium” schooling system— around 1 percent of all schools—uses English as Public Education System the language of instruction. These schools are Bangladesh emerged as an independent country in referred to as kindergarten primary schools by 1971 after a bitter war with Pakistan. In the after- Education Watch. math, separatist groups, poverty, and poor infra- ■ NGO-Managed Schools. This category includes structure posed severe challenges to the new govern- NGO-managed, low-cost private schools and ment. Under British and, later, Pakistani rule, edu- nonformal education centers that mostly serve cation had been mostly limited to urban and rich rural areas and urban slums. Estimates of enroll- people, with few educational facilities for the rural ment range from 4 to 8 percent of total primary poor. The effort to recover from the war and put the school-aged children. The Bangladesh Rural country on track took considerable resources, ener- Advancement Committee’s (BRAC) Non- gy, and time. In 1981, only 19.7 percent of the Formal Education Program is one example. It Bangladeshi population was literate. Only half as covers more than 2.1 million children at the pri- many women as men qualified as literate, and there mary level.3 Nonformal education ranges from were also large rural-urban literacy discrepancies.1 up to three years of basic education—which may conclude an individual’s schooling—to a These low literacy rates and tremendous population more comprehensive curriculum that integrates increases hampered governmental efforts to bring with either nonprofit or government schools about significant economic change. Only when civil and prepares students to continue their studies. society infrastructure was strengthened in the mid-
32 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Some evidence suggests that Table 5.2. Government Schools in Bangladesh, 1998 girls’ attainment is somewhat stronger in nonformal and NGO-managed settings, though Province/Division Primary Schools Secondary Schools Colleges overall achievements in all set- tings are low due to class size, Barisal 5,813 1,192 151 low attendance, poor learning Chittagong 11,391 2,270 417 environments, and other Sylhet 4,830 551 97 factors.4 Dhaka 19,145 3,302 1,674 Khulna 7,696 2,145 269 ■ Religious Schools. Depending on Rajshahi 17,360 3,959 736 the source, the estimated per- Total 66,235 13,419 3,344 centage of Bangladeshi students who attend religious schools— Grand Total 82,989 the madrasa system—varies Source: Bangladesh Development Gateway
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 33 survey found that only 29 percent of all Bangladeshi ■ Poor learning achievement is also the result of primary students had basic competencies in reading, poor student and teacher attendance. writing, and mathematics.7 The survey also noted Underlying factors include inadequate school considerable variation in learning achievement by facilities, long travel distances to schools, the gender, rural-urban residence, and type of school. requirement for students to work in the fields, Boys performed better than girls, and children from and weather calamities such as the cyclones and urban areas did better than their rural counterparts. floods that disrupt thousand of lives every year.
Several factors are associated with the poor quality Management. According to the 1998 World Bank of Bangladeshi public school education. Project Appraisal for the Bangladesh Primary Education Project, the government had allocated ■ Teachers are not fully trained for their jobs and substantial resources—16 percent of the budget—to 90 percent are poorly supervised. And while a the education sector. In 2000, roughly 45 percent of teacher-student ratio of about 1:63 would be the government’s total education budget was spent difficult for even a well-trained teacher, manag- on primary education.9 However, the resource use ing such a large group of students is particularly was poor at all levels, resulting in problems with challenging for poorly trained teachers.8 They infrastructure, sanitation, professional training, also have to meet this challenge with an inade- books, and materials. The low efficiency of expendi- quate supply of teaching and learning materials. tures is reflected in the poor quality of education ■ A shortage of teachers has affected education provided, which, in turn, results in high dropout quality. Approximately one-third of sanctioned and low completion rates. In addition, the govern- teacher posts are vacant. Teacher shortages are ment’s institutional capacity to prepare, implement, especially severe in remote areas, including those and monitor programs and projects remains weak where indigenous populations live, and in urban throughout the system. slums. Policy Reform. Social Watch’s 2000 Country Report ■ Without enough teachers to meet the demand on Bangladesh stated: for education, many schools shortened the school day to provide two shifts. This strategy The constitution of Bangladesh enshrines the helped the education system meet the demand right of the child to free and compulsory primary but compromised the learning environment by education. The Compulsory Primary Education restricting classroom teacher-student contact— Act was passed only in 1990, however, and was already the lowest in the world at only 2.5 hours implemented for the first time in 1992. The gov- in primary schools. The strategy also diminished ernment has undertaken several measures to teacher preparation time. Requiring teachers to enhance enrolment and retention of students. prepare for two different classes each day places These include: establishment of satellite schools a huge constraint on their time, leaving them managed by female teachers to help disadvan- little to get the additional training that most taged children, especially girls, enter school; estab- sorely need. Even those fortunate enough to get lishment of less expensive community schools in such training have limited time to incorporate the areas with no schools; and the institution of and apply what they have learned. the Food For Education (FFE) programme in 1993–94 under which children of selected poor ■ Head teachers carry a full teaching load in addi- families are given wheat and rice for attending. tion to other responsibilities. This restricts their The government is also involved in non-formal ability to provide the support and oversight that education with participation of NGOs. The are especially important for new or less qualified Hard-to-Reach Project deals with education of teachers. slum children in major cities.10
34 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 The Female Secondary School Assistance Program, access to information, additional training, and social funded jointly by the World Bank and the govern- services for all. ment, demonstrates an effective strategy for enrolling girls in secondary education. Under this Donor Assistance program, every Bangladeshi girl who wants to pur- Donors providing assistance to Bangladesh’s educa- sue secondary education is provided a stipend—in tion sector include the form of school fees, books, and uniforms— ■ The World Bank, which has been funding activ- whose continuation of the stipend is conditional on ities expanding access to primary schools and performance at a certain grade level. As a conse- improving the quality of education. The World quence of the stipend, the number of girls enrolling Bank is also supporting activities to improve in secondary education has increased. In some areas, girls’ access to secondary education in rural it has even surpassed the number of boys enrolling areas. Its innovative Post-Literacy and in secondary education. Due to the financial incen- Continuing Education for Human tive, girls and their parents are making sure that Development Project in Bangladesh aims to they do better in classes and exams. In addition, the increase the functional application of literacy government’s strategy of encouraging the NGO sec- skills by providing postliteracy and continuing tor to implement education programs and reach dif- education to neoliterates through a more com- ficult to reach populations has also resulted in prehensive and enhanced system of nonformal increased community involvement in education, education.
Table 5.4. Donor Assistance to Bangladesh’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■ USAID ■■■■■■ UNICEF ■ ■■■■ ■ ■ ADB ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■ EU ■■■■■■ UNESCO CIDA ■ ■■■■ ■■ ■ GTZ/KFW JICA DFID ■ ■■■■ ■■ DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 35 ■ CIDA is supporting the BRAC nonformal pri- nities for rural women and men have been created mary education program, which is the single by NGOs such as BRAC and Grameen Bank. largest nonformal program for the poor in the However, students who do not complete primary world. school have limited livelihood possibilities, thereby continuing the cycle of poverty and underdevelop- ■ The ADB is providing assistance to strengthen ment. access and quality in primary, secondary, and postliteracy education, and has implemented Civic Participation. NGO programs and schools several multipronged projects that target the encourage people to vote and participate in local poor and disadvantaged. elections. A visit to rural areas in Bangladesh ■ USAID has had limited involvement in the edu- demonstrated that NGOs and other private organi- cation sector. Most activities related to infra- zations have mobilized the masses for civic partici- structure and were funded through the moneti- pation and improving their living conditions on a zation of donated food commodities (P.L. 480 self-help basis. Government schools, however, with Title II). USAID also supported a Gender limited time to teach even basic academics, do not Equity in the Classroom activity, providing provide the kind of education that promotes civil technical assistance and training to promote society participation. effective pedagogical practices and leadership skills to increase participation and achievement of girls and other marginalized children. The Islamic Schools Agency has recently prepared a new education strategy that concentrates resources at the pre- Levels and Types school and early primary levels. It seeks to The estimated percentage of primary pupils educat- expand learning opportunities in school, after ed by madrasas ranges from 4 to 12, depending on school, and at home. Working outside the for- sources consulted. It is generally recognized that the mal system, these activities will focus on educa- proportion decreases at higher education levels, but, tion through mass media and on strengthening overall, it is thought to be on the rise. At lower lev- teachers’ skills. els, the number of boys and girls is roughly bal- anced, as in the secular system, but the number of Strengths and Weaknesses for girls declines at more advanced levels. In addition, Preparing Students for Civic many young children attend Koranic schools to sup- Participation and Employment plement their secular schooling. Employment. Public enterprises offer the majority of jobs in Bangladesh, in such sectors as electricity, gas, There are two madrasa systems in Bangladesh: Aliya and water; railway; airlines and civil aviation; petro- and Quomi (also known as Dars-e-Nizami). Aliya leum; telecommunication; and banks and madrasas teach secular as well as religious subjects; insurance.11 Government employment is usually Quomi madrasas teach only religious subjects. The restricted to people with advanced educational skills Aliya madrasa system has five levels.12 and university degrees. While students from urban ■ Ebtedayee is equivalent to primary school grade and private schools may acquire credentials and 1–5. Religious education is mainly focused on skills that qualify them for such jobs, rural students reading and recitation of the Koran. cannot enter specialized fields because of poor edu- cational quality and limited access to secondary and ■ Dakhil is equivalent to grades 6–10. Beginning tertiary educational institutions. In rural areas, the at this level, students are required to complete labor market is restricted to fisheries and agriculture, government examinations after completing their but students do not get training relevant to improv- coursework. ing local production. The NGO sector is one of the ■ Alim is equivalent to grades 11–12, the final largest employers in rural areas. Through nonformal years of high school. Students learn other tenets functional literacy programs, employment opportu-
36 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 of Islam, such as interpretation of the Koran madrasa established in 1866 by private contribu- and the Prophet’s traditions and sayings. tions of the “men of God” and sustained by public contributions.13 Quomi madrasas do not fall under ■ Fazil is equal to the lower college level. At this the jurisdiction of the Bangladeshi Religious stage, the intensity of religious instruction Education Board. These schools are privately fund- increases with the addition of subjects such as ed.14 They generally do not teach any secular sub- Islamic logic, law, Arabic literature, and history. jects or keep enrollment records. Unlike Aliya ■ Kamil is the highest level of religious education, madrasa students, students enrolled in Quomi equivalent to a master’s degree in Islamic studies madrasas do not take any exams administered by from a regular university. At completing this the government.15 stage, a student is expected to have gained knowledge of all aspects of Islam and lead large Under the Quomi madrasa system, students take 16 congregations. years to complete their education. At the lower lev- els, students learn Urdu, Persian, and Arabic with The Aliya madrasa system can be considered the grammar. From classes I until VIII, students learn formal Islamic education system. Although support- various Islamic subjects; a few madrasas even teach ed financially by the government, Aliya madrasas do English, math, and Bengali. After this level, these not function under the Ministry of Education, but subjects are dropped and the focus is strictly Islamic under a separate Religious Education Board. education. Classes IX and X are termed Sanavia Government-supported Aliya madrasas follow the Amma (secondary school) and classes XI and XII as secular curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of Sanavia Walia (higher secondary). Classes XIII and Education. For religious education, they follow the XIV are called Fazilat (college), while XV and XVI curriculum set by the Department of Arabic of are termed Kamil (university). However, the govern- Calcutta madrasa in India. Students in the Aliya ment does not recognize these levels as equivalent to madrasa system have to pass exams, administered by the secular education system. the Religious Education Board, before they move on to the next level. Trends According to Ministry of Education data, there were Students under the Aliya madrasa system take 16 at least 7,729 madrasas in Bangladesh in 2000.16 years to complete their education. Five years at the Although it is difficult to quantify the growth in all primary level are followed by four or five years at madrasas—formal and informal—the growth trend the secondary level. Students then must pass an in available statistics through the latter half of the examination to receive an Alim certificate that is 1990s indicates that the number schools is growing equivalent to a secondary school certificate. In the faster than the population. Journalistic accounts exam, 400 marks are attributed to Arabic, religious confirm these schools’ growth in number and influ- theory, and other Islamic subjects. The remaining ence.17 600 marks are for English, math, science, history, and so on. An additional two years leads to the Fazil Figure 1 compares the growth of the Bangladeshi exam, equivalent to the Higher School Certificate population from 1995 to 2000 with the growth in (lower college level). Two years of study after the the number of madrasas. Fazil exam qualifies a student to take the Kamil exam, equivalent to the bachelor’s degree in secular Tables 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7 indicate schools at each education. Students of Aliya madrasas prepare level in Bangladesh in 1995–2000, and how many themselves for employment in government and the students were enrolled in each level. private sector like other college or university stu- dents. Influences—Sects Both Quomi and Aliya madrasas follow the Sunni Quomi madrasas follow a curriculum prescribed by sect of Islam. Quomi madrasas, however, receive Darul-Uloom in Deoband, India, an important funding from private sources and follow the
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 37 Fig. 1. Population Growth and Growth of Officially Documented Madrasas, 1997–2000
8.00%
7.13%
7.00% Percent increase ■ in number of madrasas 6.00%
5.82% 5.26% ■ Percent increase 5.00% in population
4.00%
3.00%
2.00%
1.76% 1.76% 1.76%
1.00%
0.00% 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000
Source: Ministry of Education, Bangladesh Development Gateway http://www.bangladeshgateway.org/sdnp/education/documents/ database/number-madrasa.html>
Deobandi curriculum, which is associated with National Party’s electoral alliance included Jamat-e- Wahhabism. Much Quomi madrasa funding report- Islami, which won an unprecedented 17 seats (out edly originates from sources in the Gulf, such as the of 300) in Parliament. As a result, two party mem- Rabitat Al Alam Al Islami (Muslim World League), bers gained powerful ministerial appointments: which is based in Saudi Arabia. According to one Agriculture and Social Welfare. This win seems to report, private madrasas are appearing in increasing have emboldened more radical elements in numbers on the Indian and Myanmar borders, fed Bangladeshi society, and is a worrisome trend. by impoverished rural youth and Muslim minorities Particularly worth monitoring is the relationship of such as the Rohingyas.18 radical elements with religious schools. Most reports concede that the level of radicalism has not nearly Affiliation with Radical Groups reached that prevailing in Pakistan, but it is certain- Historically, Bangladesh has been considered a mod- ly of concern. erate Islamic country, and many observers continue to consider it as such. Only recently have articles Governance begun appearing that challenge that characteriza- Aliya madrasas function under the Religious tion. They point to the growing influence of radical Education Board, though they follow the govern- elements, some of which are closely tied to some ment’s secular curriculum and include secular sub- schools in the madrasa education system. Reports jects. These madrasas also get most of their funding cite as evidence of the increasing power of radical from the government: approximately $3.7 million groups the emergence of militant political parties, was allocated to them in 1995–96.19 recruitment for terror networks such as al Qaeda, and links to radical groups in neighboring countries. The Quomi madrasas function outside of the gov- During 2001 elections, the winning Bangladesh ernment system with their own curricula and finan-
38 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Table 5.5. Types and Levels of Madrasas in Bangladesh, 1998
Level of Madrasa 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1999–2000*
Dakhil/Ebtedayee* 4,206 4,487 4,839 5,015 Alim (middle to high) 894 949 997 1,087 Fazil (higher secondary) 890 899 953 1,029 Kamil (college and postgraduate) 110 120 126 148 Total 6,100 6,455 6,915 7,279
* Dakhil and Ebtedayee are combined because of lack of data on Ebtedayee.
Table 5.6. Number of Students in Madrasas in Bangladesh
Level of Madrasa 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98
Dakhil/Ebtedayee* 1,174,000 1,296,000 1,370,000 Alim (middle to high) 292,000 307,000 333,000 Fazil (higher secondary) 350,000 352,000 358,000 Kamil (college and postgraduate) 59,000 65,000 65,000 Total 1,875,000 2,020,000 2,126,000
*Dakhil and Ebtedayee are combined because of lack of data on Ebtedayee.
5.7. Secular and Religious Schools in Bangladesh: A Comparison
Secular System Religious System
Level Schools Students Schools Students Primary 66,235 17,227,000 4,839 1,370,000 Secondary 13,419 6,289,000 1,950* 691,000* College 3,344 2,819,147 126 65,000 Total 82,998 26,335,147 6,915 2,126,000
* Alim and Fazil are combined for comparison purposes. Source. Bangladesh Development Gateway
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 39 lodging. Another powerful incentives to parents is jects. In addition, their degrees are not recognized that madrasas inculcate moral values, are usually by the government. They normally become imams, considered safe, and are located near children’s muazzens of mosques, or teachers at nongovern- homes. ment madrasas.21
Active government support for some of these insti- Civic Participation. Madrasas encourage participa- tutions may be another reason for their popularity. tion only in religion-based society and do not tend The Female Secondary School Assistance Project, to encourage civic participation. supported by the World Bank and Government of Bangladesh, provides scholarships for girls to attend Donor-Funded Work with Islamic secondary schools and stipends to those who want Schools and Results to attend madrasas. The Government of Bangladesh supports Aliya madrasas directly and has encouraged other donors Strengths and Weaknesses for to support educational reforms in these madrasas. Preparing Students for Civic For example, ADB was requested to allocate funds Participation and Employment to build science laboratories in 200 Aliya madrasas Employment. Graduates of Aliya madrasas, having in the mid-1990s. UNICEF in Bangladesh is also learned science and other secular subjects, are working with some madrasas.22 The government has employable in the labor market. However, students also introduced English, Bengali, and science in graduating from Quomi madrasas find joining the these madrasas. Donors such as the ADB, UNICEF, mainstream workforce challenging because they do and UNDP have also assisted madrasas in spreading not possess adequate knowledge of secular subjects literacy to the masses in rural areas. ■ and cannot pass competitive exams on such sub-
1 Library of Congress, “Bangladesh, A Country Study” 7 Center for Policy Dialogue, op. cit., [page number]; Hope (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, September1988). Not Complacency: State of Primary Education in Bangladesh
2 Figures taken from Bangladesh Development Gateway web- 8 USAID, “Bangladesh Education” (Dhaka: site.
3 BRAC, “Education Programmes: BRAC Schools.” 10 Atiur Rahman and M. Ismail Hossain, “The Fruits of a
6 World Bank, Bangladesh: Primary Education Development 13
40 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 15 Salahuddin Babur, “Madrasa in Focus” (2002).
17 Bertil Lintner,“A Cocoon of Terror,” Far Eastern Economic Review (April 4, 2002).
18 “Is Religious Extremism on the Rise in Bangladesh?” Jane’s Intelligence Review (May 2002).
19 Abdul Momen, “Madrasa Education in Bangladesh: Background, Present Scenario and the Position of Women” (Bangladesh Nari Progati Sangha, 1997).
20 Ibid.
21 Babur, op. cit.
22 Ibid.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 41
6. Pakistan
Table 6.1. Pakistan Country Profile, 1995–2000
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 138.1 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 97 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 42 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... 63 GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $1,860 Total fertility rate ...... 4.68 Human Development Index...... 0.5
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 86.16 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.57 Primary net enrollment ratio...... – Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate...... 8.3 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... – Primary student/teacher ratio ...... – Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 37.22 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.66 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... Adult secondary completion rate ...... 13.9 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... – Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 1.5 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 44.9 Female adult literacy rate ...... 29.7 Male adult literacy rate ...... 59 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 2.6 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 7.1 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 51.8
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 43 with Islamabad. This created more administrative Introduction problems, and access to and quality of education nly 45 percent of Pakistan’s population is continued to decline. Only in recent years has the literate, compared to the South Asian aver- current government taken steps to decentralize con- age of 49 percent and 53 percent in low- O siderable administrative and fiscal authority to income countries worldwide. While India and provinces and districts. However, the impact of Bangladesh have reached universal primary school these measures remains to be seen. enrollment, Pakistan lags behind with a primary gross enrollment ratio of 86 percent. In addition, compared to their counterparts in India and Characteristics Bangladesh, fewer Pakistani students complete pri- Similar to other South Asian countries, Pakistan has mary school (only 8 percent) and enroll in second- four state-financed levels of education: primary ary school. Pakistan is also far from achieving gen- (grades 1–5), middle (grades 6–8), secondary der equity. Educational challenges for Pakistani (grades 9–10) and tertiary (college). Tertiary educa- females are particularly acute: illiteracy is extremely tion starts at grade 11, usually in a college facility. high at 70 percent—even higher than in Bangladesh To meet the educational needs of students in rural and India. With weak performance on most educa- areas, the government converted about 25,000 tional indicators and almost half the population Koranic schools into mosque primary schools by under 15, Pakistan faces daunting educational chal- adding some secular subjects to their religious cur- lenges. Successfully meeting these challenges will riculum. The Ministry of Education finances and require a huge financial investment in the education manages these schools. The curriculum in public sector, far more than its current 7 percent share of schools is predominantly secular, but the govern- the national budget. This figure is far lower than in ment long ago added a course on Islamic religion many countries with a similar or lower GNI per and history at all grade levels to appease religious capita.1 leaders who wanted the educational system to be inspired by the Islamic ideology.2 Public Education System Tables 6.2 and 6.3 provide a synopsis of the number of government-financed schools and the students After achieving independence in 1947, Pakistan enrolled in each province during 1999–2000. These faced tremendous economic and educational chal- figures do not take into account students enrolled in lenges. Reversing years of a colonial system that mosque and private schools. According to some esti- encouraged education only for the elite would mates, 13 percent of primary school students in require an enormous level of resources. Because of urban areas attend private schools, and a vast num- economic and political constraints, no substantive ber of such schools are in all cities in Pakistan. measures were taken to provide mass education dur- ing the first two decades of independence. While attempting to expand education in the 1970s, the Challenges government realized it did not have the capacity to Access. While Pakistan has experienced some provide education to the poor. With support from improvements in access to education over the past international donors, the government took addition- two decades, progress remains slow and challenges al measures to expand education but the demand far daunting. Roughly 37 percent of the country’s 3 exceeded the supply. The resulting inadequate cover- 138.1 million people live in urban areas. Even age and low quality of education for the poor fur- without school data disaggregated by urban and ther widened the gap between the rich and the poor. rural areas, it is quite clear that rural children face challenges due to poverty and the unavailability of After the 1990 “Education for All” Conference in “appropriate” schools nearby. The government also Jomtien, international donors and the government faces special challenges in providing equal educa- launched a comprehensive effort to expand primary tional access to girls. In 1998–99, only 44,602 out education. The educational administrative system of 163,746 primary schools were for girls. Similarly, was decentralized, but fiscal authority still rested girls’ schools numbered 5,841 at the middle and
44 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Table 6.2. Number of Educational Institutions in Pakistan, 1999–2000
Province Mosque Primary Middle High
Punjab 8,229 96,579 5,974 4,425 Sindh 13,107 64,663 2,073 1,449 NWFP 3,318 39,434 1,930 1,353 Balochistan 575 19,061 696 424 Total 25,229 219,737 10,673 7,651 Grand Total 263,290
Source: Pakistan Ministry of Education
Table 6.3. Number of Students in Pakistan, 1999–2000
Province Primary Middle High
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Punjab 3,968,934 2,690,856 1,070,398 645,746 428,183 253,862 Sindh 1,447,572 787,573 311,402 208,730 108,877 290,759 NWFP 1,310,675 718,643 368,462 138,036 163,294 51,740 Balochistan 415,212 237,250 68,443 28,313 30,480 10,170 Total 7,142,393 4,434,322 1,818,705 1,020,825 730,834 606,531 Grand Total 15,573,610* (Boys 9,691,932; Girls 6,061,678)
*This number does not include students enrolled in mosque and private schools. According to some estimates, 13 percent of Pakistan’s total primary student population in urban areas attend private schools. Source: Pakistan Ministry of Education
3,397 at high levels, compared to 11,166 and by the second grade.6 This statistic is reflected in 7,122, respectively, for boys.4 Gender disparities in other rural areas of Pakistan. A large part of the education remain significant: only about 69 percent problem may be due to the developmentally inap- of girls are enrolled in primary school, compared to propriate kindergarten curriculum, which is essen- 98 percent for boys.5 The gender gap widens at sec- tially the same as the grade 1 curriculum. Equally ondary and tertiary levels. demoralizing for young children are teacher-cen- tered methods. Young children are expected to sit Quality. The increase in enrollment during the last still all day and learn almost entirely by rote. two decades has not been met with equivalent Teachers are not educated about developmental improvements in the quality of the classroom teach- stages and appropriate learning environments. ing-learning experience. The deteriorating quality of public school education is due to deficiencies in The situation at higher levels of primary education teacher qualifications and performance, especially in (grades 3–6) is exacerbated by poorly trained teach- rural schools. Student dropout in rural areas remains ers, many of whom cannot read and teach from pri- a serious problem. The most dramatic dropout takes mary-level books. A study of teacher training col- place in kachi (kindergarten) and pakki (grade 1). leges financed by USAID/Pakistan in the early For example, in Balochistan, approximately 50 per- 1990s showed that the teachers’ mastery of the con- cent of all children entering kachi leave the system tent barely exceeded that of the students.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 45 Reasons for the high dropout level and discontent ■ overcrowded school facilities ill-suited for any with the public education system include kind of constructive learning, especially at the primary level ■ a weak and centralized education management system that has led to ineffective supervision of Management. Pakistan Ministry of Education guide- schools and teachers at the district and local lines provide that all public schools operate under level, especially in remote areas that have a the general supervision of district education officers severely deficient communication infrastructure (DEOs), with additional staff at the subdistrict ■ underqualified and undertrained teachers level. School head teachers report to DEOs, who, in turn, report to the Directorate of Primary or ■ inappropriate, irrelevant, and inadequate learn- Elementary Education, depending on the province.7 ing materials DEOs are responsible for hiring, transferring, train- ■ parents and communities unprepared to provide ing, and supervising teachers. educational support (with homework and the like) to children outside of the school Schools follow the federally prescribed curriculum, which is developed in Islamabad but published at ■ unavailability of postprimary education for the provincial levels. Because most DEOs operate many rural children from district headquarters, they are unable to pro- ■ old and irrelevant educational curricula at mid- vide regular supervision to all rural schools. The dle and secondary schools result is a high rate of teacher absenteeism and a large number of defunct schools that close down
Table 6.4. Donor Assistance to Pakistan’s Public Education Sector, 1993–2003
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Literacy Nonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■ ■■■■■■■■ USAID ■ ■■■■■■■ UNICEF ■ ■■■ ■ ADB ■■ ■■■■■■■■■■ EU ■■■■■■ UNESCO CIDA ■ ■■■ ■ ■ GTZ/KFW ■ ■■■■■ ■ ■ JICA ■■ DFID ■ ■■■ ■ DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
* Includes building the capacity of NGOs for better social service delivery.
46 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 when students and teachers stop attending. In addi- tional quality. Fierce competition from private tion, poor investment in teacher skill building school students has further marginalized public means many rural teachers remain underqualified school students. Students attending “somewhat bet- and untrained. Regular inservice teacher training is ter” public schools in city centers tend to get lower- something of a luxury, enjoyed only by some urban level (secretarial or clerical) government or private teachers. sector jobs. Only students from the rich and mid- dle-income strata assume leadership and other high- Financial mismanagement has often occurred at level jobs in public and private sectors, while poor provincial and district education levels. School con- and rural students remain without jobs or end up in struction occasions the most leakage. Education lower-level posts. officers often choose school construction sites uni- laterally, without consulting community members, Civic Participation. Pakistani schools do not prepare and award contracts for personal and political rea- students for civic participation or building demo- sons. Schools are often constructed in the wrong cratic society. The schools are characterized by places and with the cheapest materials, leading to authoritarian teaching styles, absolute adherence to rapid school building deterioration. “how lessons should be taught,” and zero tolerance of independent reasoning by students or teachers. Donor Assistance This is not the environment that supports or guides As shown in Table 6.4, most donor-funded pro- the development of skills needed for civic participa- grams concentrate on improving access and quality tion or contributes to the development of a free- in primary education, with a special focus on girls. thinking society. Only in the last 15 years has The World Bank and ADB usually focus on Pakistani civil society, supported by international province-wide programs that serve many beneficiar- donors, begun to address some of these issues and ies. The EU has also financed the Aga Khan mobilize masses to assume greater civic roles. Institute of Education Development, the state-of- the-art teacher training facility that caters to build- Policy Reforms. Over the past decade, the ing the capacity of rural and poor teachers. Government of Pakistan has implemented several educational development programs that have had a Though many donors and private NGOs are oper- positive impact on school enrollment rates. However, ating in Pakistan, only the ADB is focusing on most of these efforts have been confined to increas- improving secondary education. This is where the ing access rather than improving quality. The problem of radicalism actually begins. Recently, the Primary Education Development Program, funded World Bank has shown interest in tertiary education by USAID in 1989–94 in Balochistan and the funding reforms and a greater focus on information North West Frontier Province (NWFP), placed technology training. And only the ADB is investing heavy emphasis on community participation in edu- in vocational training to provide students with skills cation and had a significant impact on parental atti- relevant to the labor market. tudes toward girls’ education. It increased the supply of primary schools for girls and shaped it to meet the Strengths and Weaknesses for needs of parents and their daughters. Between 1990 Preparing Students for Civic and 1998, girls’ enrollment in Balochistan increased Participation and Employment by 151 percent.8 However, poor quality persisted. Employment. It is widely acknowledged that Pakistani public schools are failing to provide basic Some recent innovations have targeted quality. literacy and numeracy skills—the minimal require- Based on an open advertisement and screening per- ments for employment in most public or private formed by a private firm, the Sindh Education sector jobs. Many students either do not stay in Department recently hired 3,500 teachers. This was, school long enough to develop these skills—only 8 perhaps, the first time that such a large, open percent complete primary education—or they devel- recruitment had taken place. This procedure curbed op only rudimentary skills because of poor educa- political pressure to appoint unqualified or uncom-
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 47 Table 6.5. Secular and Religious Schools in Pakistan, 2000, 2002*
Madrasas operating Students in Students in Madrasas Province or under the religious Secular Schools (data by province Category Secular Schools education board (male and female) not available)
Punjab 115,207 3,155 9,057,979 NWFP 81,292 1,776 3,154,913 Sindh 46,035 905 2,750,850 Balochistan 20,756 692 789,868 Mosque schools under Ministry of Education** 25,229 Total 288,519 6,528 15,753,610 1,197,427
* The data on secular schools are derived from the Ministry of Education for the year 2000. Data on religious schools are from the Ministry of Religious Affairs for the year 2002. ** Mosque schools operating under the Ministry of Education are usually considered as secular schools.
mitted “ghost” teachers (who are paid but never power system. Human development, especially edu- show up to teach) and allowed new and more quali- cation expansion, is the key responsibility of nazims fied candidates to become teachers and have a and their associates. steady income. Future educational improvements are also expected Reviving Pakistan’s local government structure is the to result from USAID’s new Education Sector policy reform that would have the most meaningful Reform project in Pakistan. Its key components are impact on district-level operations and accountabili- ■ strengthening local education departments ty in all sectors, especially education. In August 2001, Pakistan’s chief executive decreed a govern- ■ creating local learning centers ment decentralization plan under which local elec- ■ improving educational quality tions were held to revitalize the role of communities in district- and subdistrict-level management. The ■ fostering functional literacy for out-of-school purpose of the plan was to shift district manage- youth ment responsibilities, including fiscal ones, from ■ expanding primary education provincial operatives to locally elected representa- tives. Thirty-three percent of local council election seats were reserved for women. Devolution rules Islamic Schools provided that if a woman could not be elected to a dedicated seat, it would remain vacant. This encour- Levels and Types aged unprecedented participation of women in Table 6.5 shows the number of secular and religious Pakistan’s local elections, which allowed many new, schools in each province and the number of stu- young, nonpoliticized, and energetic men and dents enrolled in 2000 (in secular schools) and women to represent their areas. Though many new 2002 (religious schools). district manager (nazims) posts went to powerful politicians from previous governments, the new sys- The three main types of religious institutions in tem of checks and balances is in place whereby naz- Pakistan are Koranic schools, where only the Koran ims are chosen by assistant managers (naib-nazims), is taught; mosque schools, where both Koranic and and only for three years. Local councilors elect naib- secular subjects are taught; and madrasas, where nazims, many of whom are young and, according to only Islamic learning takes place. many accounts, aspire to change the old political
48 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Koranic schools. Every Muslim child in Pakistan is Trends expected and encouraged to read the Koran, either For most of Pakistan’s history, madrasas numbered in a mosque or at home. Koranic schools usually in the low hundreds and focused on training the function in a mosque, where the mullah teaches the next generation of religious leaders. The number of Koran to children, both boys and girls. At the basic madrasas began to grow in the mid-1970s, with the level, only the words of the Koran are taught; no rise of Jamat-e-Islami and political Islam and the translation or interpretation is provided. The objec- active support of Prime Minister’s Zulfikar Ali tive is that all Muslims be able to read the Koran in Bhutto. With government financing, they grew at Arabic, even if they do not understand the language. an even greater rate in the mid-1980s under the Students are expected to try to understand the regime of President Zia ul-Haq, when large theolog- Koran when possible, but not much is actually done ical seminaries were established to create a cadre of to bring this knowledge to the student. Koranic religiously motivated mujahadin to fight in schools offer classes at various times—evenings, Afghanistan. mornings, and afternoons—to accommodate the needs of teachers and students. The defeat of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan resulted in the fall of Pakistan’s military dictatorship. Mosque Primary Schools. A lack of resources to pro- Subsequent governments were unable to fully sup- vide schools in every village in the mid-1980s led port these madrasas financially, so funds started the Government of Pakistan to experiment with flowing in from private individuals and Islamic converting some rural Koranic schools into mosque charities in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, primary schools. The plan was to add additional and the Gulf states. The situation in Afghanistan subjects, such as basic Urdu and mathematics, to be kept the madrasa system alive in Pakistan: more and taught by the local imam. The plan faced serious more mujahadin were recruited to fight for the challenges because the local imams were not aca- ouster of the corrupt Afghan government. In addi- demically prepared to teach these subjects: many tion, sectarian madrasas flourished (such as those had not attended formal secular schools and the run by the Ahle-Hadith and Shia sects), not as government did not provide any training. much to fight foreign wars as to guard and spread their version of Islam. Madrasas. The mission of most Pakistani madrasas is to prepare students for religious duties. Adhering Many recent articles and reports point with alarm to to strict religious teachings, madrasas teach Islamic the increase in the number of madrasas in Pakistan. subjects such as the Koran, Islamic law and jurispru- The 2002 ICG Report states that the Ministry of dence, logic, and the Prophet’s traditions. The con- Education estimated there were 3,906 Pakistani centration of religious teaching increases with the madrasas in 1995 and 7,000 in 2000.9 In level of the madrasa—primary, middle, or high. September 2002, the Dawn newspaper cited Lower levels of madrasas produce hafiz-e-Koran (one Ministry of Religious Affairs reports that there were who memorizes the Koran fully) or qari (one who 6,528 registered madrasas that had enrolled about can recite the Koran with good pronunciation and 1.2 million students.10 However, in April 2002, in a melodic tone). Higher level madrasas produce Pakistan’s minister for religious affairs had told the alim (Islamic scholar or teacher). An alim certificate ICG that 10,000 madrasas existed. He suspected from a madrasa is equivalent to a master’s degree in there were more, and as many as 1–1.7 million Islamiyat or Arabic from a regular university. Since students attending madrasa classes, at least for very few madrasas supplement religious education short periods.11 Some analysts believe the number with secular subjects, students who enroll fulltime of madrasas is higher than 10,000—perhaps as high do so with the knowledge that they will become as 33,000.12 well versed only in religious studies and find jobs in the religious sector.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 49 Influences—Sects encouraged them to join the mujahadin inside There are five major Islamic sects in Pakistan: Afghanistan. Madrasas affiliated with the Deobandi, Bareili, Ahle-Hadith, Salafi, and Shia. Haqqaniya chain and the JUI faction led by Each has its own madrasas that teach its own ver- Fazlur Rahman also established networks for jihad sion of Islam. The two main Sunni sects— in Pakistan’s major urban centers. Jihadi seminar- Deobandi and Bareili—dominate Pakistan’s madrasa ies with Afghan and Arab volunteers spread to system.13 The Deobandi and Bareili sects originated Karachi and later to the Punjab. in the colonial Indian subcontinent in response to a perceived imperial plot to destroy Islam and its fol- The proxy battle between Saudi Arabia and Iran— lowers by means of education. Of these sects, the between Wahhabism and Shiaism respectively—also Deobandi is considered to be the most anti- played a role in giving rise to sectarian and jihadi Western. culture in Pakistan. Thus, madrasas established to produce religious leaders to establish law, order, and Affiliation with Radical Groups accountability attracted holy war recruits for all bat- The current religious extremism in Pakistan has its tles involving Muslims. roots in the Afghan war. After the Soviet invasion, the call for jihad was raised by the predominantly Most Pakistani madrasas continue to serve only as Sunni Jamat-e-Islami, then the largest religious party centers of learning for future Islamic scholars and in Pakistan and considered by some to be an off- clerics. The concern, however, is with the much shoot of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. smaller portion that have been associated with mili- Abiding by the call of their leader that Muslims tant groups. In November 2001, Peter W. Singer must take up arms to defend the religion, party reported: operatives started recruiting young men to oust Around 10–15 percent of the schools are affiliated the infidels (kafirs) from Afghanistan. Some with extremist religious/political groups, who were recruited from madrasas operated by the have co-opted education for their own needs. Jamat-e-Islami. These schools teach a distorted view of Islam. Hatred is permissible, jihad allows the murder of Deobandi madrasas also participated in the war. innocent civilians including other Muslim men, Sunni, but opposed to Western-type governments, women, and children, and the new heroes are ter- these madrasas were operating under the Jamiet-e- rorists. Martyrdom through suicide attacks is also Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) and involved mostly Pashto- extolled. Many of the radical religious schools also 14 speaking people from the NWFP and Balochistan. include weapons and physical training in their Most JUI madrasas were concentrated along the regimen, as well as weekly lessons on political border with Afghanistan. Even though JUI opposed speechmaking (where anti-American rhetoric is the Zia regime, it had ethnic and tribal loyalties in memorized). The students are uneducated, young, Afghanistan. Because helping was a sacred duty, the dependent on the schools, and cut off from con- number of JUI madrasas increased, and they tact with their parents for years at a time, and became much fiercer in their resolve to cleanse thus highly susceptible to being programmed Afghanistan of all “nefarious infidels.” The increase toward violence. kept pace with the increasing number of Afghan refugee men in such Pakistani border towns as These schools have become the new breeding Peshawar, Quetta, Chaman, and Landikotal. Later, ground for radical Islamic militants, where the JUI madrasas spread to other parts of the country. next generation is trained and groomed. Their graduating classes form an integral recruiting pool In the beginning, according to the ICG report, for transnational terrorist and conflict networks. For example, both the Taliban and the more These madrasas did not necessarily conduct mili- extreme Kashmiri terrorist groups found their tary training or provide arms to students but roots in the young boys from crowded refugee
50 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 camps taught at radical Madrassahs. The 55th Brigade, made up of foreigners recruited by A Glimpse into the Financial Status of Usama bin Laden’s Al Qaida terrorist organization a Large Madrasa in Pakistan* to fight in Afghanistan, also drew from the schools.15 A Deobandi residential madrasa in a province enrolls 2,500 fulltime students and its annual Singer also points out an added concern: costs, according to a 2001audit report, are $100,000—$40 per year per student. [T]he student pool in many of these radical madrasas is made up of foreigners as well, and In 2001, the government’s education budget thus lays the seeds of conflict elsewhere. This for all levels was $939.3 million. Even if, quite internationalizes their virulent influence. As much generously, 30 percent of this amount were as 10–50 percent of the students in certain allocated to primary and secondary education, madrasas are from abroad, coming from regions at the total amount per student is $16.7, less than war such as Afghanistan, Chechnya, and the half of the amount per student spent in an Philippines. These students return with new influ- average residential Pakistani madrasa. ence and a changed outlook, helping to worsen the levels of violence in their home states.16 * Interview with an anonymous madrasa principal.
A majority of Pakistani madrasa graduates have received no career-oriented education and face fierce competition for limited jobs. Some have resorted to introduced as a compulsory subject in all public violence to influence the country’s internal and schools, and teachers from madrasas were hired to external policies. Right-wing religious leaders pro- teach it. In addition, Islamic tax (Zakat) funds were vide free transportation and sometimes food when directed to support madrasas.18 Under Zia’s regime, these students attend rallies and other demonstra- military chaplains were hired from the Deobandi tions against the government or the West. sect, giving further strength to the most anti- Western sect of political Islam. Governance Relationship to the Government. During the early Currently, the religious board, run by religious lead- years of the rise of madrasa education and the threat ers under the auspices of the Ministry of Religious of Islamization, the Ayub Khan government created Affairs, manages and controls the operations of a religious endowment (Auuqaf), which provided madrasas. In addition to government funds, much money for the operations of the religious institu- money comes from private philanthropists in Saudi tions. The Auuqaf reforms demanded that madrasas Arabia, Kuwait, and other Gulf states, who also add secular subjects to their curricula. All major reli- attach strings to madrasas’ curricula. During an gious political parties rejected this stance. Seeking to informal interview, a principal of a madrasa in gain political support, Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Sindh, which receives both government and foreign Bhutto put in the 1973 constitution that Pakistan funding, said that their nongovernment benefactors would be an Islamic state that would enable strictly prohibit them from introducing any subjects Muslims to live their lives according to the Koran in their school that can help “open the minds of and Sunnah. He also created the Council of Islamic students to things that fall outside the realms of reli- Ideology to guide moves that would make Pakistan gious teachings.” The principal in question has a a more religious state.17 Thus began the glory days degree in English literature. for madrasas in Pakistan. Bhutto made all private schools public, but madrasas remained autonomous During the summer of 2002, the government prom- in deciding what to teach. Under President Zia ul- ulgated a madrasas registration ordinance that also Haq, madrasas continued to flourish. Arabic was called for major reforms and addressed curricular
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 51 and pedagogical issues. Registration was to be done Strengths and Weaknesses for on a voluntary basis, and the law included no mech- Preparing Students for Civic anisms for enforcement or punishing violators. Participation and Employment However, apparently under the pressure of Islamic The following draws heavily from Tariq Rahman’s parties and other antireform constituencies, article, “Language, Religion and Identity in President Pervez Musharraf indicated he would no Pakistan: Language Teaching in Pakistan longer pursue madrasa reform as a top priority. Madrassas.”20
Relationship to Government Schools. Other than Employment. Madrasas study Islam, as a particular mosque primary schools operating under the sect interprets it. The main languages of instruction Ministry of Education that teach secular subjects in are Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. In madrasas located addition to the Koran, there is no formal relation- along the Afghan border and in Sindh, the lan- ship between a madrasa and a regular public school. guages of instruction are Pashto and Sindhi. In Curriculum design and pedagogical methods do not 1997, only 2.8 percent of madrasas were also teach- converge in any way. A madrasa student in grade 8 ing English. Urdu remains the most prevalent lan- would feel out of place if transferred to a regular guage of instruction: students become well versed at public school, and vice versa. least with spoken Urdu by the end of their studies. At the end of the highest level of madrasa educa- Parental Incentives tion, the student has to pass an exam to be formally During the last two decades, as access to and quality inducted in the religious sector as an alim. In 2002, of public education deteriorated, Pakistan’s elite the ICG reported that only a small percentage— increasingly sent their children to the expanding perhaps 2–5 percent of students—actually reach this number of private schools. Poor parents could not level. What happens to the rest is not known. afford private school, and, with no better alterna- tives, they began sending their sons to madrasas. Most of the Arabic books taught in madrasas are According to Singer, some madrasas provide food, from medieval times and focus primarily on gram- clothes, and even pay parents to send their children, mar and syntax. Students are taught Arabic, based further increasing their enticement.19 This is espe- on difficult classical texts, and they are encouraged cially appealing for destitute Afghan refugees who to memorize the texts rather than internalize their need schooling for their children. meaning. Similarly, when Persian is taught in Pakistani madrasas, students tend to memorize les- Nevertheless, some families who are not poor and sons and fail to gain functional literacy. Even Urdu have access to public schools opt to send their chil- translations of some ancient works are heavily dren to madrasas. The poor quality of public school Arabicized, leaving little room for students to teaching may be one factor, but the choice may also understand what they are reading or hearing. be inspired by religious affiliation and the preserva- tion of religious identity, which is perceived to be Rahman states that books in Persian (which is closer under threat by the invading popular culture of to Urdu in grammar than Arabic) approved to be MTV and ZeeTV (from India). Every now and taught in Pakistani madrasas include Attar’s Pand then, people write letters to Dawn lamenting Nama, Nam-e-Haq, and Sa’adi’s Karima. obscenity on Pakistani TV, which is following Western models of programming and dress codes. These books are didactic and in rhymed couplets. Many parents, regardless of economic status, there- Although they are ‘safe’ from the ulema’s point of fore prefer to send their children to religious schools view, being about morality, this morality is strictly where they will be taught how to be good Muslims medieval and patriarchal. Both Pand Nama and and be protected from the immoral, non-Muslim Karima approve of hospitality and condemn influences of the modern world. miserliness. In both silence is a virtue and sponta- neous talking is not. In both women are inferior,
52 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 untrustworthy and alluring, as, indeed, are beard- Madrasa students, however, are better prepared for less boys. Both belong to a male world confident employment than those who have received no edu- in its superiority. Women are faithless and the cation. At least the higher level madrasas add to a wise must suspect them. student’s language comprehension. Compared to a person with no education, a madrasa student’s Most madrasas teach no secular subjects. Religious advantage is the basic literacy and socialization skills leaders who decide the madrasas’ curriculum con- developed in a school environment. tend that every aspect of knowledge that a Muslim needs to know was revealed to the Prophet and is Civic Participation. Based on the information col- contained in the Koran. Given this resistance to sec- lected for this study, there is no evidence that ular knowledge or even a progressive interpretation Pakistani religious schools prepare their students for of the Koran, most religious schools are not civic participation. designed to prepare students for employment. Nevertheless, a graduate of a madrasa has the right Donor-Funded Work with Islamic to a high-level (grade 16) civil service job in a gov- Schools and Results ernment office. Until recently, no donor agency supported reforms in Pakistan’s religious education sector. In It is worth pointing out that many students gradu- September 2002, the EU announced its support for ating from secular public schools or colleges are not religious institution reform. “The EU has made a better off academically. Because of the poor quality firm commitment to provide some $4 billion to of the education system, most secular students dis- Islamabad for the rehabilitation of seminaries in the play only limited knowledge of their subjects. Still, country,” a senior official in the religious affairs their chances of obtaining a job, particularly in the ministry disclosed. He said the proposed package private sector, are higher than for their counterparts would be for 10 years.21 ■ in the madrasa system.
1 Comparable figures are Ethiopia, 15 percent; Gambia, 21 Education supervises middle and high schools in all provinces percent; Guinea, 27 percent; Niger, 13 percent; Nigeria, 12 except Balochistan, whose small number of schools all fall percent; Senegal, 33 percent; Uganda, 21 percent. under one Directorate of Education.
2 Aziz Talibani, “Pedagogy, Power, and Discourse: 8 Balochistan Education Management Information Statistics, Transformation of Islamic Education.” Comparative Education 1998. Review, 40, no. 1 (February 1999), 66–82. 9 ICG, “Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism, and the Military,” 3 World Bank, “Data by Country, Pakistan,” 2002. Asia Report, 36 (29 July 2002), 2.
4 Government of Pakistan, “1998/99 Economic Survey.” 10 Zulifiqar Ali, “EU Ready to Help Madrasas,” Dawn, September 2, 2002. 5 UNESCO. Statistical CD-Rom—2000. 11 ICG, op. cit., 2. 6 Balochistan Education Management Information System (BEMIS), 2000. 12 K.P.S. Gill, “Politics of Islam in Pakistan,” The Pioneer, March 2001.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 53 15 P. W. Singer, “Pakistani Madrassahs: Ensuring a System of Education Not Jihad,” Analysis Paper No. 14 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, November 2001).
16 Ibid.
17 Christele Dedebant, “‘Mughal Mania’ under Zia ul-Haq,” ISIM Newsletter, 8 (2001), 11.
18 ICG, op. cit.
19 Singer, op. cit., 2.
20 Tariq Rahman, “Language, Religion and Identity in Pakistan: Language Teaching in Pakistan Madrassas,” Ethnic Studies Report, 16 (2) (July 1998).
21 Dawn, op. cit.
54 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 7. Indonesia
Table 7.1. Indonesia Country Profile, 1995–2000
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 210.4 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 88 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 32 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $2,830 Total fertility rate ...... 2.49 Human Development Index...... 0.68
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 113 Primary gender parity index ...... 96 Primary net enrollment ratio...... 95 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate...... 17.3 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... 6 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 22 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio...... 56 Secondary gender parity index ...... 87 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate ...... 8.4 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 1,157 Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 0.5 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 87.9 Female adult literacy rate ...... 83.4 Male adult literacy rate...... 92.5 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 1.6 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 7.9 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure ...... –
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 55 more power and initiative regarding local policies Introduction and teacher training. ndonesia has made significant strides in educat- ing its citizens: it has a relatively high literacy The vast majority of school-aged children in rate of 88 percent, a high primary net enroll- I Indonesia enroll in public schools. In 2000–01, ment of 95 percent, and relative gender equity in 43.4 million students were enrolled in public pri- both primary and secondary schools. However, with mary and secondary schools, 29.2 million in pri- low secondary enrollment rates, deteriorating quali- mary and 14.2 million in secondary. ty of education in primary and secondary schools, and one-third of its population under 15, Indonesia faces formidable educational challenges. Providing Challenges high quality education for such a large cohort of Access. Enrollment in primary education has been school-aged children will require the government to almost universal for the past 20 years. Although pri- significantly accelerate its efforts to strengthen the mary enrollment rates are high, access levels differ education system. This, however, will be difficult, markedly between Java and outer provinces such as given that spending on education amounts to only West Timor. The economic crisis of the late 1990s 1.6 percent of Indonesia’s GNP and just under 8 resulted in a slight and temporary decrease in school percent of total government expenditure.1 enrollment by poor and rural students. For many poor families, the costs associated with public schooling are unaffordable. Because of the difficult Public Education System labor market, such students tend not to continue to secondary school. Thus, while enrollments have Characteristics steadily increased in primary schools, they have lev- Basic education in Indonesia consists of six years of eled off in secondary schools. elementary school and three of lower secondary school. There is no tuition for basic education, but Quality. Indonesian students have consistently expe- students and their families have to purchase books rienced low quality of learning in classrooms, result- and official uniforms. Indonesia also provides non- ing in low academic achievement. Assessments formal education through programmed learning report relatively low scores on reading competency packets to out-of-school youth or school dropouts. tests by Indonesian students by international stan- 2 After basic education, the school system offers three dards. They also performed at lower standards in years of upper secondary school and four years of science and mathematics than students in Malaysia university. However, after basic education, promo- and other countries in the region. A major con- tion is determined by selective examinations that straint to achieving higher quality education is a narrow the option for higher shortage of qualified teachers, due to low salaries education. and lack of incentives. Finding qualified personnel to teach in rural areas is a serious problem. Despite the predominantly secular curriculum in Providing textbooks and other school equipment government schools, students are given the option throughout the far-flung archipelago continues to of taking two hours of religious instruction—usually be another significant challenge. in Islam, Christianity, or Hinduism. Management. In 2001, Indonesia decentralized The Ministry of Education is responsible for the some educational management functions to provin- planning and execution of education. The ministry cial and district governments. The central govern- has four directorates: primary education, secondary ment develops policies, manages the national cur- education, higher education, and out-of-school edu- riculum, and conducts national examinations. cation and culture. While management of education Provincial and district governments define policy on is essentially centralized, increasingly district educa- student selection, provide instructional materials, tion offices across the 27 provinces are assuming and manage special institutions, including those for
56 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 teacher training. However, limited capacity at local Donor Assistance levels impedes this decentralization because local USAID has been supporting democracy and educa- units cannot adequately meet the educational needs tion initiatives in government primary and second- of large populations of out-of-school youths or ary schools and in Islamic institutes. The Agency is improve teaching through better school manage- planning to strengthen its assistance to basic educa- ment and training programs. tion in Indonesia, and is currently finalizing its strategy. Policy Reform. Indonesia’s educational priorities for 2001–04 focus on As shown in Table 7.2, several other donors have ■ improving quality of instruction and relevance implemented programs to support Indonesia’s edu- of the curriculum cation sector. Most have been assisting the govern- ment to expand access, improve primary and sec- ■ reducing inequities within and among the ondary education, and strengthen institutional provinces capacity at provincial and district levels. ■ enhancing educational management through ■ The World Bank has been supporting education more efficient financing and information usage projects throughout the archipelago. They are and continued decentralization of functions designed to expand access to primary and junior secondary education; improve the quality of primary and junior secondary education; and
Table 7.2. Donor Assistance to Indonesia’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Literacy Nonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■■ ■■■■■ ■ AusAid ■■■■■■ ■ ■ UNESCO/ UNICEF ■ ■■■■■ ■ ADB ■ ■■■■ EU Dutch (World Bank Admin.) ■■ ■■■■■ ■ New Zealand (UNESCO ■ ■■■■■ ■ Admin.) JICA ■■■■■■■■ ■ GTZ ■ ■■■ JBIC ■■■
* Includes building the capacity of NGOs for better social service delivery.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 57 decentralize and improve educational planning, by the job market. In addition, the secondary school management, and institutional capacity at curriculum is usually overloaded to the point that provincial and district levels. subjects may not be taught effectively. Finally, pri- mary school quality problems mean that basic litera- ■ UNICEF has been providing support to a proj- cy, numeracy, and analytical skills may not be ect that focuses on improving the educational learned well. Hence, some students are less likely to status of girls throughout Indonesia. be adequately prepared to be “trainable” later on. ■ JICA is currently supporting a project to improve primary and secondary science and Civil Participation. Indonesia’s public school system mathematics teaching by improving the educa- is based upon the state philosophy of the five princi- tional content of faculties in charge of science ples (Pancasila): 1) belief in one god; 2) just and and mathematics education at three national civilized humanity, including tolerance to all people; universities. 3) unity of Indonesia; 4) democracy led by wisdom of deliberation among representatives of the people; ■ The Australian Agency for International and 5) social justice for all. This state ideology, Development (AusAID) has been providing taught in public schools, may be considered a form scholarships at primary and junior secondary lev- of civic education. els to children from poor families. AusAID has also supported technical and vocational educa- Since the 1998 overthrow of the Suharto regime, tion in Indonesia. Pancasila has taken on a more democratic emphasis. Some donors are undertaking pilot efforts to replace Strengths and Weaknesses for traditional Pancasila teachings with civic education Preparing Students for Civic courses that cover such topics as the principles and Participation and Employment practices of conflict resolution, tolerance of differ- Employment. The major strength of the Indonesian ences, respect for individual rights, and participatory public school system is the widespread enrollment instruction. USAID/Jakarta has funded democracy of primary school students. The basic literacy, education pilot projects that involve students in numeracy, and analytical skills taught prepare most analyzing public policy issues through democratic primary educated youth to be “trainable,” regardless educational processes. Students involved in the of whether they continue to secondary school, enter instructional models have demonstrated abilities to training programs, or need to learn skills on the job. analyze problems, interpret and draw conclusions Students can also take vocational subjects in lower from data, debate issues, accept and criticize each secondary school, and they may specialize in techni- other’s opinions, and propose relevant solutions. cal, vocational, or business education in upper sec- However, traditional teacher-centered instruction in ondary school. There are also life skills subjects that primary and secondary schools tends to dilute these all students take as electives. This is an attempt to innovations by perpetuating an authoritarian class- make the curriculum more relevant to the locale, room atmosphere. Thus, efforts will be needed to with special attention given to health prevention help teachers create a teaching-learning environment (HIV/AIDS), environmental protection, and practi- that supports these innovations. cal skills training. For students who never attended or dropped out of school, nonformal or out-of- school education prepares them to concentrate on Islamic Schools practical skills in commerce, trades, and business. Levels and Types A major weakness of formal vocational training in The two types of Islamic schools in Indonesia are lower secondary school is that the skills taught may madrasas, or day schools, and pesantrens, or board- be outdated or disconnected to market realities: job ing schools. skills learned may not correspond to those required
58 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Table 7.3. Madrasa Schools in Indonesia, 2000–01
Level Private Public Total Teacher:Students Students
Upper Secondary 3,130 (84%) 575 (16%) 3,705 1:44 576,000 Lower Secondary 9,624 (89%) 1,168 (11%) 10,792 1:10 1,900,000 Primary 20,554 (93%) 1,481 (7%) 22,035 1:18 2,900,000
Source: Ministry of Religious Affairs Educational Statistics, “Indonesia School Year 2000–2001;” Education Management Information Service (EMIS), Jakarta, Indonesia, 2001.
Madrasas provide education at primary, lower sec- dents in trading, farming, cottage industries, and ondary, and upper secondary levels. They teach the other community-based and income-generating national education curriculum and use extended activities. Thus, many pesantrens attempt to blend hours to teach basic Islamic education and princi- traditional Indonesian values—such as Islamic ples. Students who graduate from the upper second- brotherhood, selflessness, simplicity, social justice, ary level of accredited madrasas are qualified to and self-sufficiency—with selected modern ones— enter a university. The great majority of madrasas such as entrepreneurial business management with are privately owned and operated, while others oper- English language and computer training.3 ate under the Ministry of Religion. Madrasas are less expensive than public secondary schools and Though comparable enrollment data for public and provide access to basic education in rural and low- Islamic schools is unavailable, it is estimated that income urban communities. They widen access to Islamic schools enroll 10–15 percent of the total basic education through affordable schooling and school-age population. supply Islamic teaching. Trends Pesantrens operate as independent Islamic self-gov- In 2001, there were 11,312 pesantrens in Indonesia, erning schools, outside of the national madrasa and an increase of 13.2 percent from the previous school public education system. They exist as a communi- year. For a variety of reasons discussed below, an ty, with a compound, mosque, and boarding system increasing number of students attend them. where students and teachers eat, sleep, learn, and generally interact throughout the day. Most are Influences—Sects located in rural areas. Pesantrens vary considerably The historical spread of Islam throughout the archi- in size, from only a few hundred students to 4,000 pelago was far from consistent or uniform, and strict or more. The majority of pesantrens have a cus- lines between different sects or approaches to Islam tomized curriculum that consists mainly of Islamic today are not always clear. Most Indonesian Muslims teachings based on the interpretation of the head- follow the Sunni sect or the orthodox teachings and master (kyai). Religious subjects include Islamic the- traditions of Islam. Coastal groups in Java and some ology, philosophy, jurisprudence, and ethics; of the outer islands accepted Islam in its orthodox Koranic exegesis, recitation, and memorization; and form and continue to practice it, while interior Arabic literature, grammar, or astronomy. A few groups in Java adopted some of Islam’s precepts and pesantrens include a curriculum that follows the practices while maintaining their Javanese and government curriculum. Pesantrens have roughly Hindu-Buddhistic traditions. In other outer islands, the same three levels as the madrasas, but they are animist beliefs and practices underlie overt expres- more staggered and not as clearly defined. sions of Islam. Many Javanese remain suspicious of orthodox political Islam and, together with Christian Many pesantrens have businesses that make them and Hindu minorities, identify more with the secular self-supporting, and they provide training for stu- state of Indonesia than with an Islamic state.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 59 Very broadly, the vast majority of orthodox ■ adoption of Sharia or traditional Islamic law Indonesian Muslims are either traditionalists or ■ adherence to puritanical Islam and an aversion modernists. Traditionalists follow religious teachings to secularism handed down over the centuries, including traditions derived from Java. Modernists contend that the only ■ suspicion of or opposition to Christian churches true basis of Islam is the Koran and the example of and proselytizing the prophet Mohammad. These two macroinflu- ■ opposition to Israel ences are expressed through Indonesia’s two largest Muslim organizations: the traditionalist Nahdatul ■ increasing anti-Americanism Ulama, based in Java, and the urban-based mod- ■ prohibition of prostitution, gambling, and ernist Muhammadiyah, which runs a network of alcohol schools, hospitals, and other welfare organizations. Paradoxically, traditionalist Muslims in Indonesia are Since September 11, 2001, many analysts have been generally regarded as more liberal and comfortable trying to determine the extent to which Islamic with the secular state, while modernists are generally schools in Indonesia are affiliated with radical regarded as more conservative, supporting a larger groups. While most are not, there is concern, espe- role for Islam in government. Nevertheless, both are cially among government officials, that some regarded as moderate, and both are against an pesantrens are potential breeding grounds for terror- Islamic state that uses Sharia or traditional Islamic ist activity. Although far more research is needed, law as a basis for common law. In addition, the lead- several analysts have documented evidence that ers of both organizations have expressed discontent appears to link a few Islamic schools in Indonesia with how Islam has been politicized by certain radi- with Islamic extremist groups. The following are cal groups. Both organizations have appealed to the some examples. Indonesian government to take harsh measures against groups that break the law. ■ According to Leonard Sebastian,5 there are two broad groups of Indonesian madrasas: 1) gov- Affiliation with Radical Groups ernment-controlled madrasas that adopt a liberal The existence of militant Muslims in Indonesia is education curriculum and private madrasas not new. There were radical groups during the under the tutelage of tolerant Islamic leaders, Sukarno and Suharto periods that attempted to and 2) privately run madrasas that adopt a more establish an Islamic state in Indonesia and replace radical agenda propagated by Islamic clerics Pancasila. However, all these attempts failed, not with radical intentions. Privately run madrasas only because of the repressive measures imposed by outnumber those run by the government by a the government, but also because they failed to gain ratio of 9 to 1. Sebantian contends that some support from the mainstream Muslim population. private madrasas have recruited members for The recent rise of Islamic radicalism in Indonesia is terrorist groups. He refers to an article that considered by Indonesian analysts to be the result of describes links between madrasas recruiting for the sudden collapse of the Suharto’s authoritarian Laskar Jihad, a militant Indonesian Islamic regime, the newfound openness that followed, and group, and other groups advocating an Islamic the demoralization of the police. state for Indonesia. Jafar Umar Thalib, the founder of Laskar Jihad, is also the founder of a Though radical groups claim to have large numbers pesantren in Central Java.6 Recently, some of members, it appears that their membership and Indonesian analysts speculated that Laskar Jihad influences are very limited. Radical groups share, may have ties to al Qaeda. In interviews with more or less, the same ambitions or beliefs4: journalists, Jafar has admitted being visited by al Qaeda representatives but denies a direct rela- ■ establishment of an Islamic state in Indonesia or tionship. Despite compelling evidence that even among Muslim collectivities within Thalib’s Laskar Jihad is a militant Islamic group, Southeast Asian countries
60 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 it is unclear to what extent his pesantren serves attacks and with increasing pressure from the as a recruiting ground for Laskar Jihad or other United States, Indonesian officials say they are keep- groups. ing a close watch on the activities of certain schools. However, they are reluctant to move too aggressively ■ According to the ICG, the Front to Defend against them without absolute proof of criminal Islam, one of the most prominent radical activity because they fear such actions would Islamic organizations in Indonesia, has a para- prompt widespread protests. military wing, Laskar Pembela Islam, whose members come from rural religious schools and unemployed youth.7 Governance The Ministry of National Education (MONE) and ■ According to several articles, Abubakar Baasyir is the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA) have the spiritual leader of Jemaah Islamiah, a established a national curriculum that is compatible Southeast Asian militant Islamic network whose with both a Western-style and an Islamic education. hub is Pondok Ngruki Pesantren, a religious MORA sets the Islamic component of the curricu- boarding school in Indonesia cofounded by lum while MONE does the same for all other com- Baasyir that is said to have about 2,000 stu- ponents. The government’s unique effort thus com- dents. According to an al Qaeda operative bined both elements into a national education cur- arrested in the summer of 2001, Baasyir was al riculum. However, the extent to which the min- Qaeda’s senior representative for Southeast Asia istries regulate Islamic schools is unclear. and was instructed to plan attacks on U.S. inter- ests in the region with operatives and resources Officials in both ministries express alarm at the from Jemaah Islamiah. While Baasyir denies any growth of overt anti-Western and anti-U.S. teach- connection to these plots, he admits to inspiring ings in unregulated schools, usually those with a students to fight for Muslim causes in Bosnia, customized curriculum. These officials recommend Chechnya, Afghanistan, and the Philippines. ■ assisting MORA to increase the number of “The students who absorb my teaching and pesantren schools with official curricula (now 5 finally understand Islam completely want to percent of the total) and decrease the number implement the teaching of jihad,” he stated.8 One of those students is jailed Indonesian Al- with individualized curricula (66 percent of the Ghozi, who attended Baasyir’s Ngruki total) through provision of secular textbooks, Pesantren. How many more were recruited, instructional materials, and teacher training trained, and deployed for Islamic causes or ter- ■ improving the quality of madrasas so that they rorist activities is unknown. attract students who would otherwise attend a ■ A New York Times correspondent who inter- pesantren viewed students at a pesantren in East ■ providing additional funding for monitoring Kalimantan Province found they lived austerely and tracking pesantren activities and modeled themselves on Islamic values and traditions. But they also had jaundiced views of Parental Incentives the United States, Israel, and world capitalism. In Indonesia, parents send their children to primary As an antidote, the U.S. State Department invit- and secondary schools to prepare them for modern ed 80 Islamic educators from Indonesian life and to provide opportunities for further educa- pesantrens to courses at the Institute for tion, training, or a salaried job. An increasing Training and Development in Amherst, Mass., number of children attend both secular and Islamic that show the “good” side of the United States.9 schools. Without sacrificing public education, most parents want to give their children a religious While concerned about extremist elements infiltrat- education and for them to be good Muslims. ing Islamic schools, the government has yet to clamp down systematically. Since recent terrorist
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 61 Because of low academic achievement among public Civic Participation. Some Islamic organizations and school students and decreases in job opportunities, institutes are benefiting from donor-sponsored civic some may see the practical skill training and tradi- education interventions that are bound to benefit tional religious training offered in Islamic schools as students pursuing Islamic studies. These efforts, an attractive alternative. Pesantrens, in particular, being implemented on a small scale, will need to be offer an accessible and practical means of obtaining replicated on a larger scale to ensure that alternative job training and strengthening an Islamic identity. ways of thinking and group problem-solving spread Parents from poorer and more isolated communities to a critical mass of students educated in Islamic may see pesantrens or madrasas as the only afford- institutions. able educational opportunities for their children, especially if they are not academically gifted. Donor-Funded Work with Islamic Schools and Results Strengths and Weaknesses for USAID has been supporting democracy and educa- Preparing Students for Civic tion initiatives in government primary and second- Participation and Employment ary schools and in Islamic institutes. USAID’s new Employment. The greatest strength of some Islamic education strategy focuses on strengthening the schools is that they teach some marketable skills that quality of secular education provided in government enable graduates to assume jobs. Community-based schools and some Islamic schools. pesantrens are probably more sensitive to job market needs than more inflexible and established formal The Asia Foundation, with USAID funding, has technical and vocational schools. In addition, more been working extensively with more than 25 Islamic students can attend pesantrens of their choosing at organizations and groups in civic education. Perhaps less cost than those who attend public vocational the most notable single effort is the assistance pro- schools at the secondary level. vided to 47 State Institutes for Islamic Studies (IAIN). CIDA has recently funded a McGill Because the government and MONE have long rec- University fellowship program, which, since the ognized that madrasas and some pesantrens provide 1960s, has assisted IAIN to improve staff qualifica- opportunities to develop basic literacy, numeracy, tion and infuse IAIN with information, methodolo- and analytical skills in the primary grades and skill gies, research interests, concepts, and new ideas for training in the secondary grades, they have directly graduate study. A CIDA-funded study states that or indirected supported MORA’s efforts to build IAIN has had a positive influence on the modern- and maintain madrasas. ization of all levels of Islamic education, a system that serves over 6 million young people.10 However, many madrasas and pesantrens do not teach basic subject matter and secondary science The Asia Foundation is continuing the effort by and math as well as public schools do. Many supporting IAIN’s development of a new civic edu- madrasas are hampered by a lack of qualified teach- cation course for postsecondary students. This ers in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and includes expansion of education and training on biology. As a result, madrasa students tend to be democracy, human rights, religious tolerance, and poorly educated in science and technology. Further, other civil society issues through curricular and pesantrens not regulated by the ministry may materials development. Following a successful pilot emphasize religious training to the exclusion of program in Jakarta, the civic education course was teaching marketable job skills. Students at expanded to reach 8,000 students nationwide. The pesantrens that breed extremist activities may be objective is for the course to replace ideological sidetracked from pursing job-related skills. indoctrination courses left over from Suharto’s New
62 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Order with a new curriculum designed to strength- ducting courses to promote the understanding en long-term tolerance and responsible citizenship. of democracy from an Islamic perspective ■ the institutes of the main Islamic parties Among other activities, the Asia Foundation assists (Muhammadiyah and Nadhatul Ulama) on ■ the Indonesia Society for Pesantren and curricular and materials development on demo- Community Development, by training student cratic principles and processes in principles and practices of democracy ■ the Institute for Social Institute Studies, through ■ the Institute for Islamic and Social Studies, by workshops on Islam and programs on education providing training in human rights and con- and democracy from an Islamic perspective ■
1 This is far lower than many countries with a lower GNI per 6 Asia Foundation, “Islam in Modern Indonesia,” report on a capita, including Ethiopia, 14 percent; Gambia, 21 percent; joint conference sponsored by the United States-Indonesia Guinea, 27 percent; India,12 percent; Mauritania, 16 percent; Society and the Asia Foundation, February 7, 2002. Niger,13 percent; Senegal, 33 percent; Uganda, 21 percent.
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 63
8. Malaysia
Table 8.1. Malaysia Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 23.3 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 53 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 35 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $8,330 Total fertility rate ...... 3.01 Human Development Index...... 0.77
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 98.62 Primary gender parity index ...... 1 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 98.25 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... 26 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 19 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 97.89 Secondary gender parity index ...... 1.11 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... 92.89 Adult secondary completion rate ...... 13.5 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 1,048 Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 2.9 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 88.4 Female adult literacy rate ...... 84.7 Male adult literacy rate...... 92.1 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 5.03 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 15.4 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 32.7
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 65 versities, colleges, and other educational training Introduction institutions. alaysia has an impressive record in eco- nomic and educational development and the highest GNI per capita of the coun- Challenges M Access. The Malaysian Government has been suc- tries reviewed. In addition, Malaysia has very high primary and secondary enrollments and relative cessfully implementing its policy of providing 11 gender equity. Its relatively low university enroll- years of basic education to all. Universal primary ment reflects the selective nature of the education education has been a reality since 1990. From 1960 system, which controls student flow through exter- to 1995, enrollment rates for lower secondary rose nal examinations. One reason for this impressive dramatically, from 18 percent to 83 percent, and educational development is the relatively large upper secondary rose from 10 percent to 56 per- amount the government spends on education: 15 cent. Although university enrollment rates rose only percent of the total budget. from .04 percent to 3.7 percent during the same period, the tertiary rate would be double this if stu- dents in private and foreign universities were includ- Public Education System ed. Despite these impressive increases, enrollment rates in remote and sparsely populated regions, par- Characteristics ticularly in the east Malaysian states of Sarawak and As an upper middle-income country, Malaysia Sabah, continue to lag behind those in west expects to achieve developed nation status by 2020. Malaysian states and urban areas. Since independence, educational development and reforms have been characterized by the government’s Quality. While the quality of Malaysian education is efforts to adapt education to meet national econom- relatively good, the delivery system needs greater ic and human resource development needs. Its teacher competence, more relevant curricula, and heavy investment in education is based on the belief more effective use of technology and multimedia. that the quality and efficiency of schools make a dif- More specifically, the qualifications of secondary ference in educational achievement and subsequent school teachers need to be upgraded to a university opportunities for employment and career develop- degree. The academic thrust of the secondary cur- ment. Education is a federal responsibility. While riculum also needs adjustment to facilitate the administered centrally under the Ministry of school-to-work transition for students entering the Education, states and districts also have decision- workforce upon graduation. making responsibilities regarding educational per- sonnel, substance, and process. Management. Previous staff development programs were biased toward school pedagogy, at the expense The school system consists of six years of elemen- of system planning and management. In addition, tary, three years of lower secondary, two years of the existing education management information sys- upper secondary, two years of postsecondary or pre- tem has not been as effective as anticipated. As a university, and four years of university education. result, collected data is not reviewed or used system- School-based assessment is administered at all grades atically for decisionmaking, and the use of resources and levels. At the end of each secondary level, stu- has been inefficient. More policy assessments and dents sit for common public examinations. greater staff development are needed to address Promotion during the first nine years is automatic, strategic planning and management needs. but subsequent promotion is determined by exami- nations, and higher education is very selective. Policy Reform. Since 2000, the government has Successful completion of upper secondary education focused on overcoming the country’s economic can lead to opportunities for further study and downturn of the late 1990s; this has weakened edu- training at postsecondary and tertiary levels at uni- cational investment. Nevertheless, the government continues to
66 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 ■ improve access to and quality of basic educa- the government is converting limited vocational tion, especially in Eastern Malaysia schools into more diversified secondary technical schools. While positive, the technical curriculum of ■ rationalize investments in secondary, technical, some technical and vocational schools could be and vocational education to make institutions more in line with and responsive to market demand, more responsive to market demands and could include private secondary participation in ■ increase access to high-quality polytechnical development, operations, and financing. The poly- education technic system also needs expansion and diversifica- tion to produce more qualified and better trained ■ strengthen the education sector’s planning and graduates to fuel Malaysia’s growing technology managerial capacity needs. Measures needed include more financing, higher quality instruction, and industrial linkages to Donor Assistance market realities. Training efforts should take advan- The German Cooperative Agency for Development tage of the proximity to industries that can provide provides training to middle-level industrial workers exposure and facilitate on-the-job training for stu- to upgrade their skills through intensive basic, dents. advanced, and specialized training. The develop- ment objective is to assist the country’s shift from an Since the quality of the primary education is rela- exporter of raw materials toward an export-oriented tively high, most students develop reasonable litera- industrialized nation. The technical objective is to cy, numeracy, and analytical skills. These skills pre- improve the Malaysian Tertiary Vocational and pare most primary educated youth to be employable Education Training system through curriculum or “trainable,” whether or not they go to secondary development and teaching aids, preservice and school, enter training programs, or need to learn inservice technical teacher training, and job linkages skills on the job. However, those who complete only with training. primary education are minimally qualified for the decreasing pool of low-level jobs and need addition- Strengths and Weaknesses for al education to compete for higher level and higher Preparing Students for Civic salaried jobs. Participation and Employment Employment. Malaysia has a well developed system Civic Participation. The public school system allows of technical and vocational education and over 60 limited religious instruction in Islam, Christianity, vocational and technical schools. In addition, voca- Buddhism, and Hinduism, the main religions of tional subjects are incorporated in the secondary Malaysia. For students who choose not to take reli- school curriculum, in line with the policy of allow- gious studies, there is instruction in ethics and ing students in general academic schools to study morals that includes some civic education at the sec- vocational subjects. Students in vocational schools ondary level. Government primary schools have follow either an academic or skills training program. adopted a child-centered learning approach to Those with the interest and aptitude are streamlined include flexible groupings and greater attention to after grade 10 into the two-year skills training individual needs. Through participatory teaching course. Technical and vocational education at higher and learning methods, children have more opportu- levels is offered at the polytechnics, teacher educa- nity for individual expression and group exposure. tion colleges, the MARA Institute of Technology, In addition, the primary and lower secondary cur- and the Tunku Abdul Rahman College, where pro- riculum attempts to integrate the teaching of knowl- fessional courses leading to certificates and diplomas edge, skills, and values, as well as explicit teaching of are available. moral values.
Notwithstanding, Malaysia’s technical and vocation- In practice, teachers may not always apply more al system needs to diversify. With donor assistance, participatory methods, particularly in rural and iso-
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 67 Table 8.2. School Attendance in Malaysia
Government Islamic*
Number of Number of Number of Number of Level schools students schools full-time students Primary 7,084 2,870,667 2,171 656,168 Secondary 1,538 1,794,515 420 203,010
* Fardhu ‘Ain, a separate type of Islamic school, trains primary public school students—1,032,841of them—after school hours in school build- ings, mosques, or private buildings. They are, in effect, Koranic schools, but their students would be double-counted if they were included in the above list. Source: Malasia Ministry of Education website and “Islamic Schools in Malaysia” (September 20, 2002), Department of Islamic and Moral Education, Ministry of Education.
lated schools. Some teachers may pay only lip serv- from the federal government. Islamic private schools ice to participatory methods and practice more are built and maintained by private individuals, but authoritarian methods, especially those preparing with funding from sources that include federal and students for crucial external examinations. state government grants, Islamic councils (Yayasan Agama), and parental school fees. These are akin to Indonesian madrasas. Islamic Schools Islamic schools use the Malaysian language as the Levels and Types language of instruction and follow the curriculum The two parallel streams of schools in Malaysia— taught in government schools, where English is a government (national) schools and Islamic compulsory subject. However, the Islamic schools at schools—are subject to the supervision and manage- the primary level are less structured. They empha- ment of the Department of Education. Both are size learning the Koran in basic Arabic. In many divided into three levels: elementary (grades 1-6), states, primary schooling is provided for a few hours lower secondary (grades 7-9), and upper secondary daily to supplement the national curriculum. As in (grades 10-11). Roughly, there is one Islamic school Indonesia, many primary students (mostly Malay) for every 10 government schools. Approximately 22 attend government schools in the morning and early percent of primary students attend Islamic schools afternoon and Islamic schools later in the afternoon. and 11 percent of secondary students attend Islamic schools. Islamic schools begin formally and fulltime only at the secondary level. In addition to the national cur- Islamic schools can be divided into three categories: riculum, they provide instruction in advanced ■ national religious schools (Sekola Agama Arabic and education in Taswwur (correct think- Kebangsaan) ing), the Koran (Al-Quran), As-Sunnah, and Islamic law (Syri’ah). Teachers in Islamic schools are govern- ■ state religious schools (Sekola Agama Negri) ment trained. Some of the schools provide boarding ■ Islamic private schools (Sekola Agama Rakyat)1 services.
National religious schools are fully funded by the Most Islamic schools, particularly private ones, have federal government, but they are prestigious and a written philosophy that mirrors that of the selective: students must pass entrance exams to Ministry of Education, with the exception of explic- attend. State religious schools are fully funded by it references to Islam. The emphasis is cognitive state governments, with supplementary funding growth, skill development, and producing students
68 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 with balanced personalities who are anchored in political party (after the United Malaysian National Islamic values and Malaysian national society. For Organization) is the Islamic Party. To some extent, Muslims and non-Muslims, moral education is cen- the party helps ensure the persistence of orthodox tral in primary education. It is designed to “develop teaching in the Islamic schools. It receives signifi- self-esteem, independence, ethical values, the sense cant support from Western Malaysia, where more of truth, spirituality, self-discipline, self-actualiza- traditional versions of Islam are based. tion, and love for knowledge; and to train students to apply what they have learned in their daily life.”2 Affiliation with Radical Groups Reportedly, several madrasas have been closed by Islamic school physical facilities reflect their funding the police because they contained alleged extremist sources: those funded federally and by the state are elements. The government took swift action under quite good by Malaysian standards. Private schools the Internal Security Act. In addition, President that rely heavily on private funding often have Mahathir stated emphatically that he would not tol- below-standard school buildings; recreational facili- erate extremist elements in Islamic schools.4 It ties; and science laboratories, libraries, and resource should also be noted, however, that Abu Bakar centers. They also have less qualified teachers. In Baasyir, founder of Pesantren Ngruki in Indonesia, national and state schools, more teachers are univer- spent several years in exile in Malaysia.5 sity graduates than in private schools, where the majority are secondary school graduates.3 Governance Relationship to Government. All public and Islamic While national and state Islamic schools compare schools in Malaysia are regulated by the Ministry of favorably with public government schools, private Education. They must be registered and meet min- Islamic schools do not. They promise an alternative istry standards, including those relating to their to secular education, but suffer from ill-equipped finances, locations, and teacher qualifications. buildings, limited financial resources, and less than Within the ministry, the Department of Islamic and qualified teachers. Research findings suggest that Moral Education oversees the curriculum of Koranic Islamic private schools could be improved by adopt- study and teachings to ensure they are organized, ing a “business mentality” and raising funds for sys- taught, and assessed according to national standards. tematic upgrades by using Muslim practices such as This is important because national standards are set endowments (waqf), donations, and alms (zakah). and administered for religious studies in all Islamic schools and this oversight and control makes it diffi- Trends cult for extremist elements to emerge and spread. While data on enrollment trends in Islamic schools There is also political control: radicals of all kinds are not available, parental interest has increased in come under the fierce scrutiny of Malaysia’s dracon- the past decade. Apparently, more parents are inter- ian National Subversive Act, and Islamic extremist ested in a firm grounding in religion for their chil- groups are not exempt from its coverage. dren. In addition, the reputation of Islamic schools for providing a good education has grown just as Relationship to Public School System. All schools some have begun to question the quality of govern- (public and Islamic) that come under the Ministry ment schools. Financial contributions to private of Education provide religious education. In Islamic Islamic schools—from government grants, dona- schools, Koranic and Islamic moral instruction are tions from parents or Islamic organizations, and provided at the primary level and specialized Islamic school fees—have increased in an effort to keep studies at the secondary level. Of the three types of pace with the rising demand for Islamic schooling. Islamic schools, however, only national religious schools have compared favorably with public Influences—Sects schools; they are seen as selective and somewhat elit- Most Malaysian Muslims follow the Sunni or ortho- ist in student composition and background. dox teachings and traditions. The second largest Traditionally, state and, especially, private Islamic
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 69 schools have not compared favorably with govern- pretation, synthesis, and coherency—are not suffi- ment schools. This is changing, as the public and ciently emphasized, particularly in late primary the Islamic community in Malaysia make efforts to school and lower secondary school. Parents are also mobilize resources and improve school quality. Of aware that secularized Muslims with degrees from the countries studied, Malaysia seems to have made public secondary schools and universities assume the most progress toward a convergent and national sought after positions with ease. integration of religious and secular education. The Ministry of Education has attempted to resolve Parental Incentives this dilemma by incrementally integrating the tradi- Until recently, Malaysian Islamic schools were tional and religious educational system with the reputed to be second class. Their improved quality, national and secular one. President Mahathir, the the growing influence of Islamic education world- former Minister of Education, and his successor, wide, and Malaysia’s outstanding economic growth Anwar Ibrahim, attempted to bring the two systems have caused more parents to regard these schools as closer through primary and secondary curriculum viable alternatives to government schools. The reforms and the development of a National motive is primarily religious: parents simply want Education Philosophy (NEP). They upgraded the their children to be securely grounded in Islam content of social and natural sciences in secondary through religious instruction. At the same time, par- Islamic schools to resemble that of the national ents want to ensure that their children are prepared schools. They also improved the teaching methodol- for modernity. By sending their children to national ogy in secondary Islamic schools, giving more atten- or state Islamic schools, they get both. Some parents tion to individuals and emphasizing inquiry and may see Islamic schools as cheaper or more accessi- discovery methods, Socratic discussion, projects, and ble, but most Malaysian parents whose children group work. The objective was to produce more attend private Islamic schools are from the middle critical and creative thinkers—not only for a scien- class.6 As such, economics does not seem to be what tific and technological society, but to solve pressing motivates them to send their children to Islamic social problems from an Islamic perspective. As schools. learning became more participatory and less author- itarian, students also learned “democracy” in the Strengths and Weaknesses for classroom. Preparing Students for Civic Participation and Employment Mahathir and Ibrahim also brought the two systems Muslim parents in Malaysia face a dilemma when closer together by highlighting moral instruction deciding how to educate their children. While they and ethical values in the national curriculum— want to send their children to Islamic schools many of which are similar to those of Islam and (preferably the national religious schools) to receive taught in Islamic schools without being explicitly rigorous and lasting grounding in the knowledge, labeled as such. Thus, the NEP characterized a practices, and values of the Islam, they fear that Malaysian citizen as one who: 1) has a firm belief in these schools do not impart the knowledge, skills, and obedience to God; 2) is knowledgeable and and attitudes that would allow their graduates to skillful; 3) possesses high moral standards; 4) is participate effectively and productively in modern responsible to himself or herself, society, religion, Malaysia. Government and business careers require and nation; and (5) has a balanced personality. As knowledge of science, mathematics, English, and noted above, instruction in religion, ethics, and commerce. This kind of knowledge is not com- morals for Muslims and non-Muslims alike was manded by students from the Islamic school system introduced into government primary and secondary and is best learned in government secondary schools schools as required learning.7 and universities. Parents also fear that graduates from the religious system are lagging because com- Lessons learned from Malaysia’s experience of the ponents of higher-order thinking—analysis, inter- past several decades include
70 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 ■ attempts to harmonize traditional and religious Donor-Funded Work with Islamic with modern and secular education systems can Schools and Results lead to a convergence of the systems The Government of Malaysia apparently initiated ■ housing the two systems under one bureaucratic Islamic school reforms and developments with little, roof (the Ministry of Education) enables govern- if any, outside intervention. While there have been ment to facilitate this convergence for mutual UNESCO-sponsored activities and World Bank advantage education projects, no single donor appears to drive educational innovation. ■
1 A. Atari,“Islamic Private Schools in Malaysia and the Philippines,” Muslim Education Quarterly, 15 (1) (1997),
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Citation unavailable.
5 Citation unavailable.
6 Atari, op. cit., 79.
7 R. Hashim, “Educational Dualism in Malaysia: Progress and Problems Toward Integration,” Muslim Education Quarterly, 41 (1994).
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 71
9. Nigeria
Table 9.1. Nigeria Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 126.9 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 50 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 44 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $)...... $800 Total fertility rate ...... 5.28 Human Development Index...... 0.46
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 81 Primary gender parity index ...... 91 Primary net enrollment ratio...... 55 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... 65 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... – Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 38 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio...... – Secondary gender parity index ...... – Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate...... – Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... – Adult tertiary completion rate...... – Literacy Adult literacy rate ...... 49 Female adult literacy rate...... – Male adult literacy rate ...... – Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 2.3 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure ...... 7 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure ...... –
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 73 controlled by local governments and indirectly by Introduction state governments. Secondary schools are predomi- igeria has a population of 122 million and nantly controlled by state governments, and tertiary a wealth of natural resources. During its education is controlled jointly by federal and state colonial period, it had one of the best edu- N governments. cational systems in Africa. Today, the country has a low GNI per capita of $800, and spends just 7 per- Nigeria’s educational system expanded after inde- cent of the total government budget on education. pendence in 1960, particularly when the universal The adult literacy rate of 49 percent is low, but primary education policy was implemented in the other statistics are more encouraging. Nigeria has 1970s. This expansion gave way to contraction in managed to achieve near gender equity, a gross pri- the 1980s, when global oil prices declined. For the mary education enrollment of 81 percent, and an remainder of the century, prolonged neglect and adult primary completion rate of 65 percent. The decay under successive military regimes contributed north is predominantly Muslim and the south to Nigeria’s educational decline. mainly Christian, a dynamic that partly explains regional differences in types of schools and gender- After Nigeria’s return to civilian rule in May 1999, related enrollment issues. the newly elected government declared that rebuild- ing and revitalizing education was one of its three Public Education System top priorities. The government’s main focus is uni- versal basic education (UBE), covering six years of Characteristics primary school and three years of lower secondary Nigeria’s formal education system is known as a 6-3- school. The government is also planning to incorpo- 3-4 system: six years of primary school, three years rate adult literacy into the nine-year basic education of lower secondary school, three years of senior sec- program. ondary school, and four years of university educa- tion (for a bachelor’s degree). Primary education at The challenges are daunting. Approximately 44 per- government schools is free, although school fees are cent of the population—53.6 million people—are charged for lower secondary school and at successive under 15, yet education’s share of the national levels. In addition, technical and vocational schools budget remains one of the lowest in Africa. and training colleges for primary school teachers Furthermore, the net primary attendance rate is esti- offer alternative secondary education. Tertiary edu- mated at only 55 percent—57 percent for boys and cation comprises universities, polytechnics, colleges 53 percent for girls. of technology, and training colleges for teachers for primary and lower secondary schools. Challenges Access. There are about 29.5 million primary school- The Nigerian educational pyramid still reflects the age children in Nigeria; 23.8 million (81 percent) selective system of British colonial education, are enrolled in school. Enrollment rates are higher though it has widened at primary and secondary in the south than the north. Until recently, female levels. Student promotion depends upon continuous enrollment rates in the north were lower than male assessment (school grades) and performance on rates, on par with male rates in the southwest, and external examinations organized by state education higher than male rates in the southeast. Primary ministries. In this determination, national policy enrollment rates in urban areas are higher than in dictates that continuous assessment is weighted at rural areas. The supply of schools in urban areas has 30 percent and the formal examination is weighted yet to meet the demand and results in overcrowded at 70 percent. classrooms.
Responsibility for education is shared among three At the secondary level, enrollments have declined tiers of government. Primary education is directly markedly over the past several years. This is due to
74 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 inadequate public financing, increasing private unpaid and other expenditures go unmet. The best costs, serious decline in quality, and stagnating current estimate is that about 1 percent of GDP is demand for secondary graduates in the labor force. allocated to primary education annually, compared Secondary schools need renovation, teachers need to 1.5 percent in 1990. better support, classrooms need more and better materials and equipment, and school management Management. Administrative staff make use of out- needs strengthening. dated practices and procedures, and administrative training is too theoretical. There is no well-estab- Quality. The quality of the teaching-learning experi- lished enabling culture of teacher professional and ence in public school classrooms is low. Most teach- administrative support within the schools or from ers are poorly trained, and there is a dearth of text- district and state educational authorities. The books and instructional materials. There is an inspectorate is a supervisory body, not one that is absence of teacher professional support, and few advisory, supportive, and capable of capacity build- teachers have the opportunity to upgrade their skills ing. At the federal level, planning capacity is weak, through inservice training—fewer than 10 percent and educational data collection, processing, and received it in the last two years. Until recently, publication have deteriorated. teachers were relatively unmotivated as a result of recurrent strikes and low salaries, but large salary Policy Reform. The Government of Nigeria’s educa- increases have brought their income in line with tional priority is achievement of UBE through a that of other civil servants. It is too early to deter- nine-year basic education program. To meet this mine whether this has contributed to higher teacher goal, the government reorganized high-level educa- morale or improved the quality of student learning. tional management. Strategies include increasing access, particularly for girls and disadvantaged In addition, there has been a noticeable decrease of groups; raising quality; improving equity; and civil society and community involvement in the strengthening delivery through community organi- education sector, due, in part, to dwindling educa- zations, NGOs, and distance learning.1 In addition, tion budgets, mismanagement, corruption, and neg- the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) has taken lect. Declining public participation has probably steps to enforce reform measures to improve quality. contributed to a decrease in school accountability at For example, the FME has assisted states in develop- the community level, which has likely contributed ing inspectorate services and strengthening their to the declining quality of teaching and learning. capacities to collect, analyze, publish, and dissemi- nate educational data to improve supervision and Efficiency. Average primary school completion rates management of schools. It also provides training are estimated at 65 percent for girls and 64 percent and orientation to remedy inadequacies observed in for boys. Reasons cited for dropping out include inspected schools. high educational costs for parents, a resource-poor school environment, minimal relevance of an over- Donor Assistance loaded curriculum, and teacher absenteeism. Currently, eight donors—the World Bank, USAID, UNICEF, African Development Bank, EU, Financing. Primary education is hugely underfund- UNESCO, DFID, and the Commonwealth ed, with serious impact on the availability of Secretariat—are helping the FME to improve all instructional materials, provision and maintenance levels of the Nigerian education system. Information of infrastructure, and until recently, on teacher is available on only some of these donor activities: remuneration. Revenue generation at the local gov- ■ USAID recently launched its first full education ernment level is minimal. Local and state govern- program in Nigeria in 30 years. It includes the ments rely heavily upon the federal government’s Literacy Enhancement Assistance Project statutory allocations to cover primary education (LEAP), which will assist Nigeria in completing costs. Federal outlays are highly dependent on oil its Education Sector Assessment and improving revenues, and when funding is reduced, teachers go
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 75 Table 9.2. Donor Assistance to Nigeria’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■■ ■■■■■■ USAID ■■ ■■■■■■ ■■ UNICEF ■ ■■■■ ■ Afr. Dev. Bank ■ EU ■ UNESCO ■ ■■■■ CIDA GTZ/KFW JICA DFID ■ ■■■■ ■ Comm. Sec. ■■■■■ DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
* Includes building the capacity of NGOs for better social service delivery.
the quality of basic education and civic partici- ployed youth aim to provide relevant and practi- pation. The project’s objective is to improve lit- cal preparation for the workforce beyond purely eracy and numeracy by providing teacher train- technical training. ing and core content (secular) knowledge ■ The World Bank has three projects, including a through interactive radio instruction, strength- community education program for nomadic ening PTA groups, and improving the use of groups. The bank’s UBE project seeks to information for resource allocation decisions. upgrade the education management information LEAP is targeting 330 primary schools (200 system, school buildings, teaching training, and government-run and 130 Islamic); three local learning materials. It also seeks to strengthen government authorities; nearly 2,000 teachers community schools and educational institutions (roughly two-thirds from government schools at all levels. The World Bank’s Second Primary and one-third from Islamic schools); and a pro- Education Project trains school teachers, admin- jected student population of 50,000. The proj- istrators, and state and local staff, funds local ect will run through December 2003 and cost self-help projects, and seeks to enhance the $10.7 million. USAID also funds the youth information database and increase HIV/AIDS skills development program, which comprises awareness through the schools. DFID collabo- life skills training such as conflict mitigation, rates with the World Bank in implementing the HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention, and voca- UBE project. tional training. Courses designed for unem-
76 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 ■ The Commonwealth Secretariat’s Education Civic Participation. While public schools do not Fund supports capacity building efforts at feder- explicitly train students for civic participation, al, state, and local levels to help civil society USAID’s LEAP interventions in government and organizations work with governments toward Islamic primary schools emphasize participatory Education for All, and, in particular, to learning with student-centered classroom activities. improve educational access for girls. This means students engage in learning more active- ly through asking questions and participating in ■ UNESCO, as part of the Education For All ini- group projects, discussions, and teamwork. While tiative, cooperates with the International the objective is to enhance student learning and Reading Association to provide skills workshops cognitive development, this participatory approach for trainers of reading instructors. also develops democratic processes of give-and-take, ■ UNICEF joined the African Girls’ Education sharing ideas, open discussion, and consensus-build- Initiative to enhance awareness of girls’ educa- ing. In addition, LEAP introduces democratic deci- tion, build girl-friendly schools, make curricula sionmaking processes to local education authorities more gender-sensitive, promote employment of to facilitate data gathering, discussion, analysis, and women teachers, and develop pedagogical skills dissemination. to include girls more in classroom activities.
Strengths and Weaknesses for Islamic Schools Preparing Students for Civic Participation and Employment Levels and Types Employment. Nigerian students who graduate from Though Islamic schools coexist with government primary school with certificates are minimally quali- schools, the system is difficult to compare because it fied for low-level training and salaried jobs. Those is less clear cut and does not conform to a standard with secondary certificates (after lower or upper sec- primary-secondary-tertiary description. The terms ondary school) are more qualified for training and “Koranic” and “Islamiya” are widely used in Nigeria salaried jobs at higher levels. However, it is unclear to refer to Islamic schools, and their curricula range what percentage of primary school graduates go on along a continuum from purely religious to both to secondary school: current statistics are unavail- religious and secular. Older students who have able, but 1994 data indicated fewer than 50 percent already received some religious education and want continued on to secondary education.2 to become more advanced can attend madrasas, the third type of Nigerian Islamic school. While there is Vocational education takes place in upper secondary no standard Nigerian definition for the kinds of school institutions3 that teach as many as 40 trades. schools where students begin their education, LEAP The duration ranges from four months (welding) to has created definitions that will be used here: three years (auto mechanics). In 1990, there were Koranic schools provide only religious training. 350 such schools and almost 100,000 enrolled stu- Islamiya schools have incorporated secular material dents. The National Directorate of Employment in addition to religious subjects. Children of any age organizes apprenticeship schemes for secondary (including adolescents) can attend Koranic schools, school leavers, who are attached to skilled craftsper- and are free to start school and drop out as they sons for periods ranging from six months to several wish. Islamiya schools follow the public school con- years. In addition, there are a variety of certificate vention of primary and secondary divisions.4 job skills programs in universities, polytechnics, col- leges of education, government ministries, and pri- Koranic schools have existed in Nigeria for almost vate business that provide training. However, it is 1,000 years.5 During colonial times, they were not clear that these programs adequately reflect the largely left alone. The British supported the spread needs of the modern workforce. of European mission schools in the nineteenth cen- tury and government primary schools in the twenti-
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 77 eth century. Koranic schools continued their reli- methods may be used, especially in schools influ- gious traditions: children learned one or more chap- enced by UNICEF and other proponents of child- ters of the Koran by rote from a local religious centered pedagogy. It should be noted, however, teacher (mallam) before the age of 5 or 6. Religious that Koranic schools have traditionally employed studies included learning the Arabic alphabet and such child-centered, “modern” methods as the developing the ability to read and copy texts in the teacher’s one-on-one coaching of individual stu- language, including those texts required for daily dents, group learning, and peer group tutoring. prayers. Islamic communities supported regular instruction in a mallam’s house, under a tree on a There is no current data on the number or break- thoroughfare or in a local mosque. A smaller num- down of Koranic, madrasa, and Islamiya schools, ber of more capable or motivated Muslim youth, but they probably number in the tens of thousands usually boys, went on to examine the meanings of in northern Nigerian states where Islam is predomi- the Arabic texts under specialized tutorials with the nant. It is believed that Islamic schools provide the mallam. only source of learning for nearly 7 million children in Nigeria. During the colonial era, madrasa secondary schools emerged where specialist teachers taught Arabic Trends grammar and syntax, arithmetic, algebra, logic, rhet- In recent years, the number of Islamic schools in the oric, jurisprudence, and theology. Madrasas attract north has increased. This is probably due to a com- students who have already learned the Koran— bination of factors. As noted, public schools deterio- probably at a Koranic school—and want to pursue rated in the 1980s and 1990s, and many school in-depth studies. After the madrasa level, a few structures are in extreme disrepair. Government select students continue their study in one of the schools are not as attractive as they once were, espe- famous (tertiary-level equivalent) Islamic centers of cially in northern states where the independent gov- learning in Kano or elsewhere in North Africa or ernment has not actively promoted the development the Middle East. of public schools.6 Modern Islamiya schools offer what some parents believe is a higher quality alter- Islamiya schools also emerged during the colonial native, and appeal to the desire of some parents to period. These are formal Muslim schools originally provide their children with a religious education. modeled on European lines, with classrooms organ- ized by age of students and level of learning and one The number of girls in Islamiya schools has also or more teachers instructing students in various sec- increased. In 2002, USAID/Nigeria reported that ular subjects. Islamiya schools, established in almost girls’ enrollment in Islamiya schools exceeded that all major Nigerian cities, were notable in Kano, of boys, in contrast with public schools, where boys’ where Islamic brotherhoods developed an impressive enrollment is higher. A USAID consultant attributes number. The schools catered to devout and well-to- this to parental perceptions that Islamiya schools are do parents who wanted essential Islamic instruction safe environments for girls.7 for their children as well as education in the new and secular subjects of English language, mathemat- Influences—Islamic Sects ics, science, and social studies. Muslims in Nigeria can be grouped in one of three loose categories: traditionalist, modernist, and fun- Like Koranic schools, Islamiya schools today contin- damentalist.8 Traditionalists are in the majority; they ue to teach Islamic subjects through a heavy focus believe in keeping with the “great traditions” of on Koranic memorization. Like public schools, they Islam: officiating in Islamic public rituals, instruct- also teach secular subjects such as English, math, ing Muslims in Islamic precepts, and interpreting technology, and science. While Islamiya schools and administering Islamic law. Islamic modernists, retain memorization as the primary method of however, disapprove of “traditionalist” Islam. instruction, less didactic and more student-centered Modernists espouse a legal positivism whereby Islam
78 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 strictly complies with Koranic rules of belief and the enabled them to cope with the downturn. These teachings of Mohammad. While traditionalist lead- extremist elements appeared to dissipate as econom- ers arise from Koranic schooling and work in loosely ic stability returned.9 structured networks, modernist leaders are well edu- cated, and from well-known Islamic schools of high- Governance er education, such as the Kano School of Arabic There is no clear-cut governance of Koranic and Studies. The modernist leaders operate in a clear, Islamiya schools. To retain the goodwill of the modern organizational format, replete with elected northern emirates, the British colonial government officers, a written constitution, and formal registra- found it expedient to maintain the dichotomy in tion as a legal body. A notable element of modernist education systems between north and south, with institutes in northern Nigeria is the enrollment of the result that the north lagged behind in Western women. Modernists have attempted to expand education—and still has minimal government Muslim women’s access to Arabic and Islamic learn- supervision. Traditionally, Koranic schools operated ing, contrasting sharply with traditionalists who as community-based institutions with little if any argue that mixing the sexes contravenes Islamic government oversight. What control existed over teaching. Islamic (mainly Koranic) schools came from central- ized religious authorities, more as spiritual and A factional outgrowth of the modernists consists of moral guidance than administrative control. highly educated Nigerians who studied abroad in the Muslim world and define themselves as funda- Currently, the governmental Islamic Education and mentalists. They oppose the secularity of the Social Affairs Board (IESAB) at the state level is Nigerian state and identify with Islamic republics beginning to regulate Koranic and Islamiya schools, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia. Many fundamental- although there is still no formal or explicit control. ists espouse Shiite doctrines from Iran. Factions The IESAB’s mandate is to assist with standardiza- within the fundamentalists advocate the necessity of tion and quality improvement, mainly through the struggle and suffering to establish an Islamic society curriculum. An objective is to raise Koranic and and state in Nigeria. Some carry this doctrine to an Islamiya schools to government primary school extreme, emphasizing martyrdom as a central tenet. standards, enabling them to become primary schools, should they wish to do so. In reality, gover- The fluidity of these classifications further compli- nance of Koranic schools in the north varies from cates a description of trends in Nigeria. Recently, school to school and from state to state. Some of traditionalists seem to be shifting more toward the more traditional Koranic schools continue to modernism, and modernists seem to be moving operate independently, while more urbanized ones toward a more fundamentalist interpretation. There come directly under the IESAB or even the State is clearly a trend among the Muslim population in Primary Education Board. Other agencies, such as northern Nigeria to embrace Islamic fundamental- the Nigerian Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, ism in varying stages. This helps explain the adop- also claim to have authority over some Koranic tion of Islamic law (Sharia) in the north. schools. In short, the governance of Koranic schools is politically sensitive and in a state of flux. Affiliation with Radical Groups There do not appear to be radical influences within Parental Incentives Koranic and Islamiya schools in Nigeria today. Islamic schools in Kano had noticeably higher num- During the economic downturn that began in the bers of girls than boys (2:1 ratio). Helen Boyle 1980s, however, riots were staged by Islamic funda- believes that this may be due to “the notion that mentalists who were products of the Koranic school these schools are safer for girls and will keep them system in northern Nigeria. These fundamentalists close to their religion.” There is less concern that felt alienated from Western-educated and salaried boys will be “influenced away from their religion.” modernist Muslims whose greater wealth had Moreover, “parents [may] feel that an Islamiya edu-
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 79 cation serves girls better because their primary role though the highest quality public schools are proba- will be to marry and have children,” making it bly the best in this regard. Where Islamiya school- unnecessary or perhaps unwise to make the greater teachers have had some secular training, it is likely investment in public schooling for girls.10 that they can better prepare students for secular jobs. It is possible that USAID’s LEAP will build On a broader level, it would appear that parents the capacity of some Islamiya schools to educate believe that both government and Islamic schools students for the secular job market. have advantages—one prepares children for the sec- ular world, the other for the heavenly world. Hence, Civic Participation. As in government schools, the parents are likely to follow a tandem approach: their recently begun LEAP interventions in Islamiya children attend regular classes at government schools emphasize student-centered learning. The schools and supplement them with religious classes participatory approach builds upon such “modern” in Koranic schools at the beginning or end of the learning styles embedded in Koranic classrooms as day. individual pacing, self mastery, peer teaching, and learning circles. As a result, Islamiya students in par- Strengths and Weaknesses for ticipating LEAP schools are exposed to “democratic” Preparing Students for Civic group activities, though they are not necessarily Participation and Employment labeled as such. Employment. In general, students who receive strict- ly religious education are prepared for religious but Donor-Funded Work with Islamic not secular jobs. Thus, by offering math, science, Schools and Results and other subjects, Islamiya schools provide better Approximately one-third of the schools participating preparation for the secular workforce than Koranic in USAID’s LEAP are Islamic. There is no informa- schools. The great variation in the quality of schools tion regarding other donor interventions in makes it impossible to generalize whether public or Nigerian Koranic schools. ■ Islamiya schools make students more employable,
1 Kay Freeman and Julie Owen-Rea, Overview of USAID 5 Helen Chapin Metz, ed., Nigeria: A Country Study, 5th ed. Basic Education Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa III, SD (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1992). Publications Series Technical Paper No. 106 (Washington, DC: USAID, 2001) PN-ACK-735; World Bank, Nigeria 6 Ahmed Dahuru, The Modernization of Islamic Education in Second Primary Education Project: Project Appraisal Document, Nigeria (1998). Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000.
2 Torsten Husén and T. Neville Postlethwaite, eds., 8 Muhammad S. Umar, “Education and Islamic Trends in International Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd ed. (New York: Northern Nigeria: 1970–1990s,” Africa Today, 48 (2) Elsevier, 1994), 4127. (Summer 2001), 127–150.
3 Ibid., 4128. 9 Clyde Ahmad Winters, “Koranic Education and Militant Islam in Nigeria,” International Review of Education, 33 (2) 4 Material for this section comes from USAID/Nigeria and (1987). educational consultant Helen Boyle, author of “Quranic School Strategy and Mini Needs Assessment. Trip Report” 10 Boyle, op. cit. (Washington, D.C.; USAID, February 25, 2002).
80 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 10. Guinea, Mali, Senegal
Table 10.1. Guinea Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 7.5 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 85 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 45 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $1,930 Total fertility rate ...... 5.22 Human Development Index...... 0.4
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 58.89 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.63 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 45.67 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate ...... – Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... 28 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 49 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 14.72 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.36 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... 12.69 Adult secondary completion rate...... – Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 112 Adult tertiary completion rate...... – Literacy Adult literacy rate ...... – Female adult literacy rate...... – Male adult literacy rate ...... – Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 1.82 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 26.8 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 35.1
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 81 Table 10.2. Mali Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 10.8 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 90 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 47 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $)...... $780 Total fertility rate ...... 6.3 Human Development Index...... 0.38
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 53.1 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.7 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 41.71 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate...... 2.4 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... 16 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... – Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 14.23 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.52 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate ...... 0.7 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... 133 Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 0.3 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 44.8 Female adult literacy rate ...... 37.9 Male adult literacy rate ...... 52 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 2.9 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure ...... – Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 45.9
82 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 Table 10.3. Senegal Country Profile
Demographic Indicators Total population (millions) ...... 9.5 Muslim population as a percentage of total population...... 92 Population under age 15 as a percentage of total population...... 45 Rural population as a percentage of total population ...... – GNI per capita (ppp, current international $) ...... $1,480 Total fertility rate ...... 5.1 Human Development Index...... 0.42
Education Indicators Primary Primary gross enrollment ratio ...... 69.73 Primary gender parity index ...... 0.82 Primary net enrollment ratio ...... 58.81 Apparent gross intake rate ...... – Adult primary completion rate...... 8.3 Primary repeaters as a percentage of total enrollment ...... 13 Primary student/teacher ratio ...... 56 Secondary Secondary gross enrollment ratio ...... 19.55 Secondary gender parity index ...... 0.64 Secondary net enrollment ratio ...... – Adult secondary completion rate ...... 1.5 Tertiary Tertiary students per 100,000 inhabitants ...... – Adult tertiary completion rate ...... 1.1 Literacy Adult literacy rate...... 39.2 Female adult literacy rate ...... 29.7 Male adult literacy rate...... 49.1 Finance Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP ...... 3.46 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure...... 33.1 Public expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total education expenditure...... 34.2
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 83 percent of the primary school-age population). Only Introduction a fraction (fewer than 1 percent) continue to terti- his section concentrates on public and ary-level universities or technical institutes.3 Islamic schools in the francophone West Africa countries of Guinea, Mali, and T All three countries are committed to the develop- Senegal. They are discussed together because of the ment of six years of primary education for all youth. similarities in their public and Islamic schooling This priority is reflected in funding levels: all coun- outweigh differences. As Table 10.4 indicates, all tries spend 34–45 percent of total education expen- three countries have made significant progress in ditures on primary education. This is significant, economic growth and educational attainment dur- considering that public expenditure on education is ing the past 20 years.1 However, much remains to only 2–3 percent of GNP. be done. Although literacy rates have increased, more than half the populations in these countries 4 are illiterate.2 Challenges Despite economic growth and increased school enrollment, public education faces several chal- Public Education System lenges. Characteristics Access. There are gender and urban-rural enrollment Educational systems in Guinea, Mali, and Senegal disparities in all three countries: more boys and are variants of the selective system established by the more urban children attend school. French. Primary education consists of five to six ■ Guinea. The gap between boys’ and girls’ pri- years of schooling, and is followed by three to four mary gross enrollment is 29 percent, while the years at the lower secondary level and three years at urban-rural gap is even higher. Conakry, for the upper secondary level. Universities or technical example, has a primary gross enrollment rate of institutes are also available in each country. 99 percent, while eight of 38 prefectures have However, selection begins after grade 6, when stu- rates under 35 percent. dents must pass an external exam. Students face another exam to advance to upper secondary school. ■ Mali. Gross enrollment rates are under 53 per- As a result, fewer than half the students continue to cent, with average rural enrollments at 30 per- lower secondary school: secondary gross enrollments cent and only 25 percent for rural girls. Overall, (only 15–20 percent of the secondary school popu- there is inadequate coverage of primary schools lation) are half of primary gross enrollments (40–60 for rural and periurban populations. The admis-
Table 10.4. Population, Literacy, Income, and School Enrollments in Guinea, Mali, and Senegal, 1980–2000
1980 2000
Population (millions)Population growthPercent literateGNI per capitaEnrollment: maleEnrollment:Total female enrollment–% Population (millions)Population growthPercent literate GNI per capitaEnrollment: maleEnrollment: Totalfemale enrollment–%
Guinea 4.5 1.7 48 25 36 7.4 2.2 $1,930 62 33 48 Mali 6.6 2.2 14 $480 34 19 26 10.8 2.4 41.5 $780 49 32 41 Senegal 5.5 2.8 21 $780 55 37 46 9.5 2.6 37.3 $1,480 72 57 64
Source: UNESCO.
84 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 sion rate is about 52 percent: 60 percent for gifted students. In addition, private provision of boys and 43 percent for girls. In some areas, this schooling is underdeveloped, with no consistent rate is as low as 25 percent for boys and 19 per- government strategy for financial or pedagogic cent for girls. support. ■ Senegal. The gross primary education enrollment Efficiency. In all countries, dropout and repetition rate in Dakar is about 92 percent, but the aver- rates are high and completion rates relatively low, age for other provinces is only about 55 percent. thus driving up unit costs per child. Reasons cited Girls are less likely to attend and finish school for dropping out include high educational costs for than boys. In addition, there is an inadequate parents, resource-poor school environments, mini- number of places in schools, and they are poorly mal relevance of an overloaded curriculum, and distributed. This prevents many children from teacher absenteeism. entering the school system. Management. Despite attempts to decentralize pri- Quality. Overall, the quality of school inputs, teach- mary education by strengthening local supervision ing processes, and learned outcomes has declined in or promoting community schools, current systems all three countries. Students are learning less at are still too centralized. As a result, local level educa- greater cost. In addition, teacher absenteeism, tion managers are overloaded and ill-equipped to strikes, and low salaries indicate low motivation and supervise and visit schools. Planning is weak, with morale, which negatively affect learning. inadequate systems for gathering educational infor- ■ Guinea. Standardized achievement tests show mation for monitoring, evaluation, and review. In low learning levels, which fall even further as stu- addition, the managerial culture, especially in rural dents progress through the system. For example, areas, is still more akin to that of an inspectorate over 50 percent of grade 2 students achieve min- rather than one that provides advice and support for imal competencies at grade level in French and poorly trained, underpaid, and isolated teachers. mathematics, but this figure drops to about 30 percent by grade 6. Policy Reform. All countries have embarked on pro- grams to increase access, improve quality, and ■ Mali. Passing rates on external exams have been diminish inequities in their education systems, espe- declining, from 64 percent to 56 percent at the cially at the primary level. Of note are attempts to end of primary and lower secondary levels in enhance girls’ education through promotion of “girl- urban and rural areas. The quality of teaching friendly” schools that encourage more women to and learning is poor, and, for the most part, few become teachers and provide safe boarding facilities resources are allocated for improving the quality for girls at rural schools. Mali, in particular, has of learning. The pupil to textbook ratio is very experimented with different models of community low in French and national languages; the schools to make education more cost effective and national curriculum is not very well adapted to more accessible to the community by recruiting and the linguistic, social, and economic context; and managing teachers to be more responsive to com- teaching methods and classroom practices are munity needs. Senegal has accelerated teacher inadequate and outdated. recruitment: contract teachers now constitute about ■ Senegal. Low levels of learning continue to char- 25 percent of the teaching force. At the macro level, acterize the system and limit the number of well- Guinea sustained its educational growth in the qualified students graduating from each level. 1990s through economic and political reforms that Only about 30 percent pass grade 6 examina- liberalized the economy, targeted public sector tions and only 50 percent pass in grade 9. Only spending, controlled inflation, and stabilized the about 10 percent of poor rural people can read exchange rate. and write. The system does not meet the special needs of students with learning disabilities and
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 85 Donor Assistance ensuring equitable access to a high-quality edu- cation through school construction and rehabili- Guinea tation, improved teaching and learning interven- The Government of Guinea’s primary education tions, and management training to accelerate reform program (PASE II) aims to improve the decentralization. quality and equity of educational delivery and increase the involvement of local communities in ■ UNICEF is involved in nonformal education school-level educational management. through community outreach programs and in formal education through school-based curricu- ■ USAID supports PASE II through Strategic lar and materials development interventions. Objective 3 (S03) Fundamental Quality and Equity Levels activity. This activity has three ■ The African Development Bank supports quali- components: 1) improving educational planning ty improvement and support for girls’ schooling and decentralized management, 2) improving through construction, curricular and materials primary level instruction using interactive radio development, teacher training, and community instruction and materials development, and 3) outreach interventions. improving opportunities for regional and gender ■ The French Government provides assistance in equity in primary education. school administration training, monitoring and ■ The World Bank’s Education for All Project evaluation, curriculum reform, school construc- seeks to support the government’s objective of tion, and personnel management.
Table 10.5. Donor Assistance to Guinea’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■ ■■■ ■■ USAID ■ ■ ■■■■ UNICEF ■■■■ Afr. Dev. Bank ■ ■■■■ ■ EU UNESCO CIDA GTZ/KFW ■■■ JICA French ■■■■ DFID DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
86 PPC Issue Working Paper No. 1 ■ Other donors active in the education sector and quality through teacher training, curriculum include CIDA, the EU, the German and and materials development, madrasa improvement, Japanese international agencies, and the United strengthening of school facilities and increasing Nations World Food Programme. school construction, and decentralizing educational management. The World Bank’s Improving Mali Learning in Primary Schools Project seeks to devel- USAID’s SO for education is to Improve Social and op and assess bilingual education through materials Economic Behaviors among Youth. The program development and the training of teachers and aims to improve education-related youth behavior supervisors, management training to improve mon- by providing increased access to quality primary itoring and evaluation, and community outreach to education and strengthened institutional capacity strengthen PTAs and related groups. to deliver social and economic services. The pro- gram emphasizes girls’ education and development UNICEF’s program seeks to improve access and of community schools through teacher training; quality through teacher training, school renovation, strengthened administration; curriculum develop- and community outreach that centers on child- and ment with emphasis on life skills, health awareness, girl-friendly schools. and HIV/AIDS prevention; and PTA and commu- nity organizational development. The African Development Bank Education Project III strengthens educational planning, improves The World Bank has two projects. The Education teacher training, and widens girls’ education. Sector Expenditure Project seeks to improve access
Table 10.6. Donor Assistance to Mali’s Public Education Sector
Donor Level Focus Type of Educational Intervention
Improved Access Quality Teacher training Curricula/textbooks DecentralizationGirls’ education Distance learningNonformal educationVocational/technical Primary Secondary Tertiary management system World Bank ■ ■■■■■■ USAID ■ ■■■■■ ■ UNICEF ■ ■■■ ■ Afr. Dev. Bank ■ ■■■■■ EU UNESCO CIDA GTZ/KFW JICA French DFID DANIDA, FINNIDA, SIDA
Strengthening Education in the Muslim World 87 Senegal UNICEF’s emphasis is on girls’ education, with a USAID’s Strategic Objective for education in program that combines social mobilization, com- Senegal is Increased Girls’ Access and Retention in munity development and support, gender equitable Targeted Primary and Vocational Schools. This is to curricula, and income generation activities. be achieved through school environment improve- ment, practical and life skills training, and commu- GTZ emphasizes girls’ literacy programs through nity development. training, community mobilization, income genera- tion, and organization of women’s groups. The World Bank’s Quality Education for All Project aims to improve the quality of basic education by Strengths and Weaknesses for 2009. The project consists of three components: 1) Preparing Students for Civic increasing access through construction and renova- Participation and Employment tion, curriculum diversification, and technical and Employment. Students who graduate from primary vocational training; 2) improved quality through school are minimally qualified for low-level training early childhood development, curriculum and mate- and salaried jobs. Those who complete lower or rials development, and teacher training; and 3) upper secondary school are more qualified for train- management strengthening through financial train- ing and salaried jobs at higher levels. However, the ing, community development, and program moni- percentage of students who go on to secondary toring and evaluation. school is generally well below 20 percent. As a result of French influence, there is a significant 5 vocational training subsector within the education Islamic Schools sector. Most of this is formal training, which is con- centrated at the secondary level in urban areas. It Levels and Types generally consists of subjects or streams (such as In Islamic Africa, Islamic schools are pervasive: there business, industry, or commerce), either in schools are many and different types of schools, and large or as separate training institutes. Increasingly, small populations have experienced some level of Islamic private sector institutes are emerging to train urban instruction. It is also safe to say that no one knows youth with at least three years of secondary educa- how many schools, teachers, or students there are. tion for salaried jobs in business, accounting, or This is because a contradiction permeates the study computers. These institutes also offer courses in of Islamic schools in Africa: on one hand, wide- mechanics, electricity, metal construction, boiler- spread opinion admits to the pervasiveness and effi- making, carpentry, office work, and trade. In rural cacy of Islamic education; on the other, few teach- areas, various departments related to development ers, learned scholars, or government administrators (such as agriculture, water and forests, environmen- know—or show much interest in knowing—pre- tal protection, animal husbandry, fishing, and pri- cisely how widespread or effective these schools are. mary healthcare) provide farmers with relevant skills From the beginning of the colonial era until recent- to increase productivity or improve their livelihoods. ly, the visibility of these schools had declined to the Often, especially in Mali, skill training is provided point of being on the fringe of formal education, in conjunction with adult literacy programs in a eclipsed by the rise of government schools. Islamic regional or national language. schools have become visible again with the deterio- ration of government schools and the Islamic revival Rigidity is one weakness of these training programs, sweeping the world. In Senegal, for example, the especially those provided in government lower sec- proportion of the population reporting itself as ondary or training schools. Courses and equipment Muslim grew from under 50 percent in 1950 to stay the same year after year, despite changes in the over 90 percent in 1990. job market. This helps explain the rise of small training institutes in the private sector, but the cap- The teacher and the Koran form the heart of ital and recurrent costs (instructors’ salaries) are Islamic schooling in francophone West Africa. high and do not always justify their operations. Usually, the teacher has studied the Koran in depth, Moreover, training in secondary schools and sepa- emulates the life of Muhammad, and understands rate public institutes tends to be geared to produc- the basics of Islamic law. Teachers, usually male, are ing graduates to operate in the public sector. known by various terms, depending on geographic Meanwhile, economic and political policies and location and educational level. Some experts refer programs are being developed to shrink the public to the francophone West African Koranic teacher as sector and accelerate the private sector. While train- a marabout, while others refer to the mallam. Since ing in public sector schools and institutes is techni- the teacher receives paltry compensation from the cally good, it needs to be more oriented to the parents of students, he usually depends on agricul- changing job market in the private sector. ture, artisanry, trade, commerce, or business to make a living. Hence, the community Islamic Civic Education. The literature search did not yield school may be the teacher’s home, the mosque, any information on the status of a civic education under a shade tree, vacant quarters, or a shed. program in public education. The two basic types of Islamic schools are tradition- al and modern. ■ At the elementary level in traditional Islamic schools, teachers instruct students in the Koran through group chanting or individual repetition guage usage in class by using an African language of verses, along with writing them in Arabic. understood by students for explanatory, managerial, Pupils also learn how to observe daily prayers, and disciplinary functions and using Arabic for study the Prophet’s life, and learn various presentation and instruction of Koranic verses, aspects of Islam through graded courses. phrasing, or recitations. Thus, students come to Elementary modern schools teach subjects in understand spoken and written Arabic through addition to the Koran, some of which may be memorization and repetition, as well as through secular. explanation and application in African languages. In other cases, teachers use an adapted version of ■ Students at the secondary level in traditional Arabic script as a phonetic technique for teaching schools (madrasas) learn the meaning of the reading and writing. Formerly, teachers transcribed Koran, including the traditions surrounding the several of West Africa’s most widespread languages Prophet. This is a more selective level: most stu- into Arabic script by inventing or combining letters dents have dropped out by this time, and those to represent special sounds peculiar to African lan- who continue may want to become teachers. At guages. Through this code, African students in the secondary modern level, religious and secular Koranic schools become literate in Arabic even if courses are mixed, and Arabic and French are they never attain a level that would permit them to taught. communicate easily in writing. ■ At traditional higher level schools, instruction becomes specialized, and is usually a special and Learning Processes. Instruction in Koranic schools extended affiliation (tutorial or apprenticeship) includes a number of common features: with a learned scholar (perhaps an imam). ■ oral memorization of the Koran Modern higher-level schooling means attending an Islamic institute of higher learning, taught in ■ emphasis on accurate and aesthetic oral Arabic or even in French, with specialized reli- recitation gious science (ilmu) and secular courses. ■ training in Arabic (or a closely related) script Koranic Schools. The Koranic school is the most ■ disciplined instruction widespread in Islamic Africa. In some areas, mostly urban, preschool Koranic schools prepare the young Unlike public or secular primary schools, Koranic for government primary schools or for continued teaching provides no opportunity for age-graded Koranic schooling. Dropout rates in the initial vocabulary or grammatical structures. In addition, Koranic instructional sequence are high: 85–95 per- illustrations are strictly forbidden for religious rea- cent of students never fully complete the primary sons. Simply put, learning to read by using the cycle of courses that concludes with memorization Koran as a primer is not a trivial task for any child. of the entire Koran and receipt of a diploma. Memorization is by rote: pupils recite their lessons Though students may not have completed the cycle, aloud until the teacher approves. They also write some attendance is important because the exposure passages from the Koran on a wooden slate with a means most have been socialized into the essential pen, using locally made black ink and washing their tenets and duties of Islam. slates clean for the next lesson. Teachers point out sections of the Koran as important for religious Language. Because Koranic schooling focuses on belief or practical for daily living. Teachers are high- learning the Koran, which is written and recited in ly esteemed as a source of knowledge. Their task is Arabic, achieving literacy is difficult for African stu- to lead and educate with discipline, vigilance, and dents whose first language is not Arabic. Teachers often a bamboo cane to back up their authority.6 explain lessons and manage students in their first language or a regional language such as Wolof, Peul, Koranic schools teach learning in a structured set- or Hausa. In some cases, teachers switch their lan- ting; respect for an authority figure (usually not a kinsman); use of language, individually or in group dents in the Guinea study cited above consid- recitation; the encoding and decoding a written ered themselves literate, only 26 percent consid- alphabet; and how to be a moral person and good ered themselves numerate.9 However, most citizen.7 marabouts and imams are considered numerate, and they are sought for accounting responsibili- It would seem that early Koranic schooling provides ties in their communities. In addition, Koranic a preparatory payoff to subsequent, progressive, and graduates are likely to seek out opportunities to more difficult schooling, be it religious or secular. develop or improve their numeracy skills Evidence from educational psychology strongly sup- through formal or on-the-job training. ports the notion that background information, basic ■ Leadership Roles. Students who continue their learning, and language and social skills in the class- Koranic schooling beyond the initial phase often room are the building blocks upon which much become leaders in various fields, whether reli- subsequent school learning is based. If these skills gious, societal, entrepreneurial, or political. are obtained prior to or along with secular school Through role modeling, tutorials, apprentice- learning (as is the case now in some urban areas of ships, and related superordinate-subordinate Africa), there should be substantial transfer, even if relationships, Koranic students appear to be some of the content (Koran) is different from class- more prepared and motivated to seek positions room texts. Naturally, comparisons of the two types of influence than those who did not attend any of schools must be in similar geographical and cul- school. tural contexts. ■ Intellectual Development. A synthesis of empiri- Learned Outcomes. Limited empirical evidence indi- cal evidence from Liberia and Morocco as well cates that students learn the following: as from the above studies suggests that disci- plined and systematic memorization and literacy ■ Literacy. Some empirical evidence suggests that training in Koranic schools have practical appli- more Koranic students than might be expected cations in management, developing inventories, achieve and sustain a working level of literacy. and organizational reconstructions.10 Koranic Usually, these individuals have either been pre- graduates excel in serial memory or memorizing pared by Koranic schooling for commercial, the content and sequence of different elements government, or NGO jobs that require minimal presented in order. This learned outcome has literacy; or their schooling has enabled them to applications to basic understanding in law, local become literate through formal or on-the-job administration, and business management. In training in an international language besides Morocco, Berber-speaking rural students who Arabic. Limited evidence from self-reporting attended Koranic school actually increased read- samples of school graduates in Guinea indicates ing achievement in public schools.11 that over 90 percent of males claimed reading and writing abilities in Arabic script. In Senegal, ■ Moral Development and Citizenship. Koranic 25–75 percent of all male adults and 10–25 per- training is intended to reinforce the strict moral cent of women in villages contacted claimed this teachings of the faith and is a generally accepted level of literacy.8 reference for future public service. On a related note, a student must respect and obey the ■ Numeracy. Numeracy skills are not explicitly teacher, who usually lies beyond the student’s taught in Koranic schools in Africa, although kinship network. As an authority figure in the some are beginning to do so, and all refer to local community, this payment of respect con- numbered pages in Koranic usage. Hence, stu- tributes to students’ acceptance of the norms of dents are at the least familiar with numbers and, civic society. by implication, multiples of numbers. Numeracy is taught, however, at the secondary and higher levels. While 93 percent of respon- Trends, Influences, Affiliation with groups, age, or socioeconomic background. Neither Radical Groups the identities nor the larger economic and social There have been madrasas or Franco-Arabic schools forces behind the revolutionary ideology of this visi- since colonial times that combine Islamic teachings ble and recognized force were elucidated by fran- with the Arabic language, along with the study of cophone Africa literature reviewed. secular subjects in French or a regional language. The French attempted to mute the religious impact Parental Incentives (and perceived threat) of Koranic schools through In general, parents have three choices regarding these alternative bilingual and religio-secular schools their children’s education: Koranic schools, in urban areas. Unlike Koranic schools, these madrasas, and public schools. Most parents, espe- schools resemble the Western model, with class- cially those in rural areas, choose Koranic schools rooms, textbooks, exams, formal administration, because they want their children to learn classical and secular subjects that include science and social Islam and their attendance signifies a commitment studies. Schooling also continues to the secondary to the religion of Islam. This tradition has existed and tertiary levels. Since the 1970s, Arab NGOs for a thousand years and is rooted in the commu- armed with substantial funds from the oil boom nity. The choice may also be pragmatic, in that no have poured into Islamic Africa to strengthen and other school alternative is available or parents see Arabize madrasas. This trend continues, as the qual- the value of Arabic literacy for trading purposes, ity of public schools has deteriorated and African as reported among the Hausa.12 The motive may states became more fragile, buffeted by global eco- also be ideological, if the public school is a per- nomic forces. ceived threat to their child’s religious identity and status. Parents may prefer religious schools to reaf- In effect, there has been a growth and spread of firm their children’s identity as Muslims and insu- modernized forms of Arabic education. Graduates late them from pervasive modern and secular emerge from madrasas that are influenced by the influences. religious Wahhabist movement and form a mod- ernist cohort of educated Muslims. In some cases, If parents have access to a government primary they are bent on reforming various social and politi- school, they will send, simultaneously or in cal institutions: schools, legal systems, gender rela- sequence, their children to Koranic school and tions (elevation of women’s status), local religious then to the government school as initial prepara- hierarchies, and the meaning and status of Islamic tion for a salaried position. It is likely that they knowledge itself. They are modernist insofar as they consider each school to have a different function: appeal to the principles of law, reason, and science the Koranic school strengthens and legitimizes in the construction of the new Islamic society they their children’s understanding and commitment to envision. the religion of their ancestors and as such is a part of the community; the government public school However, these madrasas have not delivered what is a preparation for government or related white they promised in terms of salaried jobs and collar jobs beyond the community and as such is enhanced social status. Graduates from these schools from the urban world. Despite efforts in Mali to cannot compete with French-speaking government bring public schools closer to parents’ lives through school graduates with baccalaureates who can obtain community-managed schools, these schools still jobs, training, or further education. Hence, they remain more a symbol of government than of the become discontented and vulnerable to extremist or community itself. subversive influences sometimes conveyed in these madrasas. Parents’ third option is to send their children to pri- mary and/or secondary madrasas. Parents who want It is not clear from literature who these modernists the “best of both worlds” tend to do this. This are: little mention is made of numbers, ethnic choice may also be pragmatic if the madrasa is the best, most affordable, and available school around; especially Koranic—schools is religious: to teach the or it may be ideological as in the case of the mod- Koran to the faithful. However, there are learned ernist madrasas. outcomes that are similar to those of elementary schooling in terms of cognitive development, social An observation among the Hausa from Niger (a adjustment, civic responsibility, and leadership neighboring francophone country) that may be rele- training. While not explicitly oriented to develop- vant to many West African Muslim parents regard- ment, Koranic schools do provide children some of ing motivations for sending their children to school: the cognitive, attitudinal, and social building blocks necessary for further schooling. Older students may Many families make financial investments in both have selected apprenticeships with marabouts and Koranic and state education for their children. other religious leaders prominent in local com- Most children who go to public school also attend merce, trade, or business. Hausa Koranic school Koranic school. More children attend public than graduates (men and women) may use Arabic literacy Koranic schools, although the public schools have for trade purposes. While some practical training is very high dropout rates. School attendance has probably included in a few madrasas, no explicit ref- continued to grow…and many more boys than erence was found on how this is done. It is therefore girls attend school, although the relative propor- difficult to assess whether Islamic schools prepare tion of girls attending school has risen over the students for employment to the same degree that past 20 years. Literacy programs are an increasing- public schools do. ly important component of the overall education system, and women are key beneficiaries. Girls Whatever training exists for employment in Koranic generally leave school when they get married. schools is a byproduct of Islamic schooling. The main purpose of getting an education for Traditionally, to mix religious and practical training most families…is not to get a particular type in Koranic schools was unheard of, even blasphe- of work, but more simply, in order to become mous. Whether job-related training can be intro- better educated, and therefore better able to duced in this type of school is questionable at best. deal with the wider world. In addition…one’s It would have a better chance of succeeding if prac- knowledge and status are strongly linked. tical aspects of agricultural or business subjects were Agents of the state are the main sources of taught as secular subjects in the madrasas. Students agricultural innovations in the study villages, might be induced to see such materials as real-life and the youth are important sources of non- alternatives to the modernist rhetoric they may environment-related innovations (clothes, receive at Arabized madrasas. bikes, radios, style, etc.).13 Civic Participation. In addition to religious teach- Governance ings that inculcate and strengthen students’ Muslim The literature review did not reveal explicit refer- identity, students are socialized into the routines and ence to the oversight, regulation, and control of the exercises of their institutional environment. This Islamic schools. Under colonial and independent includes respect for the teacher as an authority fig- rule, Islamic groups or funding organizations usually ure, good manners, civility among peers, and loyalty carried out this function under the watchful eye of to and identification with the local community, local or regional administrators. It is unclear how nation, and Muslim people worldwide. It does not the Ministry of Education regulates the operations appear that Islamic education in the Koranic schools of Islamic schools, if it does so at all. does much else in the way of civic participation. Most likely, madrasas provide some form of civic Strengths and Weaknesses for education through social studies, morals, and reli- Preparing Students for Civic gious teachings. The Arabized madrasas, however, Participation and Employment may also provide threatening or even subversive Employment. The primary purpose of Islamic— teachings about secular government. Donor-Funded Work with Islamic Schools and Results Research on assistance from donors to Islamic edu- cation systems in the three countries revealed very little information. ■