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A Re-Evaluation of the Poetry of Dennis Brutus Tyrone

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A Re-Evaluation of the Poetry of Dennis Brutus Tyrone i OUT OF PLACE: A RE-EVALUATION OF THE POETRY OF DENNIS BRUTUS TYRONE RUSSEL AUGUST A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor Philosophiae in the Department of English, University of the Western Cape. Supervisor: Dr Roger Field September 2014 ii OUT OF PLACE: A RE-EVALUATION OF THE POETRY OF DENNIS BRUTUS Tyrone August KEYWORDS Brutus Poetry Influences Lyric Biography Displacement Prison Exile Homecoming Cosmopolitanism iii ABSTRACT OUT OF PLACE: A RE-EVALUATION OF THE POETRY OF DENNIS BRUTUS T. R. August PhD Thesis, Department of English, University of the Western Cape. The main aim of my dissertation is to re-evaluate the poetry of the South African writer Dennis Brutus (1924-2009). Even though he produced a substantial number of poems over more than half a century, his work continues to receive limited attention in South African literary criticism. One of the main reasons is the perception that he was primarily a political activist who wrote poetry with the purpose of advancing his political objectives. However, even though he wrote extensively on political issues, his themes include a wide range of subjects. In addition, he paid close attention to the craft of poetry. Due to the tendency to foreground the political content of his writing, the complexity and diversity in the language and style of his poetry are seldom examined. Refocusing attention on the aesthetic features of his work is a key aspect of my dissertation. I also contend that, despite the political content of much of his poetry, Brutus remains, first and foremost, a writer of lyric poetry. What makes his writing different from the iv conventional lyric, though, is his quest to find ways of using a very personal mode of poetic expression to make statements on public matters. How he pursues this objective is a major focus of my dissertation. I examine various literary influences on his writing as well. Brutus initially drew extensively on the traditional English literary canon he was taught at school and at university. Later, in order to communicate more directly and accessibly, he drew on traditional Chinese poetry. For the same reason, he subsequently wrote some poems with the specific objective of public performance. My re-evaluation of Brutus’ poetry is primarily based on a contextual reading of his work. Such an approach is based on the notion that the context within which a writer lives and writes is vital in order to gain a more informed understanding of his or her writing. In addition, my dissertation draws on Homi K. Bhabha’s elaboration of Freud’s notion of the “unheimlich” (“unhomely”) to examine Brutus’ life and poetry. Bhabha pays particular attention to the sense of estrangement which is embedded in Freud’s theory. His elaboration provides an important conceptual tool with which to analyse Brutus’ writing, and makes it possible to identify links among his various poetic personae and to identify common features in the themes of his poetry. I argue that Brutus’ unhomelineness lies at the centre of his poetic personae – the troubadour, the exile and the cosmopolitan – and of most of the themes of his poetry. v Another important focus of my dissertation is how Brutus responds to this state of unhomeliness. The central aspect of my argument is that he redefines his sense of self during different periods of his life: he evolves from initially being a patriot in South Africa into a rooted cosmopolitan in exile; he then, finally, becomes a rootless cosmopolitan. I explore the reasons behind this evolution, and contend that these shifts were essentially attempts to regain agency over his life. September 2014 vi DECLARATION I declare that Out of Place: A Re-Evaluation of the Poetry of Dennis Brutus is my own work, that it has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged as complete references. Tyrone Russel August September 2014 Signed: ………………………………………………….. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To avoid being effusive or overly sentimental, I have elected to list my acknowledgements in point form. In no way does this diminish my gratitude and appreciation for the assistance and support of the following individuals and institutions over the last few years of my life: Department of English, UWC My supervisor, Dr Roger Field, for turning a casual request to meet into a firm offer to supervise my dissertation, and for the meticulous care, insightfulness and empathy with which he subsequently did so; Ms Cheryl-Ann Michael, then Graduate Coordinator, who set the process in motion after my initial approach to Dr Field and later expertly and efficiently guided me through my research proposal; Dr Mark Espin, for his friendship, interest and lots of cups of coffee even while he was still working on his own doctorate; and Dr Fiona Moolla, the current Graduate Coordinator, for her attentive proofreading and various acts of kindness at the end. Andrew W. Mellon Foundation The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, for supporting my dissertation through a grant in the Centre for Humanities Research (CHR), where I held a doctoral fellowship from 2011-2013. viii Centre for Humanities Research, UWC The CHR’s director, Prof Premesh Lalu, for accommodating me at the CHR, a most stimulating – and challenging – intellectual space. Over and above this, my gratitude to him for arranging a writing fellowship at the Interdisciplinary Center for Global Change (ICGC), the CHR’s partner institution at the University of Minnesota, which enabled me to work on the final draft of my dissertation from April-July 2014; and Ms Lameez Lalkhen; the centre’s super-efficient and helpful administrator, who attended to practical matters related to my fellowship. Interdisciplinary Center for Global Change, University of Minnesota ICGC director Dr Karen Brown, for enabling me to put my life on pause for four months and concentrate on finalising my dissertation. The time and space offered by my visit was an invaluable gift; and The rest of the ICGC team, in particular Ms Shereen Sabet, Assistant to the Directors. The welcoming environment and routine expressions of kindness will always be remembered. Library staff UWC Inter-Library Loans: Ms Helena Primo and Ms Khonziwe Mpandle, for never getting tired of my endless requests to obtain material; UWC-Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives: Archivist Ms Geraldine Frieslaar, for material on the International Defence and Aid Fund and Christian Aid; National English Literary Museum (NELM): Bibliographer/literary researcher Mr Andrew Martin, for his prompt and ever-helpful response to my never-ending queries and requests; ix Northwestern University Library: Assistant University Archivist Ms Janet C. Olson, for so generously making available a copy of Brutus’ privately circulated Denver Poems; and Rondebosch Public Library: Librarian Ms Nomaxabiso Nduna and her colleagues, for being so welcoming and allowing me to virtually use the library as a private work station. Photographs Mr George Hallett: For access to his precious collection of photographs of writers; Mr Graham Goddard: For sourcing and making available photographs from the UWC-Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives; Mr Andrew Martin: For making available photographs from NELM; and Prof Patrick Bond, Ms Monica Rorvik and the Kohn family: For photographs from their respective personal collections. Interviewees Prof Dennis Brutus, most of all: For his initial interest when I approached him as a total stranger about my intention to do a dissertation on his poetry, and for occasionally sending me material. While his schedule did not always make him a regular correspondent, his positive response helped to nudge me along in those early days. Prof Patrick Bond, Mr Bennie Bunsee, Mr Antony Brutus, Prof Keorapetse Kgositsile, Prof Peter Klatzow, Ms Blanche la Guma, Mr Mandla Langa, Mr Don Mattera, Mr James Matthews, Prof Mbulelo Mzamane, Prof Njabulo Ndebele, Mr Mongane Wally Serote and Prof Wole Soyinka: For enriching my dissertation by x making their time and knowledge available, and so willingly sharing their information and insights. Bond also graciously responded afterwards to various requests for information. Family My long-suffering wife Maud, for her love, support and patience, and the rest of our family, Marlon, Morné and Monique. They provided a safe and secure base to which I could return whenever the challenges appeared to become overwhelming. My mother, Rhona, who always supported my eagerness to read and fed my appetite with those early magazine subscriptions when I was at primary school. My father, John, is no longer around, but his bookshelf and love of reading remain lasting influences. My siblings, who always showed an interest in my various activities and unselfishly took vicarious pride in whatever I did: Eugene, Colin, Rossana, Vanessa and Fiona. Their spouses (past and present), Sharon, Carmen, Lindsley, Collin, Desiree and Virgil, and all their children – Chantell, Jonathan, Ricardo, Anthony, Tanielle, Danielle, Tiana, Tanisha, Deandra and Laiken – have also since joined them in their love and support. And then there are the grandchildren, Kayleigh and Paige. All of them are, naturally, beautiful and brilliant in their own right. xi CONTENTS Title Page i Keywords ii Abstract iii Declaration vi Acknowledgements vii Notes on MLA Style Manual xiii List of figures xvi PREFACE 1 INTRODUCTION 7 SECTION 1 The early years (November 1924-July 1966) 50 CHAPTER 1 The South African troubadour 50 CHAPTER 2 An accidental Englishman 105 SECTION 2 The middle years (August 1966-July 1991) 142 CHAPTER 3 Adrift in exile 142 CHAPTER 4 Old roots, new routes 199 CHAPTER 5 An alien in America 244 xii SECTION 3 The later years (August 1991-December 2009) 293 CHAPTER 6 Resident alien 293 CHAPTER 7 No place like home 335 CONCLUSION 371 WORKS CITED 406 FIGURES 449 NOTES ON STYLE xiii 1.
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