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An Autonomous An autonomous car,[1] also known as a robotic car, or informally as driverless or self-driving, is an autonomous vehiclecapable of fulfilling the human transportation capabilities of a traditional car. As an autonomous vehicle, it is capable of sensing its environment and navigating without human input.[2] Robotic cars exist mainly as prototypes, but are likely to become more widespread in the near future. Autonomous vehicles sense their surroundings with such techniques as radar, lidar, GPS, and computer vision. Advanced control systems interpret sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and relevant signage.[3] Someautonomous vehicles update their maps based on sensory input, allowing them to find their way through uncharted environments. Since the late 2000s, significant advances have been made in both technology and legislation relevant to autonomous cars. Numerous major companies and research organizations have developed working prototype autonomous vehicles, includingGoogle, Continental Automotive Systems, Bosch, Nissan, Toyota, Audi, and Oxford University.[4][5][6][7][8][9] In June 2011, the state of Nevada was the first jurisdiction in the United States to pass a law concerning the operation of autonomous cars.[10][11][12] The Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012, and the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles issued the first license for a self-driving car in May 2012.[13] As of February 2013, three U.S. states have passed laws permitting driverless cars: Nevada, Florida and California.[14] Contents [hide] 1 Benefits 2 History o 2.1 1930s o 2.2 1980s o 2.3 1990s o 2.4 2000s o 2.5 2010s o 2.6 Official projections 3 Legislation 4 Vehicular communication systems 5 Public opinion surveys 6 Notable projects o 6.1 Vehicles for roads o 6.2 Off-road vehicles 7 In fiction o 7.1 In film o 7.2 In literature 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links [edit]Benefits Anticipated benefits of automous cars include: Fewer traffic collisions, due to an autonomous system's increased reliability and decreased reaction time compared to human drivers.[15] Increased roadway capacity and reduced traffic congestion due to reduced need for safety gaps[16][17] and the ability to better manage traffic flow.[15] Relief of vehicle occupants from driving and navigation chores.[15] Higher speed limit for autonomous cars [18] Removal of constraints on occupants' state – in an autonomous car, it would not matter if the occupants were under age, over age,[19] blind, distracted, intoxicated, or otherwise impaired. Alleviation of parking scarcity as cars could drop off passengers, park far away where space is not scarce, and return as needed to pick up passengers. Elimination of redundant passengers – humans are not required to take the car anywhere, as the robotic car can drive independently to wherever it is required. This would be especially relevant to trucks, taxis and car-sharing services.[17][20][21] Reduction of space required for vehicle parking.[22] Reduction in the need for traffic police and vehicle insurance.[23] Reduction of physical road signage – autonomous cars could receive necessary communication electronically (although physical signs may still be required for any human drivers).[24][25][26] Improved fuel efficiency.[27] [edit]History [edit]1930s An early representation of the autonomous car was Norman Bel Geddes's Futurama exhibit sponsored by General Motors at the 1939 World's Fair, which depicted electric cars powered by circuits embedded in the roadway and controlled by radio.[28] [edit]1980s In the 1980s, a vision-guided Mercedes-Benz robotic van, designed by Ernst Dickmanns and his team at the Bundeswehr University Munich in Munich, Germany, achieved 39 miles per hour (63 km/h) on streets without traffic. Subsequently, the European Commission began funding the €800 million EC EUREKA Prometheus Project on autonomous vehicles from 1987 to 1995. Also in the 1980s, the DARPA-funded Autonomous Land Vehicle (ALV) in the United States achieved the first road-following demonstration that used laser radar(Environmental Research Institute of Michigan), computer vision (Carnegie Mellon University and SRI), and autonomous robotic control (Carnegie Mellon and Martin Marietta) to control a robotic vehicle up to 19 miles per hour (31 km/h). In 1987, HRL Laboratories (formerly Hughes Research Labs) demonstrated the first off-road map and sensor- based autonomous navigation on the ALV. The vehicle traveled over 2,000 feet (610 m) at 1.9 miles per hour (3.1 km/h) on complex terrain with steep slopes, ravines, large rocks, and vegetation. [edit]1990s In 1991, the United States Congress passed the ISTEA Transportation Authorization bill, which instructed USDOT to "demonstrate an automated vehicle and highway system by 1997." The Federal Highway Administration took on this task, first with a series of Precursor Systems Analsyes and then by establishing the National Automated Highway System Consortium (NAHSC). This cost-shared project was led by FHWA and General Motors, with Caltrans, Delco, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Bechtel, UC-Berkeley, Carnegie Mellon University, and Lockheed Martin as additional partners. Extensive systems engineering work and research culminated in Demo '97 on I-15 in San Diego, California, in which about 20 automated vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks, were demonstrated to thousands of onlookers, attracting extensive media coverage. The demonstrations involved close-headway platooning intended to operate in segregated traffic, as well as "free agent" vehicles intended to operate in mixed traffic. Other carmakers were invited to demonstrate their systems, such that Toyota and Honda also participated. While the subsequent aim was to produce a system design to aid commercialization, the program was cancelled in the late 1990s due to tightening research budgets at USDOT. Overall funding for the program was in the range of $90 million.[29] In 1994, the twin robot vehicles VaMP and Vita-2 of Daimler-Benz and Ernst Dickmanns of UniBwM drove more than 620 miles (1,000 km) on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 81 miles per hour (130 km/h), albeit semi-autonomously with human interventions. They demonstrated autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes with autonomous passing of other cars.[citation needed] That same year, Lucas Industries developed parts for a semi-autonomous car in a project that was funded by Jaguar Cars, Lucas, and the UK Department of Trade and Industry.[30] In 1995, Dickmanns' re-engineered autonomous S-Class Mercedes-Benz undertook a 990 miles (1,590 km) journey from Munich in Bavaria, Germany to Copenhagen,Denmark and back, using saccadic computer vision and transputers to react in real time. The robot achieved speeds exceeding 109 miles per hour (175 km/h) on the GermanAutobahn, with a mean time between human interventions of 5.6 miles (9.0 km), or 95% autonomous driving. It drove in traffic, executing manoeuvres to pass other cars. Despite being a research system without emphasis on long distance reliability, it drove up to 98 miles (158 km) without human intervention.[citation needed] In 1995, the Carnegie Mellon University Navlab project achieved 98.2% autonomous driving on a 3,100 miles (5,000 km) cross-country journey which was dubbed "No Hands Across America". This car, however, was semi-autonomous by nature: it used neural networks to control the steering wheel, but throttle and brakes were human-controlled.[31] In 1996, Alberto Broggi of the University of Parma launched the ARGO Project, which worked on enabling a modified Lancia Thema to follow the normal (painted) lane marks in an unmodified highway.[32] The culmination of the project was a journey of 1,200 miles (1,900 km) over six days on the motorways of northern Italy dubbed Mille Miglia in Automatico ("One thousand automatic miles"), with an average speed of 56 miles per hour (90 km/h). The car operated in fully automatic mode for 94% of its journey, with the longest automatic stretch being 34 miles (55 km). The vehicle had only two black-and-white low-cost video cameras on board and used stereoscopic vision algorithms to understand its environment. [edit]2000s Three US Government funded military efforts known as Demo I (US Army), Demo II (DARPA), and Demo III (US Army). Demo III (2001)[33] demonstrated the ability of unmanned ground vehicles to navigate miles of difficult off-road terrain, avoiding obstacles such as rocks and trees. James Albus at the National Institute for Standards and Technologyprovided the Real-Time Control System which is a hierarchical control system. Not only were individual vehicles controlled (e.g. throttle, steering, and brake), but groups of vehicles had their movements automatically coordinated in response to high level goals. The ParkShuttle, a driverless public road transport system, was became operational in the early 2000s.[34] In January 2006, the United Kingdom's 'Foresight' think-tank revealed a report which predicts RFID-tagged driverless cars on UK's roads by 2056 and the Royal Academy of Engineering claimed that driverless trucks could be on Britain's motorways by 2019.[35][36] Autonomous vehicles have also been used in mining. Since December 2008, Rio Tinto Alcan has been testing the Komatsu Autonomous Haulage System - the world's first commercial autonomous mining haulage system - in the Pilbara iron ores mine, in Western Australia. Rio Tinto has reported benefits in health, safety, and productivity. In November 2011, Rio Tinto signed a deal to greatly expand its fleet of driverless trucks.[37] Additional mining systems include Sandvik Automine (for underground loaders) and autonomous hauling from Caterpillar Inc. [edit]2010s In 2010, VisLab ran the VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge (VIAC), a 9,900 miles (15,900 km) test run of autonomous vehicles.
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