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Latin America, 1945-Present

Latin America, 1945-Present

America 1945–Present Key Events As you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of Latin nations. • Many Latin American nations have experienced severe economic problems, and their governments have been led by military dictators. • Successful Marxist revolutions in and fed fears in the about the spread of in the . The Impact Today The events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today. • Latin American influence in the United States can be seen in art, music, literature, and foods. • Rapid and unplanned industrial development in some Latin American has led to heightened concern about the environment.

World History Video The Chapter 29 video, “The ,” chronicles the causes and effects of Castro’s revolution in Cuba.

Juan Perón 1952 Juan Perón elected to 1962 second term 1961 Cuban as president of Bay of Pigs missile crisis invasion fails resolved

19401950 1960

1946 1948 1959 Juan Perón Organization establishes of American seizes power authoritarian States formed in Cuba regime in Argentina

898 Art or Photo here

Sugarloaf Mountain overlooks , one of ’s most populous cities.

Ché Guevara

1990 HISTORY 1967 Violeta de Ché Guevara Chamorro elected dies in president of Nicaragua Chapter Overview Visit the Glencoe World History Web site at 1970 19901980 2000 tx.wh.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 29–Chapter Overview to preview chapter information. 1989 2000 United States Vicente Fox invades becomes Arrest of Panamanian president of leader

899 A victorious Fidel Castro rides through the streets of in 1959. The Castro Brothers n July 26, 1953, two brothers, Fidel and Raúl Castro, led a band of 165 young people in an attack on the Moncada Oarmy camp at de Why It Matters Cuba. While a student Gulf of Florida Since 1945, the nations of Latin Mexico at the University of Havana, America have followed different Santiago Havana Fidel Castro had become a de Cuba paths of change. In some countries revolutionary. He was deter- CUBA military dictators have maintained mined to overthrow the gov- political stability and initiated eco- MEXICO nomic changes. A few nations, like ernment of , the dictator of Cuba. Cuba, have used Marxist revolutions The attack on Moncada, however, was a disaster. Many of to create a new political, economic, the troops led by the Castro brothers were killed, wounded, and social order. Many Latin Ameri- can nations have struggled to build or arrested. Fidel and Raúl Castro escaped but were later democratic systems, especially since captured and sentenced to prison for 15 years. the late . The has The Castro brothers could easily have died in prison, where also had an impact on . political prisoners were routinely tortured. Instead, they were released after 11 months. By freeing political prisoners, Batista History and You As you read hoped to win the favor of the Cuban people. this chapter, document the struggle He certainly did not gain the favor of the Castros. After his between democracy and dictator- release, Fidel Castro fled to Mexico and built a new revolu- ship in the Latin American states. tionary army. Six years later, on , 1959, Fidel Castro Make a chart or diagram comparing and his forces finally seized control of Cuba. Hundreds of the different states, their leadership, thousands of Cubans swept into the streets, overcome with and reasons why the regimes were joy. One person remarked, “We were walking on a cloud.” able to gain power. To the many Latin who wanted major social and economic changes, Castro soon became a source of hope.

900 General Trends in Latin America

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Exporting raw materials and importing Gabriel García Márquez, Oscar Niemeyer Categorizing Information Use a chart manufactured goods has led to eco- like the one below to identify social and nomic and political troubles for Latin Places to Locate political challenges in Latin America since American nations. , Brazil, Bolivia, , 1945. • Many Latin American nations began to Preview Questions build democratic systems in the late 1. What factors undermined the stability 1980s. Social Political of Latin American countries? Challenges Challenges Key Terms 2. How did the roles of women change multinational corporation, magic in Latin America after 1945?

Preview of Events ✦1940 ✦1950 ✦1960 ✦1970 ✦1980 ✦1990

1948 1980 1982 1990 The Organization of A movement toward democracy Gabriel García Márquez wins Twenty-nine Latin American American States is formed takes place in Latin America the Nobel Prize for literature cities have over a million people Voices from the Past

One Latin American observer discussed the United States’s invasion of Panama in 1989 in the following words:

The first official [U.S.] reason for the invasion of Panama was ‘to protect American “lives there.’ This pretext was not credible, for the cry of ‘wolf! wolf!’ has been used before in Latin America. . . . The danger to American lives is a hundred times greater every day and night in Washington, D.C., ‘the murder capital of the United States,’ and in other American cities to which President Bush has hardly applied his policy of pro- tecting North American lives and waging war against drugs (he prefers to wage that war on foreign battlefields).” —Latin American : History and Society, 1492 to the Present, Benjamin Keen, 1996 U.S. soldiers in Panama U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs has been a general trend in Latin Ameri- can history since 1945. Economic and Political Developments Since the nineteenth century, had exported raw materials while buying manufactured goods from industrialized countries. As a result of the , however, exports fell, and the revenues that had been used to buy manufactured goods declined. In response, many Latin American countries developed industries to produce goods that were formerly imported.

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 901 U.S. Involvement in Latin America since 1945

UNITED STATES ° 13 30 N 1 MEXICO 1981–1990: U.S. supports 12 CUBA 1994: U.S., Mexico, contra rebels in Nicaragua 1959: Castro overthrows Batista. and enter into from bases in Honduras. 1960: U.S. declares embargo upon Cuba. North American Free 1961: U.S. supports attempted overthrow of Trade Agreement (NAFTA). TROPIC OF CANCER Castro's government (Bay of Pigs invasion). 12 1962: U.S. blockades Cuba during . 1980: Thousands of Cuban refugees enter U.S. 1 20°N 11 2 1954: U.S. supports 11 overthrow of 2 13 1965: U.S. military forces Socialist government. 3 4 intervene to suppress 10 possible communist influence. 3 Late 1970s and 1980s: 10°N 9 U.S. supports Salvadoran 8 army against Marxist-led COSTA 10 guerrillas in . RICA Fr. 1979: U.S. ends aid as Marxist 1992: Peace settlement COLOMBIA government assumes power. ends civil war. 1983: Extremists overthrow EQUATOR 4 NICARAGUA government; U.S. invades to 1979: U.S. withdraws support for restore stable government.0° corrupt Somoza family; Somozas are overthrown by Sandinistas 9 (Marxist guerrilla forces). PANAMA 1981–1990: U.S. secretly aids 1989: U.S. invades Panama and contra rebel efforts to overthrow arrests and imprisons Sandinista government. 5 General Noriega on charges BRAZIL of drug trafficking. 5 PERU 1999: U.S relinquishes rights to Zone. 1958: Riots against U.S. BOLIVIA 10°S

8 1958: Riots against U.S.

PARAGUAY TROP 20°S IC OF C APRIC ORN 6 CHILE 1970: U.S. tries and fails to Atlantic prevent election of Socialist President Allende. N 6 7 W E 3 0°S S

7 ARGENTINA 1946: U.S. tries and fails to prevent 0 1,000 miles election of President Peron.´

0 1,000 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection FALKLAND 40 ° ISLANDS S U.K.

130°W 120°W 110°W 100°W 90°W 80°W70°W60°W50°W40°W30°W20°W10°W0°

By the 1960s, however, Latin American countries with divisions in more than two countries) to come to were still experiencing economic problems. They Latin America. This made these Latin American coun- were dependent on the United States, , and tries even more dependent on industrialized nations. Japan, especially for the advanced technology In the 1970s, Latin American nations grew more needed for modern industries. Also, many Latin dependent as they attempted to maintain their weak American countries had failed to find markets economies by borrowing money. Between 1970 and abroad to sell their manufactured products. 1982, debt to foreigners grew from $27 billion to These economic failures led to instability and $315.3 billion. By 1982, a number of Latin American reliance on military regimes. In the 1960s, repressive economies had begun to crumble. Wages fell, and military regimes in Chile, Brazil, and Argentina abol- unemployment and skyrocketed. ished political parties and returned to export-import To get new loans, Latin American governments economies financed by foreigners. These regimes also were now forced to make basic reforms. During this encouraged multinational corporations (companies process, however, many people came to believe that

902 CHAPTER 29 Latin America Per Capita Income, 1960s Main Exports, 1990s F CANCER M F CANCER TROPIC O E TROPIC O MEXICO CUBA HAITI X DOMINICAN REPUBLIC IC CUBA 20°N O DOMINICAN 20°N BELIZE BELIZE HAITI REPUBLIC GUATEMALA HONDURAS PUERTO Atlantic HONDURASCaribbean Atlantic NICARAGUA RICO Ocean GUATEMALA NICARAGUA Sea Ocean EL SALVADOR EL SALVADOR GUYANA 10°N 10°N VENEZUELA COSTA RICA VENEZUELA GUYANA SURINAME PANAMA PANAMA Pacific FRENCH COLOMBIA FRENCH COLOMBIA GUIANA GUIANA Fr. Ocean EQUATOR SURINAME EQUATOR ECUADOR 0° ECUADOR 0° R. Amazon PERU BRAZIL BRAZIL N PERU 10°S 10°S Pacific Main exports, 1990s: N W E Ocean BOLIVIA BOLIVIA W E S S PRICORN 20°S CHILE 20°S TROPIC OF CA CHILE PARAGUAY TR OPIC OF CAP Average annual RICORN Fish/fish A per capita income, N products I late 1960s: 30°S T URUGUAY 30°S URUGUAY Manufactured N Below $200 E ARGENTINA goods G $200–$350 R 0 1,000 miles A 0 1,000 miles $351–$500 Oil/ products Above $500 40°S 40° 0 1,000 kilometers cane 0 1,000 kilometers S Information Lambert Azimuthal Lambert Azimuthal not available Equal-Area projection Equal-Area projection 110°W60100°W 90°W 80°W 70°W °W50°W40°W30°W20°W 110°W60100°W 90°W 70°W °W50°W40°W30°W20°W

Population of Latin America, 1950–2020 Over the past 50 to 60 years, the United States has been actively involved in Latin American affairs. 700 645 1. Interpreting Maps What information can you find in 600 the map on page 902 that supports the view that the 586 520 people of Latin America would prefer that the United 500 443 States not interfere in Latin American affairs? 400 2. Applying Geography Skills Create a thematic time 362 300 line based on the data presented in the map on the left 286 page. Then, pose and answer a question about the pat- 200 218 166 terns in world history shown on your time line. Population (in millions) 100 3. Applying Geography Skills Create a database for Latin America that includes elements from each of the 0 maps and the graph on pages 902 and 903. Analyze 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 your data, then write one paragraph stating which Latin Year American you think will have the greatest popu- Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. lation increase over the next 20 years. Note: Populations for 2010 and 2020 are projections. government had taken control of too many indus- At the same time, many people realized that military tries. Trying to industrialize too quickly had led to power without popular consent could not maintain a the decline of the economy in the countryside as well. strong state. By the mid-1990s, several democratic Many hoped that encouraging peasants to grow regimes had been established. food for home consumption rather than export The movement toward democracy was the most would stop the flow of people from the countryside noticable trend of the 1980s and the early 1990s in to the cities. At the same time, they believed that Latin America. This revival of democracy was fragile. more people would now be able to buy the products In 1992, President returned Peru to from Latin American industries. an authoritarian system. With the debt crisis in the 1980s came a movement toward democracy. Some military leaders were Reading Check Explaining Why did the debt crisis unwilling to deal with the monstrous debt problems. of the 1980s create a movement toward democracy?

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 903 Latin American Society The United States and Latin America’s economic problems were made Latin America worse by dramatic growth in population. By the mid- The United States has always played a large role in 1980s, the population in Latin America had grown Latin America. For years, the United States had sent from about 165 million people in 1950 to 400 million. troops into Latin American countries to protect U.S. With the increase in population came a rapid rise interests and bolster friendly dictators. in the size of cities. By 1990, 29 Latin American cities In 1948, the states of the had over a million people. , or shantytowns, formed the Organization of American States (OAS), became part of many of these cities. which called for an end to military action by one state The gap between the poor and the rich remained in the affairs of any other state. The formation of the enormous in Latin America. Landholding and urban OAS, however, did not end U.S. involvement in Latin elites owned huge estates and businesses, while peas- American affairs. ants and the urban poor struggled just to survive. As the Cold War developed, so, too, did the anxi- The traditional role of homemaker continues for ety of American policy makers about the possibility women, who have also moved into new jobs. In addi- of Communist regimes in Latin America. As a result, tion to farm labor, women have found jobs in indus- the United States returned to a policy of taking action try and as teachers, professors, doctors, and lawyers. when it believed that Soviet agents were trying to The international drug trade brought crime and cor- establish Communist governments or governments ruption to some Latin American countries, undermin- hostile to United States interests. The United States ing their stability. Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia were also provided massive amounts of military aid to especially big producers of cocaine and marijuana. anti-Communist regimes.

Reading Check Evaluating Describe the effect(s) Reading Check Examining How did the Cold War of Latin America’s dramatic increase in population. impact United States policy in Latin America?

International Women’s Conferences Latin America, , and focused on bringing an end to the violence, hunger, and disease that haunt As women around the world organized movements their lives. to change the conditions of their lives, an international At the International Women’s Year Tribunal in Mexico women’s movement emerged. Especially in the 1970s, in 1974, sponsored by the United Nations, Dimitila Bar- much attention was paid to a series of international rios de Chungara, a miner’s wife from Bolivia, expressed conferences on women’s issues. Between 1975 and her lack of patience with professional women at the 1985, the United Nations celebrated the Decade for conference. She said, “So, I went up and spoke. I made Women by holding conferences in such cities as Mexico them see that they don’t live in our world. I made them City, Copenhagen, and Nairobi. see that in Bolivia aren’t respected. . . . The conferences made clear how women in both Women like us, housewives, who get organized to bet- industrialized and developing nations were organizing ter our people well, they [the Bolivian police] us up to make people aware of women’s issues. They also and persecute us.” made clear the differences between women from West- ern and non-Western countries. Women from Western countries spoke about political, economic, cul- Women from industrialized and developing nations tural, and sexual rights. In focus on very different issues. contrast, women from 1. Which concerns of women are most important? developing countries in 2. Do you think women’s conferences are needed? Latin American mother What purposes might conferences serve other with children than raising issues? Writers and artists have played important roles 1889–1957—Chilean poet in Latin American society. They have been given a public status granted to very few writers and artists in other countries. In Latin America, writers and Gabriela Mistral, whose real name was Lucila Godoy Alcayaga, was a artists are seen as people who can express the hopes poet and educator. She was trained of the people. One celebrated Latin American writer to be a teacher and became the direc- is the Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral. tor of a school for in Santiago, In literature, Latin Americans developed a unique Chile. In 1922, she was invited by the form of expression called . Magic real- Mexican government to introduce educational ism brings together realistic events with dreamlike or programs for the poor in that country. Later, she took up fantastic backgrounds. residence in the United States and taught at Middlebury Perhaps the foremost example of magic realism is and Barnard Colleges. One Hundred Years of Solitude, a novel by Gabriel Gar- In 1945, she became the first Latin American author cía Márquez. In this story of the fictional town of to win the Nobel Prize for literature. Her poems explored Macondo, the point of view slips back and forth the many dimensions of love, tinged with an element of between fact and fantasy. Villagers are not surprised sadness. when a local priest rises into the air and floats. How- ever, when these villagers are introduced to magnets, and architecture were strongly telescopes, and magnifying glasses, they are dumb- influenced by international styles after World War II. founded by what they see as magic. According to In painting, abstract styles were especially important. García Márquez, fantasy and fact depend on one’s Perhaps the most notable example of modern archi- point of view. tecture can be seen in Brasília, the of García Márquez, a Colombian, was the most Brazil, built in the 1950s and 1960s. Latin America’s famous of the Latin American . He was a greatest modern architect, Oscar Niemeyer, designed former journalist who took up writing when he some of the major buildings in Brasília. became angered by the negative reviews Latin Amer- ican authors were receiving. He was awarded the Reading Check Identifying What novel is the fore- Nobel Prize for literature in 1982. most example of magic realism?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define multinational corporation, 6. Analyze Why did the rapid rate of 8. Examine the photograph of a Latin magic realism. in many Latin Amer- American mother with her children ican countries cause problems for their shown on page 904 of the text. How Organization of American 2. Identify political and economic systems? does this photograph reflect the con- States (OAS), Gabriel García Márquez, cerns faced by many Latin American Oscar Niemeyer. Draw a chart 7. Organizing Information women? like the one below to list economic Chile, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, 3. Locate challenges in Latin America since 1945. Colombia. On your chart, use dates and names of 4. Explain how the Great Depression hurt countries from the text to make each 9. Descriptive Writing A uniquely Latin American economies. Have these entry as specific as possible. Latin American literary form is magic economies recovered from the prob- realism, which combines realistic lems caused by the Great Depression? Economic Challenges events with elements of magic and 5. List two well-known Latin American fantasy. Research further the ele- writers. Why are writers and artists held ments of magic realism and then in such high regard in Latin America? write a short story about a real or imagined event, using that style.

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 905 Mexico, Cuba, and

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Mexico and Central America faced polit- Vicente Fox, Fidel Castro, Manuel Noriega Categorizing Information Use a table ical and economic crises after World like the one below to identify the political War II. Places to Locate and economic challenges faced by El Sal- • The United States feared the spread of Havana, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama vador, Nicaragua, and Panama after communism in Central American coun- Preview Questions 1945. tries, which led to active American 1. What problems did Mexico and the El Salvador Nicaragua Panama involvement in the . nations of Central America face after Key Terms 1945? privatization, trade embargo, contra 2. What were the chief features and impact of the Cuban Revolution? Preview of Events ✦1950 ✦1960 ✦1970 ✦1980 ✦1990 ✦2000

1959 1961 1979 1983 2000 Castro’s revolution- United States breaks diplo- The Sandinistas overthrow Noriega takes Vicente Fox defeats the PRI candi- aries seize Havana matic relations with Cuba Somoza rule in Nicaragua control of Panama date for the presidency of Mexico Voices from the Past

Nancy Donovan, a Catholic missionary in Nicaragua, described her encounter with the military forces known as the :

It is not easy to live in a war zone. The least of it was my being kidnapped by con- “tras early this year. The hard part is seeing people die and consoling families. . . . In those eight hours I was held, as I walked in a of 60 or so men and a few women—all in uniform—I could hear shooting and realized that people I knew were being killed. Earlier I had seen bodies brought back to town, some burned, some cut to pieces.” —Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present, Benjamin Keen, 1996 Contra soldiers Financed by the United States, the contras were trying to overthrow the Sandinista rulers of Nicaragua in one of several bloody wars fought in Central America.

The Mexican Way The at the beginning of the twentieth century created a political order that remained stable for many years. The official political party of the Mexican Revolution—the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI—came to dominate Mexico. Every six years, leaders of the PRI chose the party’s presiden- tial candidate, who was then elected by the people.

906 CHAPTER 29 Latin America During the 1950s and 1960s, steady economic prohibiting trade with growth led to real gains in wages for more and more Cuba, and just three HISTORY people in Mexico. At the end of the 1960s, however, months later, on January 3, students began to protest Mexico’s one-party gov- 1961, broke all diplomatic Web Activity Visit ernment system. On October 2, 1968, university stu- relations with Cuba. the Glencoe World dents gathered in to protest government Soon after that, in April History Web site at policies. Police forces opened fire and killed hun- 1961, the American presi- tx.wh.glencoe.com and dreds. Leaders of the PRI grew concerned about the dent, John F. Kennedy, click on Chapter 29– need for change in the system. supported an attempt to Student Web Activity The next two presidents, Luís Echeverría and José overthrow Castro’s gov- to learn more about Fidel Castro. López Portillo, made political reforms and opened ernment. When the inva- the door to the emergence of new political parties. sion at the Bay of Pigs Greater freedom of debate in the press and universi- failed, the Soviets were encouraged to make an even ties was allowed. Economic problems, however, greater commitment to Cuba. In December 1961, Cas- would soon reappear. tro declared himself a Marxist, drawing ever closer to In the late 1970s, vast new reserves of oil were dis- the Soviet Union. The Soviets began placing nuclear covered in Mexico. The sale of oil abroad increased missiles in Cuba in 1962, an act that led to a show- dramatically, and the government became more down with the United States (see Chapter 27). dependent on oil revenues. When world oil prices The Cuban missile crisis caused Castro to realize dropped in the mid-1980s, Mexico was no longer able that the Soviet Union had been unreliable. If the rev- to make payments on its foreign debt. The govern- olutionary movement in Cuba was to survive, the ment was forced to adopt new economic policies. Cubans would have to start a social revolution in the One of these policies was privatization, the sale of rest of Latin America. They would do this by starting government-owned companies to private firms. guerrilla wars and encouraging peasants to over- The debt crisis and rising unemployment throw the old regimes. Ernesto Ché Guevara, an increased dissatisfaction with the government. Sup- Argentinian and an ally of Castro, led such a war in for the PRI dropped, and in 2000, Vicente Fox defeated the PRI candidate for the presidency.

Reading Check Evaluating How was Mexico’s econ- omy affected by its oil industry?

The Cuban Revolution

As you will learn, the Bay of Pigs invasion was an attempt by the United States to move forcefully against Fidel Castro and the threat of com- munism that he represented. In the 1950s, a strong opposition movement arose in Cuba. Led by Fidel Castro, the movement aimed to overthrow the government of the dictator Fulgen- cio Batista, who had controlled Cuba since 1934. Cas- tro’s army used against Batista’s regime. As the rebels gained more support, the regime collapsed. Castro’s revolutionaries seized Havana on January 1, 1959. Many Cubans who dis- History agreed with Castro fled to the United States. Relations between Cuba and the United States A Cuban refugee is carried ashore by a U.S. Marine quickly deteriorated when the Castro regime began in 1975. Over the past few decades, thousands of Cuban refugees have entered the United States. to receive aid from the Soviet Union. Arms from East- In what year did the United States break ern Europe also began to arrive in Cuba. In October diplomatic relations with Cuba? 1960, the United States declared a trade embargo,

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 907 Government Reforms in Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile El Salvador Nicaragua Panama Peru Military 1955: Military 1964: Military 1973: Military, 1972: Military 1979: 1983: National 1968: Military, Regime overthrows seizes control. under Pinochet, prevents free Sandinistas Guard, under under Alvarado, Perón. 1982: Severe overthrows elections. (Marxist Noriega, seizes takes over. 1973: Perón recession Marxist Allende 1979: Military guerrilla forces) control. 1975: Military is reelected. undermines and establishes takes over. bring down 1989: Noriega removes 1976: Military military control. regime. nullifies election Alvarado. takes over of Somoza results. again. family. Civilian 1983: Civilian 1985: 1989: Pinochet 1984: 1990: 1989: 1980: Civilian Rule rule returns; Free elections is overthrown Moderate Sandinistas U.S. troops rule returns. Alfonsín is held. in free Duarte is lose free arrest Noriega; 1990–2000: elected. 1989: 80 million elections. elected but civil elections but democracy Fujimori is 1994: Brazilians vote. 2000: Socialist war continues. remain returns. dictatorial is 1999: 1992: Peace strongest party. 1999: Female, president. reformed. Military put Escobar elected settlement ends 1996: Mireya Moscoso 2001: Toledo under civilian president. civil war. Elections result de Gruber, wins free control. in peaceful elected elections. transfer of president. power. Many Latin American countries have had problems maintaining stable governments. Belize, and Guatemala. Economically, Central Amer- 1. Problem Solving Use a problem-solving ica has depended on the export of bananas, coffee, process and the information in this chapter to list and . Prices for these products have varied options and choose possible solutions to suggest over time, however, creating economic crises. In how these countries might avoid takeovers by addition, an enormous gulf between a wealthy elite military regimes in the future. and poor peasants has created a climate of instability. Fear in the United States of the spread of commu- nism often led to American support for repressive regimes in the area. American involvement was espe- Bolivia but was killed by the Bolivian army in the fall cially evident in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Panama. of 1967. The Cuban strategy failed. Nevertheless, in Cuba, Castro’s Marxist regime El Salvador After World War II, the wealthy elite continued, but with mixed results. The Cuban people and the military controlled the government in El Sal- did secure some social gains. The regime provided vador. The rise of an urban middle class led to some free medical services for all citizens, and illiteracy hopes for a more democratic government. The army, was nearly eliminated. however, refused to allow free elections that were The Cuban economy continued to rely on the pro- planned for 1972. duction and sale of sugar. Economic problems forced In the late 1970s and the 1980s, El Salvador was the Castro regime to depend on Soviet aid and the rocked by a bitter civil war. Marxist-led, leftist guer- purchase of Cuban sugar by Soviet bloc countries. rillas and right-wing groups battled one another. After the collapse of these Communist regimes in During the presidency of , the United 1989, Cuba lost their support. Economic conditions in States provided weapons and training to the Sal- Cuba have steadily declined. Nevertheless, Castro vadoran army to defeat the guerrillas. has managed to remain in power. In 1984, a moderate, José Duarte, was elected pres- Reading Check Describing How was Castro’s Cuba ident. However, the elections failed to stop the sav- affected by the collapse of Communist governments in Eastern age killing. By the early 1990s, the civil war had led Europe? to the deaths of at least 75,000 people. Finally, in 1992, a peace settlement brought the war to an end.

Upheaval in Central America Nicaragua In Nicaragua, the Somoza family seized Central America includes seven countries: Costa control of the government in 1937 and kept control for Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Panama, the next 42 years. Over most of this period, the Somoza

908 CHAPTER 29 Latin America regime had the support of the United States. The Somozas enriched themselves at the nation’s expense Rigoberta Menchú and used murder and torture to silence opposition. 1959– Guatemalan activist By 1979, the United States, under President , had grown unwilling to support the corrupt Rigoberta Menchú is a reformer regime. In that same year, Marxist guerrilla forces who worked to save her fellow known as the Sandinista National Liberation Front Quiché Indians from the murder won a number of military victories against govern- squads of the Guatemalan govern- ment forces and gained virtual control of the country. ment. She grew up in a poor family. The Sandinistas inherited a poverty-stricken nation. Her father helped organize a peasant Soon, a group opposed to the Sandinistas’ policies, movement, but he and other family members called the contras, began to try to overthrow the new were killed by government troops. government. The Reagan and Bush administrations in Rigoberta Menchú then began to play an active role the United States, worried by the Sandinistas’ align- in her father’s movement. Condemned by the Guatemalan government, she fled to Mexico. Her auto- ment with the Soviet Union, supported the contras. biography, I... Rigoberta Menchú, brought world atten- The war waged by the contras undermined sup- tion to the fact that 150,000 Native Americans had been port for the Sandinistas. In 1990, the Sandinistas killed by the Guatemalan authorities. In 1992, she agreed to free elections, and they lost to a coalition received the Nobel Peace Prize and used the money headed by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro. They lost from the award to set up a foundation to help Native again in 2001 but remained one of the strongest par- Americans. ties in Nicaragua.

Panama Panama became a nation in 1903, when it broke away from Colombia with help from the United At first, Noriega was supported by the United States. In return for this aid, the United States gained States. His brutality and involvement with the drug control of the Panama Canal and extensive influence trade, however, turned American leaders against over the government and economy of Panama. A him. In 1989, President George Bush sent U.S. troops wealthy oligarchy ruled, with American support. to Panama. Noriega was arrested and sent to prison After 1968, power in Panama came into the hands in the United States on charges of drug trafficking. of the military leaders of Panama’s National Guard. One such leader was Manuel Noriega, who took Reading Check Summarizing What factors led to control of Panama in 1983. conflicts in Central America from the 1970s to the 1990s?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define privatization, trade embargo, 6. Evaluate Why did relations between 8. Examine the photo of Castro on page contra. the Soviet Union and Cuba become 900 and the photo of a Cuban refugee more difficult after 1962? on page 907. What inferences can you Vicente Fox, Fidel Castro, 2. Identify draw about Castro’s reign in Cuba from Manuel Noriega. Use a chart like the 7. Cause and Effect looking at these photos? one below to show how Mexico has Havana, Nicaragua, Panama, 3. Locate reacted to political and economic crises El Salvador. since World War II. 4. Explain why the Cubans attempted to Crisis Reaction 9. Persuasive Writing The United spur revolution in the rest of Latin States has increasingly tried to nego- America. tiate conflicts using economic tools 5. List the political reforms enacted by rather than military force. Research Mexican presidents Luís Echeverría and the trade embargo imposed upon José López Portillo. Cuba. Write a persuasive argument for or against this embargo.

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 909 Student Revolt in Mexico

A GROWING CONFLICT BETWEEN THE government and university students in Mexico came to a violent climax on October 2, 1968, just before the were to UNITED STATES begin in Mexico City. The official government report said that Mexican MEXICO Gulf of authorities were fired upon, and they Mexico returned the gunfire. This excerpt is Mexico City taken from an account of the events by PACIFIC OCEAN the student National Strike Council.

“ After an hour and a half of a peaceful meeting attended by 10,000 people and witnessed by scores of domestic and foreign reporters, a helicopter gave the army the signal to attack by dropping flares Student demonstrators in Mexico City into the crowd. Simultaneously, the plaza was sur- rounded and attacked by members of the army and the area, and thousands of violent arrests. . . . It police forces. should be added that members of the National The local have given the following infor- Strike Council who were captured were stripped mation, confirmed by firsthand witnesses, about and herded into a small archaeological excava- the attack: tion at Tlatelolco, converted for the moment 1. Numerous secret policemen had infiltrated the into a dungeon. Some of them were put up meeting in order to attack it from within, with against a wall and shot. orders to kill. They were known to each other All this has occurred only ten days before the by the use of a white handkerchief tied around start of the Olympics. The repression is expected to their right hands. . . . become even greater after the Games. . . . 2. High-caliber weapons and expansion bullets We are not against the Olympic Games. Welcome were used. Seven hours after the massacre to Mexico.” began, tanks cleaned up the residential build- —Account of the Clash Between the Govern- ings of Nonoalco-Tlatelolco with short cannon ment and Students in Mexico, October 2, 1968 blasts and machine-gun fire. 3. On the morning of October 3, the apartments Analyzing Primary Sources of supposedly guilty individuals were still being searched, without a search warrant. 1. What was the reason for the military attack 4. Doctors in the emergency wards of the city hos- on the students? pitals were under extreme pressure, being forced 2. Why do you think the government to forego attention to the victims until they had reacted with such violence? been interrogated and placed under guard. . . . 3. Do you think the government handled 5. The results of this brutal military operation the situation well? Why or why not? include hundreds of dead (including women and children), thousands of wounded, an unwarranted search of all the apartments in

910 The Nations of

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • South American nations have experi- Juan Perón, , Augusto Categorizing Information Use a table enced economic, social, and political Pinochet, like the one below to describe the factors problems. leading to the change from military rule • Democracy has advanced in South Places to Locate to civilian rule in Argentina, Brazil, and America since the late 1980s. Argentina, Falkland Islands Chile. Key Terms Preview Questions Argentina Brazil Chile cooperative, Shining Path 1. What obstacles does the new demo- cratic government in Brazil face? 2. What factors have been the greatest causes of South American instability? Preview of Events ✦1945 ✦1955 ✦1965 ✦1975 ✦1985 ✦1995 ✦2005

1946 1973 1982 2001 Juan Perón is elected Military forces overthrow Argentina sends troops is president of Argentina Allende presidency in Chile to the Falkland Islands elected Voices from the Past

In 1974, a group of Brazilian Catholic priests talked about an economic miracle that had taken place in Brazil:

Beginning in 1968, Brazil’s grew at an annual rate of about “10 [percent]. . . . The consequences of this ‘miracle’ were the impoverishment of the Brazilian people. Between 1960 and 1970 the 20 [percent] of the population with the highest income increased its share of the national income from 54.5 [percent] to 64.1 [percent], while the remaining 80 [percent] saw its share reduced from 45.5 [percent] to 36.8 [percent]. . . . In the same period the 1 [percent] of the population that repre- sents the richest group increased its share of the national income from 11.7 [percent] to 17 [percent].” —Latin American Civilization: History and Society, 1492 to the Present, Benjamin Keen, 1996 The countries of South America shared in the economic, political, and social prob- Brazilian city, 1971 lems that plagued Latin America after 1945. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Peru provide examples of these problems.

Argentina Argentina is Latin America’s second largest country. For years, it had been ruled by a powerful oligarchy whose wealth was based on growing wheat and

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 911 raising cattle. Support from the army was crucial to Perón’s regime was authoritarian. He created the continuing power of the oligarchy. Fascist gangs modeled after Hitler’s Brownshirts. In 1943, in the midst of World War II, a group of The gangs used violent means to terrify Perón’s army officers overthrew the oligarchy. The new mili- opponents. tary regime was unsure of how to deal with the Fearing Perón’s power, the military overthrew working classes until one of its members, Juan the Argentinian leader in September 1955. Perón Perón, devised a new strategy. went into exile in . Overwhelmed by prob- Using his position as labor secretary in the mili- lems, however, military leaders later allowed Perón tary government, Perón sought to win over the work- to return. He was reelected as president in 1973 but ers, known as the descamisados (the shirtless ones). died a year later. He encouraged them to join labor unions. He also In 1976, the military once again took over power. increased job benefits, as well as the number of paid The new regime tolerated no opposition. Perhaps holidays and vacations. 36,000 people were killed.

In 1944, Perón became vice president of the mili- At the same time, economic ATLANTIC tary government and made sure that people knew he problems plagued the nation. OCEAN was responsible for the better conditions for workers. To divert people’s attention, SOUTH As Perón grew more popular, however, other army the military regime invaded AMERICA officers began to fear his power, and they arrested the Falkland Islands, off the PACIFIC OCEAN him. An uprising by workers forced the officers to coast of Argentina, in April back down. 1982. Great Britain, which had ARGENTINA Perón was elected president of Argentina in 1946. controlled the islands since the Falkland Islands His chief support came from labor and the urban nineteenth century, sent ships U.K. middle class, and to please them, he followed a pol- and troops and took the icy of increased industrialization. At the same time, islands back. The loss discred- he sought to free Argentina from foreign investors. ited the military and opened the door to civilian rule The government bought the railways and took over in Argentina. the banking, insurance, shipping, and communica- In 1983, Raúl Alfonsín was elected president and tions industries. worked to restore democratic practices. The Peró- nist Carlos Saúl Menem won the presidential elec- tions of 1989. This peaceful transfer of power gave rise to the hope that Argentina was moving on a democratic path. Eva Perón Reading Check 1919–1952—Argentine Explaining How did Juan Perón free Argentina from foreign investors? Eva Perón, known as Evita to her followers, was the first lady of Brazil Argentina from 1946 to 1952. Raised Like other Latin American countries, Brazil expe- in poverty, Eva dreamed of being an rienced severe economic problems following World actress. At 15, she moved to Buenos Aires, Argentina’s largest city, where she War II. When democratically elected governments eventually gained fame as a radio performer. proved unable to solve these problems, the military Eva met Juan Perón in 1944 and became his wife a stepped in and seized control in 1964. year later. She was an important force in her husband’s The armed forces remained in direct control of the rise to power. Together, they courted the working-class country for the next 20 years. The military set a new poor with promises of higher wages and better working economic direction, reducing government interfer- conditions. As first lady, Eva Perón formed a charitable ence in the economy and stressing free-market forces. organization that built hospitals, schools, and orphan- Beginning in 1968, the new policies seemed to be ages. She campaigned for women’s rights. The masses working. Brazil experienced an “economic miracle” adored her. To this day, monuments and street names in as its economy grew spectacularly. Argentina keep her memory alive. The American musical Ordinary Brazilians benefited little from this eco- and movie Evita are based on her life. nomic growth, however. The gulf between rich and poor, which had always been wide, grew even wider.

912 CHAPTER 29 Latin America Furthermore, rapid development led to an inflation rate of 100 percent a year. Overwhelmed, the gener- als retreated and opened the door for a return to democracy in 1985. The new democratic government faced enormous Salvador Allende had lost obstacles—a massive foreign debt, increasingly the Chilean election? severe inflation (it was 800 percent in 1987), and a In 1973, Salvador Allende beat Jorge Alessandri, lack of social unity. In the 1990s, however, a series of former president of Chile, by 40,000 votes out of democratically elected presidents managed to restore almost 3 million cast in the general election. Since some stability to Brazil’s economy. Allende won by a plurality rather than a majority Reading Check (over 50 percent of the vote), the election was Evaluating What factors led to the referred to the Chilean National Congress for a return to democracy in Brazil in 1985? final decision. The Congress chose Allende, bring- ing the its first democratically Chile elected Marxist president. In elections held in 1970, Salvador Allende Consider the Consequences What if (ah•YEHN•day), a Marxist, became president of Alessandri had been reelected to continue his Chile. Allende tried to create a socialist society by regime? Explain why the United States would constitutional means. He increased the wages of not have had the same incentives to oppose industrial workers and nationalized the largest Alessandri as it had to oppose Allende. domestic and foreign-owned corporations. Allende’s policies were not popular with every- one. Nationalization of the copper industry, Chile’s major source of export income, angered the copper Peru companies’ American owners, as well as the Ameri- can government. Wealthy landholders were angry The history of Peru has been marked by instabil- when radical workers began to take control of their ity. Peru’s dependence on the sale abroad of its prod- estates and the government did nothing to stop these ucts has led to extreme ups and downs in the takeovers. economy. With these ups and downs have come In March 1973, new elections increased the num- many government changes. A large, poor, and land- ber of Allende’s supporters in the Chilean congress. less peasant population has created an additional Afraid of Allende’s growing strength, the Chilean source of unrest. army, under the direction of General Augusto A military takeover in 1968 led to some change. Pinochet (PEE•noh•CHEHT), moved to overthrow General Juan Velasco Alvarado sought to help the the government. In September 1973, military forces peasants. His government seized almost 75 percent of seized the presidential palace and shot Allende. The the nation’s large landed estates and put ownership military then set up a dictatorship. of the land into the hands of peasant cooperatives The Pinochet regime was one of the most brutal in (farm organizations owned by and operated for the Chile’s history. Thousands of opponents were impris- peasants’ benefit). The government also nationalized oned. Thousands more were tortured and murdered. many foreign-owned companies and held food prices The regime also outlawed all political parties and did at low levels to help urban workers. away with the congress. While some estates and Economic problems continued, however, and industries were returned to their owners, the copper Peruvian military leaders removed General Alvarado industries remained in government hands. from power in 1975. Five years later, unable to cope The regime’s horrible abuses of human rights led with Peru’s economic problems, the military to growing unrest in the mid-1980s. In 1989, free returned Peru to civilian rule. presidential elections led to the defeat of Pinochet, New problems made the task of the civilian gov- and Chile moved toward a more democratic system. ernment even more difficult. A radical guerrilla group with ties to Communist , known as Reading Check Explaining Why did the armed Shining Path, killed mayors, missionaries, priests, forces of Chile overthrow the government of Salvador Allende and peasants. The goal of Shining Path was to smash in 1973? all authority and create a classless society.

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 913 In 1990, chose Alberto Fuji- mori as president. Fujimori, the son of a Japanese immigrant, promised reforms. Two years later, he suspended the constitu- tion and congress, became a dictator, and began a campaign against Shining Path guerrillas. Corruption led to his ouster from power in 2000. In June 2001, Alejan- dro Toledo became the first freely elected president of Native American descent.

Reading Check Identifying How did General Juan Velasco Alvarado earn the support of many Peruvian peasants?

Colombia Drug lords often use terrorism to threaten those people who try to stop the flow of illegal drugs. Colombia has long had a democratic political sys- tem, but a conservative elite led by the owners of cof- eliminate competitors. Attempts to stop the traffic in fee plantations has dominated the government. drugs had little success, and drug traffickers thrived. After World War II, Marxist guerrilla groups Currently, Colombia supplies the majority of cocaine began to organize Colombian peasants. The govern- to the international drug market. The government ment responded violently. More than two hundred has begun an aerial eradication program. thousand peasants had been killed by the mid-1960s. High unemployment (around 20 percent in 2000) Violence remained a constant feature of Colombian continues to hamper Colombia’s economic growth. life in the 1980s and 1990s. Colombia’s leading exports, coffee and oil, are sub- Peasants who lived in poverty turned to a new ject to price fluctuations. However, President Andres cash crop—coca leaves, used to make cocaine. The Pastrana has a well-respected economic team work- drug trade increased, and so, too, did the number of ing to keep the economy on track. drug lords. Drug lords formed cartels (groups of drug businesses) that used bribes and violence to Reading Check Explaining Why have some Colom- force government cooperation in the drug traffic and bian peasants turned to the production of coca leaves?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define cooperative, Shining Path. 6. Analyze Why is it often easier for the 8. Examine the photograph of a Brazilian military to seize power in a nation than city shown on page 911 of your text. 2. Identify Juan Perón, Salvador Allende, it is for the military to rule that nation How does this photograph reflect the , Juan Velasco effectively? Which countries discussed in problems created by the Brazilian Alvarado. this chapter seem to support this theory? “economic miracle”? 3. Locate Argentina, Falkland Islands. 7. Organizing Information Use a chart 4. Explain why the Argentine military like the one below to show how invaded the Falkland Islands. What was democracy has advanced in South 9. Informative Writing Pretend you the impact of this invasion on the gov- America since the late 1980s. are an American journalist sent to ernment of Argentina? Argentina to cover Perón’s presi- 5. List the obstacles Brazil’s new demo- How Democracy Advanced dency. Write an article based on cratic government faced in 1985. How your interviews with the workers did economic conditions help this dem- and government officials. Include ocratic government come to power? the pros and cons of living under the Perón regime.

914 CHAPTER 29 Latin America Developing a Database Why Learn This Skill? Do you have an book with your friends' names; ; and phone, fax, pager, and cell numbers? Do you have to cross out information when numbers change? When you have a party, do you address all the invitations by hand? If your address book were stored in a computer, you could find a name instantly. You could update your address book easily and use the computer to print out invitations and envelopes. When you collect information in a computer file, the file is called an electronic database. The data- base can contain any kind of information: lists detailing your CD collection; notes for a research ; your daily expenses. Using an electronic data- Fidel Castro with farmers base can help you locate information quickly and organize and manage it, no matter how large the file. Practicing the Skill Learning the Skill Fidel Castro is one of the Latin American leaders discussed in this chapter. Follow these steps to build An electronic database is a collection of facts that a database of the political events that have taken is stored in a file on the computer. Although you place during his years as Cuba’s leader. can build your own database, there is special soft- 1 Determine what facts you want to include in ware—called a database management system your database. (DBMS)—that makes it easy to add, delete, change, or update information. Some popular commercial 2 Follow the instructions in the DBMS that you DBMS programs allow you to create address books, are using to set up fields. note cards, financial reports, family trees, and many 3 Determine how you want to organize the facts other types of records. in the database—chronologically by the date of A database can be organized and reorganized in the event, or alphabetically by the name of the any way that is useful to you. event. • The DBMS software program will usually give 4 Follow the instructions in your computer clear instructions about entering and arranging program to place the information in order your information. of importance. • The information in a database is organized into different fields. For example, in an address book, Applying the Skill one field might be your friends’ names and another could be their addresses. Research and build a database that organizes informa- • When you retrieve information, the computer tion about current political events in Latin American will search through the files and display the countries. Explain to a partner why the database information on the screen. Often it can be organ- is organized the way it is and how it might be used in ized and displayed in a variety of ways, depend- this class. ing on what you want.

915 Using Key Terms 11. History How was the U.S. involved in El Salvador? 12. History What happened that ended Manuel Noriega’s con- 1. Corporations with headquarters in several countries are trol of Panama in 1989? called . 13. Government Why was President Carter unwilling to con- 2. The anti-Communist forces that fought the Sandinistas in tinue support of the Somoza family? Nicaragua were called . 14. Government What was the goal of the guerrilla group 3. A style of literature that combines elements of the real world known as Shining Path? with imaginary events is called . 15. Economics What effect does the wide gap between the rich 4. Selling government-owned companies to individuals or to and the poor have in Latin American countries? corporations is called . 16. Government Why was Castro able to maintain control of 5. The refusal to import or export goods to or from another Cuba even after he lost his foreign support? country is a . 6. The Communist guerrilla movement in Peru is called the Critical Thinking . 17. Compare and Contrast Compare the policies of the United 7. Farms owned and operated by groups of peasants are called States toward Latin American countries to those of the Soviet ______. Union toward countries in . Reviewing Key Facts 18. Drawing Inferences Analyze why the United States used its military power to arrest Manuel Noriega after ignoring many 8. History What is the purpose of the Organization of Ameri- other dishonest and corrupt leaders in Latin America. can States? 9. Economics What did Fidel Castro do in 1960 that probably Writing about History contributed to the decision of the United States to sponsor 19. Expository Writing Analyze how Cuba’s revolution affected an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in 1961? the United States and the Soviet Union. Explain the back- 10. Culture Who is considered the most famous of the Latin ground and context of the revolution. How were these American novelists? events particular to the time period?

Several Latin American countries have moved from conflict to cooperation. Country Conflict Revolution Change Cooperation Corruption and canceled Castro ousts Batista. Castro improves social Castro allows limited foreign elections create unrest. welfare system but investment, improving Cuba suspends elections. relations with Canada and other countries. Repressive Somoza Social movement led by Sandinistas initiate social Sandinista regime agrees to Nicaragua regime owns a quarter Sandinistas overthrows reforms but are hampered hold free elections in 1990; of the country’s land. Somoza in 1979. by contras. Chamorro is elected president. PRI dominates. University students protest PRI allows new political Mexico elects non-PRI Mexico government policies. parties and more freedoms. candidate as president. Economy is poor. Argentine military Economy recovers; Democracy is gradually Argentina overthrows Perón. many citizens lose lives restored after Falkland to death squads. Islands disaster. Elites control most Leftist guerrillas and U.N.-sponsored peace agree- Economy grows; ties with El Salvador wealth and land. right-wing groups battle. ment ends civil war in 1992. neighbors are renewed.

916 Population of Latin HISTORY America, 2000

Self-Check Quiz CUBA DOMINICAN MEXICO BELIZE 20°N Visit the Glencoe World History Web site at HAITI REPUBLIC GUATEMALA HONDURAS Atlantic tx.wh.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 29 Self-Check EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA Ocean Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test. COSTA RICA VENEZUELA GUYANA PANAMA FRENCH COLOMBIA GUIANA Fr. EQUATOR ECUADOR SURINAME 0° Analyzing Sources Pacific Read the following excerpt from Nancy Donovan, a Catholic mis- Ocean PERU BRAZIL sionary in Nicaragua: Population: BOLIVIA N It is not easy to live in a war zone. The least of it Under 15 CHILE PARAGUAY 20° “ million S was my being kidnapped by contras early this year. W E 15–30 The hardest part is seeing people die and consoling million S URUGUAY families. . . . In those eight hours I was held, as I walked 30–100 million ARGENTINA in a column of 60 or so men and a few women—all 0 1,000 miles Over 100 in uniform—I could hear shooting and realized that million 4 0 1,000 kilometers 0°S people I knew were being killed. Earlier I had seen Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection bodies brought back to town, some burned, some cut 120°W 100°W80°W2060°W 40°W °W to pieces.” 25. How do the populations of Central American countries com- 20. Why did the United States finance the contras? pare to the populations of other Latin American countries? 21. What role do you think the United States should play in 26. Which South American countries are landlocked? Between Central America? Should the United States have supported what degrees of latitude and longitude are they located? rebels capable of the type of warfare described in this passage?

Applying Technology Skills 22. Create a Database Research the major political events in South America since 1945. Include the following information in your database: Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question. • Year Why are Latin American countries economically important • Country to the United States? • Event A American need countries such as Brazil and Mexico to default on their loans. Making Decisions B Latin American countries are popular destinations for 23. Identify one of the challenges faced by the countries of American tourists. Latin America today. Create a poster that illustrates the C Latin American countries are colonies of European issue you have selected. Include a clear statement of the nations. issue, information you have gathered about the background D America imports raw goods such as oil, coffee, and cop- of the challenge, and key individuals or countries involved per from Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia, and Chile. with the issue. Identify options, predict consequences, and offer possible solutions. Test-Taking Tip: Read test questions carefully because every word is important. This question asks why Latin Analyzing Maps and Charts America is economically important. Therefore, you can Using the map above, answer the following questions: eliminate any answer choices that do not offer explanations 24. Which South American country has the largest geographic about their economic importance. area? Which countries have the largest populations?

CHAPTER 29 Latin America 917

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