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WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository

1-1983

IJSAP Volume 04, Number 01

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JANUARY - MARCH I 983 International Journal for the Study of Problems

VOLU1"1E 4 NUMBER I i i

EDITORIAL OFFICERS JOURNAL SUBSCRIPTIONS Contents 4 [1 ] 1983 The International Journal for the Study of Animal Editors- in-Chief Problems is published quarterly. Printed in the Michael W. , Director U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Washington, Institute for the Study of Animal Problems D.C., and additional mailing offices. Articles pub­ David B. Wilkins, Deputy Chief Veterinary lished in the journal do not necessarily reflect the Officer, RSPCA views of either the sponsors or the publisher. Ar­ ticles appearing in this journal are indexed in Envi­ ronmental Periodicals Bibliography and Current Editor LETTERS 2 Dana H. Murphy Contents. [U.S.) $45; $25; $17.50 EDITORIALS 4 Production Manager (Foreign) $55/£25; $30/£15; $22.50/£9 Christine Zimmermann (Institution, Individual and Student, respectively) NEWS AND ANALYSIS 11-20 Associate Editors Make check payable in U.S. funds on U.S. bank to: Preliminary Verdict for Electro-Immobilization 11 Roger Ewbank, Director HSUS for !SAP. Send to: journal Order Dept., Insti­ Universities Federation for Animal Welfare tute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., Enforcement Powers for Humane Societies? • In a Natural Stefan Ormrod, Chief Wildlife Officer N.W., Washington, DC 20037. Environment, Pig Behavior Resembles That of Wild Boars 13 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty [USPS 558-290) [ISSN 0195-7554) Egg Producers Issue Guidelines for Destroying Baby Chicks 14 to ©1983 Institute for the Study of Animal Problems. Karl Frucht, Regional Director Establishing Baselines for Domestic Animal Behavior 15 All rights reserved. World Society for the Protection of Animals A Farmer's Response to the "Downer" Cow Dilemma 16 Attitudes Toward and • Deaths in Primate Trade • Researching Research Methods 17 Population Dynamics • Dart Gun Modifications • Alternatives at NIH 18 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Laboratory Animal Numbers 19 COMMENTS 21-32 Vivisection and Misanthropy- G.P. Cave 21 R. Mugford, Consultant in Animal J.M. Cass, Veterans Administration, USA Thoughtful Use of Animals- H. Kitchen 24 S. Clark, University of Glasgow, UK Behavior, UK 1. Ekesbo, Swedish Agricultural University, N. Myers, Consultant in Environment and Development, UK ORIGINAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES 33-70 Sweden S.K. Eltringham, Cambridge University, UK F.W. Oehme, Kansas State University, USA Abundance and Distribution of Large in the Upper Ogun J. Remfry, Universities Federation for Animal L.C. Faulkner, Oklahoma State University, USA Came Reserve, Oyo State, Nigeria- T.A. Afolayan, K.R.N. A.F. Fraser, Memorial University of Welfare, UK Colorado State University, USA Milligan, and 5.0. Salami 33 Newfoundland, Canada B. Rollin, T.H. Friend, A & M University, USA H.C. Rowsell, Canadian Council on Animal Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands: Impact and Controi­ Care, Canada W.B. Gross, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 44 H.H. Sambraus, University of Munich, FRG B.D. Barnett and R.L. Rudd State University, USA The Effects of Ethostasis on Farm Animal Behavior: A Theoretical J. Hoyt, The Humane Society of the United P. Singer, Monash University, G.M. Teutsch, Teachers' Co/lege of Karlsruhe, States, USA Overview- A.F. Fraser and M.W. Fox 59 F.M. Loew, Tufts University, USA FRG T.S. Meth, Theodore Sager Meth P.A., USA D. Wood-Gush, Edinburgh School of LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 71 Agriculture, UK CURRENT EVENTS 72 Meeting Reports 12 Forthcoming Meetings 77 Announcements 78 BOOK NEWS 80 INDEX 84 International Journal for INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 88 the Study of Animal Problems is published by

The Humane Society of the United States The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals John A. Hoyt, President i i

EDITORIAL OFFICERS JOURNAL SUBSCRIPTIONS Contents 4 [1 ] 1983 The International Journal for the Study of Animal Editors- in-Chief Problems is published quarterly. Printed in the Michael W. Fox, Director U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Washington, Institute for the Study of Animal Problems D.C., and additional mailing offices. Articles pub­ David B. Wilkins, Deputy Chief Veterinary lished in the journal do not necessarily reflect the Officer, RSPCA views of either the sponsors or the publisher. Ar­ ticles appearing in this journal are indexed in Envi­ ronmental Periodicals Bibliography and Current Editor LETTERS 2 Dana H. Murphy Contents. [U.S.) $45; $25; $17.50 EDITORIALS 4 Production Manager (Foreign) $55/£25; $30/£15; $22.50/£9 Christine Zimmermann (Institution, Individual and Student, respectively) NEWS AND ANALYSIS 11-20 Associate Editors Make check payable in U.S. funds on U.S. bank to: Preliminary Verdict for Electro-Immobilization 11 Roger Ewbank, Director HSUS for !SAP. Send to: journal Order Dept., Insti­ Universities Federation for Animal Welfare tute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., Enforcement Powers for Humane Societies? • In a Natural Stefan Ormrod, Chief Wildlife Officer N.W., Washington, DC 20037. Environment, Pig Behavior Resembles That of Wild Boars 13 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty [USPS 558-290) [ISSN 0195-7554) Egg Producers Issue Guidelines for Destroying Baby Chicks 14 to Animals ©1983 Institute for the Study of Animal Problems. Karl Frucht, Regional Director Establishing Baselines for Domestic Animal Behavior 15 All rights reserved. World Society for the Protection of Animals A Farmer's Response to the "Downer" Cow Dilemma 16 Attitudes Toward Dogs and Cats • Deaths in Primate Trade • Researching Research Methods 17 Cat Population Dynamics • Dart Gun Modifications • Alternatives at NIH 18 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Laboratory Animal Numbers 19 COMMENTS 21-32 Vivisection and Misanthropy- G.P. Cave 21 R. Mugford, Consultant in Animal J.M. Cass, Veterans Administration, USA Thoughtful Use of Animals- H. Kitchen 24 S. Clark, University of Glasgow, UK Behavior, UK 1. Ekesbo, Swedish Agricultural University, N. Myers, Consultant in Environment and Development, UK ORIGINAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES 33-70 Sweden S.K. Eltringham, Cambridge University, UK F.W. Oehme, Kansas State University, USA Abundance and Distribution of Large Mammals in the Upper Ogun J. Remfry, Universities Federation for Animal L.C. Faulkner, Oklahoma State University, USA Came Reserve, Oyo State, Nigeria- T.A. Afolayan, K.R.N. A.F. Fraser, Memorial University of Welfare, UK Colorado State University, USA Milligan, and 5.0. Salami 33 Newfoundland, Canada B. Rollin, T.H. Friend, Texas A & M University, USA H.C. Rowsell, Canadian Council on Animal Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands: Impact and Controi­ Care, Canada W.B. Gross, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 44 H.H. Sambraus, University of Munich, FRG B.D. Barnett and R.L. Rudd State University, USA The Effects of Ethostasis on Farm Animal Behavior: A Theoretical J. Hoyt, The Humane Society of the United P. Singer, Monash University, Australia G.M. Teutsch, Teachers' Co/lege of Karlsruhe, States, USA Overview- A.F. Fraser and M.W. Fox 59 F.M. Loew, Tufts University, USA FRG T.S. Meth, Theodore Sager Meth P.A., USA D. Wood-Gush, Edinburgh School of LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 71 Agriculture, UK CURRENT EVENTS 72 Meeting Reports 12 Forthcoming Meetings 77 Announcements 78 BOOK NEWS 80 INDEX 84 International Journal for INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 88 the Study of Animal Problems is published by

The Humane Society of the United States The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals John A. Hoyt, President Firm Support for Culture Training Letters I notice that in a recent issue of the journal (3(3):185, 1982) "alternatives" in Canada were discussed. There is, unfor­ A Role for the Clergy in Animal sociation for the Advancement of Sci­ tunately, one small error in your report Welfare? ence Meeting on January 26 (/nt j Stud regarding support for Dr. Sergey Fedo­ Anim Prob 3(3):254, 1983) are a little mis­ roff's tissue culture training course at In connection with M.W. Fox's and J. leading. I did not imply that because the the University of Saskatchewan. As you Rim bach's articles about the term "dom­ patients were mainly suicide vic­ may be aware, the course for several inion" in the oft-quoted passage in Gen­ tims we should be any less concerned years was supported by grants from the esis (1 :26) proclaiming man's dominion about helping them. I was merely mak­ Animal Welfare Foun'dation and the Can­ over all nonhuman animals (/nt j Stud ing a point about suffering in animal ex­ adian SPCA of Montreal. Anim Prob 3(3):178 and 198, respectively), periments. I have two questions. In 1981, the Honourable John Roberts, What I actually said, and I quote now Minister of State for Science and Tech­ 1 would ask first whether there is any from the official BA Report of the Proceed­ nology, responded positively to the Can­ proof that the interpretation "dominion" ing, was: adian Council on Animal Care's (CCAC) is the correct translation for the word request to the various federal and pro­ that appears in the original script. Rim­ The question I put when I gave this vincial government departments for sup­ bach's article seems successful in vin­ example was that I think there is a port of the course on an annual basis, in­ dicating the Judeo-Christian religion of real ethical dilemma here, and I do dicating that funds would be made avail­ blame for our prevalent shabby attitude not think it goes away by simply ex­ able through the CCAC budget. Although toward animals in general. However, plaining why we did the experi­ the CCAC is co-funded by the Medical culpable or not, have not the various ment. It has been pointed out that Research Council (MRC) and the Natural religions responsibility for the righteous the people dying from paraquat Sciences and Engineering Research Coun­ treatment of animals, and respect for poisoning suffer severely. The cil (NSERC), it was the Minister of State their proper dignity? animals dying from paraquat suffer for Science and Technology who author­ extremely. I am asking what is the Humanitarians, seeking cooperation ized the support by the CCAC of the tis­ moral difference between animal sue culture training program. This sup­ from the preachers of these various reli­ suffering and human suffering. port was begun this past summer. gions, run into what seems to us to be an Peter Singer, whom I referred to, apathetic attitude on their part. I'm makes out a case for animal rights In passing, I would like to emphasize wondering whether these rabbis and not on the premise that and that the 1983 announcement for the tis­ preachers aren't simply at a loss to know animals are not different, but that sue culture course has already been ad­ how to incorporate animals' interests in­ the differences between them when vertised. It will be held as a satellite pro­ to their services. This is unfortunate­ considering the sorts of cases that gram of the International Society for Neu­ tragic, even- for the animals and animal we are considering, where we are in­ rochemistry's annual meeting in Saska­ welfare workers, and for the Church as flicting suffering, are not morally toon, July 22-29, 1983. (Contact Dr. S. Fed­ well. We need the blessing of the Church relevant. It seems to me that the eroff, Department of Anatomy, Universi­ in our endeavors, and the Church surely two alternatives- an animal dying ty of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada must be accountable on this ethical issue. in severe agony or a person dying in S7N OWO.) Second, I would ask: Should not the var­ severe agony through an attempted I recognize that this is a small point, but ious religions establish official policies, suicide- pose a very real moral dil­ I would like to keep the record straight general and specific, toward animals, and emma. I am not saying that I have with respect to interest in the develop­ then provide training in such for their any answers to it but I do think I ment of alternatives, not only of NSERC, leaders? have a right to put the question. but also the singular interest of our Min­ Charlotte B. Parks Professor Dollery also missed the point. ister of State of Science and Technology. Beech Ridge Road judith E. Hampson H.C. Rowsell York, ME 03909 Chief Animal Experimentation Research Executive Director Officer Animal Suffering: Ethical Dimensions Canadian Council on Animal Care RSPCA 151 Slater Your comments about my discussion Causeway, Horsham Ottawa, Ontario with Professor Dollery (over poisoning Sussex, RH12 1 HC Canada K1 P 5H3 monkeys with paraquat) at the British As- England

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 3 2 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 Firm Support for Culture Training Letters I notice that in a recent issue of the journal (3(3):185, 1982) "alternatives" in Canada were discussed. There is, unfor­ A Role for the Clergy in Animal sociation for the Advancement of Sci­ tunately, one small error in your report Welfare? ence Meeting on January 26 (/nt j Stud regarding support for Dr. Sergey Fedo­ Anim Prob 3(3):254, 1983) are a little mis­ roff's tissue culture training course at In connection with M.W. Fox's and J. leading. I did not imply that because the the University of Saskatchewan. As you Rim bach's articles about the term "dom­ human patients were mainly suicide vic­ may be aware, the course for several inion" in the oft-quoted passage in Gen­ tims we should be any less concerned years was supported by grants from the esis (1 :26) proclaiming man's dominion about helping them. I was merely mak­ Animal Welfare Foun'dation and the Can­ over all nonhuman animals (/nt j Stud ing a point about suffering in animal ex­ adian SPCA of Montreal. Anim Prob 3(3):178 and 198, respectively), periments. I have two questions. In 1981, the Honourable John Roberts, What I actually said, and I quote now Minister of State for Science and Tech­ 1 would ask first whether there is any from the official BA Report of the Proceed­ nology, responded positively to the Can­ proof that the interpretation "dominion" ing, was: adian Council on Animal Care's (CCAC) is the correct translation for the word request to the various federal and pro­ that appears in the original script. Rim­ The question I put when I gave this vincial government departments for sup­ bach's article seems successful in vin­ example was that I think there is a port of the course on an annual basis, in­ dicating the Judeo-Christian religion of real ethical dilemma here, and I do dicating that funds would be made avail­ blame for our prevalent shabby attitude not think it goes away by simply ex­ able through the CCAC budget. Although toward animals in general. However, plaining why we did the experi­ the CCAC is co-funded by the Medical culpable or not, have not the various ment. It has been pointed out that Research Council (MRC) and the Natural religions responsibility for the righteous the people dying from paraquat Sciences and Engineering Research Coun­ treatment of animals, and respect for poisoning suffer severely. The cil (NSERC), it was the Minister of State their proper dignity? animals dying from paraquat suffer for Science and Technology who author­ extremely. I am asking what is the Humanitarians, seeking cooperation ized the support by the CCAC of the tis­ moral difference between animal sue culture training program. This sup­ from the preachers of these various reli­ suffering and human suffering. port was begun this past summer. gions, run into what seems to us to be an Peter Singer, whom I referred to, apathetic attitude on their part. I'm makes out a case for animal rights In passing, I would like to emphasize wondering whether these rabbis and not on the premise that humans and that the 1983 announcement for the tis­ preachers aren't simply at a loss to know animals are not different, but that sue culture course has already been ad­ how to incorporate animals' interests in­ the differences between them when vertised. It will be held as a satellite pro­ to their services. This is unfortunate­ considering the sorts of cases that gram of the International Society for Neu­ tragic, even- for the animals and animal we are considering, where we are in­ rochemistry's annual meeting in Saska­ welfare workers, and for the Church as flicting suffering, are not morally toon, July 22-29, 1983. (Contact Dr. S. Fed­ well. We need the blessing of the Church relevant. It seems to me that the eroff, Department of Anatomy, Universi­ in our endeavors, and the Church surely two alternatives- an animal dying ty of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada must be accountable on this ethical issue. in severe agony or a person dying in S7N OWO.) Second, I would ask: Should not the var­ severe agony through an attempted I recognize that this is a small point, but ious religions establish official policies, suicide- pose a very real moral dil­ I would like to keep the record straight general and specific, toward animals, and emma. I am not saying that I have with respect to interest in the develop­ then provide training in such for their any answers to it but I do think I ment of alternatives, not only of NSERC, leaders? have a right to put the question. but also the singular interest of our Min­ Charlotte B. Parks Professor Dollery also missed the point. ister of State of Science and Technology. Beech Ridge Road judith E. Hampson H.C. Rowsell York, ME 03909 Chief Animal Experimentation Research Executive Director Officer Animal Suffering: Ethical Dimensions Canadian Council on Animal Care RSPCA 151 Slater Your comments about my discussion Causeway, Horsham Ottawa, Ontario with Professor Dollery (over poisoning Sussex, RH12 1 HC Canada K1 P 5H3 monkeys with paraquat) at the British As- England

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 3 2 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 Editorials A.N. Rowan Editorial

of other classes of chemicals. But some­ The Association of the British Phar­ how the LDSO figure has gained a totally maceutical Industry concluded that: undeserved position as the toxicological "estimation of LD50 is not an essential The LDSO- The Beginning of the End reference standard; it seems to be regard­ requirement to ensure the safety of all ed in nearly the same light as such physi­ new drugs. Adequate information regard­ cal constants as melting point and speci­ ing the acute toxicity, including the Andrew N. Rowan fic gravity. But as Trevan and his colleag­ acute lethality, of new drugs can often ues recognized, the LDSO of a substance be obtained by the use of smaller num­ is not a fixed value; it varies according to bers of animals than are conventionally many extraneous factors, sometimes by used in LD50 determinations." The Chemi­ The Basis of the Argument as six animals (rather than the 50-200 an­ substantial amounts (see Tables 1 and 2). cal Industries Association proposed that Measurement is very important in imals needed for an LD50). In the last 15 years, however, the (1) regulatory agencies be discouraged science. Early lessons in the science class­ The point at issue, therefore, is sim­ use of the LD50 as a toxicological stan­ from demanding precise LD50 figures; room involve teaching students to meas­ ply this: Animal welfare groups and many dard has come in for increasing criticism (2) emphasis be placed on the qualitative ure lengths, volumes, weights, specific toxicologists want to see the LDSO (per­ among toxicologists (see Arch Toxicol 47: data obtainable from small-scale acute gravities and anything else within the formed on 50 or more animals) replaced 77-99, 1981 ). It is not that they deny the toxicity studies; and (3) no animal should mental and economic compass of the within the next year by a rough estimate need for some sort of rough numerical be administered a quantity greater than teacher. At the same time, the question of acute toxicity. The regulatory authori­ estimate of acute toxicity in a ­ 5 g (or 5 ml) of a substance per kg of of significance is drummed into the ties have so far resisted making the nec­ ian species. Rather, they deny the utility body weight (the so-called Limit test). students' heads. Thus, if one has a essary changes. of the precise statistical figure that is The Scottish Home and Health Depart­ meter-rule which is subdivided into cen­ provided by the usual LD50 test. It is ment noted that "there is no case to be timeters (but not millimeters), one is History most important that this point be clearly made for requiring LD50 tests to provide taught that the measurement of its length In 1927, J.W. Trevan published his recognized. The immediate argument a value with small fiducial limits. An ap­ to one decimal point (for example, 10.3 em) classic report on toxicity determination, over the LD50 is not that we do not need proximate estimate suffices." is acceptable, but that the addition of in which he asserted that the median lethal acute toxicity data, but that we can get By contrast, the Medical Research any more figures (for example, 10.325 em) dose (or LD50), done in a large (50-200) the kind of data we need from small-scale Council (MRC), after explaining that pre­ is mere braggadocio. The eye can only sample of animals, provided the most tests in a few animals. We do not need cise data on acute toxicity were not real­ make a rough guess at the subdivision be­ accurate index of a chemical's toxicity to kill as many animals as we do merely ly necessary, concluded that "the LD50 tween the centimeter divisions, and add­ (Proc Roy Acad Soc 101 8:483-514). He to provide statistical precision. test is the only reliable measure of acute ing more figures after the decimal point was, however, concerned mainly with Protest Against the LD50 toxicity and yields a result with the least does not improve the accuracy of the es­ the accurate standardization, by biologi­ In the last decade, animal welfare possible expenditure of life." However, timate. cal methods, of those drugs that are not criticism of the LDSO test has become in­ they followed this assertion with a state­ However, adding more numbers, with­ available in a chemically pure form. For creasingly vocal and sophisticated. In ment that only a simple test, using a small out increasing the accuracy of the meas­ example, each new batch of such impor­ England, such criticism prompted a rela­ number of animals, should be done to urement, is precisely what is being attempt­ tant drugs as digitalis extract, insulin, tively unusual initiative from the Home assess the order of magnitude of a chem­ ed when the LD50 is used as a measure and diphtheria toxin had to be accurate­ Secretary. In 1977, he asked the Adviso­ ical's toxicity. Clearly, when the MRC of the acute toxicity of chemicals. (The ly standardized since the margin of safe­ ry Committee to the Cruelty to Animals talked of the need for an LD50, they LD50 is the amount of a substance which, ty between therapeutic and toxic doses Act, 1876, to review the extent of the use really meant that what we need to per­ if administered in a single dose to a target is so small. Even today, the U.S. Pharma­ of the LD50 test, as well as the scientific form in most cases is a small-scale acute group of animals, will kill 50 percent of copoeia requires a bioassay standardiza­ necessity and justification for the test in toxicity test. them). Normally, 50 to 200 animals are tion of powdered digitalis that involves its various applications. The Advisory Unfortunately, the MRC was not used to estimate the LD50 and provide comparing the lethal dose in pigeons Committee listened to extensive evidence its standard deviation from the mean. against a reference standard. the only group to confuse the notion of from animal welfare critics and the sci­ For some reason, regulators and some However, the number of LD50 deter­ small-scale acute toxicity testing with entific community. Interestingly, the the LD50 test. When the Home Office re­ toxicologists appear to believe that an minations used to standardize potent scientific and regulatory groups, while port finally appeared in 1979, their first LD50 with its fiducial limits is more ac­ biological therapeutics now represents more restrained in tone, were often just recommendation was that "LD50 tests curate and more relevant than a rough only a small proportion of the LD50 tests as critical of the LD50 test as the animal should be allowed to continue." Although estimate of the acute toxicity, an estim­ conducted annually. Most LD50 testing welfare groups. they qualified this recommendation by ate that can be obtained by using as few is done to provide a figure for the toxicity /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 4 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 5 Editorials A.N. Rowan Editorial

of other classes of chemicals. But some­ The Association of the British Phar­ how the LDSO figure has gained a totally maceutical Industry concluded that: undeserved position as the toxicological "estimation of LD50 is not an essential The LDSO- The Beginning of the End reference standard; it seems to be regard­ requirement to ensure the safety of all ed in nearly the same light as such physi­ new drugs. Adequate information regard­ cal constants as melting point and speci­ ing the acute toxicity, including the Andrew N. Rowan fic gravity. But as Trevan and his colleag­ acute lethality, of new drugs can often ues recognized, the LDSO of a substance be obtained by the use of smaller num­ is not a fixed value; it varies according to bers of animals than are conventionally many extraneous factors, sometimes by used in LD50 determinations." The Chemi­ The Basis of the Argument as six animals (rather than the 50-200 an­ substantial amounts (see Tables 1 and 2). cal Industries Association proposed that Measurement is very important in imals needed for an LD50). In the last 15 years, however, the (1) regulatory agencies be discouraged science. Early lessons in the science class­ The point at issue, therefore, is sim­ use of the LD50 as a toxicological stan­ from demanding precise LD50 figures; room involve teaching students to meas­ ply this: Animal welfare groups and many dard has come in for increasing criticism (2) emphasis be placed on the qualitative ure lengths, volumes, weights, specific toxicologists want to see the LDSO (per­ among toxicologists (see Arch Toxicol 47: data obtainable from small-scale acute gravities and anything else within the formed on 50 or more animals) replaced 77-99, 1981 ). It is not that they deny the toxicity studies; and (3) no animal should mental and economic compass of the within the next year by a rough estimate need for some sort of rough numerical be administered a quantity greater than teacher. At the same time, the question of acute toxicity. The regulatory authori­ estimate of acute toxicity in a mammal­ 5 g (or 5 ml) of a substance per kg of of significance is drummed into the ties have so far resisted making the nec­ ian species. Rather, they deny the utility body weight (the so-called Limit test). students' heads. Thus, if one has a essary changes. of the precise statistical figure that is The Scottish Home and Health Depart­ meter-rule which is subdivided into cen­ provided by the usual LD50 test. It is ment noted that "there is no case to be timeters (but not millimeters), one is History most important that this point be clearly made for requiring LD50 tests to provide taught that the measurement of its length In 1927, J.W. Trevan published his recognized. The immediate argument a value with small fiducial limits. An ap­ to one decimal point (for example, 10.3 em) classic report on toxicity determination, over the LD50 is not that we do not need proximate estimate suffices." is acceptable, but that the addition of in which he asserted that the median lethal acute toxicity data, but that we can get By contrast, the Medical Research any more figures (for example, 10.325 em) dose (or LD50), done in a large (50-200) the kind of data we need from small-scale Council (MRC), after explaining that pre­ is mere braggadocio. The eye can only sample of animals, provided the most tests in a few animals. We do not need cise data on acute toxicity were not real­ make a rough guess at the subdivision be­ accurate index of a chemical's toxicity to kill as many animals as we do merely ly necessary, concluded that "the LD50 tween the centimeter divisions, and add­ (Proc Roy Acad Soc 101 8:483-514). He to provide statistical precision. test is the only reliable measure of acute ing more figures after the decimal point was, however, concerned mainly with Protest Against the LD50 toxicity and yields a result with the least does not improve the accuracy of the es­ the accurate standardization, by biologi­ In the last decade, animal welfare possible expenditure of life." However, timate. cal methods, of those drugs that are not criticism of the LDSO test has become in­ they followed this assertion with a state­ However, adding more numbers, with­ available in a chemically pure form. For creasingly vocal and sophisticated. In ment that only a simple test, using a small out increasing the accuracy of the meas­ example, each new batch of such impor­ England, such criticism prompted a rela­ number of animals, should be done to urement, is precisely what is being attempt­ tant drugs as digitalis extract, insulin, tively unusual initiative from the Home assess the order of magnitude of a chem­ ed when the LD50 is used as a measure and diphtheria toxin had to be accurate­ Secretary. In 1977, he asked the Adviso­ ical's toxicity. Clearly, when the MRC of the acute toxicity of chemicals. (The ly standardized since the margin of safe­ ry Committee to the Cruelty to Animals talked of the need for an LD50, they LD50 is the amount of a substance which, ty between therapeutic and toxic doses Act, 1876, to review the extent of the use really meant that what we need to per­ if administered in a single dose to a target is so small. Even today, the U.S. Pharma­ of the LD50 test, as well as the scientific form in most cases is a small-scale acute group of animals, will kill 50 percent of copoeia requires a bioassay standardiza­ necessity and justification for the test in toxicity test. them). Normally, 50 to 200 animals are tion of powdered digitalis that involves its various applications. The Advisory Unfortunately, the MRC was not used to estimate the LD50 and provide comparing the lethal dose in pigeons Committee listened to extensive evidence its standard deviation from the mean. against a reference standard. the only group to confuse the notion of from animal welfare critics and the sci­ For some reason, regulators and some However, the number of LD50 deter­ small-scale acute toxicity testing with entific community. Interestingly, the the LD50 test. When the Home Office re­ toxicologists appear to believe that an minations used to standardize potent scientific and regulatory groups, while port finally appeared in 1979, their first LD50 with its fiducial limits is more ac­ biological therapeutics now represents more restrained in tone, were often just recommendation was that "LD50 tests curate and more relevant than a rough only a small proportion of the LD50 tests as critical of the LD50 test as the animal should be allowed to continue." Although estimate of the acute toxicity, an estim­ conducted annually. Most LD50 testing welfare groups. they qualified this recommendation by ate that can be obtained by using as few is done to provide a figure for the toxicity /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 4 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 5 A.N.Rowan Editorial A.N.Rowan Editorial

advising that only a small numbers of on the submission of LDSO data, unless not be comfortable with approximate leth­ sary to eradicate 40 years of thoughtless animals need be used, the harm had been accompanied by scientific justification. al dose figures, but there are clearly few tradition. Since death by poisoning cannot done: A government enquiry had found Second, on October 21, 1982, the cases where LDSO determinations amount be particularly pleasant, regulatory agen­ that LDSO tests needed to continue. I Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associa­ to anything more than pseudoscientific cies that are serious about animal wel­ cannot say that I, personally, found the tion (U.S.) called for a revision of govern­ nonsense. LDSO testing continues, not be­ fare issues ought to begin to take steps Committee's findings particularly sur­ ment regulations so that fewer animals cause it receives broad endorsement but to abolish unnecessary LDSO testing, es­ prising. When I gave testimony to the are used in drug safety evaluation. They because nobody feels sufficiently s~cure pecially since the scientific verdict Committee (on behalf of FRAME- for specifically noted that "the classical to take the decisive action that is neces- against it is already in. whom I was working at the time), one of LDSO test which utilizes many animals the expert advisors was almost plaintive to determine an LDSO value with math­ in defending the toxicologist's need for a ematical precision lacks justification ... " baseline figure for acute toxicity (i.e., They proposed that: (1) the precise deter­ the LDSO) and the other did not appear mination of an LDSO should be limited to those rare cases where it is necessary; to accept the distinction between small­ (2) an approximate lethal dose plus qual­ scale acute toxicity testing and the full itative data usually represents adequate TABLE 1 Human Acute lethal Doses and Animal LD50's (Oral) LDSO. information on the acute toxicity of drugs; and (3) there should be an international Human Animal LD50 LDLo effort to reach agreement among regula­ Recent Developments (mg/kg) Rat Mouse Despite the setback presented by tory agencies that, for drugs, a precise the 1979 report from the British Home LDSO determination is not necessary. Office, there are now some encouraging Third, at a number of recent scien­ Amytal 43 560 575 signs that an unlikely alliance of animal tific meetings, the overwhelming con­ Boric Acid 640 2660 3450 welfare and industrial organizations sensus has been that the LDSO is unnec­ Caffeine 192 192 620 Carbofuran 11 5 2 may prevail upon regulatory bodies and essarily precise- qualitative and semi­ Lindane 840 125 130 120 quantitative data from small-scale acute effect a revolution in acute toxicity Fenflurazole 238 1600 28 testing. For example, if regulatory bodies toxicity tests is usually adequate. For ex­ Cycloheximide 3 133 65 would agree to prohibit the submission ample, at a FRAME conference, pharma­ of LDSO figures except in those few cases ceutical company staff in the audience where scientific justification can be pro­ voted to abolish the LDSO test by 20 to 1 Compiled from CRC Handbook of Analytical Toxicology and the NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chem­ Ical Substances vided for an LDSO determination, we (New Scientist, November 4, 1982, p. 275). would reduce the number of animals used At a conference that specifically address­ in determining lethal doses by about ed the LDSO test in Sweden (September, 80-90 percent. Numerically, this would 1981), a clinical toxicologist from the Karolinska Poison Information Center probably amount to 2-4 million animal TABLE 2 Range of LD50 Values for Five Compounds Tested Under Similar stated that the numerical information lives saved every year. What events have Conditions in 65 Different European Toxicology Laboratories occurred to change the climate of opin­ provided by an animal LDSO is virtually useless. Other scientific meetings on the ion since 1979? First, an international coalition of use of animals in acute toxicity testing LD50 Range (mg/kg) animal welfare groups has been formed are planned. The indications are that Laboratories That Used with the specific aim of abolishing the these meetings will confirm the useless­ Laboratories That Used Compound Their Own Protocol The Standard Protocol LDSO test. A similar coalition against the ness of precise LDSO data. All this activi­ Draize test was very successful (see lnt j ty on the part of scientists, combined Stud Anim Prob 3:94-97), and there is with animal welfare protests, should es­ PCP 46-522 74-2328 every reason to hope for similar success calate the pressure to the point that reg­ Na Salicylate 800-4150 930-2328 if a concerted campaign can be mounted ulatory bodies are forced to take action. Aniline 350-1280 479-1169 Acetanilide 805-5420 723-3060 over the next year. The immediate goal Cadmium Chloride 70-513 105-482 will be to get the regulatory agencies to Conclusion switch from tacit or explicit requirements A reassessment of the need for LDSO for LDSO data to an explicit prohibition figures is long overdue. Bureaucrats may Compiled from I Assoc Off Anal Chern 62:864-873, 1979, and Arch Toxico/47:77-98, 1981

6 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 7 A.N.Rowan Editorial A.N.Rowan Editorial

advising that only a small numbers of on the submission of LDSO data, unless not be comfortable with approximate leth­ sary to eradicate 40 years of thoughtless animals need be used, the harm had been accompanied by scientific justification. al dose figures, but there are clearly few tradition. Since death by poisoning cannot done: A government enquiry had found Second, on October 21, 1982, the cases where LDSO determinations amount be particularly pleasant, regulatory agen­ that LDSO tests needed to continue. I Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associa­ to anything more than pseudoscientific cies that are serious about animal wel­ cannot say that I, personally, found the tion (U.S.) called for a revision of govern­ nonsense. LDSO testing continues, not be­ fare issues ought to begin to take steps Committee's findings particularly sur­ ment regulations so that fewer animals cause it receives broad endorsement but to abolish unnecessary LDSO testing, es­ prising. When I gave testimony to the are used in drug safety evaluation. They because nobody feels sufficiently s~cure pecially since the scientific verdict Committee (on behalf of FRAME- for specifically noted that "the classical to take the decisive action that is neces- against it is already in. whom I was working at the time), one of LDSO test which utilizes many animals the expert advisors was almost plaintive to determine an LDSO value with math­ in defending the toxicologist's need for a ematical precision lacks justification ... " baseline figure for acute toxicity (i.e., They proposed that: (1) the precise deter­ the LDSO) and the other did not appear mination of an LDSO should be limited to those rare cases where it is necessary; to accept the distinction between small­ (2) an approximate lethal dose plus qual­ scale acute toxicity testing and the full itative data usually represents adequate TABLE 1 Human Acute lethal Doses and Animal LD50's (Oral) LDSO. information on the acute toxicity of drugs; and (3) there should be an international Human Animal LD50 LDLo effort to reach agreement among regula­ Recent Developments (mg/kg) Rat Mouse Rabbit Dog Despite the setback presented by tory agencies that, for drugs, a precise the 1979 report from the British Home LDSO determination is not necessary. Office, there are now some encouraging Third, at a number of recent scien­ Amytal 43 560 575 signs that an unlikely alliance of animal tific meetings, the overwhelming con­ Boric Acid 640 2660 3450 welfare and industrial organizations sensus has been that the LDSO is unnec­ Caffeine 192 192 620 Carbofuran 11 5 2 may prevail upon regulatory bodies and essarily precise- qualitative and semi­ Lindane 840 125 130 120 quantitative data from small-scale acute effect a revolution in acute toxicity Fenflurazole 238 1600 28 testing. For example, if regulatory bodies toxicity tests is usually adequate. For ex­ Cycloheximide 3 133 65 would agree to prohibit the submission ample, at a FRAME conference, pharma­ of LDSO figures except in those few cases ceutical company staff in the audience where scientific justification can be pro­ voted to abolish the LDSO test by 20 to 1 Compiled from CRC Handbook of Analytical Toxicology and the NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chem­ Ical Substances vided for an LDSO determination, we (New Scientist, November 4, 1982, p. 275). would reduce the number of animals used At a conference that specifically address­ in determining lethal doses by about ed the LDSO test in Sweden (September, 80-90 percent. Numerically, this would 1981), a clinical toxicologist from the Karolinska Poison Information Center probably amount to 2-4 million animal TABLE 2 Range of LD50 Values for Five Compounds Tested Under Similar stated that the numerical information lives saved every year. What events have Conditions in 65 Different European Toxicology Laboratories occurred to change the climate of opin­ provided by an animal LDSO is virtually useless. Other scientific meetings on the ion since 1979? First, an international coalition of use of animals in acute toxicity testing LD50 Range (mg/kg) animal welfare groups has been formed are planned. The indications are that Laboratories That Used with the specific aim of abolishing the these meetings will confirm the useless­ Laboratories That Used Compound Their Own Protocol The Standard Protocol LDSO test. A similar coalition against the ness of precise LDSO data. All this activi­ Draize test was very successful (see lnt j ty on the part of scientists, combined Stud Anim Prob 3:94-97), and there is with animal welfare protests, should es­ PCP 46-522 74-2328 every reason to hope for similar success calate the pressure to the point that reg­ Na Salicylate 800-4150 930-2328 if a concerted campaign can be mounted ulatory bodies are forced to take action. Aniline 350-1280 479-1169 Acetanilide 805-5420 723-3060 over the next year. The immediate goal Cadmium Chloride 70-513 105-482 will be to get the regulatory agencies to Conclusion switch from tacit or explicit requirements A reassessment of the need for LDSO for LDSO data to an explicit prohibition figures is long overdue. Bureaucrats may Compiled from I Assoc Off Anal Chern 62:864-873, 1979, and Arch Toxico/47:77-98, 1981

6 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 7 - II I

Some Rights for Animal Therapists: D.H.Murphy Editorial Better Science and Better Welfare

Dana H. Murphy with dogs (which require more care, es­ Corson in which animals are reduced to pecially daily walks) lived on. In fact, the psychobabble of "bonding catalysts." the species of companion animal owned , claim Bustad and Hines, can pro­ was found to have virtually no bearing vide the elderly with someone to "lord it "Animal-facilitated therapy." The ed from disproof. Who can know, for ex­ on the 1-year survival data. over." McCulloch views visiting compan­ phrase has a nice, solid ring to it, doesn't ample, whether an observed decrease in The scientific rigor necessary to ar­ ion animals as "entertainers" for those it? And it also sounds like an idea that mortality at a nursing home that recent­ rive at a judgment on the effectiveness who are forced to waste away their hours nearly everyone could agree to endorse, ly initiated regular visits by an appealing of animals in therapy is relatively easy in places like hospitals. like democracy and vacations. But a beagle might not have been influenced to achieve, with a little thought. A far It does seem, then, that some of the closer scrutiny of some of the available more by the long-awaited installation of a more difficult issue is how an animal be­ aspects of animal-facilitated therapy literature on the use of animals as ad­ reliable thermostat? ing employed as a therap'ist ought to be need a bit of careful reconsideration be­ juncts in situations like nursing homes McCulloch himself advocates a treated, especially in light of the incredi­ fore we begin to gush euphorically over and outpatient psychotherapy reveals a painstaking analytical procedure for ble range of conditions and environments its potential. First, we need better­ number of deficiencies. While there is anyone who wants to study the effects that animals will probably be working in controlled studies on the outcomes of probably nothing wrong with the funda­ of animals in therapeutic situations: the at some time in the near future. treatments that employ animals. Next, mental concept- ideally, people and fundamental mechanisms of the system -As Michael Fox noted in the last is­ we need some reasonably specific guide­ animals are helping each other to be­ of interaction between people and com­ sue of the journal (3(4):267, 1982), our lines on the care and welfare of the ani­ come more useful and independent­ panion animals, the style of interaction, choice of language about animals both mals so used. At a minimum, we can say there are some real problems in two the location, and the outcome must all reflects and conditions the way we think that these animals should never be treated areas: the dubious level of scientific rigor be carefully teased out. An excellent ex­ about them. He discussed our desensiti­ as "living library books," rented out on a in many of the reports on animal-facili­ ample of a study in which just this sort zation to the plight of confinement farm short-term basis in a way that is probably tated therapy, and the scant considera­ of caution was observed is "Animal animals through use of the phrase "pro­ confusing to the animals, to people who tion given to the welfare of the animal Companions and One-Year Survival of duction units," and of lab animals by the may mistreat them or, perhaps worse, may therapists themselves. Patients After Discharge from a Cor­ impersonal term "specimens." It is dif­ come to love their animal-guests too In a paper presented at the I nterna­ onary Care Unit," by Erica Friedmann et ficult to ignore the fact that much of the much, only to lose them at the end of an same insensitivity to animals' needs tional Conference on the Human/Compan­ a/. (Cal Vet 36(8):45-50, 1982). Here, the emerg~ evening. And finally, we had best take a es from the literature on animal-facilitat­ ion Animal Bond in October 1981, Mi­ authors, noting that research on survival closer look at a society that exiles its old ed therapy. A paper by Leo Bustad and chael McCulloch goes on at some length after the onset of coronary heart disease people to human warehouses, where they Linda Hines (Cal Vet 36(8);37-44), in par­ about the history of animals as thera­ has seldom included both physiological ar'e left to exist without activity or pur­ peutic agents. He concludes each short and psychosocial variables, attempted ticular, speaks of companion animals as pose, so that animals, once again, are narrative on a particu I ar experiment to correlate 1-year survival with a long "prescription pets," and then cites an­ compelled to assume the tasks that we with some version of the same refrain: I ist of potential causal factors. own­ other article by Samuel and Elizabeth would simply prefer to avoid. "no quantitative information was re­ ership was but one item on an extensive corded." Rather, he observes that the no­ social inventory given to each patient; tion of animal-facilitated therapy is so psychological mood status and severity popular, so much an idea that we all of disease were also measured at the same Occlusion of Vision in Old English Sheepdogs want to believe in, that anecdotal data time. Precisely because all (or nearly all) and individual case studies have been of the factors that might have had an ef­ Michael W. Fox accepted as sufficient proof of the hypo­ fect on the further course of the disease thesis that animal therapy works. As a were included in the study, the authors The show standards established for ly questionable mutilation that conveys consequence of this dearth of real scien­ were able to conclude, with a high de­ many breeds of dogs have been linked no benefit upon the dog. Another seri­ tific analysis, the claims for this mode of gree of certainty, that pet ownership was with a number of genetically related ab­ ous welfare concern rei ates to a practice therapy have occasionally been suspici­ a very important positive factor in deter­ normalities that can result in unnecessary that is common among owners of Old ously inflated. In the process, such claims, mining whether a person survived heart suffering. The facial skin folds and short­ English sheepdogs and other breeds with because of the absence of an examina­ disease, or merely succumbed. The ened face of bulldogs, which respective­ long facial hair: allowing the hair to cover tion of the relative contribution of all authors were even able to rule out the ly lead to chronic dermatitis and respira­ the animal's eyes. This feature is consid­ the variables that might be involved in a variable of increased exercise, which tory difficulties, are two dramatic exam­ ered a desirable show point. It is addition­ given result, become magically protect- might have been one reason why those ples. Likewise, ear-cropping is an ethicai- ally justified by the widespread belief a /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 9 - II I

Some Rights for Animal Therapists: D.H.Murphy Editorial Better Science and Better Welfare

Dana H. Murphy with dogs (which require more care, es­ Corson in which animals are reduced to pecially daily walks) lived on. In fact, the psychobabble of "bonding catalysts." the species of companion animal owned Pets, claim Bustad and Hines, can pro­ was found to have virtually no bearing vide the elderly with someone to "lord it "Animal-facilitated therapy." The ed from disproof. Who can know, for ex­ on the 1-year survival data. over." McCulloch views visiting compan­ phrase has a nice, solid ring to it, doesn't ample, whether an observed decrease in The scientific rigor necessary to ar­ ion animals as "entertainers" for those it? And it also sounds like an idea that mortality at a nursing home that recent­ rive at a judgment on the effectiveness who are forced to waste away their hours nearly everyone could agree to endorse, ly initiated regular visits by an appealing of animals in therapy is relatively easy in places like hospitals. like democracy and vacations. But a beagle might not have been influenced to achieve, with a little thought. A far It does seem, then, that some of the closer scrutiny of some of the available more by the long-awaited installation of a more difficult issue is how an animal be­ aspects of animal-facilitated therapy literature on the use of animals as ad­ reliable thermostat? ing employed as a therap'ist ought to be need a bit of careful reconsideration be­ juncts in situations like nursing homes McCulloch himself advocates a treated, especially in light of the incredi­ fore we begin to gush euphorically over and outpatient psychotherapy reveals a painstaking analytical procedure for ble range of conditions and environments its potential. First, we need better­ number of deficiencies. While there is anyone who wants to study the effects that animals will probably be working in controlled studies on the outcomes of probably nothing wrong with the funda­ of animals in therapeutic situations: the at some time in the near future. treatments that employ animals. Next, mental concept- ideally, people and fundamental mechanisms of the system -As Michael Fox noted in the last is­ we need some reasonably specific guide­ animals are helping each other to be­ of interaction between people and com­ sue of the journal (3(4):267, 1982), our lines on the care and welfare of the ani­ come more useful and independent­ panion animals, the style of interaction, choice of language about animals both mals so used. At a minimum, we can say there are some real problems in two the location, and the outcome must all reflects and conditions the way we think that these animals should never be treated areas: the dubious level of scientific rigor be carefully teased out. An excellent ex­ about them. He discussed our desensiti­ as "living library books," rented out on a in many of the reports on animal-facili­ ample of a study in which just this sort zation to the plight of confinement farm short-term basis in a way that is probably tated therapy, and the scant considera­ of caution was observed is "Animal animals through use of the phrase "pro­ confusing to the animals, to people who tion given to the welfare of the animal Companions and One-Year Survival of duction units," and of lab animals by the may mistreat them or, perhaps worse, may therapists themselves. Patients After Discharge from a Cor­ impersonal term "specimens." It is dif­ come to love their animal-guests too In a paper presented at the I nterna­ onary Care Unit," by Erica Friedmann et ficult to ignore the fact that much of the much, only to lose them at the end of an same insensitivity to animals' needs tional Conference on the Human/Compan­ a/. (Cal Vet 36(8):45-50, 1982). Here, the emerg~ evening. And finally, we had best take a es from the literature on animal-facilitat­ ion Animal Bond in October 1981, Mi­ authors, noting that research on survival closer look at a society that exiles its old ed therapy. A paper by Leo Bustad and chael McCulloch goes on at some length after the onset of coronary heart disease people to human warehouses, where they Linda Hines (Cal Vet 36(8);37-44), in par­ about the history of animals as thera­ has seldom included both physiological ar'e left to exist without activity or pur­ peutic agents. He concludes each short and psychosocial variables, attempted ticular, speaks of companion animals as pose, so that animals, once again, are narrative on a particu I ar experiment to correlate 1-year survival with a long "prescription pets," and then cites an­ compelled to assume the tasks that we with some version of the same refrain: I ist of potential causal factors. Pet own­ other article by Samuel and Elizabeth would simply prefer to avoid. "no quantitative information was re­ ership was but one item on an extensive corded." Rather, he observes that the no­ social inventory given to each patient; tion of animal-facilitated therapy is so psychological mood status and severity popular, so much an idea that we all of disease were also measured at the same Occlusion of Vision in Old English Sheepdogs want to believe in, that anecdotal data time. Precisely because all (or nearly all) and individual case studies have been of the factors that might have had an ef­ Michael W. Fox accepted as sufficient proof of the hypo­ fect on the further course of the disease thesis that animal therapy works. As a were included in the study, the authors The show standards established for ly questionable mutilation that conveys consequence of this dearth of real scien­ were able to conclude, with a high de­ many breeds of dogs have been linked no benefit upon the dog. Another seri­ tific analysis, the claims for this mode of gree of certainty, that pet ownership was with a number of genetically related ab­ ous welfare concern rei ates to a practice therapy have occasionally been suspici­ a very important positive factor in deter­ normalities that can result in unnecessary that is common among owners of Old ously inflated. In the process, such claims, mining whether a person survived heart suffering. The facial skin folds and short­ English sheepdogs and other breeds with because of the absence of an examina­ disease, or merely succumbed. The ened face of bulldogs, which respective­ long facial hair: allowing the hair to cover tion of the relative contribution of all authors were even able to rule out the ly lead to chronic dermatitis and respira­ the animal's eyes. This feature is consid­ the variables that might be involved in a variable of increased exercise, which tory difficulties, are two dramatic exam­ ered a desirable show point. It is addition­ given result, become magically protect- might have been one reason why those ples. Likewise, ear-cropping is an ethicai- ally justified by the widespread belief a /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 9 M.W.Fox Editorial News & Analysis that it is necessary to keep the hair over serve some beneficial purpose that was the dog's eyes in order to protect them deliberately introduced as a trait through Preliminary Verdict for Electro­ As you may be aware, use of electric from sunlight. In fact, when the hair is selective breeding. Such myths need to Immobilization currents for manipulating muscles, reduc­ lifted up to expose the eyes to daylight, be dispelled for the health and welfare ing pain sensations, producing therapeu­ a photophobic reaction (blinking, lacrima­ of these breeds. Instead, owners are ad­ tic sleep, or providing general surgical tion, etc.) does occur, which leads the vised to either trim the hair away from What a electronic immobilizer does anesthesia has been studied in many spe­ owner to the erroneous conclusion that their dog's eyes or tie it up on top of the is easy to see- after electric current cies of animals, and in man, since the the eyes actually need to be left cover­ animal's head with a ribbon or elastic from the device is passed through an an­ pioneering work of LeDuc in 1902. Num­ ed. However, it is a self-fulfilling prophe­ band. imal's body, the animal is "locked" into erous research reports presented over the cy that an animal whose eyes are almost Dogs entered in shows with facial immobility, and procedures such as brand­ past 80 years have produced two critical totally obscured from any contact with hair deliberately groomed over the eyes ing can be performed with a minimum of concerns in relation to design of this type daylight will show photophobia when the should be excluded from competition, hassle. But how it works, and whether of device. First, one must choose with eyes are exposed. This is no reason for since this show standard, in and out of pain is partially or completely blocked great care the manner of electrical con­ keeping an animal's eyes permanently the ring, places the animal's welfare in by the procedure, are a great deal harder tact between device and subject, and sec­ covered. Furthermore, the eyes, since they jeopardy. There is also evidence of drama­ to figure out. The manufacturers of one ond, one must determine very precisely are continually being irritated by hair, are tic temperament changes in sheepdogs such device, the Feenix Stockstill, claim the properties of the electric current ap­ likely to develop chronic conjunctivitis, whose visual occlusion has been cor­ that pain is indeed blocked during the plied. Our studies with the beef calves which may in turn lead to corneal ulcer­ rected by cutting the hair away from duration of immobility. But the Scienti­ have addressed these two concerns as we ation and other ophthalmic problems. their eyes; shy, timid, and unpredictable fic Advisory Panel of the World Society have participated in evaluation of the Many owners of Old English sheep­ dogs suddenly become tractable, respon­ for the Protection of Animals, in a memo Vet-Master animal immobilizer. dogs and other breeds with long facial sive and, emotionally stable compan­ dated September 22, 1982, voiced some hair believe that, since the hair covers ions. Little wonder. skepticism about the effectiveness of With regard to the manner of electri­ the dog's eyes, it must be "natural" or these devices. Specifically, they wanted cal contact between device and subject, to know whether the equipment: earlier investigators thought it was essen­ tial to deliver electrical current directly 1. Is safe for subject and operator. into body fluids, thereby providing a low­ 2. Induces anesthesia (or analgesia), resistance path for the current, avoiding or merely a state of immobility that pre­ electrical burns of the skin and delivering vents the animal from displaying typical an adequate amount of electrical energy signs of pain. to the subject. In development of the 3. Should be restricted to qualified Vet-Master, which makes electrical con­ persons, or could be used by laymen safe­ tact with the animal in the relatively con­ ly and humanely. taminated regions of mouth and anus, we were concerned that penetration of the In response to a letter from Michael Fox skin with any type of needle to reach the which, among other items, raised these body fluids would create risk of infec­ questions, James F. Amend, D.V.M, Ph.D. tion, as well as cause pain upon applica­ (University of Nebraska, Lincoln) sum­ tion of the contacts. We therefore devel­ marized his recent results with the Vet­ oped nontraumatic rectal probes and lip Master animal immobilizer. That response contacts, which deliver current to the body is reproduced here. fluids by way of the moist rectal surface, I am pleased to respond to your in­ and saliva within the mouth, respective­ quiry concerning the Vet-Master animal ly. These contacts have proved to be ex­ immobilizer, currently produced by Ag­ cellent low-resistance routes through which Tronic, Inc., of Hastings, NE. My labora­ electric current can be delivered. No tis­ tory has been engaged for a period of time sue trauma has been observed at these in the investigation of physiological and sites in any animal we have immobilized clinical effects of this device as it is ap­ with the Vet-Master. Absence of pain upon plied in management procedures for beef attachment reduces the need for initial calves. physical restraint as well. 10 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 11 M.W.Fox Editorial News & Analysis that it is necessary to keep the hair over serve some beneficial purpose that was the dog's eyes in order to protect them deliberately introduced as a trait through Preliminary Verdict for Electro­ As you may be aware, use of electric from sunlight. In fact, when the hair is selective breeding. Such myths need to Immobilization currents for manipulating muscles, reduc­ lifted up to expose the eyes to daylight, be dispelled for the health and welfare ing pain sensations, producing therapeu­ a photophobic reaction (blinking, lacrima­ of these breeds. Instead, owners are ad­ tic sleep, or providing general surgical tion, etc.) does occur, which leads the vised to either trim the hair away from What a electronic immobilizer does anesthesia has been studied in many spe­ owner to the erroneous conclusion that their dog's eyes or tie it up on top of the is easy to see- after electric current cies of animals, and in man, since the the eyes actually need to be left cover­ animal's head with a ribbon or elastic from the device is passed through an an­ pioneering work of LeDuc in 1902. Num­ ed. However, it is a self-fulfilling prophe­ band. imal's body, the animal is "locked" into erous research reports presented over the cy that an animal whose eyes are almost Dogs entered in shows with facial immobility, and procedures such as brand­ past 80 years have produced two critical totally obscured from any contact with hair deliberately groomed over the eyes ing can be performed with a minimum of concerns in relation to design of this type daylight will show photophobia when the should be excluded from competition, hassle. But how it works, and whether of device. First, one must choose with eyes are exposed. This is no reason for since this show standard, in and out of pain is partially or completely blocked great care the manner of electrical con­ keeping an animal's eyes permanently the ring, places the animal's welfare in by the procedure, are a great deal harder tact between device and subject, and sec­ covered. Furthermore, the eyes, since they jeopardy. There is also evidence of drama­ to figure out. The manufacturers of one ond, one must determine very precisely are continually being irritated by hair, are tic temperament changes in sheepdogs such device, the Feenix Stockstill, claim the properties of the electric current ap­ likely to develop chronic conjunctivitis, whose visual occlusion has been cor­ that pain is indeed blocked during the plied. Our studies with the beef calves which may in turn lead to corneal ulcer­ rected by cutting the hair away from duration of immobility. But the Scienti­ have addressed these two concerns as we ation and other ophthalmic problems. their eyes; shy, timid, and unpredictable fic Advisory Panel of the World Society have participated in evaluation of the Many owners of Old English sheep­ dogs suddenly become tractable, respon­ for the Protection of Animals, in a memo Vet-Master animal immobilizer. dogs and other breeds with long facial sive and, emotionally stable compan­ dated September 22, 1982, voiced some hair believe that, since the hair covers ions. Little wonder. skepticism about the effectiveness of With regard to the manner of electri­ the dog's eyes, it must be "natural" or these devices. Specifically, they wanted cal contact between device and subject, to know whether the equipment: earlier investigators thought it was essen­ tial to deliver electrical current directly 1. Is safe for subject and operator. into body fluids, thereby providing a low­ 2. Induces anesthesia (or analgesia), resistance path for the current, avoiding or merely a state of immobility that pre­ electrical burns of the skin and delivering vents the animal from displaying typical an adequate amount of electrical energy signs of pain. to the subject. In development of the 3. Should be restricted to qualified Vet-Master, which makes electrical con­ persons, or could be used by laymen safe­ tact with the animal in the relatively con­ ly and humanely. taminated regions of mouth and anus, we were concerned that penetration of the In response to a letter from Michael Fox skin with any type of needle to reach the which, among other items, raised these body fluids would create risk of infec­ questions, James F. Amend, D.V.M, Ph.D. tion, as well as cause pain upon applica­ (University of Nebraska, Lincoln) sum­ tion of the contacts. We therefore devel­ marized his recent results with the Vet­ oped nontraumatic rectal probes and lip Master animal immobilizer. That response contacts, which deliver current to the body is reproduced here. fluids by way of the moist rectal surface, I am pleased to respond to your in­ and saliva within the mouth, respective­ quiry concerning the Vet-Master animal ly. These contacts have proved to be ex­ immobilizer, currently produced by Ag­ cellent low-resistance routes through which Tronic, Inc., of Hastings, NE. My labora­ electric current can be delivered. No tis­ tory has been engaged for a period of time sue trauma has been observed at these in the investigation of physiological and sites in any animal we have immobilized clinical effects of this device as it is ap­ with the Vet-Master. Absence of pain upon plied in management procedures for beef attachment reduces the need for initial calves. physical restraint as well. 10 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 11 l

The second issue, relating to proper­ substantial controlled increases in the have provided for a happier outcome in Council (PIJAC) has become quite alarm­ ties of the electrical current suitable for higher range, suitable for larger animals. such a situation. ed by the bill because they claim that the purpose of the device, has been ex­ Currently, the Vet-Master animal im­ In my opinion, the Vet-Master may humane groups-whom they view as di­ tensively examined by a number of inves­ mobilizer is available only to veterinar­ be regarded as a potential contributor to rect competitors to pet dealers in the tigators. In general, it appears that alter­ ians, a judgment on the part of the manu­ reduction of stresses in the beef "selling of dogs, cats, other animals and nating currents or repetitive pulses of facturer which I welcome, as it will as­ management process, and as a means for supplies" -would become involved with current are more useful than direct ­ sure that the early experiences with this improving the safety of man and animal pet stores in a serious conflict of interest. rent, and further, that higher frequencies new technology will occur under profes­ as they interact in this process. Further in­ The bill, in their opinion, would provide of alternation or repetition tend to be sional observation. I am, at the present vestigation will no doubt also demonstrate humane societies with considerable in­ more satisfactory than the lower frequen­ time, sufficiently satisfied with my re­ its usefulness in other species. centive to begin aggressively working to cies. Certain investigators who have tried search results to encourage the use of the It is important, at this point, to avoid increase the number and amount of fines, these types of devices on themselves have Vet-Master in adult beef cattle and grow­ the idea that any form of electronic im­ simply for the sake of the cash involved, reported that lower frequencies [less than ing calves. I have some reservations, based mobilization works as an analgesic, or pain­ and also to start "harrassing legitimate 100 cycles per second) can create consid­ on limited experimental work, regarding re­ relieving, technology. There is as yet no pet shop owners." erable discomfort. We have examined a sponses of sheep to electronic immobili­ reliable evidence that this is so. On the A second proposed bill would per­ range of different frequencies in working zation, although careful use of the low other hand, my clinical judgment allows mit the of animals from anyone with the Vet-Master, and find the most me to believe that physical immobiliza­ range of the Vet-Master, with limited time suspected of "alleged cruelty"; perma­ satisfactory immobilization occurs with tion with the Vet-Master provides a suffi­ exposure, has yielded reasonably satisfac­ nent injunctions could then be obtained frequencies at or near 100 cycles per sec­ ciently strong distraction to diminish sig­ tory results. Others have reported the Vet­ to prevent those convicted from any fur­ ond, provided that the duration of cyclic nificantly the overall perception of dis­ Master to be effective and useful in swine, ther dealing or possession of animals. application of current [length of pulse) is comfort in the animal. Certainly the effi­ and we hope to proceed with additional No exchange of funds involved here­ properly selected. Preliminary evaluation ciency of restraint offered by the Vet-Master studies in this species. With regard to and no complaints from PIJAC. of enzyme profiles from calves subjected will help to reduce the duration of any companion animals, such as dogs, cats, to electronic immobilization in our lab particular procedure, thus minimizing dis­ ponies, and horses, I am not prepared to would suggest that higher frequencies may comfort in that respect.- }ames F. Amend encourage the use of electronic immobil­ result in milder metabolic disturbances ization without careful selection of con­ in tissue than do lower frequencies. ditions and judicious use of sedation. We There are two additional concerns have used the Vet-Master in adequately In a Natural Environment, Pig that relate to the properties of the electri­ sedated dogs, with acceptable results. Enforcement Powers for Humane Behavior Resembles That of Wild cal current. First, in order to avoid any Under no circumstance could I promote Societies1 Boars struggling which might potentially injure the use of electronic immobilization in an animal or add to the stresses of the the conscious horse. I do believe, how­ procedure, it is necessary to apply suffi­ ever, that the device has great promise in The state senate has An objective assessment of the wel­ cient initial current to assure complete providing postoperative restraint in the come up with a plan (Bill 1203) to give fare of a species requires adequate knowl­ immobilization. The requirement for this horse. Oftentimes, an equine surgeon will local humane societies more clout in edge of its behavior and cognitive powers. initial current is generally acknowledged find that he needs additional time, be­ making effective use of the state's ani­ In our domestic species, we know little to be a function of body size. The Vet­ yond the duration of action of short-term mal cruelty laws. The bill would permit about motivational systems and the in­ Master has been designed with high and anesthetics, but hesitates to give an addi­ any humane society that has been estab­ teractions of those systems. To learn the low ranges of intensity, thus providing tional dose of anesthetic for fear of pro­ lished for 5 years to set up a "law enforce­ behavioral repertoire of a species, it is for more precise delivery of a proper longing recovery. In instances such as ment department." The members of this necessary to study behavior in a variety quantity of electrical energy in relation these, electronic restraint with the Vet­ unit would be legally deputized to en­ of habitats. to the size of the animal. Second, elec­ Master may provide needed time to com­ force all of the laws and ordinances per­ With this aim in view, a pig park tronic devices that affect tissue functions plete the procedure, without additional tinent to animal protection. This means was set up at the Edinburgh School of through electrical currents are all subject drugs. The same is true of the potential that humane society personnel would Agriculture farm, Eastern Howgate, in to the phenomenon of "fading," a condi­ for restraint when stormy recoveries oc­ have the right to make arrests, and also which the animals are allowed as much tion in which the physiological effects of cur, with attendant risk of injury to horse to take into custody any animal whose freedom as possible. The park consists of the current decline over time. It is impor­ and handler. The Vet-Master may prove owner had been charged with cruelty. an enclosure of 1.3 ha containing a small tant, when increasing the intensity of the to be useful in reducing these dangers The humane organization that instituted pine copse, gorse bushes, a stream, and current, to compensate for this phenome­ and stresses in the recovery period. One a particular action would become the a swampy wallow. A small population non; one must accurately supply the mini­ need only recall the sad story of the filly beneficiary of any fines and penalties has been kept there for about 3 years. At mum additional current required. The Ruffian, who was destroyed after suc­ collected from those convicted. present, this population consists of a Vet-Master is capable of providing fine cessful surgery because she could not be And therein lies the rub. As reported boar, four adult females, a subadult adjustments in intensity in the lower range, controlled during recovery. I believe a in Pet Supplies Marketing (36(9):58, male and a subadult female, together as required by smaller animals, and more device such as the Vet-Master might well 1982), the Pet Industry Joint Advisory with any young from the females that

12 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 13 l

The second issue, relating to proper­ substantial controlled increases in the have provided for a happier outcome in Council (PIJAC) has become quite alarm­ ties of the electrical current suitable for higher range, suitable for larger animals. such a situation. ed by the bill because they claim that the purpose of the device, has been ex­ Currently, the Vet-Master animal im­ In my opinion, the Vet-Master may humane groups-whom they view as di­ tensively examined by a number of inves­ mobilizer is available only to veterinar­ be regarded as a potential contributor to rect competitors to pet dealers in the tigators. In general, it appears that alter­ ians, a judgment on the part of the manu­ reduction of stresses in the beef cattle "selling of dogs, cats, other animals and nating currents or repetitive pulses of facturer which I welcome, as it will as­ management process, and as a means for supplies" -would become involved with current are more useful than direct cur­ sure that the early experiences with this improving the safety of man and animal pet stores in a serious conflict of interest. rent, and further, that higher frequencies new technology will occur under profes­ as they interact in this process. Further in­ The bill, in their opinion, would provide of alternation or repetition tend to be sional observation. I am, at the present vestigation will no doubt also demonstrate humane societies with considerable in­ more satisfactory than the lower frequen­ time, sufficiently satisfied with my re­ its usefulness in other species. centive to begin aggressively working to cies. Certain investigators who have tried search results to encourage the use of the It is important, at this point, to avoid increase the number and amount of fines, these types of devices on themselves have Vet-Master in adult beef cattle and grow­ the idea that any form of electronic im­ simply for the sake of the cash involved, reported that lower frequencies [less than ing calves. I have some reservations, based mobilization works as an analgesic, or pain­ and also to start "harrassing legitimate 100 cycles per second) can create consid­ on limited experimental work, regarding re­ relieving, technology. There is as yet no pet shop owners." erable discomfort. We have examined a sponses of sheep to electronic immobili­ reliable evidence that this is so. On the A second proposed bill would per­ range of different frequencies in working zation, although careful use of the low other hand, my clinical judgment allows mit the seizure of animals from anyone with the Vet-Master, and find the most me to believe that physical immobiliza­ range of the Vet-Master, with limited time suspected of "alleged cruelty"; perma­ satisfactory immobilization occurs with tion with the Vet-Master provides a suffi­ exposure, has yielded reasonably satisfac­ nent injunctions could then be obtained frequencies at or near 100 cycles per sec­ ciently strong distraction to diminish sig­ tory results. Others have reported the Vet­ to prevent those convicted from any fur­ ond, provided that the duration of cyclic nificantly the overall perception of dis­ Master to be effective and useful in swine, ther dealing or possession of animals. application of current [length of pulse) is comfort in the animal. Certainly the effi­ and we hope to proceed with additional No exchange of funds involved here­ properly selected. Preliminary evaluation ciency of restraint offered by the Vet-Master studies in this species. With regard to and no complaints from PIJAC. of enzyme profiles from calves subjected will help to reduce the duration of any companion animals, such as dogs, cats, to electronic immobilization in our lab particular procedure, thus minimizing dis­ ponies, and horses, I am not prepared to would suggest that higher frequencies may comfort in that respect.- }ames F. Amend encourage the use of electronic immobil­ result in milder metabolic disturbances ization without careful selection of con­ in tissue than do lower frequencies. ditions and judicious use of sedation. We There are two additional concerns have used the Vet-Master in adequately In a Natural Environment, Pig that relate to the properties of the electri­ sedated dogs, with acceptable results. Enforcement Powers for Humane Behavior Resembles That of Wild cal current. First, in order to avoid any Under no circumstance could I promote Societies1 Boars struggling which might potentially injure the use of electronic immobilization in an animal or add to the stresses of the the conscious horse. I do believe, how­ procedure, it is necessary to apply suffi­ ever, that the device has great promise in The New Jersey state senate has An objective assessment of the wel­ cient initial current to assure complete providing postoperative restraint in the come up with a plan (Bill 1203) to give fare of a species requires adequate knowl­ immobilization. The requirement for this horse. Oftentimes, an equine surgeon will local humane societies more clout in edge of its behavior and cognitive powers. initial current is generally acknowledged find that he needs additional time, be­ making effective use of the state's ani­ In our domestic species, we know little to be a function of body size. The Vet­ yond the duration of action of short-term mal cruelty laws. The bill would permit about motivational systems and the in­ Master has been designed with high and anesthetics, but hesitates to give an addi­ any humane society that has been estab­ teractions of those systems. To learn the low ranges of intensity, thus providing tional dose of anesthetic for fear of pro­ lished for 5 years to set up a "law enforce­ behavioral repertoire of a species, it is for more precise delivery of a proper longing recovery. In instances such as ment department." The members of this necessary to study behavior in a variety quantity of electrical energy in relation these, electronic restraint with the Vet­ unit would be legally deputized to en­ of habitats. to the size of the animal. Second, elec­ Master may provide needed time to com­ force all of the laws and ordinances per­ With this aim in view, a pig park tronic devices that affect tissue functions plete the procedure, without additional tinent to animal protection. This means was set up at the Edinburgh School of through electrical currents are all subject drugs. The same is true of the potential that humane society personnel would Agriculture farm, Eastern Howgate, in to the phenomenon of "fading," a condi­ for restraint when stormy recoveries oc­ have the right to make arrests, and also which the animals are allowed as much tion in which the physiological effects of cur, with attendant risk of injury to horse to take into custody any animal whose freedom as possible. The park consists of the current decline over time. It is impor­ and handler. The Vet-Master may prove owner had been charged with cruelty. an enclosure of 1.3 ha containing a small tant, when increasing the intensity of the to be useful in reducing these dangers The humane organization that instituted pine copse, gorse bushes, a stream, and current, to compensate for this phenome­ and stresses in the recovery period. One a particular action would become the a swampy wallow. A small population non; one must accurately supply the mini­ need only recall the sad story of the filly beneficiary of any fines and penalties has been kept there for about 3 years. At mum additional current required. The Ruffian, who was destroyed after suc­ collected from those convicted. present, this population consists of a Vet-Master is capable of providing fine cessful surgery because she could not be And therein lies the rub. As reported boar, four adult females, a subadult adjustments in intensity in the lower range, controlled during recovery. I believe a in Pet Supplies Marketing (36(9):58, male and a subadult female, together as required by smaller animals, and more device such as the Vet-Master might well 1982), the Pet Industry Joint Advisory with any young from the females that

12 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 13 have not yet been removed. Normally, together and to pay attention to one an­ considered as animals, there have tion is also encouraged." other's exploratory behavior. Young males young have been removed when ready been few regulations, in any country, on Jaksch has reported that the C02 to be fattened, or at 12-13 weeks when also pay much attention to the activities how they should be killed and disposed technique advocated by the UEP can be they wean themselves. of the subadult male and boar. Aggres­ of. very satisfactory, as long as certain pre­ The park is divided into two roughly sive play appears to be more common Jaksch's article evaluated various cautions are taken: (1) the sack must be equal halves. Initially identical popula­ among the young males. Both sexes show methods for euthanizing chicks- which adjusted to keep the chicks from falling tions were kept in each half. Observa­ manipulative play. include decapitation, homogenization to the bottom, and (2) if too many chicks tions were made using both scanning Farrowing nests are constructed by (after crushing), oxygen withdrawal, car­ are treated at one time, death can occur and focal animal techniques. The ani­ the sows, usually far from the commu­ bon dioxide or nitrogen gassing, and too rapidly- by suffocation. But, with mals receive the same rations as in the nal nest, and the site chosen is usually electrocution- according to a checklist care, the method assures that chicks will pig unit, but are given extra when condi­ under a branch or fallen tree. After far­ of criteria: be unconscious within 10-15 seconds and rowing, the nest is protected against all dead within 5 minutes. tions are very severe. Feeding always oc­ • Speed pigs for about 5 days. From about that The guidelines, though, must still at a set position, which provides a • Reliability of inducing unconscious- time, the sow may leave her litter for be approved by the U E P Board before reference point for many of the pigs' ac­ ness and death varying periods and piglets begin to ex­ they can become part of the UEP's tivities. • Painlessness plore their environment. Weaning finally general recommendations on husbandry In the pig park, with its variety of • Ease of application takes place at about 12-13 weeks. practices. environmental features and diversified • Economy Following these observational studies, social structure, the pigs' behavior closely • Safety pigs were kept in small enclosures with resembles that described for the ­ • Preservation of dead chicks for fur­ or without natural environment features an wild boar. For sleeping, the pigs make ther use such as bushes, and it was found that a communal nest. Over the study period, • Aesthetics. a large number of these were construct­ with the reduction of space the main Establishing Baselines for Domestic ed, so details about them can be tested behavior patterns were still evident, pro­ His conclusion was that no currently Animal Behavior for statistical reliability. They were locat­ vided the enclosure had certain environ­ available method met all of the criteria, ed far from the feeding site, were protect­ mental features such as bushes. Follow­ but that fumigation in a closed chamber ed against the prevailing winds, and had ing these experiments, a.r.rr~~---b.ousing was probably the best technique of a One of the most taxing problems a wide view that allowed the pigs to see system was designed, incbrport.ing)nany bad lot, since it is quick, economical, and for the field of applied ethology is deter­ anything approaching the nest from cer­ features that allow the pig}te~press a fail-safe because the chamber's design mining precisely what elements comprise tain directions. Before retiring to the wide range of behavior patterns. This assures rapid death for all of the birds. the baseline (or normal) behavioral reper­ nest, the animals tended to bring nesting system is now undergoing preliminary This year, the Animal Welfare Com­ toire of a given species. To overcome material for the walls and to rearrange trials at the School of Agriculture, Edin­ mittee of the United Egg Producers has this problem, E.M. Banks U Anim Sci 54: the nest. This was not a coordinated ac­ burgh. (Authors' abstract, D.G.M. Wood­ drawn up a set of guidelines for destroy­ 434-445, 1982) has proposed a systematic tivity, but most pigs performed it. Some Gush and A. Stolba, Appl Anim Ethol 8(6): ing baby chicks, comprised of two sec­ method for compiling behavior catalogs, individuals carried more nesting material 583-584, 1982.) tions. First, several methods are ruled out: or "ethograms," of animal behavior. In than others. On leaving the communal The practices of smothering unwanted addition, he has formulated quantitative nest in the morning, the animals walk at baby chicks in barrels or plastic procedures for determining whether ap­ least 5 m before urinating and defecat­ bags, or disposing of them by use of parent aberrations in behavior are just harmless adaptations, or manifestations ing, the latter mainly on paths between volatile liquids, such as carbon te­ of true maladaptive reactions to noxious bushes. Egg Producers Issue Guidelines for trachloride or chloroform, are not In autumn, 51 percent of the day is environments. Destroying Baby Chicks recommended. devoted to rooting. Much behavior takes The first step in deriving an ethogram

place in the border of the wood and Then, instructions for use of C02 and is a pilot study, in which the most promi­ open vegetational zone. Here trees are As Walter Jaksch related in an some of its advantages are explained. For nent behaviors observed are recorded used for marking, in which the facial earlier issue of the journal (2(4):2-3-213, disposing of large numbers of chicks, it and assigned to one of several categories: area is rubbed, sometimes in one direc­ 1981 ), the male chicks of laying hens are is advised that gross motor patterns, vocalizations, and tion only. considered an unwanted and useless by­ odors. This is done for both individual A constant trickle of C0 be in­ Special relationships were found, product to the egg industry. Since laying 2 and social behaviors. Animals should be troduced into a large plastic-lined e.g., a pair of sows might join together hens have been specifically bred to chan­ studied in different housing systems, as container ... The container is then several days after farrowing and forage nel all of their available energy into pro­ well as in unconfined, natural situations. slowly filled with chicks. Each layer and sleep together. However, no cross­ ducing eggs, layers gain weight poorly. Concerning odors in particular, the author of chicks will be unconscious or suckling has been seen in the litters of So the males of these strains cannot be notes that "we are just beginning to ap­ dead before the next Ia yer is added. such animals. Special relationships have used for meat production, and they are preciate the rich odor vocabulary used also been found in the young. Members usually destroyed when only a day old. Parenthetically, the guidelines note that in various social contexts of domestic

of a I itter of the same sex tend to stay However, since these male chicks are not "development of C02 chamber utiliza- animals." Then, the behaviors listed in

14 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 15 have not yet been removed. Normally, together and to pay attention to one an­ considered as food animals, there have tion is also encouraged." other's exploratory behavior. Young males young have been removed when ready been few regulations, in any country, on Jaksch has reported that the C02 to be fattened, or at 12-13 weeks when also pay much attention to the activities how they should be killed and disposed technique advocated by the UEP can be they wean themselves. of the subadult male and boar. Aggres­ of. very satisfactory, as long as certain pre­ The park is divided into two roughly sive play appears to be more common Jaksch's article evaluated various cautions are taken: (1) the sack must be equal halves. Initially identical popula­ among the young males. Both sexes show methods for euthanizing chicks- which adjusted to keep the chicks from falling tions were kept in each half. Observa­ manipulative play. include decapitation, homogenization to the bottom, and (2) if too many chicks tions were made using both scanning Farrowing nests are constructed by (after crushing), oxygen withdrawal, car­ are treated at one time, death can occur and focal animal techniques. The ani­ the sows, usually far from the commu­ bon dioxide or nitrogen gassing, and too rapidly- by suffocation. But, with mals receive the same rations as in the nal nest, and the site chosen is usually electrocution- according to a checklist care, the method assures that chicks will pig unit, but are given extra when condi­ under a branch or fallen tree. After far­ of criteria: be unconscious within 10-15 seconds and rowing, the nest is protected against all dead within 5 minutes. tions are very severe. Feeding always oc­ • Speed pigs for about 5 days. From about that The guidelines, though, must still curs at a set position, which provides a • Reliability of inducing unconscious- time, the sow may leave her litter for be approved by the U E P Board before reference point for many of the pigs' ac­ ness and death varying periods and piglets begin to ex­ they can become part of the UEP's tivities. • Painlessness plore their environment. Weaning finally general recommendations on husbandry In the pig park, with its variety of • Ease of application takes place at about 12-13 weeks. practices. environmental features and diversified • Economy Following these observational studies, social structure, the pigs' behavior closely • Safety pigs were kept in small enclosures with resembles that described for the Europe­ • Preservation of dead chicks for fur­ or without natural environment features an wild boar. For sleeping, the pigs make ther use such as bushes, and it was found that a communal nest. Over the study period, • Aesthetics. a large number of these were construct­ with the reduction of space the main Establishing Baselines for Domestic ed, so details about them can be tested behavior patterns were still evident, pro­ His conclusion was that no currently Animal Behavior for statistical reliability. They were locat­ vided the enclosure had certain environ­ available method met all of the criteria, ed far from the feeding site, were protect­ mental features such as bushes. Follow­ but that fumigation in a closed chamber ed against the prevailing winds, and had ing these experiments, a.r.rr~~---b.ousing was probably the best technique of a One of the most taxing problems a wide view that allowed the pigs to see system was designed, incbrport.ing)nany bad lot, since it is quick, economical, and for the field of applied ethology is deter­ anything approaching the nest from cer­ features that allow the pig}te~press a fail-safe because the chamber's design mining precisely what elements comprise tain directions. Before retiring to the wide range of behavior patterns. This assures rapid death for all of the birds. the baseline (or normal) behavioral reper­ nest, the animals tended to bring nesting system is now undergoing preliminary This year, the Animal Welfare Com­ toire of a given species. To overcome material for the walls and to rearrange trials at the School of Agriculture, Edin­ mittee of the United Egg Producers has this problem, E.M. Banks U Anim Sci 54: the nest. This was not a coordinated ac­ burgh. (Authors' abstract, D.G.M. Wood­ drawn up a set of guidelines for destroy­ 434-445, 1982) has proposed a systematic tivity, but most pigs performed it. Some Gush and A. Stolba, Appl Anim Ethol 8(6): ing baby chicks, comprised of two sec­ method for compiling behavior catalogs, individuals carried more nesting material 583-584, 1982.) tions. First, several methods are ruled out: or "ethograms," of animal behavior. In than others. On leaving the communal The practices of smothering unwanted addition, he has formulated quantitative nest in the morning, the animals walk at baby chicks in barrels or plastic procedures for determining whether ap­ least 5 m before urinating and defecat­ bags, or disposing of them by use of parent aberrations in behavior are just harmless adaptations, or manifestations ing, the latter mainly on paths between volatile liquids, such as carbon te­ of true maladaptive reactions to noxious bushes. Egg Producers Issue Guidelines for trachloride or chloroform, are not In autumn, 51 percent of the day is environments. Destroying Baby Chicks recommended. devoted to rooting. Much behavior takes The first step in deriving an ethogram

place in the border of the wood and Then, instructions for use of C02 and is a pilot study, in which the most promi­ open vegetational zone. Here trees are As Walter Jaksch related in an some of its advantages are explained. For nent behaviors observed are recorded used for marking, in which the facial earlier issue of the journal (2(4):2-3-213, disposing of large numbers of chicks, it and assigned to one of several categories: area is rubbed, sometimes in one direc­ 1981 ), the male chicks of laying hens are is advised that gross motor patterns, vocalizations, and tion only. considered an unwanted and useless by­ odors. This is done for both individual A constant trickle of C0 be in­ Special relationships were found, product to the egg industry. Since laying 2 and social behaviors. Animals should be troduced into a large plastic-lined e.g., a pair of sows might join together hens have been specifically bred to chan­ studied in different housing systems, as container ... The container is then several days after farrowing and forage nel all of their available energy into pro­ well as in unconfined, natural situations. slowly filled with chicks. Each layer and sleep together. However, no cross­ ducing eggs, layers gain weight poorly. Concerning odors in particular, the author of chicks will be unconscious or suckling has been seen in the litters of So the males of these strains cannot be notes that "we are just beginning to ap­ dead before the next Ia yer is added. such animals. Special relationships have used for meat production, and they are preciate the rich odor vocabulary used also been found in the young. Members usually destroyed when only a day old. Parenthetically, the guidelines note that in various social contexts of domestic

of a I itter of the same sex tend to stay However, since these male chicks are not "development of C02 chamber utiliza- animals." Then, the behaviors listed in

14 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 15 the pilot study are subdivided into iden­ while possible legislative action is dis­ cessors, and possibly the truckers, (3) the greatest degree of emotional tifiable units, termed "modal action pat­ cussed, debated, amended, and discussed to some extent. need and companionship with cats was terns"; these units must be defined in some more, the problem continues. I am a farmer. I raise breeding found in individuals under 20 years of objective terms and then characterized The October 8, 1982 edition of Agri­ animals (polled Hereford cows], and I age, while the least need occurred in in­ in a quantitative sense by measures like View, a weekly newspaper from Wiscon­ would never allow a live downer cow dividuals between 30 and 50 years of age. frequency, duration, amplitude (intensity), sin, devoted an entire page to analyzing to leave my farm.-The animals and latency (the interval between presenta­ the pro's and con's of the new rules for would have to be dead before re­ tion of a stimulus and the initiation of a "downers." To those on the state's Meat moval. A young man who delivered response). Inspection Advisory Council, the chief hay to us last spring told me how Finally, the major components of advantage of a clear-cut policy on the these cows are piled on top of one Deaths in Primate Trade the completed ethogram for a species fate of down cows would be economic: another in the trucks, while still are compared by examining the effects knowing what price could be expected alive; of course, many of them soon The export of primates from source of the widest possible range of common­ for such an' animal would make life die. countries for biomedical research in Eu­ ly used housing and husbandry practices much simpler. At the moment, it's hard I realize that the cow has not rope, America, and Japan has been de­ for that species. Any deviations from the for the several parties involved in downer been "humanized" like cats, dogs, clining steadily since the high point of cow baseline pattern, and their severity, are cow removal- farmer, trucker, and pack­ and horses, but the is in some the late fifties, when over 250,000 mon­ noted. These sorts of formal behavioral er- to establish how much should be senses the mother of man, providing keys a year were being shipped, often variables can be incorporated into tradi­ paid for an animal while it is still on the us with milk, hides, and other pro­ under deplorable conditions. Economic tional production-oriented research of farm, since nobody can be sure whether, tein-rich . She should therefore factors and protests from animal protec­ factors like diet, temperature, etc., so at inspection, the animal will be consid­ be treated with the same considera­ tion groups resulted in significant improve­ tion for her suffering as any other that humane considerations can be taken ered fit for human consumption, or con­ ments in transport conditions but, accord­ species. into account at the same time- for demned to the dog dish. Another priori­ ing to a report in Oryx (June 1982, p. purely ethical reasons, as well as for the ty, voiced by a homemaker-council 300), the situation is still not acceptable. role they play in overall productivity. member from Monona, related to public For example, 16 percent of the 10,000 cy­ As an excellent candidate for study perceptions of the farmer. Since people nomolgus macaques that were shipped in­ by ethogram, the author suggests poultry. are now less and less red meat, Attitudes Toward Dogs and Cats to the U.S. in 1978-1979 from Indonesia He argues that the behavioral anomalies she noted, "Anything we can do to im­ were either dead on arrival or died with­ (and the widespread criticism) resulting prove the image of the meat industry in 3 months. Furthermore, an Indonesian Two Missouri researchers have re­ from battery cages will not subside if the needs to be done." primate dealer reports that 43 percent of only change made is an arbitrarily chosen cently published some fascinating data But a farmer in Nehoosa, WI, Mrs. the cynomolgus die before export, and a increase in the space allotted to each from a survey of public attitudes toward Tom Martinson, has written to the jour­ further 25 percent are not fit for export dogs and cats U Small Anim Pract 22:129- bird. Rather, the complete normal etho­ nal about the insensitivity that she sees in because of wounds or disease. gram must be used as a control in a large­ the way that both industry and govern­ 137, 1981 ). For example, of the 900-plus scale study of a variety of standard cages, ment are thinking and talking about the individuals surveyed, only 4 percent dis­ as compared with those that have been downer cow problem. It is her firm be­ liked dogs, whereas 28 percent disliked designed to provide a better environ­ lief that all of the verbiage about the cats. The authors did not discuss this ment for the complete expression of the economics of dealing with downers is ir­ finding specifically, but they did draw Researching Research Methods normal range of the birds' behavior. relevant at best, and coldly callous at attention to a study that describes the worst, because so little money is made human/dog relationship as one of mut­ from the sale of these animals, irrespec­ ual benefit, whereas the human/cat rela­ Most of the recent discussion on tive of how they are eventually graded. tionship is construed as parasitic, in that the issue of painful research in animals She writes: the cat benefits at the expense of the hu­ tends to assume that injections or blood­ A Farmer's Response to the man (Vet Med! Small Anim Clinic 60:713- sampling are not, in themselves, causes 11 Downer" Cow Dilemma 718, 1965). They also noted that cat own­ for concern. It is assumed that a brief I have enclosed this article (from Agri­ ers as a group had more negative feel­ painful stimulus occurs as the needle As we reported in the last journal View) to give you some insight into ings about dogs than non-pet owners. penetrates the skin, but this is not con­ (3(4):271-272, 1982), the difficult prob­ the handling and treatment of downer Other data indicated that: (1) women sidered serious. However, the actual ex­ lem of the inhumane transport of down­ cows. No farmer will ever get rich­ become more emotionally involved with tent of the disturbance caused by injec­ er cows for later slaughter has recently or poorer- by selling his downer their animals and derive a greater sense tions has been the subject of some recent been tackled by Wisconsin's Administra­ cows alive. So little is paid for them, of security from pet ownership (with research. tor for Meat Inspection, Ed Baker. He that it is really more a matter of con­ both dogs and cats) than do men; (2) indi­ It is well known that some substances has proposed legislation that, among venience to get rid of the large car­ viduals under 30 years of age expressed may cause discomfort or pain after in­ other things, requires that such cows be cass than it is a matter of money. The a significantly greater feeling of impor­ jection and that this reaction may be in­ killed prior to loading and sale. But ones who do make money are the pro- tance or vanity from dog ownership; and dicated by the animal's lack of appetite,

16 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 17 the pilot study are subdivided into iden­ while possible legislative action is dis­ cessors, and possibly the truckers, (3) the greatest degree of emotional tifiable units, termed "modal action pat­ cussed, debated, amended, and discussed to some extent. need and companionship with cats was terns"; these units must be defined in some more, the problem continues. I am a farmer. I raise breeding found in individuals under 20 years of objective terms and then characterized The October 8, 1982 edition of Agri­ animals (polled Hereford cows], and I age, while the least need occurred in in­ in a quantitative sense by measures like View, a weekly newspaper from Wiscon­ would never allow a live downer cow dividuals between 30 and 50 years of age. frequency, duration, amplitude (intensity), sin, devoted an entire page to analyzing to leave my farm.-The animals and latency (the interval between presenta­ the pro's and con's of the new rules for would have to be dead before re­ tion of a stimulus and the initiation of a "downers." To those on the state's Meat moval. A young man who delivered response). Inspection Advisory Council, the chief hay to us last spring told me how Finally, the major components of advantage of a clear-cut policy on the these cows are piled on top of one Deaths in Primate Trade the completed ethogram for a species fate of down cows would be economic: another in the trucks, while still are compared by examining the effects knowing what price could be expected alive; of course, many of them soon The export of primates from source of the widest possible range of common­ for such an' animal would make life die. countries for biomedical research in Eu­ ly used housing and husbandry practices much simpler. At the moment, it's hard I realize that the cow has not rope, America, and Japan has been de­ for that species. Any deviations from the for the several parties involved in downer been "humanized" like cats, dogs, clining steadily since the high point of cow baseline pattern, and their severity, are cow removal- farmer, trucker, and pack­ and horses, but the is in some the late fifties, when over 250,000 mon­ noted. These sorts of formal behavioral er- to establish how much should be senses the mother of man, providing keys a year were being shipped, often variables can be incorporated into tradi­ paid for an animal while it is still on the us with milk, hides, and other pro­ under deplorable conditions. Economic tional production-oriented research of farm, since nobody can be sure whether, tein-rich foods. She should therefore factors and protests from animal protec­ factors like diet, temperature, etc., so at inspection, the animal will be consid­ be treated with the same considera­ tion groups resulted in significant improve­ tion for her suffering as any other that humane considerations can be taken ered fit for human consumption, or con­ ments in transport conditions but, accord­ species. into account at the same time- for demned to the dog dish. Another priori­ ing to a report in Oryx (June 1982, p. purely ethical reasons, as well as for the ty, voiced by a homemaker-council 300), the situation is still not acceptable. role they play in overall productivity. member from Monona, related to public For example, 16 percent of the 10,000 cy­ As an excellent candidate for study perceptions of the farmer. Since people nomolgus macaques that were shipped in­ by ethogram, the author suggests poultry. are now eating less and less red meat, Attitudes Toward Dogs and Cats to the U.S. in 1978-1979 from Indonesia He argues that the behavioral anomalies she noted, "Anything we can do to im­ were either dead on arrival or died with­ (and the widespread criticism) resulting prove the image of the meat industry in 3 months. Furthermore, an Indonesian Two Missouri researchers have re­ from battery cages will not subside if the needs to be done." primate dealer reports that 43 percent of only change made is an arbitrarily chosen cently published some fascinating data But a farmer in Nehoosa, WI, Mrs. the cynomolgus die before export, and a increase in the space allotted to each from a survey of public attitudes toward Tom Martinson, has written to the jour­ further 25 percent are not fit for export dogs and cats U Small Anim Pract 22:129- bird. Rather, the complete normal etho­ nal about the insensitivity that she sees in because of wounds or disease. gram must be used as a control in a large­ the way that both industry and govern­ 137, 1981 ). For example, of the 900-plus scale study of a variety of standard cages, ment are thinking and talking about the individuals surveyed, only 4 percent dis­ as compared with those that have been downer cow problem. It is her firm be­ liked dogs, whereas 28 percent disliked designed to provide a better environ­ lief that all of the verbiage about the cats. The authors did not discuss this ment for the complete expression of the economics of dealing with downers is ir­ finding specifically, but they did draw Researching Research Methods normal range of the birds' behavior. relevant at best, and coldly callous at attention to a study that describes the worst, because so little money is made human/dog relationship as one of mut­ from the sale of these animals, irrespec­ ual benefit, whereas the human/cat rela­ Most of the recent discussion on tive of how they are eventually graded. tionship is construed as parasitic, in that the issue of painful research in animals She writes: the cat benefits at the expense of the hu­ tends to assume that injections or blood­ A Farmer's Response to the man (Vet Med! Small Anim Clinic 60:713- sampling are not, in themselves, causes 11 Downer" Cow Dilemma 718, 1965). They also noted that cat own­ for concern. It is assumed that a brief I have enclosed this article (from Agri­ ers as a group had more negative feel­ painful stimulus occurs as the needle As we reported in the last journal View) to give you some insight into ings about dogs than non-pet owners. penetrates the skin, but this is not con­ (3(4):271-272, 1982), the difficult prob­ the handling and treatment of downer Other data indicated that: (1) women sidered serious. However, the actual ex­ lem of the inhumane transport of down­ cows. No farmer will ever get rich­ become more emotionally involved with tent of the disturbance caused by injec­ er cows for later slaughter has recently or poorer- by selling his downer their animals and derive a greater sense tions has been the subject of some recent been tackled by Wisconsin's Administra­ cows alive. So little is paid for them, of security from pet ownership (with research. tor for Meat Inspection, Ed Baker. He that it is really more a matter of con­ both dogs and cats) than do men; (2) indi­ It is well known that some substances has proposed legislation that, among venience to get rid of the large car­ viduals under 30 years of age expressed may cause discomfort or pain after in­ other things, requires that such cows be cass than it is a matter of money. The a significantly greater feeling of impor­ jection and that this reaction may be in­ killed prior to loading and sale. But ones who do make money are the pro- tance or vanity from dog ownership; and dicated by the animal's lack of appetite,

16 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 17 tives to the use of laboratory ani­ dicates that the total number of labora­ restlessness, or reluctance to move. In Dart Gun Modifications mals for research. A report on the re­ tory animals used (that is, warm-blooded the small , these symptoms are sults of this effort should be made vertebrates) is at least at the 60 million not obvious, and sensitive methods are It is well known that the use of anes­ to the Committee at next year's mark, and may possibly be even higher. needed to detect them. Recently, john thetic darts for the capture of wild ani­ hearings. If a program design is pro­ This evidence includes the following: Herbert (Dundee University, U.K.), using mals carries a significant risk of injury posed, it should include estimates • In W.B. Saunders and Com­ a sensitive device to measure mouse ac­ 1965, and even death. Part of the problem is re­ of total funding required, how such pany analyzed NIH use of laboratory an­ tivity, has found that injection of as lit­ lated to the weight of the dart. Recogni­ funds would be administered, the imals in conjunction with data on sales by tle as 0.1 ml of a harmless substance tion of this fact prompted the develop­ criteria for allocating funds, and the commercial breeders. They reported that (such as a 0.9 percent solution of sodium ment of lightweight dart (Nord Vet Med amounts recommended for fiscal million rodents and were used; chloride) caused an increase in explora­ 60 34:39-43, 1982). The dart has only a limit­ year 1984. it was projected that future use would tory activity. By contrast, an injection of ed volume capacity, and thus concentrat­ rise to million (Inform Lab Anim Res 1.0 m I of an irritant (1 0 percent peptone This prose is very likely to encour­ 97 ed drugs must be used, but it is very ac­ 9(3):1 0, 1966). water) resulted in inactivity that lasted age the Division of Research Resources curate up to 60 m, with a range of approx­ • In the National Cancer In­ for 4 hours. This work is now being extend­ to continue with its current Biomedical 1978, imately 120 m. stitute, which accounts for approximate­ ed under a grant from the Universities Research Model Development program ly percent of all biomedical research Federation for Animal Welfare (1981-1982 and to seek additional funding support 12 expenditures, used 6.5 million rodents. Annual Report, UFAW). for alternatives. By extrapolatation, it would seem that Similar research was conducted at national use approximated 55 million ICI Toxicology Laboratories (U.K.) on the Alternatives at NIH laboratory rodents (1980 NCI Appropria­ maximum doses (volumes) that could be tions Hearings, part 4, p. 486). administered to rats and mice in toxicity The Appropriations Committees in • In 1981, Alex Brown and Sons ana­ tests before visible signs of distress ap­ the U.S. Senate and House of Represen­ Laboratory Animal Numbers lyzed the financial prospects for Charles peared. In mice, the upper limit for oral tatives have an important say in the final River stock. They reported that Charles doses appeared to be about 10 g/kg of funding allocations for federal agencies. The number of animals used each River produces approximately 16 million body weight (or 0.2-0.3 g per mouse). Ac­ As a result, their interests and wishes, as year in research and testing in Great Bri­ rodents annually in the United States tual distension of the stomach was observ­ expressed in the reports which accompa­ tain continues to dec I ine- the 1981 fig­ and controls 20 percent of the domestic ed at doses of 50 g/kg. In intravenous ny the annual appropriations bills, carry ure of 4.344 million animal experiments market. Assuming that Charles River dosing, hyperpnea became evident at considerable weight. In September, the represents the lowest figure since 1963 sells 4 million of its American-produced doses of about 25 m 1/kg. The equivalent Appropriations Committee that has re­ (see Figure 1 ). The number of experiments animals outside the United States, we upper dose limits in rats were 30 g/kg sponsibility for the National Institutes of involving distressing stimuli (e.g., for in­ can conclude that the American market (oral) and 30 ml/kg (intravenous). Health budget included the following para­ ducing psychological stress) such as in­ involves the sale of 60 million laboratory graph in the report that accompanied a oculations into the eye, infliction of physi­ rodents every year. Corroborating data is Cat Population Dynamics 1983 appropriations bill. cal trauma, or interference with the cen­ provided by the fact that Jackson Labo­ ORR [Division of Research Resources] tral nervous system has fallen steadily, ratories i'n Maine sells approximately 2 from 568,000 in 1977 to 386,000 in 1981 million rodents annually and has 3 per­ An analysis of the domestic cat has taken the lead in planning the (Statistics of Experiments on Living Ani­ cent of the American market. population of Manhattan, KS (Am } Vet development of a new activity in mals, Home Office, 1982). Therefore, on the basis of this evi­ Res 43:167-170, 1982) reveals that the 1983 entitled Biomedical Research In the United States, there is con­ dence, it would appear that at least 60 rate of population change is about 1.18. Model Development. This activity siderable disagreement over the number million laboratory rodents are used an­ This means that the domestic cat popu­ will ascertain whether there are al­ of laboratory animals used each year.· nually. Other laboratory vertebrates lation is potentially increasing at an an­ ternatives to the use of laboratory This is due to an apparent discrepancy in that would contribute substantially to nual rate of 18 percent. However, if pet animals which can result in more re­ the published results of a survey under­ the total numbers of animals consumed cat ownership does not increase at a cor­ liable, economical, and efficient mod­ taken by the Institute for Laboratory An­ include rabbits, birds, frogs, and fish. responding rate among the 40,000 resi­ els to be used in biomedical research. imal Resources, which reported that 20 The reason for the very large discrep­ dents in Manhattan, then the extra ani­ In 1983, this activity will consist of initiating planning efforts through million laboratory ani~-ars were usea-ih ancy between the estimated figure above mals will either be euthanized or end up -~ ~----~---~- --. ------_1978 in the Dnit--ecntates (Nationar"S'LTf: and the results from the ILAR survey is as strays. The survey indicated that about workshops and conferences aimed at ;ey-o-f-b,a.b.gr-a taFy -A--;.,i;;;;r-Fa. c i I it i es and unknown. However, it is intriguing to note 59 percent of the female cats of repro­ understanding the problems, and Resources, National Institutes of Health, that the 72 percent return of ILAR sur­ ductive age had been spayed. The authors identifying areas of research most 1980). Seventy-two percent of the ques­ veys only accounted for $570 million of also calculated that, given a 50 percent re­ likely to benefit from the develop­ tionnaires on lab animal use sent out by all NIH-supported animal research. This productive rate among unspayed females, ment of models and the areas of ILAR were returned, and so these figures is probably 50 percent- or less- of all approximately 76 percent of all repro­ technology most likely to yield usa­ have come to be widely accepted. Never­ the NIH-supported animal research for ductive-age females will have to be spayed ble research models. The Committee theless, all other available evidence in- 1978 (lnt} Stud Anim Prob 3:191-192). to produce zero population growth. welcomes this effort to find alterna-

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 19 18 tives to the use of laboratory ani­ dicates that the total number of labora­ restlessness, or reluctance to move. In Dart Gun Modifications mals for research. A report on the re­ tory animals used (that is, warm-blooded the small rodents, these symptoms are sults of this effort should be made vertebrates) is at least at the 60 million not obvious, and sensitive methods are It is well known that the use of anes­ to the Committee at next year's mark, and may possibly be even higher. needed to detect them. Recently, john thetic darts for the capture of wild ani­ hearings. If a program design is pro­ This evidence includes the following: Herbert (Dundee University, U.K.), using mals carries a significant risk of injury posed, it should include estimates • In W.B. Saunders and Com­ a sensitive device to measure mouse ac­ 1965, and even death. Part of the problem is re­ of total funding required, how such pany analyzed NIH use of laboratory an­ tivity, has found that injection of as lit­ lated to the weight of the dart. Recogni­ funds would be administered, the imals in conjunction with data on sales by tle as 0.1 ml of a harmless substance tion of this fact prompted the develop­ criteria for allocating funds, and the commercial breeders. They reported that (such as a 0.9 percent solution of sodium ment of lightweight dart (Nord Vet Med amounts recommended for fiscal million rodents and rabbits were used; chloride) caused an increase in explora­ 60 34:39-43, 1982). The dart has only a limit­ year 1984. it was projected that future use would tory activity. By contrast, an injection of ed volume capacity, and thus concentrat­ rise to million (Inform Lab Anim Res 1.0 m I of an irritant (1 0 percent peptone This prose is very likely to encour­ 97 ed drugs must be used, but it is very ac­ 9(3):1 0, 1966). water) resulted in inactivity that lasted age the Division of Research Resources curate up to 60 m, with a range of approx­ • In the National Cancer In­ for 4 hours. This work is now being extend­ to continue with its current Biomedical 1978, imately 120 m. stitute, which accounts for approximate­ ed under a grant from the Universities Research Model Development program ly percent of all biomedical research Federation for Animal Welfare (1981-1982 and to seek additional funding support 12 expenditures, used 6.5 million rodents. Annual Report, UFAW). for alternatives. By extrapolatation, it would seem that Similar research was conducted at national use approximated 55 million ICI Toxicology Laboratories (U.K.) on the Alternatives at NIH laboratory rodents (1980 NCI Appropria­ maximum doses (volumes) that could be tions Hearings, part 4, p. 486). administered to rats and mice in toxicity The Appropriations Committees in • In 1981, Alex Brown and Sons ana­ tests before visible signs of distress ap­ the U.S. Senate and House of Represen­ Laboratory Animal Numbers lyzed the financial prospects for Charles peared. In mice, the upper limit for oral tatives have an important say in the final River stock. They reported that Charles doses appeared to be about 10 g/kg of funding allocations for federal agencies. The number of animals used each River produces approximately 16 million body weight (or 0.2-0.3 g per mouse). Ac­ As a result, their interests and wishes, as year in research and testing in Great Bri­ rodents annually in the United States tual distension of the stomach was observ­ expressed in the reports which accompa­ tain continues to dec I ine- the 1981 fig­ and controls 20 percent of the domestic ed at doses of 50 g/kg. In intravenous ny the annual appropriations bills, carry ure of 4.344 million animal experiments market. Assuming that Charles River dosing, hyperpnea became evident at considerable weight. In September, the represents the lowest figure since 1963 sells 4 million of its American-produced doses of about 25 m 1/kg. The equivalent Appropriations Committee that has re­ (see Figure 1 ). The number of experiments animals outside the United States, we upper dose limits in rats were 30 g/kg sponsibility for the National Institutes of involving distressing stimuli (e.g., for in­ can conclude that the American market (oral) and 30 ml/kg (intravenous). Health budget included the following para­ ducing psychological stress) such as in­ involves the sale of 60 million laboratory graph in the report that accompanied a oculations into the eye, infliction of physi­ rodents every year. Corroborating data is Cat Population Dynamics 1983 appropriations bill. cal trauma, or interference with the cen­ provided by the fact that Jackson Labo­ ORR [Division of Research Resources] tral nervous system has fallen steadily, ratories i'n Maine sells approximately 2 from 568,000 in 1977 to 386,000 in 1981 million rodents annually and has 3 per­ An analysis of the domestic cat has taken the lead in planning the (Statistics of Experiments on Living Ani­ cent of the American market. population of Manhattan, KS (Am } Vet development of a new activity in mals, Home Office, 1982). Therefore, on the basis of this evi­ Res 43:167-170, 1982) reveals that the 1983 entitled Biomedical Research In the United States, there is con­ dence, it would appear that at least 60 rate of population change is about 1.18. Model Development. This activity siderable disagreement over the number million laboratory rodents are used an­ This means that the domestic cat popu­ will ascertain whether there are al­ of laboratory animals used each year.· nually. Other laboratory vertebrates lation is potentially increasing at an an­ ternatives to the use of laboratory This is due to an apparent discrepancy in that would contribute substantially to nual rate of 18 percent. However, if pet animals which can result in more re­ the published results of a survey under­ the total numbers of animals consumed cat ownership does not increase at a cor­ liable, economical, and efficient mod­ taken by the Institute for Laboratory An­ include rabbits, birds, frogs, and fish. responding rate among the 40,000 resi­ els to be used in biomedical research. imal Resources, which reported that 20 The reason for the very large discrep­ dents in Manhattan, then the extra ani­ In 1983, this activity will consist of initiating planning efforts through million laboratory ani~-ars were usea-ih ancy between the estimated figure above mals will either be euthanized or end up -~ ~----~---~- --. ------_1978 in the Dnit--ecntates (Nationar"S'LTf: and the results from the ILAR survey is as strays. The survey indicated that about workshops and conferences aimed at ;ey-o-f-b,a.b.gr-a taFy -A--;.,i;;;;r-Fa. c i I it i es and unknown. However, it is intriguing to note 59 percent of the female cats of repro­ understanding the problems, and Resources, National Institutes of Health, that the 72 percent return of ILAR sur­ ductive age had been spayed. The authors identifying areas of research most 1980). Seventy-two percent of the ques­ veys only accounted for $570 million of also calculated that, given a 50 percent re­ likely to benefit from the develop­ tionnaires on lab animal use sent out by all NIH-supported animal research. This productive rate among unspayed females, ment of models and the areas of ILAR were returned, and so these figures is probably 50 percent- or less- of all approximately 76 percent of all repro­ technology most likely to yield usa­ have come to be widely accepted. Never­ the NIH-supported animal research for ductive-age females will have to be spayed ble research models. The Committee theless, all other available evidence in- 1978 (lnt} Stud Anim Prob 3:191-192). to produce zero population growth. welcomes this effort to find alterna-

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 19 18 FIGURE 1 Comments

Millions of animals Vivisection and Misanthropy

George P. Cave

Part of the aftermath of the Edward without harm to humankind." On the Taub monkey case has been a spate other hand, it is quite clear that he is of articles accusing the antivivisection completely unaware of the sheer quanti­ movement of misanthropy. The latest ex­ ty of absolutely worthless experiments ample is Walter Goodman's essay, "Of currently being conducted, ,and that he Mice, Monkeys and Men" (Newsweek, subscribes to the popular misconception, August 9, 1982). While drawing essentially deliberately perpetrated by the research the same conclusion as his predecessors, establishment, that animal experimenta­ Goodman opts for a milder version of tion is coextensive with biomedical re­ the charge. Unlike William Raspberry search, thereby contributing directly to ("Saving Monkeys, Ignoring People," human welfare through the conquering Washington Post, October 14, 1981), who of disease. Furthermore, Goodman seems believes that antivivisectionists care more to be largely ignorant of the extent to about animals than people, and Timothy which nonanimal alternatives are already Noah ("Monkey Business," The New Re­ available to the researcher, a fact that public, June 2, 1982), who believes that those with a vested economic interest in they don't care about people at all, Good­ perpetuating animal experimentation man thinks they care about them more or naturally play down. less equally, and this, in his view, is "in­ Goodman is also aware that resolv­ human." He rounds off his essay with ing the debate as to whether animal ex­ the statement: perimentation really benefits humans is not the end of the matter, ethically Proscribing experiments on animals speaking. Unlike most critics of the an­ may mean prescribing them for peo­ tivivisection movement, who content ple. But, then, carrying humane im­ themselves with the dogmatic assertion pulses to an inhuman end is one of that experimentation helps humans and the talents that distinguishes us from therefore (by traditional homocentric other species. valuations), is necessary, he is at least To arrive at this conclusion, Goodman willing to entertain the question as to has even taken the trouble to go directly whether "the prospective benefit to hu­ to a text which is widely regarded, within mans is sufficient justification." He is the animal rights movement, as one of unsatisfied, however, with what he takes I I the primary sources of animal rights ide­ to be the antivisection movement's an­ 1960• 1970 1980 Year 1945 1950 ology- Peter Singer's Animal Liberation. swer to this question, namely, that an ex­ Goodman recognizes that it is reason­ periment is not justified unless it is done able to question whether all experiments "for the benefit of the animal involved." performed on animals really contribute Goodman assumes that this statement, to human welfare, and he even concedes made by William A. Cave, President of that the use of animals in laboratories the American Anti-Vivisection Society, "could no doubt be reduced further summarizes the unanimous opinion of

George P. Cave is President of Trans-Species Unlimited, P.O. Box 1351, State College, PA 16801. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 21 20 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 FIGURE 1 Comments

Millions of animals Vivisection and Misanthropy

George P. Cave

Part of the aftermath of the Edward without harm to humankind." On the Taub monkey case has been a spate other hand, it is quite clear that he is of articles accusing the antivivisection completely unaware of the sheer quanti­ movement of misanthropy. The latest ex­ ty of absolutely worthless experiments ample is Walter Goodman's essay, "Of currently being conducted, ,and that he Mice, Monkeys and Men" (Newsweek, subscribes to the popular misconception, August 9, 1982). While drawing essentially deliberately perpetrated by the research the same conclusion as his predecessors, establishment, that animal experimenta­ Goodman opts for a milder version of tion is coextensive with biomedical re­ the charge. Unlike William Raspberry search, thereby contributing directly to ("Saving Monkeys, Ignoring People," human welfare through the conquering Washington Post, October 14, 1981), who of disease. Furthermore, Goodman seems believes that antivivisectionists care more to be largely ignorant of the extent to about animals than people, and Timothy which nonanimal alternatives are already Noah ("Monkey Business," The New Re­ available to the researcher, a fact that public, June 2, 1982), who believes that those with a vested economic interest in they don't care about people at all, Good­ perpetuating animal experimentation man thinks they care about them more or naturally play down. less equally, and this, in his view, is "in­ Goodman is also aware that resolv­ human." He rounds off his essay with ing the debate as to whether animal ex­ the statement: perimentation really benefits humans is not the end of the matter, ethically Proscribing experiments on animals speaking. Unlike most critics of the an­ may mean prescribing them for peo­ tivivisection movement, who content ple. But, then, carrying humane im­ themselves with the dogmatic assertion pulses to an inhuman end is one of that experimentation helps humans and the talents that distinguishes us from therefore (by traditional homocentric other species. valuations), is necessary, he is at least To arrive at this conclusion, Goodman willing to entertain the question as to has even taken the trouble to go directly whether "the prospective benefit to hu­ to a text which is widely regarded, within mans is sufficient justification." He is the animal rights movement, as one of unsatisfied, however, with what he takes I I the primary sources of animal rights ide­ to be the antivisection movement's an­ 1960• 1970 1980 Year 1945 1950 ology- Peter Singer's Animal Liberation. swer to this question, namely, that an ex­ Goodman recognizes that it is reason­ periment is not justified unless it is done able to question whether all experiments "for the benefit of the animal involved." performed on animals really contribute Goodman assumes that this statement, to human welfare, and he even concedes made by William A. Cave, President of that the use of animals in laboratories the American Anti-Vivisection Society, "could no doubt be reduced further summarizes the unanimous opinion of

George P. Cave is President of Trans-Species Unlimited, P.O. Box 1351, State College, PA 16801. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 21 20 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 G.P. Cave Comment G.P. Cave Comment

the entire antivivisection movement. In attitude toward human welfare that unwilling to sacrifice the infant's life for on animals are justified only if they point of fact, things are not that simple: imbues much of the anti-experiment the benefit of humanity, then one should benefit the animals themselves- is not there is considerable divergence of opin­ campaign. be equally unwilling to do so with the that human and animal life are identical ion within the antivivisection movement chimpanzee. in value, but that it is morally wrong to as to what experiments, if any, are jus­ The question as to whether human In short, one may well agree with sacrifice the interests of the inferior for tifiable. Not all antivivisectionists would life is of greater value than animal life is, Goodman that there are significant "crit­ the interests of the superior. "Proscrib­ agree with William A. Cave's position. however, here completely irrelevant. A chimpanzee does not suffer any less in­ ical differences of mind or soul" between ing experiments on animals" does not It is clear, however, that Goodman's tensely from electric than a (normal) humans and other animals, with­ mean "prescribing them for people," as rejection of this position rests on a fun­ woman because his life has less value. out concluding that infliction of pain or Goodman asserts. It means doing with­ damental misunderstanding of Peter Sin­ Hence, if it is wrong to inflict pain on death on these animals is justified for out them. This is not misanthropy; this is ger's argument. In Animal Liberation, human beings to relieve greater suffering human benefit. The basis for William A. justice. Singer does not claim that human and of other human beings, then it must be Cave's conclusions- that experiments nonhuman animals are equal, in the equally wrong to inflict it on nonhuman sense that they are morally entitled, in animals who are just as capable of suf­ all cases, to identical treatment, nor that fering. There is no rational reason for re­ their lives are of equal value. What he garding a human's physical pain as inher­ claims is that they are entitled to equal ently worse than a chimpanzee's. consideration of their interests. Where there are relevant differences between In cases where the experiment humans and animals, different treat­ would result in the death of the subject, ment is justified. A difference is relevant however, the value of the life is a rele­ only if, by virtue of that difference, the vant consideration. If one were forced to animal will suffer no evil, or at least less choose between experimenting on a chim­ evil, if treated differently. For example, panzee or on a normal human being, the a relevant difference between sheep and morally appropriate choice would be humans with respect to the question of the chimpanzee, since the human life in voting is that sheep lack the capacity to this instance is presumably of greater understand the significance of voting, value. We are not, however, forced to and hence suffer no evil if denied the experiment on anyone, and this example only shows that in the case of terminal right to vote. In this case unequal treat­ experiments it would usually be ment is morally justified. less wrong to experiment on chimpanzees. With respect to the question of This does mean that such experi­ physical, and in many cases, psychologi­ not cal pain, however, there are no relevant ments are ethically defensible. It is in differences between humans and the vast order to make this argument clear that majority of nonhuman animals. Pain is Singer cites the case of the retarded in­ pain no matter who suffers it. To treat an fant orphan. But no matter what standards animal differently in this respect simply one uses, it is obvious that the I ife of because it is not human is speciesism, a a healthy chimpanzee must be granted a form of prejudice that is precisely paral­ greater value than the life of a human lel to racism and sexism. Goodman thinks who is a hopelessly retarded infant or­ this parallel is insulting to blacks and phan. In such a case, there can be no women because he mistakenly attributes moral justification for choosing the to Singer the view that all animals' lives chimpanzee over the orphan to serve in are of equal value, something which the experiment. If one does so, it can on­ ly be because of the orphan's member­ Singer explicitly denies. Goodman states: ship in the species Homo sapiens- a In thus equating animals with peo­ morally irrelevant consideration. If, on ple, Singer exemplifies an ambiguous the other hand, one is for some reason 22 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 23 G.P. Cave Comment G.P. Cave Comment

the entire antivivisection movement. In attitude toward human welfare that unwilling to sacrifice the infant's life for on animals are justified only if they point of fact, things are not that simple: imbues much of the anti-experiment the benefit of humanity, then one should benefit the animals themselves- is not there is considerable divergence of opin­ campaign. be equally unwilling to do so with the that human and animal life are identical ion within the antivivisection movement chimpanzee. in value, but that it is morally wrong to as to what experiments, if any, are jus­ The question as to whether human In short, one may well agree with sacrifice the interests of the inferior for tifiable. Not all antivivisectionists would life is of greater value than animal life is, Goodman that there are significant "crit­ the interests of the superior. "Proscrib­ agree with William A. Cave's position. however, here completely irrelevant. A chimpanzee does not suffer any less in­ ical differences of mind or soul" between ing experiments on animals" does not It is clear, however, that Goodman's tensely from electric shock than a (normal) humans and other animals, with­ mean "prescribing them for people," as rejection of this position rests on a fun­ woman because his life has less value. out concluding that infliction of pain or Goodman asserts. It means doing with­ damental misunderstanding of Peter Sin­ Hence, if it is wrong to inflict pain on death on these animals is justified for out them. This is not misanthropy; this is ger's argument. In Animal Liberation, human beings to relieve greater suffering human benefit. The basis for William A. justice. Singer does not claim that human and of other human beings, then it must be Cave's conclusions- that experiments nonhuman animals are equal, in the equally wrong to inflict it on nonhuman sense that they are morally entitled, in animals who are just as capable of suf­ all cases, to identical treatment, nor that fering. There is no rational reason for re­ their lives are of equal value. What he garding a human's physical pain as inher­ claims is that they are entitled to equal ently worse than a chimpanzee's. consideration of their interests. Where there are relevant differences between In cases where the experiment humans and animals, different treat­ would result in the death of the subject, ment is justified. A difference is relevant however, the value of the life is a rele­ only if, by virtue of that difference, the vant consideration. If one were forced to animal will suffer no evil, or at least less choose between experimenting on a chim­ evil, if treated differently. For example, panzee or on a normal human being, the a relevant difference between sheep and morally appropriate choice would be humans with respect to the question of the chimpanzee, since the human life in voting is that sheep lack the capacity to this instance is presumably of greater understand the significance of voting, value. We are not, however, forced to and hence suffer no evil if denied the experiment on anyone, and this example only shows that in the case of terminal right to vote. In this case unequal treat­ experiments it would usually be ment is morally justified. less wrong to experiment on chimpanzees. With respect to the question of This does mean that such experi­ physical, and in many cases, psychologi­ not cal pain, however, there are no relevant ments are ethically defensible. It is in differences between humans and the vast order to make this argument clear that majority of nonhuman animals. Pain is Singer cites the case of the retarded in­ pain no matter who suffers it. To treat an fant orphan. But no matter what standards animal differently in this respect simply one uses, it is obvious that the I ife of because it is not human is speciesism, a a healthy chimpanzee must be granted a form of prejudice that is precisely paral­ greater value than the life of a human lel to racism and sexism. Goodman thinks who is a hopelessly retarded infant or­ this parallel is insulting to blacks and phan. In such a case, there can be no women because he mistakenly attributes moral justification for choosing the to Singer the view that all animals' lives chimpanzee over the orphan to serve in are of equal value, something which the experiment. If one does so, it can on­ ly be because of the orphan's member­ Singer explicitly denies. Goodman states: ship in the species Homo sapiens- a In thus equating animals with peo­ morally irrelevant consideration. If, on ple, Singer exemplifies an ambiguous the other hand, one is for some reason 22 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 23 H Kitchen Thoughtful Use of Animals Comment

Hyram Kitchen new backup services on many campuses, care, handling and utilization of experi­ such as diagnostic services and disease mental animals." Of course, his state­ surveillance. However, animal facilities ments are general, and they are especial­ still differ among each other, and there ly directed toward the prevention and Introduction mane concerns. I also feel that constant is always room for improvement. Two alleviation of pain before and after monitoring and stimulation of our hu­ areas with notable deficiencies are (1) specific kinds of surgical or stress situa­ As part of a symposium held in Cin­ mane sensitivity is desirable. As a sec­ transportation of animals, which has tions. But the implication of Dr. Hum­ cinnati entitled, "Ethical Issues Related ond critical factor, inflation has forced shown some improvement, and (2) the use mer's statement is clear: there is a lack to the Use of Research Animals," I was us to recognize the cost of using animals of animals by investigators, which is com­ of educational guidance at the institu­ asked by the program director to consid­ in experiments and teaching programs. pletely dependent on the ethics and pro­ tions that train young people to work in er whether further legislation regarding Ever-increasing costs have stimulated fessionalism of the specific investigator. the life sciences. The passage of addi­ the use of animals might be necessary to greater scrutiny of live-animal experi­ Legislation has been used to stimu­ tional laws cannot provide us with the ensure more thoughtful use of animals ments and of their role in experimental late institutions to improve their quality positive assurance that every experimen­ at universities. The following is my re­ design. As a consequence of these changes, of animal care, but there is no way to tal animal will receive compassion, con­ sponse. greatly improved animal care facilities formulate legislation to coerce changes in cern, or even thoughtful care during ex­ and programs are a reality in most in­ attitudes among individual investiga­ perimental procedures. Change in Attitudes tors. Attitudes can only be altered stitutions. I believe that, when applied, I believe that in most cases, the through education. The important areas Since I was a student, there have present legislation coupled with the lack of adequate care, the use of inhu­ of animal use where differences in at­ been enormous changes in attitude to­ guidelines from NIH and ILAR is com­ mane procedures, or simple callousness titude are likely to occur are those ward the way we use animals in biomedi­ pletely adequate to ensure proper usage is a result of the investigator's ignorance aspects, such as experimental design, cal research. It would be desirable to be of animals in live experiments. I further or indifference, which is in turn caused that are controlled by the investigators able to attribute these changes to an in­ believe that future improvements must by a lack of training in the broad area of and teachers. These professionals pro­ crease in our sensitivity to humane val­ depend on changing the attitudes of in­ animal care and surgical techniques. vide the role models for students to ues, and recognition of our responsibility dividual investigators through educa­ This lack of training may result from follow, and their attitudes often are un­ to provide humane care. Although these tion, and not on new legislation or spend­ time demands in the curriculum, instead consciously adopted by these students considerations may have been the prin­ ing more money. of any conscious setting of goals. For ex­ who, in turn, later implement them in cipal motivating factor for many people, Due, in part, to the Animal Welfare ample, students, as they strive to absorb their own research or teaching. The much of the recent progress must be at­ Act of 1966 and its amendment in 1977, a large body of facts in a given time peri­ question then bcomes, "Who will teach tributed to the passage of the Animal federal, state, and private funds have od, may find that they must devote them­ the teachers?," and the answer may be: Welfare Act and its amendments. Legal been used to improve physical facilities selves to one specific area in order to ourselves. Education can bring about responsibilities seem to have fostered for animal care at most of our institu­ achieve mastery in their chosen discip­ changes in attitude where legislation moral awareness, and many constructive tions. The recognition of the need for ad­ line. This mastery is necessary for them cannot. changes have followed. I have no proof:­ equate veterinary care, trained supervi­ to compete in a scientific world and, as only a feeling- that concern for animal sion, well-paid and informed animal care­ Responsibility Through Education a result, little time is allotted to training welfare peaked during the campus tur­ takers, improved caging and manage­ in the use of animals. Unfortunately, moils of the late 1960's and early 1970's ment, and the sincere concern of admin­ Most informed persons believe that knowledge about using experimental an­ when, at least superficially, our entire istrators have all resulted in a dramatic the humane useorrowerarrim~a.ls~ro~in- imals is somewhat akin to knowledge nation felt a resurgence of social consci­ improvement in the quality of animal ·-~eas~-eu.-Kilowledg~ in the ·nre-sci­ about electronic instruments: students ence. Social causes were popular and it care and physical plants. Animal health e n ces-an·d ·ro-ac-hTevep~~al~a-cl~-~nc.e­ acquire it largely on their own. Another was considered very appropriate to speak has improved as a result of better care ments m medicine, ~griC(rlrure,--~~i;:;l-al excuse for the relative dearth of training out about them. While the amount of and, most important, there has been a fius6andry, and the development of drugs has been the inability- or the unwilling­ rhetoric may have declined in the last conscious effort to procure from breeding is ethical. However, to quote Dr. Bob ness- of people who do have the know­ few years, I believe that there is still a facilities animals that are sound and free Bmnffier;-,,This same segment of the hu­ how to transmit their skills to individuals broad-based and sincere interest in hu- of many diseases. In addition, there are man population would raise some ques­ in other disciplines. I would further sug­ tions about the ethics of the scientific gest that many curricula do not provide community if it were aware of the inade­ the channels for people who have there­ Or. Kitchen is Dean of the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. quate orientations afforded many of the quisite know-how to transmit their knowl­ This paper was presented at a symposium entitled "Ethical Issues Related to the Use of Research Animals," new and young investigators in the proper edge. in Cincinnati, April 1979. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 25 24 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 H Kitchen Thoughtful Use of Animals Comment

Hyram Kitchen new backup services on many campuses, care, handling and utilization of experi­ such as diagnostic services and disease mental animals." Of course, his state­ surveillance. However, animal facilities ments are general, and they are especial­ still differ among each other, and there ly directed toward the prevention and Introduction mane concerns. I also feel that constant is always room for improvement. Two alleviation of pain before and after monitoring and stimulation of our hu­ areas with notable deficiencies are (1) specific kinds of surgical or stress situa­ As part of a symposium held in Cin­ mane sensitivity is desirable. As a sec­ transportation of animals, which has tions. But the implication of Dr. Hum­ cinnati entitled, "Ethical Issues Related ond critical factor, inflation has forced shown some improvement, and (2) the use mer's statement is clear: there is a lack to the Use of Research Animals," I was us to recognize the cost of using animals of animals by investigators, which is com­ of educational guidance at the institu­ asked by the program director to consid­ in experiments and teaching programs. pletely dependent on the ethics and pro­ tions that train young people to work in er whether further legislation regarding Ever-increasing costs have stimulated fessionalism of the specific investigator. the life sciences. The passage of addi­ the use of animals might be necessary to greater scrutiny of live-animal experi­ Legislation has been used to stimu­ tional laws cannot provide us with the ensure more thoughtful use of animals ments and of their role in experimental late institutions to improve their quality positive assurance that every experimen­ at universities. The following is my re­ design. As a consequence of these changes, of animal care, but there is no way to tal animal will receive compassion, con­ sponse. greatly improved animal care facilities formulate legislation to coerce changes in cern, or even thoughtful care during ex­ and programs are a reality in most in­ attitudes among individual investiga­ perimental procedures. Change in Attitudes tors. Attitudes can only be altered stitutions. I believe that, when applied, I believe that in most cases, the through education. The important areas Since I was a student, there have present legislation coupled with the lack of adequate care, the use of inhu­ of animal use where differences in at­ been enormous changes in attitude to­ guidelines from NIH and ILAR is com­ mane procedures, or simple callousness titude are likely to occur are those ward the way we use animals in biomedi­ pletely adequate to ensure proper usage is a result of the investigator's ignorance aspects, such as experimental design, cal research. It would be desirable to be of animals in live experiments. I further or indifference, which is in turn caused that are controlled by the investigators able to attribute these changes to an in­ believe that future improvements must by a lack of training in the broad area of and teachers. These professionals pro­ crease in our sensitivity to humane val­ depend on changing the attitudes of in­ animal care and surgical techniques. vide the role models for students to ues, and recognition of our responsibility dividual investigators through educa­ This lack of training may result from follow, and their attitudes often are un­ to provide humane care. Although these tion, and not on new legislation or spend­ time demands in the curriculum, instead consciously adopted by these students considerations may have been the prin­ ing more money. of any conscious setting of goals. For ex­ who, in turn, later implement them in cipal motivating factor for many people, Due, in part, to the Animal Welfare ample, students, as they strive to absorb their own research or teaching. The much of the recent progress must be at­ Act of 1966 and its amendment in 1977, a large body of facts in a given time peri­ question then bcomes, "Who will teach tributed to the passage of the Animal federal, state, and private funds have od, may find that they must devote them­ the teachers?," and the answer may be: Welfare Act and its amendments. Legal been used to improve physical facilities selves to one specific area in order to ourselves. Education can bring about responsibilities seem to have fostered for animal care at most of our institu­ achieve mastery in their chosen discip­ changes in attitude where legislation moral awareness, and many constructive tions. The recognition of the need for ad­ line. This mastery is necessary for them cannot. changes have followed. I have no proof:­ equate veterinary care, trained supervi­ to compete in a scientific world and, as only a feeling- that concern for animal sion, well-paid and informed animal care­ Responsibility Through Education a result, little time is allotted to training welfare peaked during the campus tur­ takers, improved caging and manage­ in the use of animals. Unfortunately, moils of the late 1960's and early 1970's ment, and the sincere concern of admin­ Most informed persons believe that knowledge about using experimental an­ when, at least superficially, our entire istrators have all resulted in a dramatic the humane useorrowerarrim~a.ls~ro~in- imals is somewhat akin to knowledge nation felt a resurgence of social consci­ improvement in the quality of animal ·-~eas~-eu.-Kilowledg~ in the ·nre-sci­ about electronic instruments: students ence. Social causes were popular and it care and physical plants. Animal health e n ces-an·d ·ro-ac-hTevep~~al~a-cl~-~nc.e­ acquire it largely on their own. Another was considered very appropriate to speak has improved as a result of better care ments m medicine, ~griC(rlrure,--~~i;:;l-al excuse for the relative dearth of training out about them. While the amount of and, most important, there has been a fius6andry, and the development of drugs has been the inability- or the unwilling­ rhetoric may have declined in the last conscious effort to procure from breeding is ethical. However, to quote Dr. Bob ness- of people who do have the know­ few years, I believe that there is still a facilities animals that are sound and free Bmnffier;-,,This same segment of the hu­ how to transmit their skills to individuals broad-based and sincere interest in hu- of many diseases. In addition, there are man population would raise some ques­ in other disciplines. I would further sug­ tions about the ethics of the scientific gest that many curricula do not provide community if it were aware of the inade­ the channels for people who have there­ Or. Kitchen is Dean of the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. quate orientations afforded many of the quisite know-how to transmit their knowl­ This paper was presented at a symposium entitled "Ethical Issues Related to the Use of Research Animals," new and young investigators in the proper edge. in Cincinnati, April 1979. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 25 24 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 rr -I

H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

The education of graduate students, school or professional school should 'TABLE 1 Animal Concerns and Usage Committee Charges in particular, has several shortcomings also expand the scope of its human sub­ in regard to instruction in the use of jects and animal care committees to de­ animals. These inadequacies in graduate velop a well-qualified animal concerns 1. To encourage propriety and sound judgment in the assignment of animal resources in teaching andre- education can be corrected, and are be­ and usage committee, with the specific search programs. ing corrected; I believe this effort will charges listed in Table 1. 2. To ensure appropriate use of animals as teaching and research resources. result in important advancements in the 3. To recommend alternatives to animal use, where feasible. quality of care afforded to the individual Educational Resources animal. We must convey to the student 4. To continually monitor animal use and recommend policies that will ensure humane care and concern by faculty, staff, and students. This committee could coordinate and ensure the development of labo­ and to our colleagues our recognition Many people believe that, in our ratory and experimental animal courses for graduate training as previously identified. that in the past animals have contrib­ western civilization, early religious train­ uted enormously to human welfare, and ing has a profound influence on the for­ that their use is a privilege, not a right. A mation of our attitudes toward animals. thorough grounding in their proper treat­ The Christian doctrine, which proclaims name of science. In contrast, there are through the wording of their guidelines ment must be considered as a crucial the dominion of man over animals, can the animal care programs conducted by for acceptance of papers. Thus, they can prerequisite to gaining that privilege. In of course be interpreted in many ways. groups such as 4H and the Boy Scouts, become one part of the educational pro­ addition, researchers must be made While most scholars hold that the con­ which can serve to build up a sense of cess entailed in disseminating high stan­ aware that they need to be observant of cept of dam inion does not release us responsibility and understanding in the dards for animal usage. Editors, referees, the animals themselves and the setting from moral responsibility toward other student. and staff should ensure that all contribu­ in which they are held while under study; creatures, our early attitudes may be in­ Recognition of the need to improve tors are made aware that a review of ev­ they must also give careful thought to fluenced by our own personal interpret­ methods of animal use and care through ery paper will include a close scrutiny of the "why" of their experimental design ation of the word "dominion." Many educational endeavors has been provid­ adherence to the guidelines for the care and the role of animals in it. We must people have unconsciously interpreted ed by numerous organizations. Exam­ of laboratory animals, while the experi­ demonstrate that there are scientific as "dominion" to mean an absolute right to ples of these kinds of programs have mental design will be examined as to the well as humanistic reasons for this con­ use animals, without concern for their been provided by the American Associa­ number and appropriateness of animals cern. The scientific aspects deserve time lives or suffering. tion of Laboratory Animal Science used. Refusal to publish results of ex­ in each graduate student's curriculum, Early education can also influence (AALAS), American College of Laborato­ periments that are judged to have vio­ because they constitute an integral part later behavior and attitudes. Positive ry Animal Medicine (ACLAM), and the lated the guidelines or in which animal of the comprehensive knowledge that he educational experiences can be provid­ American Association for the Accredita­ suffering is obvious can have a profound or she must obtain in his or her discipline. ed in early school years, by such means tion of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC), effect on investigators. Granting institu­ No chemist would ever buy his sodium as the Ralston Purina Company filmstrip humane societies, and medical societies. tions are also in an excellent position to chloride from the grocery store; the chem­ on responsible pet care, designed speci­ Standards for Accreditation for Laboratory give similar instructions to applicants, ist demands "reagent grade," and the an­ fically for use in grades 3-6. Many simi­ Animal Facilities, set by AAALAC, the through evaluations by peer review. imal component of biomedical research lar audiovisual aids such as the movie, Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Another area of education that con­ deserves equally sophisticated consider­ "The Animals Are Crying," are available Animals, prepared by the Institute of cerns all of us is communication be­ ation. through humane societies. Secondary Laboratory Animal Resources, National tween scientific investigators and indi­ Courses in the selection of animals, school biology projects and science fairs, Research Council, and supported by the viduals in the humane movement: each basic elements of animal care and hus­ however, have not always contributed Animal Resources Program Division of group must consider the concerns of the bandry, and experimental animal techni­ to the thoughtful use of animals, nor Research Resources, NIH, are further ex­ other. Some common misunderstandings ques should be a part of all graduate have they reinforced concern for animal amples of positive efforts. These organi­ between the two groups can be iden­ programs in biology in every institution. welfare. Although I am aware that signif­ zations directly influence the educa­ tified (Table 2). On the other hand, anti­ Many examples of this type of program icant changes have been made in guide­ tional programs that provide the stimuli vivisectionists tend to stereotype scien­ are already available at medical schools; lines for use of animals by educational for improvement of the ways in which tists with features such.as those in Table however, courses in this area are not al­ institutions at all levels, many projects experimental animals are used. 3. Most informed scientists and animal­ ways available at other colleges. In addi­ using animals still do not receive proper Scientific publications serve to dis­ oriented people have views that fall some­ tion to formal courses, consultative ser­ supervision and guidance. This often perse information among the scientific where in between. Each side needs the vices in animal use should be available results in thoughtless, repetitive, and in­ community, but can also serve to direct­ other's involvement in its programs to to all investigators. Every graduate humane treatment to animals, in the ly influence animal experimentation, gain new insights and an appreciation of 26 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 27 rr -I

H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

The education of graduate students, school or professional school should 'TABLE 1 Animal Concerns and Usage Committee Charges in particular, has several shortcomings also expand the scope of its human sub­ in regard to instruction in the use of jects and animal care committees to de­ animals. These inadequacies in graduate velop a well-qualified animal concerns 1. To encourage propriety and sound judgment in the assignment of animal resources in teaching andre- education can be corrected, and are be­ and usage committee, with the specific search programs. ing corrected; I believe this effort will charges listed in Table 1. 2. To ensure appropriate use of animals as teaching and research resources. result in important advancements in the 3. To recommend alternatives to animal use, where feasible. quality of care afforded to the individual Educational Resources animal. We must convey to the student 4. To continually monitor animal use and recommend policies that will ensure humane care and concern by faculty, staff, and students. This committee could coordinate and ensure the development of labo­ and to our colleagues our recognition Many people believe that, in our ratory and experimental animal courses for graduate training as previously identified. that in the past animals have contrib­ western civilization, early religious train­ uted enormously to human welfare, and ing has a profound influence on the for­ that their use is a privilege, not a right. A mation of our attitudes toward animals. thorough grounding in their proper treat­ The Christian doctrine, which proclaims name of science. In contrast, there are through the wording of their guidelines ment must be considered as a crucial the dominion of man over animals, can the animal care programs conducted by for acceptance of papers. Thus, they can prerequisite to gaining that privilege. In of course be interpreted in many ways. groups such as 4H and the Boy Scouts, become one part of the educational pro­ addition, researchers must be made While most scholars hold that the con­ which can serve to build up a sense of cess entailed in disseminating high stan­ aware that they need to be observant of cept of dam inion does not release us responsibility and understanding in the dards for animal usage. Editors, referees, the animals themselves and the setting from moral responsibility toward other student. and staff should ensure that all contribu­ in which they are held while under study; creatures, our early attitudes may be in­ Recognition of the need to improve tors are made aware that a review of ev­ they must also give careful thought to fluenced by our own personal interpret­ methods of animal use and care through ery paper will include a close scrutiny of the "why" of their experimental design ation of the word "dominion." Many educational endeavors has been provid­ adherence to the guidelines for the care and the role of animals in it. We must people have unconsciously interpreted ed by numerous organizations. Exam­ of laboratory animals, while the experi­ demonstrate that there are scientific as "dominion" to mean an absolute right to ples of these kinds of programs have mental design will be examined as to the well as humanistic reasons for this con­ use animals, without concern for their been provided by the American Associa­ number and appropriateness of animals cern. The scientific aspects deserve time lives or suffering. tion of Laboratory Animal Science used. Refusal to publish results of ex­ in each graduate student's curriculum, Early education can also influence (AALAS), American College of Laborato­ periments that are judged to have vio­ because they constitute an integral part later behavior and attitudes. Positive ry Animal Medicine (ACLAM), and the lated the guidelines or in which animal of the comprehensive knowledge that he educational experiences can be provid­ American Association for the Accredita­ suffering is obvious can have a profound or she must obtain in his or her discipline. ed in early school years, by such means tion of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC), effect on investigators. Granting institu­ No chemist would ever buy his sodium as the Ralston Purina Company filmstrip humane societies, and medical societies. tions are also in an excellent position to chloride from the grocery store; the chem­ on responsible pet care, designed speci­ Standards for Accreditation for Laboratory give similar instructions to applicants, ist demands "reagent grade," and the an­ fically for use in grades 3-6. Many simi­ Animal Facilities, set by AAALAC, the through evaluations by peer review. imal component of biomedical research lar audiovisual aids such as the movie, Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Another area of education that con­ deserves equally sophisticated consider­ "The Animals Are Crying," are available Animals, prepared by the Institute of cerns all of us is communication be­ ation. through humane societies. Secondary Laboratory Animal Resources, National tween scientific investigators and indi­ Courses in the selection of animals, school biology projects and science fairs, Research Council, and supported by the viduals in the humane movement: each basic elements of animal care and hus­ however, have not always contributed Animal Resources Program Division of group must consider the concerns of the bandry, and experimental animal techni­ to the thoughtful use of animals, nor Research Resources, NIH, are further ex­ other. Some common misunderstandings ques should be a part of all graduate have they reinforced concern for animal amples of positive efforts. These organi­ between the two groups can be iden­ programs in biology in every institution. welfare. Although I am aware that signif­ zations directly influence the educa­ tified (Table 2). On the other hand, anti­ Many examples of this type of program icant changes have been made in guide­ tional programs that provide the stimuli vivisectionists tend to stereotype scien­ are already available at medical schools; lines for use of animals by educational for improvement of the ways in which tists with features such.as those in Table however, courses in this area are not al­ institutions at all levels, many projects experimental animals are used. 3. Most informed scientists and animal­ ways available at other colleges. In addi­ using animals still do not receive proper Scientific publications serve to dis­ oriented people have views that fall some­ tion to formal courses, consultative ser­ supervision and guidance. This often perse information among the scientific where in between. Each side needs the vices in animal use should be available results in thoughtless, repetitive, and in­ community, but can also serve to direct­ other's involvement in its programs to to all investigators. Every graduate humane treatment to animals, in the ly influence animal experimentation, gain new insights and an appreciation of 26 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[1] 1983 27 H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

·TABLE 2 Common Over-reactions the total problem. Mr. Roger Caras, in imal control personnel, and other com­ his keynote speech at the meeting of The munity projects related to animal care. Humane Society of the United States, San Another element in this sort of dialogue 1. All anti-vivisectionists believe that it is unethical for humans to sacrifice lower animal life for the pur- Diego, California, October 1977, remark­ is informing the public about how scien­ poses of biomedical research. ed on the lack of trust between colleges tific knowledge is developed and the 2. The final goal of most anti-vivisectionists is the abolishment of animal research. of veterinary medicine and humane soci­ gains that can be reasonably expected 3. Anti-vivisectionists have no scientific understanding or insight into biomedical experiments. eties on the issue of the ethical use of from science. It is particularly important animals, and that both groups should try that the public realize that the value of 4. Anti-vivisectionists are impractical and uncompromising in their demands. to formulate a sensible approach, since experiments cannot always be estimated 5. Most anti-vivisectionists represent only the affluent class. all share a common goal. He suggested, before they are performed. 6. There is a bias in favor of the animals' interests over those of humans. for example, that the humane societies Veterinary Medical Education 7. There is a distrust or fear of science and scientists. should become involved in selecting course content. In other words, they Education in the respect for all should become a part of the educational animals starts with early influences, and TABLE 3 Anti-vivisectionists Stereotype the Scientist with the Following process so that veterinary students will never ends. Individual ethical values are Features come out of school "not thinking of us largely determined by family influences [the humane movement] as an enemy, and early childhood experiences which but rather as an ally." are, in turn, dependent upon cultural 1. That many or all of the experiments performed are useless. At the present time, this kind of in­ and religious forces. Professional devel­ volvement is operating in the other di­ 2. That they cause unnecessary or unjustified pain. opment and the acquisition of moral rection. Many humane societies, animal values from educational experiences at 3. That, in many cases, more animal life is sacrificed than would be necessary to achieve a stipulated re­ control groups, etc., include veterinar­ professional schools are built on these sult. ians, physicians, and other professionals early foundations. In reference to pro­ 4. That many scientists are inhumane persons, so that society cannot rely upon the general anti-cruelty in their efforts to better the understand­ fessional ethics, it has been generally pre­ laws to control their sadistic behavior; additional legislation is necessary. ing of people and animals. To quote an­ sumed that the professionals themselves other statement by Mr. Caras, "Many are in the best position to make such educators in this country still think of judgments and ascertain that members the humane movement as singularly and fulfill their obligations to the profession. universally anti-vivisectionist, impracti­ However, given the complexity of today's cal, opposed to all aspects of wildlife knowledge, the need for specialized ed­ management, and hostile to all biolo­ ucational resources is clearly evident. I gists, doctors, and other scientists. They believe that we have an additional obli­ think of us as immovable. They are afraid gation relative to the humane education to be associated with us." of those investigators who use animals. The most forward step that could Through the generous contribution of the be made in the educational process is Merck, Sharp, and Dohme Company, the the stimulation of the type of communi­ College of Veterinary Medicine, Univer­ cation that will allow all of us to apprec­ sity of Tennessee, has such a program. iate that we do have a common goal, There are strong arguments for us­ that of ensuring the health of all creat­ ing animals in a veterinary teaching pro­ ures by relieving suffering, pain, and gram, and I believe that their continued fear. To cite one example, finding solu­ use is necessary (Fig. 1). Perhaps it would tions to the skyrocketing overpopula­ be best to start by citing some of the ac­ tion of unwanted pets is one problem cusations that have been made about the shared by all of us. We also need to misuse of animals in teaching programs work together to provide educational in the past. First, students were some­ Figure 1. Phase I students during anatomy class. Working with living animals is not only relevant to teach­ programs for training science fair parti­ times exposed to animals before they ing in clinical medicine, but also instills concern for animals and promotes proper handling and care. cipants (both students and teachers), an- had gained a thorough understanding of

28 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 29 H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

·TABLE 2 Common Over-reactions the total problem. Mr. Roger Caras, in imal control personnel, and other com­ his keynote speech at the meeting of The munity projects related to animal care. Humane Society of the United States, San Another element in this sort of dialogue 1. All anti-vivisectionists believe that it is unethical for humans to sacrifice lower animal life for the pur- Diego, California, October 1977, remark­ is informing the public about how scien­ poses of biomedical research. ed on the lack of trust between colleges tific knowledge is developed and the 2. The final goal of most anti-vivisectionists is the abolishment of animal research. of veterinary medicine and humane soci­ gains that can be reasonably expected 3. Anti-vivisectionists have no scientific understanding or insight into biomedical experiments. eties on the issue of the ethical use of from science. It is particularly important animals, and that both groups should try that the public realize that the value of 4. Anti-vivisectionists are impractical and uncompromising in their demands. to formulate a sensible approach, since experiments cannot always be estimated 5. Most anti-vivisectionists represent only the affluent class. all share a common goal. He suggested, before they are performed. 6. There is a bias in favor of the animals' interests over those of humans. for example, that the humane societies Veterinary Medical Education 7. There is a distrust or fear of science and scientists. should become involved in selecting course content. In other words, they Education in the respect for all should become a part of the educational animals starts with early influences, and TABLE 3 Anti-vivisectionists Stereotype the Scientist with the Following process so that veterinary students will never ends. Individual ethical values are Features come out of school "not thinking of us largely determined by family influences [the humane movement] as an enemy, and early childhood experiences which but rather as an ally." are, in turn, dependent upon cultural 1. That many or all of the experiments performed are useless. At the present time, this kind of in­ and religious forces. Professional devel­ volvement is operating in the other di­ 2. That they cause unnecessary or unjustified pain. opment and the acquisition of moral rection. Many humane societies, animal values from educational experiences at 3. That, in many cases, more animal life is sacrificed than would be necessary to achieve a stipulated re­ control groups, etc., include veterinar­ professional schools are built on these sult. ians, physicians, and other professionals early foundations. In reference to pro­ 4. That many scientists are inhumane persons, so that society cannot rely upon the general anti-cruelty in their efforts to better the understand­ fessional ethics, it has been generally pre­ laws to control their sadistic behavior; additional legislation is necessary. ing of people and animals. To quote an­ sumed that the professionals themselves other statement by Mr. Caras, "Many are in the best position to make such educators in this country still think of judgments and ascertain that members the humane movement as singularly and fulfill their obligations to the profession. universally anti-vivisectionist, impracti­ However, given the complexity of today's cal, opposed to all aspects of wildlife knowledge, the need for specialized ed­ management, and hostile to all biolo­ ucational resources is clearly evident. I gists, doctors, and other scientists. They believe that we have an additional obli­ think of us as immovable. They are afraid gation relative to the humane education to be associated with us." of those investigators who use animals. The most forward step that could Through the generous contribution of the be made in the educational process is Merck, Sharp, and Dohme Company, the the stimulation of the type of communi­ College of Veterinary Medicine, Univer­ cation that will allow all of us to apprec­ sity of Tennessee, has such a program. iate that we do have a common goal, There are strong arguments for us­ that of ensuring the health of all creat­ ing animals in a veterinary teaching pro­ ures by relieving suffering, pain, and gram, and I believe that their continued fear. To cite one example, finding solu­ use is necessary (Fig. 1). Perhaps it would tions to the skyrocketing overpopula­ be best to start by citing some of the ac­ tion of unwanted pets is one problem cusations that have been made about the shared by all of us. We also need to misuse of animals in teaching programs work together to provide educational in the past. First, students were some­ Figure 1. Phase I students during anatomy class. Working with living animals is not only relevant to teach­ programs for training science fair parti­ times exposed to animals before they ing in clinical medicine, but also instills concern for animals and promotes proper handling and care. cipants (both students and teachers), an- had gained a thorough understanding of

28 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 29 _:;

H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

pain, before their training in anesthesiol­ committee on animal usage. A thorough ogy, and most certainly before any dis­ grounding in postoperative care should cussion of humane treatment. Second, also be one of the instructional objec­ little attention was given to proper sur­ tives. Further, strict adherence to accepted gical technique or the application of surgical procedures and techniques of aseptic technique as part of the training postoperative care must be demanded in pharmacology, physiology, or the oth­ by instructors. er preclinical sciences. Third, experi­ The ingredients of thoughtful and ments were often too complex or lengthy appropriate use of animals in an educa­ for beginning students to accomplish. tional setting include: (1) a soundly de­ Fourth, when no one was concerned about signed curriculum, (2) numerous discus­ whether the experimental animal lived sions on the thoughtful use of animals or died, or was used for multiple proced­ and the responsibilities that this goal en­ ures, a lack of humane consideration oft­ tails in appropriate courses; (3) good ex­ en ensued. Finally, there was little em­ amples set by faculty and staff; and (4) phasis on instruction and training in post­ establishment of particu Jar faculty re­ operative care in the initial phases of the sponsibilities by a committee on animal veterinary medical curriculum. In addi­ usage and concern. It is important that tion, some aspects of the misuse of ani­ the curriculum design include a sequenc­ mals can be attributed to overly sympa­ ing of courses, such that physiology, thetic or overly calloused attitudes on pharmacology, and the basic principles the part of students. of anesthesiology can be taught at the Figure 2. Phase I students in surgery lab, second quarter. The principles of surgery must be taught at the Obviously, all these deficiencies can­ earliest possible time. A course on the earliest practical point in the curriculum. not be blamed on any one college, but principles of anesthesia and analgesics we have all participated to one degree prior to their use in animal procedures in or another in contributing to these sorts which pain may be involved is a must, as number of animals needed is an obvious opinion that the appropriate use of sur­ of misuse of animal resources. Every is the insistence that the techniques of consideration in curriculum design. Stud­ vival surgery instills an understanding of school must address the problem of how aseptic surgery be taught before all lab­ ents should be taught to think of all the elements of good pre- and postoper­ to correct its own problems. This means oratory exercises in physiology, phar­ teaching animals as potential patients, to ative care; without this training, callous­ that curricula should be designed to in­ macology, etc., that involve surgical ensure that the principles of exemplary ness to animal life may develop. Also, clude early exposure to the principles procedures (Fig. 2). The inclusion of live care and a humane approach are part of survival surgery can help students learn necessary for proper use of laboratory animals in the initial phase of the curri­ all teaching activities of the curriculum. other aspects of pre- and postoperative animals. Clinicians need to be involved culum is a must, for example, a func­ Students also need a full explanation of care, including how to process specimens at this early stage, in a manner that is tional anatomy section on palpation of the legal and moral responsibilities that for clinical pathology and other support consistent with the objectives of the muscle groups, skeletal processes, etc. upon animal use early in the curri~ procedures that will be required in veter­ chosen instructional model. Discussion Other principles that should be culum, as well as a consideration of inary practice (Fig. 4). of humane treatment and veterinarians' followed include the elimination of any some of the emotional issues involved. The program at the College of Vet­ responsibility to animals, how the school use of animals, in experimentation and Recently, there has been consider­ erinary Medicine, University of Tennes­ purchases teaching animals, regulations teaching, that results in pain for which able discussion on the use of animals in see is based on the premise that the for their control, and inventory and re­ no anesthetic is given. Also, emphasis teaching surgery. I believe that tissue re­ education of future veterinarians, most porting procedures should be part of the should be placed on comparative medi­ pair requires an appreciation for the ac­ of whom will devote their careers to first phase of the curriculum. Under­ cine, by using a variety of appropriate tual sensation of working with tissue and animal-related problems, requires the standing of pain, and of its detection species to introduce students to the the relationship among organs, as well development of concern and responsibi­ and recognition, should be included as diversity that can be expected in veteri­ as practice in the art of stabilizing inci­ lity toward all animals. Let me close by early as possible in physiology classes. nary medicine, instead of depending en­ sions. Much of this can only be learned noting that I have not used the phrase In addition, individual commitment by tirely on dogs and cats (Fig. 3). The ap­ by experience. In teaching these techni­ "animal rights" in this article. Personally, I faculty members is an important ele­ propriate use of demonstrations by de­ ques, however, multiple-survival surgical believe that the thoughtful and humane ment, as is the development of a faculty vices such as videotapes to reduce the procedures should not be used. It is my use of animals in research, teaching, pro- 30 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 31 _:;

H. Kitchen Comment H. Kitchen Comment

pain, before their training in anesthesiol­ committee on animal usage. A thorough ogy, and most certainly before any dis­ grounding in postoperative care should cussion of humane treatment. Second, also be one of the instructional objec­ little attention was given to proper sur­ tives. Further, strict adherence to accepted gical technique or the application of surgical procedures and techniques of aseptic technique as part of the training postoperative care must be demanded in pharmacology, physiology, or the oth­ by instructors. er preclinical sciences. Third, experi­ The ingredients of thoughtful and ments were often too complex or lengthy appropriate use of animals in an educa­ for beginning students to accomplish. tional setting include: (1) a soundly de­ Fourth, when no one was concerned about signed curriculum, (2) numerous discus­ whether the experimental animal lived sions on the thoughtful use of animals or died, or was used for multiple proced­ and the responsibilities that this goal en­ ures, a lack of humane consideration oft­ tails in appropriate courses; (3) good ex­ en ensued. Finally, there was little em­ amples set by faculty and staff; and (4) phasis on instruction and training in post­ establishment of particu Jar faculty re­ operative care in the initial phases of the sponsibilities by a committee on animal veterinary medical curriculum. In addi­ usage and concern. It is important that tion, some aspects of the misuse of ani­ the curriculum design include a sequenc­ mals can be attributed to overly sympa­ ing of courses, such that physiology, thetic or overly calloused attitudes on pharmacology, and the basic principles the part of students. of anesthesiology can be taught at the Figure 2. Phase I students in surgery lab, second quarter. The principles of surgery must be taught at the Obviously, all these deficiencies can­ earliest possible time. A course on the earliest practical point in the curriculum. not be blamed on any one college, but principles of anesthesia and analgesics we have all participated to one degree prior to their use in animal procedures in or another in contributing to these sorts which pain may be involved is a must, as number of animals needed is an obvious opinion that the appropriate use of sur­ of misuse of animal resources. Every is the insistence that the techniques of consideration in curriculum design. Stud­ vival surgery instills an understanding of school must address the problem of how aseptic surgery be taught before all lab­ ents should be taught to think of all the elements of good pre- and postoper­ to correct its own problems. This means oratory exercises in physiology, phar­ teaching animals as potential patients, to ative care; without this training, callous­ that curricula should be designed to in­ macology, etc., that involve surgical ensure that the principles of exemplary ness to animal life may develop. Also, clude early exposure to the principles procedures (Fig. 2). The inclusion of live care and a humane approach are part of survival surgery can help students learn necessary for proper use of laboratory animals in the initial phase of the curri­ all teaching activities of the curriculum. other aspects of pre- and postoperative animals. Clinicians need to be involved culum is a must, for example, a func­ Students also need a full explanation of care, including how to process specimens at this early stage, in a manner that is tional anatomy section on palpation of the legal and moral responsibilities that for clinical pathology and other support consistent with the objectives of the muscle groups, skeletal processes, etc. bear upon animal use early in the curri~ procedures that will be required in veter­ chosen instructional model. Discussion Other principles that should be culum, as well as a consideration of inary practice (Fig. 4). of humane treatment and veterinarians' followed include the elimination of any some of the emotional issues involved. The program at the College of Vet­ responsibility to animals, how the school use of animals, in experimentation and Recently, there has been consider­ erinary Medicine, University of Tennes­ purchases teaching animals, regulations teaching, that results in pain for which able discussion on the use of animals in see is based on the premise that the for their control, and inventory and re­ no anesthetic is given. Also, emphasis teaching surgery. I believe that tissue re­ education of future veterinarians, most porting procedures should be part of the should be placed on comparative medi­ pair requires an appreciation for the ac­ of whom will devote their careers to first phase of the curriculum. Under­ cine, by using a variety of appropriate tual sensation of working with tissue and animal-related problems, requires the standing of pain, and of its detection species to introduce students to the the relationship among organs, as well development of concern and responsibi­ and recognition, should be included as diversity that can be expected in veteri­ as practice in the art of stabilizing inci­ lity toward all animals. Let me close by early as possible in physiology classes. nary medicine, instead of depending en­ sions. Much of this can only be learned noting that I have not used the phrase In addition, individual commitment by tirely on dogs and cats (Fig. 3). The ap­ by experience. In teaching these techni­ "animal rights" in this article. Personally, I faculty members is an important ele­ propriate use of demonstrations by de­ ques, however, multiple-survival surgical believe that the thoughtful and humane ment, as is the development of a faculty vices such as videotapes to reduce the procedures should not be used. It is my use of animals in research, teaching, pro- 30 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 31 I , H. Kitchen Comment Original /Review Articles

duction, or other aspects of this society goes beyond the basic concept of rights. Rather, I feel that we have a moral re­ Abundance and Distribution sponsibility toward animals, and that I have made a substantial commitment to of Large Mammals in the this responsibility. The principles of proper animal use Upper Ogun Game Reserve, in colleges of veterinary medicine can­ not guarantee humane treatment in bio­ Oyo State, Nigeria medical research. However, by setting a good example, our professionals can continue to contribute to improvement T.A. Afolayan, K.R.N. Milligan, and S.O. Salami for the future, through education. In this study, three indirect methods [counts of animal droppings, footprints, and References tracks) were used as indices to estimate the abundance and distribution of large mam­ The Future of Animals, Cells, Models, and mals in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve, which is located in a typical Southern Guinea Systems in Research, Development, savanna zone of Nigeria. Thirteen animal species were recorded; kob, bushbuck, harte­ Education, and Testing (1977) Pro­ beest, roan antelope and duicker were the most abundant. The distribution of large ceedings of a Symposium, Institute mammals appears to be controlled by several factors: accessibility to the River Ogun of Laboratory Animal Resources, Di­ [the main source of water in the reserve), availability of food and cover, and the ex­ Figure 3. The use of a wide range of species vision of Biological Sciences, Assem­ tent of illegal hunting. during teaching is important. bly of Life Sciences, Washington, DC. An analysis of questionnaires distributed to various people living in villages McCoullough, L.B. and Morris, J.P. Ill, ed. around the reserve revealed that these people depend heavily on bushmeat for their (1978) Implications of His tory and animal protein requirements. They also use other wildlife products to meet their eco­ Ethics to Medicine, Centennial Aca­ nomic, social, and cultural needs. It is recommended that adequate protection should be demic Assembly, Texas A & M Uni­ accorded to the game reserve for at least 5 years. After that time, the area could be versity, College Station, TX. opened up to tourism, and controlled hunting could be permitted in the buffer zone Morris, R.K. and Fox, M.W. (1978) On the around the reserve. fifth day, In: Animal Rights and Human Ethics, Acropolis Books, Ltd., Zusammenfassung Washington, DC. Schwabe, C.W. (1978) Cattle, Priests, and In dieser Studie wurden drei indirekte Anzeichen (Yorkommnis von Losung, Ti­ Progress in Medicine, vol. 4, The Wes­ erspuren und Wechsel) dafi.ir verwendet, um die Zahl und Verbreitung von grossen ley W. Spink Lectures on Compar­ Saugetieren im Oberen Ogun Wildreservat, welches in einer fUr S[i'd-Guinea charak­ ative Medicine, University of Min­ teristischen Savannen-Zone liegt, abzuschatzen. nesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. Dreizehn Tierarten wurden festgestellt, unter ihnen Kamas, ri:itlichgraue Antilo­ Visscher, M. B. (1967) Medical research pen, Wasserbi:icke, etc. Die Verbreitung der grossen Saugetiere scheint durch fol­ and ethics, J Am Vet Med Assoc gende Faktoren bestimmt: Zuganglichkeit zum Ogun Fluss (der bedeutendste Was­ 199:9. serlauf im Reservat), Vorhandensein von Nahrung und Deckung und das Ausmass il­ Figure 4. Students giving preoperative care to their legaler Jagd. teaching dog. Students must be responsible for both Eine Analyse der Fragebi:igen, die an die Einwohner verschiedener Di:irfer in der pre- and postoperative care of animals. Umgebung des Reservats verteilt wurden, vermittelte die Information, dass diese Menschen hauptsachlich von Fleisch aus dem Busch fur ihren Tierprotein-Bedarf ab­ hangen. Sie verwenden auch andere Tierprodukte, um ihre wirtschaftlichen, sozialen

T.A. Afolayan and S.O. Salami are at the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, Forestry Build­ ing, University of Jbadan, lbandan, Nigeria. K.R.N. Milligan is at the International Centre for Afri­ ca, Kaduna, Nigeria. 33 32 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 I , H. Kitchen Comment Original /Review Articles

duction, or other aspects of this society goes beyond the basic concept of rights. Rather, I feel that we have a moral re­ Abundance and Distribution sponsibility toward animals, and that I have made a substantial commitment to of Large Mammals in the this responsibility. The principles of proper animal use Upper Ogun Game Reserve, in colleges of veterinary medicine can­ not guarantee humane treatment in bio­ Oyo State, Nigeria medical research. However, by setting a good example, our professionals can continue to contribute to improvement T.A. Afolayan, K.R.N. Milligan, and S.O. Salami for the future, through education. In this study, three indirect methods [counts of animal droppings, footprints, and References tracks) were used as indices to estimate the abundance and distribution of large mam­ The Future of Animals, Cells, Models, and mals in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve, which is located in a typical Southern Guinea Systems in Research, Development, savanna zone of Nigeria. Thirteen animal species were recorded; kob, bushbuck, harte­ Education, and Testing (1977) Pro­ beest, roan antelope and duicker were the most abundant. The distribution of large ceedings of a Symposium, Institute mammals appears to be controlled by several factors: accessibility to the River Ogun of Laboratory Animal Resources, Di­ [the main source of water in the reserve), availability of food and cover, and the ex­ Figure 3. The use of a wide range of species vision of Biological Sciences, Assem­ tent of illegal hunting. during teaching is important. bly of Life Sciences, Washington, DC. An analysis of questionnaires distributed to various people living in villages McCoullough, L.B. and Morris, J.P. Ill, ed. around the reserve revealed that these people depend heavily on bushmeat for their (1978) Implications of His tory and animal protein requirements. They also use other wildlife products to meet their eco­ Ethics to Medicine, Centennial Aca­ nomic, social, and cultural needs. It is recommended that adequate protection should be demic Assembly, Texas A & M Uni­ accorded to the game reserve for at least 5 years. After that time, the area could be versity, College Station, TX. opened up to tourism, and controlled hunting could be permitted in the buffer zone Morris, R.K. and Fox, M.W. (1978) On the around the reserve. fifth day, In: Animal Rights and Human Ethics, Acropolis Books, Ltd., Zusammenfassung Washington, DC. Schwabe, C.W. (1978) Cattle, Priests, and In dieser Studie wurden drei indirekte Anzeichen (Yorkommnis von Losung, Ti­ Progress in Medicine, vol. 4, The Wes­ erspuren und Wechsel) dafi.ir verwendet, um die Zahl und Verbreitung von grossen ley W. Spink Lectures on Compar­ Saugetieren im Oberen Ogun Wildreservat, welches in einer fUr S[i'd-Guinea charak­ ative Medicine, University of Min­ teristischen Savannen-Zone liegt, abzuschatzen. nesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. Dreizehn Tierarten wurden festgestellt, unter ihnen Kamas, ri:itlichgraue Antilo­ Visscher, M. B. (1967) Medical research pen, Wasserbi:icke, etc. Die Verbreitung der grossen Saugetiere scheint durch fol­ and ethics, J Am Vet Med Assoc gende Faktoren bestimmt: Zuganglichkeit zum Ogun Fluss (der bedeutendste Was­ 199:9. serlauf im Reservat), Vorhandensein von Nahrung und Deckung und das Ausmass il­ Figure 4. Students giving preoperative care to their legaler Jagd. teaching dog. Students must be responsible for both Eine Analyse der Fragebi:igen, die an die Einwohner verschiedener Di:irfer in der pre- and postoperative care of animals. Umgebung des Reservats verteilt wurden, vermittelte die Information, dass diese Menschen hauptsachlich von Fleisch aus dem Busch fur ihren Tierprotein-Bedarf ab­ hangen. Sie verwenden auch andere Tierprodukte, um ihre wirtschaftlichen, sozialen

T.A. Afolayan and S.O. Salami are at the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, Forestry Build­ ing, University of Jbadan, lbandan, Nigeria. K.R.N. Milligan is at the International Livestock Centre for Afri­ ca, Kaduna, Nigeria. 33 32 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 ! '

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

und kulturellen BedUrfnisse zu decken. Es wird empfohlen, dem Wildtierreservat fUr N mindestens fUnf Jahre ausreichend Schutz zu gewahren. Nach dieser Periode konnte diese Gegend wieder dem Tourism us freigegeben und eine kontroll ierte J agd in der Pufferzone urn das Reservat gestattet werden. ~,, t \ \ Introduction this area as a source of dietary protein, --==: Streams and it also plays a major role in traditional \ There is a paucity of information on \ medicine. =Roads the abundance and distribution of large \ The game reserve has suffered from \ --- Foot path mammals in Nigerian wildlife reserves indiscriminate hunting for a long time­ (i.e., the National Park and other game ® Rock & Hills most of the more valuable species are reserves), and much of the data that are G Ghost Village approaching extinction and are hard to available were obtained mainly from find. In summary, then, the main objec­ mere guesses made by casual observers tives of this study were to provide relia­ and visitors. Apart from Kainji Lake Na­ ble information on the abundance and tional Park, where some careful research distribution of large mammals in the re­ work has been carried out, the available serve and to investigate the impact of il­ information for other reserves is inade­ legal hunting by the local communities quate, unreliable, and insufficiently sci­ on the wildlife populations in the area. It entific for efficient management of a is hoped that this information will be game reserve. Even in Kainji Lake Nation­ useful in the formulation of a long-term al Park, where some general population management plan for the game reserve. studies have been carried out (Child, 1974; Pel ink, 1974; Milligan, 1979), no study has Study Area ru hill been conducted on the individual large­ Upper Ogun Game Reserve (Fig. 1) mammal species. Similarly, work in the with a total area of 1,100 sq km, is situat­ Yankari Game Reserve in the northeastern ed in the northwestern region of Oyo area of Nigeria performed by Sykes (pers. state, between latitudes 3 V2 and 4 V2 ° E comm.) and Geerling ( 1973) is not suffi­ and longitudes BVl and 9°N. The mean ciently comprehensive for developing a re­ annual rainfall in the reserve is about liable management plan for that reserve. 1,250 mm with a 5-month dry season (Nov­ Generally, very little is known about ember to March). The mean minimum and the wildlife populations of the 60 Nigeri­ maximum daily temperatures are about an wildlife reserves, which include the 0 20 and 34°(, respectively. The terrain is I Upper Ogun Game Reserve, the most im­ gently sloping, with some rocky hills and portant game reserve in the Oyo state of inselbergs located on the southeastern FIGURE 1 Physical features of Upper Ogun Game Reserve Nigeria. We therefore decided to investi­ section, along the boundary of the re­ gate the abundance and distribution of serve. animal populations in this reserve. A sec­ The main drainage system in the re­ ond reason for our selection of the Up­ serve is the River Ogun. It runs from per Ogun was its importance to the peo­ north to south and flows through the The reserve is situated at the north­ 1. Dense woodland and forest outliers ple living in the villages that surround whole length of the reserve. In addition, ern boundary of the forest-savanna mo­ 2. Mixed open savanna woodland; the reserve. Bushmeat (i.e., the flesh of several other streams can be found east saic. It lies in typical Southern Guinea Terminalia macroptera savanna wild animals) from this game reserve of the River Ogun. The soils are derived savanna woodland, with fairly dense wood­ 3. Ironstone and outcrop vegetation and from the surrounding forest reserves from undifferentiated basement complex land and forest outliers found in the south­ 4. Riparian grassland and fringing contributes immensely to the socioeco­ materials. These soils are generally sandy ern region (Geerling, 1973). In his analysis woodland, occupying the flood plains nomic and cultural life of the people. and are classified as feruginous tropical of vegetation, Geerling was able to identify and the areas along the River Ogun, There is a high demand for bushmeat in soi Is on crystal! ine acid rocks. the following principal vegetation types: respectively.

34 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 35 ! '

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

und kulturellen BedUrfnisse zu decken. Es wird empfohlen, dem Wildtierreservat fUr N mindestens fUnf Jahre ausreichend Schutz zu gewahren. Nach dieser Periode konnte diese Gegend wieder dem Tourism us freigegeben und eine kontroll ierte J agd in der Pufferzone urn das Reservat gestattet werden. ~,, t \ \ Introduction this area as a source of dietary protein, --==: Streams and it also plays a major role in traditional \ There is a paucity of information on \ medicine. =Roads the abundance and distribution of large \ The game reserve has suffered from \ --- Foot path mammals in Nigerian wildlife reserves indiscriminate hunting for a long time­ (i.e., the National Park and other game ® Rock & Hills most of the more valuable species are reserves), and much of the data that are G Ghost Village approaching extinction and are hard to available were obtained mainly from find. In summary, then, the main objec­ mere guesses made by casual observers tives of this study were to provide relia­ and visitors. Apart from Kainji Lake Na­ ble information on the abundance and tional Park, where some careful research distribution of large mammals in the re­ work has been carried out, the available serve and to investigate the impact of il­ information for other reserves is inade­ legal hunting by the local communities quate, unreliable, and insufficiently sci­ on the wildlife populations in the area. It entific for efficient management of a is hoped that this information will be game reserve. Even in Kainji Lake Nation­ useful in the formulation of a long-term al Park, where some general population management plan for the game reserve. studies have been carried out (Child, 1974; Pel ink, 1974; Milligan, 1979), no study has Study Area ru hill been conducted on the individual large­ Upper Ogun Game Reserve (Fig. 1) mammal species. Similarly, work in the with a total area of 1,100 sq km, is situat­ Yankari Game Reserve in the northeastern ed in the northwestern region of Oyo area of Nigeria performed by Sykes (pers. state, between latitudes 3 V2 and 4 V2 ° E comm.) and Geerling ( 1973) is not suffi­ and longitudes BVl and 9°N. The mean ciently comprehensive for developing a re­ annual rainfall in the reserve is about liable management plan for that reserve. 1,250 mm with a 5-month dry season (Nov­ Generally, very little is known about ember to March). The mean minimum and the wildlife populations of the 60 Nigeri­ maximum daily temperatures are about an wildlife reserves, which include the 0 20 and 34°(, respectively. The terrain is I Upper Ogun Game Reserve, the most im­ gently sloping, with some rocky hills and portant game reserve in the Oyo state of inselbergs located on the southeastern FIGURE 1 Physical features of Upper Ogun Game Reserve Nigeria. We therefore decided to investi­ section, along the boundary of the re­ gate the abundance and distribution of serve. animal populations in this reserve. A sec­ The main drainage system in the re­ ond reason for our selection of the Up­ serve is the River Ogun. It runs from per Ogun was its importance to the peo­ north to south and flows through the The reserve is situated at the north­ 1. Dense woodland and forest outliers ple living in the villages that surround whole length of the reserve. In addition, ern boundary of the forest-savanna mo­ 2. Mixed open savanna woodland; the reserve. Bushmeat (i.e., the flesh of several other streams can be found east saic. It lies in typical Southern Guinea Terminalia macroptera savanna wild animals) from this game reserve of the River Ogun. The soils are derived savanna woodland, with fairly dense wood­ 3. Ironstone and outcrop vegetation and from the surrounding forest reserves from undifferentiated basement complex land and forest outliers found in the south­ 4. Riparian grassland and fringing contributes immensely to the socioeco­ materials. These soils are generally sandy ern region (Geerling, 1973). In his analysis woodland, occupying the flood plains nomic and cultural life of the people. and are classified as feruginous tropical of vegetation, Geerling was able to identify and the areas along the River Ogun, There is a high demand for bushmeat in soi Is on crystal! ine acid rocks. the following principal vegetation types: respectively.

34 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 35 T.A. Afolayan-LargeMammals in Upper Ogun Original Article TABLE 1. Density of Animals (Number/Square Kilometer) in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve ·

Pellet Average Confidence Count Group Trail Footprint Density limits* Method pie is di, and the estimated total number of droppings accumulated Aor the species, It was impossible to estimate the for the whole study area, D may be given Kob 25.08 11.87 18.04 1833 ±6.60 animal populations in the study area by by: direct methods because of poor visibili­ (1) Cane rat 337 1.60 1.77 2.24 ±0.97 ty in the dense woodlands. We therefore B.=I Nd·I resorted to indirect sampling techniques, Where N = Area of the study area Hare 131 0.64 0.80 0.91 ±034 which involved counting fecal droppings, Area of plot animal tracks, and footprints. Similar in­ The population of each species Pi direct sampling methods have been used Duicker 1.93 2.03 3.11 235 ±0.65 may be estimated using the formula by Wing and Buss (1970) in Uganda and by Afolayan (1975) in the Kilimanjaro Pi= Di (2) ------'----- Aardvark 1.00 0.80 0.93 0.91 ±0.10 forest reserve in Tanzania to estimate R X T· populations. where Di is equal its estimate as ~o Bi Bushbuck 4.11 5.61 8.19 5.97 ±2.06 The most significant limitation in above, Ri is the rate per day the use of these sorts of population in­ of species i, and Ti is the number of days dices is that they can only serve to in­ that elapsed between the first and second Hartebeest 3.01 2.81 4.63 3.48 ±0.99 dicate population trends over time and observations. space and do not necessarily represent In the second part of the study, ques­ Roan antelope 1.96 2.08 3.55 2.53 ±0.88 true head counts for the particular area tionnaires were administered to deter­ under investigation. However, these meth­ mine the frequency of hunting activities, Buffalo 0.19 0.44 0.80 0.47 ±030 ods were used in this study because they the value of the various wildlife species provided the only available means of in terms of meat and medicinal uses, obtaining information on animal activi­ and the extent of protection afforded to Crocodile O.D4 0.03 0.04 0.03 ±0.005 ties and abundance in the study area. the animals. A total of 150 of these ques­ Only the animal species shown in Table tionnaires were distributed to hunters, Spotted hyena 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.08 ±0.02 1 were included in this study. market women, community leaders, and The field study was carried out in elders who resided in villages around the Elephant 0 0.03 0.05 0.026 ±0.02 the dry season of 1979. Ten transects game reserve. The villages include Aha, were randomly selected, with a 100 X 20m Shepeteri, Agunrege, Ago-Amodu, and plot marked off along each transect In­ Ago-Omu. Red River hog 0.01 0.01 0,01 0,01 ±0.00 dices of animal activities such as fecal Market prices for various kinds of droppings, trails, and tracks were observ­ bushmeat, trophies, and skins and bones Total 42.08 28.01 42.03 37.4 ±8.10 ed on each of the plots. Information on were obtained from a sample of market types of vegetation and weather condi­ women and hunters. Experienced hunt­ *Confidence limits were calculated at the 5 perce[Jt probability level. tions at the time of observation were ers, patrolmen, elders, and community also recorded. After the droppings were leaders were interviewed on the medici­ counted for the first time, they were nal uses of wildlife. Data on the number prints. High counts for pellet groups, foot­ duicker. High pellet counts were record­ marked with wooden pegs and left for of offenses and arrests, and information prints, and trails were recorded for kob, ed for these species, while low counts observation on a second occasion, to de­ on compoundings and fines, was collected cane rat, bushbuck, duicker, and hare in were noted for buffalo, elephant, and termine the nature and speed of decom­ from the Game Management Headquar­ the riparian savanna grassland, while Red River hog. position over time. ters of Oyo state. low counts were recorded for hartebeest Seven animal species were identified Mathematical formulations were con­ and roan antelope. (The nomenclature in the open savanna woodland. Here, structed for estimating populations from Results for the animals discussed follows that of there was a decrease in pellet, footprint, these data: Let di be the number of drop­ Dorst and Dandelot, 1970.) and trail counts for kob, cane rat, and pings accumulated in each plot for each Table 1 lists the 13 species of large In the mixed-savanna woodland, the hare but a rise in the counts for bushbuck. species in the interval between the first mammals studied in the reserve and the following species were identified: kob, In the dense woodland, a total of and second observations (after decom­ indices of their abundance, calculated aardvark, bushbuck, hartebeest, and seven species was observed. Of these, position). The mean for the whole sam- from counts of droppings, tracks, and foot- /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 37 36 INTI STUD ANIM PROB 4(1} 1983 T.A. Afolayan-LargeMammals in Upper Ogun Original Article TABLE 1. Density of Animals (Number/Square Kilometer) in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve ·

Pellet Average Confidence Count Group Trail Footprint Density limits* Method pie is di, and the estimated total number of droppings accumulated Aor the species, It was impossible to estimate the for the whole study area, D may be given Kob 25.08 11.87 18.04 1833 ±6.60 animal populations in the study area by by: direct methods because of poor visibili­ (1) Cane rat 337 1.60 1.77 2.24 ±0.97 ty in the dense woodlands. We therefore B.=I Nd·I resorted to indirect sampling techniques, Where N = Area of the study area Hare 131 0.64 0.80 0.91 ±034 which involved counting fecal droppings, Area of plot animal tracks, and footprints. Similar in­ The population of each species Pi direct sampling methods have been used Duicker 1.93 2.03 3.11 235 ±0.65 may be estimated using the formula by Wing and Buss (1970) in Uganda and by Afolayan (1975) in the Kilimanjaro Pi= Di (2) ------'----- Aardvark 1.00 0.80 0.93 0.91 ±0.10 forest reserve in Tanzania to estimate R X T· elephant populations. where Di is equal its estimate as ~o Bi Bushbuck 4.11 5.61 8.19 5.97 ±2.06 The most significant limitation in above, Ri is the defecation rate per day the use of these sorts of population in­ of species i, and Ti is the number of days dices is that they can only serve to in­ that elapsed between the first and second Hartebeest 3.01 2.81 4.63 3.48 ±0.99 dicate population trends over time and observations. space and do not necessarily represent In the second part of the study, ques­ Roan antelope 1.96 2.08 3.55 2.53 ±0.88 true head counts for the particular area tionnaires were administered to deter­ under investigation. However, these meth­ mine the frequency of hunting activities, Buffalo 0.19 0.44 0.80 0.47 ±030 ods were used in this study because they the value of the various wildlife species provided the only available means of in terms of meat and medicinal uses, obtaining information on animal activi­ and the extent of protection afforded to Crocodile O.D4 0.03 0.04 0.03 ±0.005 ties and abundance in the study area. the animals. A total of 150 of these ques­ Only the animal species shown in Table tionnaires were distributed to hunters, Spotted hyena 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.08 ±0.02 1 were included in this study. market women, community leaders, and The field study was carried out in elders who resided in villages around the Elephant 0 0.03 0.05 0.026 ±0.02 the dry season of 1979. Ten transects game reserve. The villages include Aha, were randomly selected, with a 100 X 20m Shepeteri, Agunrege, Ago-Amodu, and plot marked off along each transect In­ Ago-Omu. Red River hog 0.01 0.01 0,01 0,01 ±0.00 dices of animal activities such as fecal Market prices for various kinds of droppings, trails, and tracks were observ­ bushmeat, trophies, and skins and bones Total 42.08 28.01 42.03 37.4 ±8.10 ed on each of the plots. Information on were obtained from a sample of market types of vegetation and weather condi­ women and hunters. Experienced hunt­ *Confidence limits were calculated at the 5 perce[Jt probability level. tions at the time of observation were ers, patrolmen, elders, and community also recorded. After the droppings were leaders were interviewed on the medici­ counted for the first time, they were nal uses of wildlife. Data on the number prints. High counts for pellet groups, foot­ duicker. High pellet counts were record­ marked with wooden pegs and left for of offenses and arrests, and information prints, and trails were recorded for kob, ed for these species, while low counts observation on a second occasion, to de­ on compoundings and fines, was collected cane rat, bushbuck, duicker, and hare in were noted for buffalo, elephant, and termine the nature and speed of decom­ from the Game Management Headquar­ the riparian savanna grassland, while Red River hog. position over time. ters of Oyo state. low counts were recorded for hartebeest Seven animal species were identified Mathematical formulations were con­ and roan antelope. (The nomenclature in the open savanna woodland. Here, structed for estimating populations from Results for the animals discussed follows that of there was a decrease in pellet, footprint, these data: Let di be the number of drop­ Dorst and Dandelot, 1970.) and trail counts for kob, cane rat, and pings accumulated in each plot for each Table 1 lists the 13 species of large In the mixed-savanna woodland, the hare but a rise in the counts for bushbuck. species in the interval between the first mammals studied in the reserve and the following species were identified: kob, In the dense woodland, a total of and second observations (after decom­ indices of their abundance, calculated aardvark, bushbuck, hartebeest, and seven species was observed. Of these, position). The mean for the whole sam- from counts of droppings, tracks, and foot- /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 37 36 INTI STUD ANIM PROB 4(1} 1983 T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

there were high counts for hartebeest, and distribution of pellets, trails, and ates, primates, hyrax, rodents, birds, and hunters and the fines paid from 1967 to roan antelope, duicker, buffalo, and bush­ footprints. Counts for pellets, trails, and . About 80 percent of the rural 1978 are presented. This information buck. Nothing was recorded for hare, footprints were higher along the river population depends on bushmeat, and was obtained from the Came Manage­ cane rat, and crocodile, but the first sign course; counts decreased gradually as approximately 40 percent take up hunt­ ment Headquarters in Oyo. A total of of a spotted hyena was recorded in this the distance from the river increased. ing as a profession. About 65 percent of 151 arrests were made in 12 years; the vegetation zone. Variations in the distribution of animal the hunters interviewed stated that kob total amount of fines collected was Considering the entire study area, species also appear among the different is the most abundant animal species in 2,610.39 Naira. Most of the arrests were and the 13 animal species studied, kob vegetation zones. For example, buffalo, the game reserve and that bushbuck, harte­ made between December and May, but had the highest pellet, footprint, and trail hartebeest, and roan antelope were more beest, roan antelope, and duicker also at least 1 person was arrested in every counts, except in the dense savanna wood­ frequent in the dense savanna woodland occur in great numbers. month. land. The density of kob populations was than in the other vegetation zones, while Among the Fulani, Hausa, and Bo­ also highest (25.08/sq km, according to kobs were commonly seen in the riparian roro hunters, the weapons used for hunt­ Discussion the pellet count index), followed by bush­ grassland and in the areas around the ing range from bows and arrows to dane This study has revealed the impor­ buck (5.97/sq km). The average density River Ogun. guns. Also, most of the local hunters use tance of the River Ogun in determining of all animals in the reserve, calculated traps and ropes. About 90 percent of the the abundance and distribution of some from the indices used, is 37.4/sq km. Utilization of Wildlife hunters interviewed affirmed that they ungulates and reptiles in the Upper Ogun The analyses of the questionnaires were aware that hunting in the reserve is Distribution of animals Came Reserve. The animals that are more showed that wildlife is a very important illegal but claimed that they hunted on­ closely associated with the river during part of the life of the local people, in ly in the area outside the reserve. The Figure 2 shows the effect of the River the dry season are kob, bushbuck, cane migrant hunters set up camps and are Ogun on the distribution of large mam­ traditional medicine and witchcraft, and rat, duicker, and crocodile. Other spe­ able to remain in the reserve for as long mals in the game reserve. The distance as a source of protein. A wide variety of cies such as hartebeest and roan ante­ as 3 weeks at a time. Hunting is carried from the river is presented on X axis, wild animals are eaten by the local com­ lope were encountered at some distance munities, including all of the wild ungul- out principally during the dry season, while the Y axis shows the abundance from the riverine areas. These latter when the animals are easier to spot. The species are often referred to as typical dressed carcass is often chopped up into upland savanna animals (Afolayan and 210 small pieces, hard-roasted, and then Ajayi, 1980; Milligan, 1979). Their choice 200 packed into sacks. of habitat does not mean that these 190 About 40 percent of the hunters in­ ui animals do not require water-they do "E I S.O terviewed stated that they would prefer visit watersides at least once daily, but ·~ 170 to send their children to school instead 160 of training them to become future hunt­ then return to the upland savanna areas. 0 -Pellet 0 150 ers. On the other hand, about 50 percent Studies carried out on kobs in Nige­ +--+ Foot print all 140 held the view that hunting represents an ria (Child, 1974; Pelinck, 1974; Milligan, 130 )t-----j( Trail ·a important tradition that ought to be 1979) and elsewhere in East Africa have 120 z passed down to future generations. The shown that the animal is fairly sedenta­ 110 other 10 percent could not state catego­ ry. Normally, it does not travel farther -..!!! 100 a; than 5 km from a source of water. a. 90 rically categorically whether it was pre­ -0 ao ferable to train children to hunt or toed­ Figure 2 also shows the effect of the c 70 ucate them for other kinds of work. River Ogun on the distribution of the ri­ :8 60 :::J Table 2 lists the 21 species of animals parian species mentioned above (i.e., ..c E 50 that were for sale in various markets kob and allied species). High counts of cUl 40 around the reserve at the time of our pellets, footprints, and trails of these 30 study, including Aha, Ago-Amodu, She­ species are found along the River Ogun, 20 peteri, lseyin, Agunrege, Ago-Omu, and but the counts decrease rapidly as one 10 Shaki. The average market price is given moves away from the river. A high rela­ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120130 140 ISO 160170 ISO 190 200210 220 230240250260270280290300 for each species. Note that these prices tive population density was recorded for Quadrat distance from River Ogun ( m ). are not fixed: they fluctuate with time kob and the allied species that are more and region. water-dependent, while lower densities FIGURE 2 Effect of River Ogun on the distribution of large mammals in Upper Ogun Game Reserve In Table 3, the number of arrests of were noted for hartebeest and roan ante- 38 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 39 T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

there were high counts for hartebeest, and distribution of pellets, trails, and ates, primates, hyrax, rodents, birds, and hunters and the fines paid from 1967 to roan antelope, duicker, buffalo, and bush­ footprints. Counts for pellets, trails, and reptiles. About 80 percent of the rural 1978 are presented. This information buck. Nothing was recorded for hare, footprints were higher along the river population depends on bushmeat, and was obtained from the Came Manage­ cane rat, and crocodile, but the first sign course; counts decreased gradually as approximately 40 percent take up hunt­ ment Headquarters in Oyo. A total of of a spotted hyena was recorded in this the distance from the river increased. ing as a profession. About 65 percent of 151 arrests were made in 12 years; the vegetation zone. Variations in the distribution of animal the hunters interviewed stated that kob total amount of fines collected was Considering the entire study area, species also appear among the different is the most abundant animal species in 2,610.39 Naira. Most of the arrests were and the 13 animal species studied, kob vegetation zones. For example, buffalo, the game reserve and that bushbuck, harte­ made between December and May, but had the highest pellet, footprint, and trail hartebeest, and roan antelope were more beest, roan antelope, and duicker also at least 1 person was arrested in every counts, except in the dense savanna wood­ frequent in the dense savanna woodland occur in great numbers. month. land. The density of kob populations was than in the other vegetation zones, while Among the Fulani, Hausa, and Bo­ also highest (25.08/sq km, according to kobs were commonly seen in the riparian roro hunters, the weapons used for hunt­ Discussion the pellet count index), followed by bush­ grassland and in the areas around the ing range from bows and arrows to dane This study has revealed the impor­ buck (5.97/sq km). The average density River Ogun. guns. Also, most of the local hunters use tance of the River Ogun in determining of all animals in the reserve, calculated traps and ropes. About 90 percent of the the abundance and distribution of some from the indices used, is 37.4/sq km. Utilization of Wildlife hunters interviewed affirmed that they ungulates and reptiles in the Upper Ogun The analyses of the questionnaires were aware that hunting in the reserve is Distribution of animals Came Reserve. The animals that are more showed that wildlife is a very important illegal but claimed that they hunted on­ closely associated with the river during part of the life of the local people, in ly in the area outside the reserve. The Figure 2 shows the effect of the River the dry season are kob, bushbuck, cane migrant hunters set up camps and are Ogun on the distribution of large mam­ traditional medicine and witchcraft, and rat, duicker, and crocodile. Other spe­ able to remain in the reserve for as long mals in the game reserve. The distance as a source of protein. A wide variety of cies such as hartebeest and roan ante­ as 3 weeks at a time. Hunting is carried from the river is presented on X axis, wild animals are eaten by the local com­ lope were encountered at some distance munities, including all of the wild ungul- out principally during the dry season, while the Y axis shows the abundance from the riverine areas. These latter when the animals are easier to spot. The species are often referred to as typical dressed carcass is often chopped up into upland savanna animals (Afolayan and 210 small pieces, hard-roasted, and then Ajayi, 1980; Milligan, 1979). Their choice 200 packed into sacks. of habitat does not mean that these 190 About 40 percent of the hunters in­ ui animals do not require water-they do "E I S.O terviewed stated that they would prefer visit watersides at least once daily, but ·~ 170 to send their children to school instead 160 of training them to become future hunt­ then return to the upland savanna areas. 0 -Pellet 0 150 ers. On the other hand, about 50 percent Studies carried out on kobs in Nige­ +--+ Foot print all 140 held the view that hunting represents an ria (Child, 1974; Pelinck, 1974; Milligan, 130 )t-----j( Trail ·a important tradition that ought to be 1979) and elsewhere in East Africa have 120 z passed down to future generations. The shown that the animal is fairly sedenta­ 110 other 10 percent could not state catego­ ry. Normally, it does not travel farther -..!!! 100 a; than 5 km from a source of water. a. 90 rically categorically whether it was pre­ -0 ao ferable to train children to hunt or toed­ Figure 2 also shows the effect of the c 70 ucate them for other kinds of work. River Ogun on the distribution of the ri­ :8 60 :::J Table 2 lists the 21 species of animals parian species mentioned above (i.e., ..c E 50 that were for sale in various markets kob and allied species). High counts of cUl 40 around the reserve at the time of our pellets, footprints, and trails of these 30 study, including Aha, Ago-Amodu, She­ species are found along the River Ogun, 20 peteri, lseyin, Agunrege, Ago-Omu, and but the counts decrease rapidly as one 10 Shaki. The average market price is given moves away from the river. A high rela­ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120130 140 ISO 160170 ISO 190 200210 220 230240250260270280290300 for each species. Note that these prices tive population density was recorded for Quadrat distance from River Ogun ( m ). are not fixed: they fluctuate with time kob and the allied species that are more and region. water-dependent, while lower densities FIGURE 2 Effect of River Ogun on the distribution of large mammals in Upper Ogun Game Reserve In Table 3, the number of arrests of were noted for hartebeest and roan ante- 38 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 39 I'

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

0 co LI) LI) LI) LI) <:!'> ,­ 0 N ,.,..,0 N " LI) lope, which are less dependent on water. Game Reserve in Tanzania and by Field

The importance of water, food, and (1968), who also worked in East Africa. u Ql 0 0 0 0 0 cover in the distribution of ungulates Field observed that ungulates require Q has been shown by Afolayan (1976), who water for drinking, as well as for wallow­ studied these species at the Mkomazi ing during hot weather. Geerling and > z0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 ....u TABLE 2. Approximate Market Prices of Bushmeat, Trophies, and Skins of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Some Large African Mammals

c. Ql 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Price "' Animal species Part of Animal Involved (in Naira)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bushbuck Dressed carcass 50-90 Elephant Dressed carcass 500-800 Tusk 400-600 .a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Buffalo Dressed carcass 300 Skin 80 .. al Cl. Cl. c Lion Dresed carcass 100 ::J 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Skin 80 ~ ..cal Leopard Dressed carcass 110 ..... Skin 100 c Qj'

Red River hog Dressed carcass 20 0 0 0 0 0 2 "'0 Skin 10 >- .. Q Bush pig Dressed carcass al 120 Cl. c: "C c. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ::: Cane rat Dressed carcass 2 al <( .8 c 0 >- Bush fowl Dressed carcass 5 1.1. 0 "C c: Duicker Dressed carcass 20-30 c 0 0 co 0 ... !II lJ') Cane rat Dressed carcass 10-15 "C al 't;;· Python Dressed carcass 100 al .c 0 Skin 60 .. Ql 0 0 0 0 0 < u.. Kob Dressed carcass 70 til ...... c: Skin 8 al C!J • .... c EN c .. 0 0 0 0 0 Warthog Dressed carcass 20 = "',...­C!JCJ)C!'> " :c c:-o Waterbuck Dressed carcass 150 .... "' c: 0 ~ C!J ,...-"' Roan Antelope Dressed carcass 150 al.. E ~ Skin 20 .c 0 co co "',...­ E lJ c: Hartebeest Dressed carcass 150 z= Oribi Dressed carcass 10 ....!II 0 Spotted hyena Dressed carcass 60 1- Skin 40 ..... t"'i 0 co <( 1- <:!'> <:!'> Aardvark Dressed carcass 40 1.1.1 " " 0 -I 1- Dwarf mongoose Dressed carcass 3 = l-< Data from interviews with market women in Ago Omu, Shepeteri, Agungere, Ago Amodu and Aha villages. INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 40 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 I'

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

0 co LI) LI) LI) LI) <:!'> ,­ 0 N ,.,..,0 N " LI) lope, which are less dependent on water. Game Reserve in Tanzania and by Field

The importance of water, food, and (1968), who also worked in East Africa. u Ql 0 0 0 0 0 cover in the distribution of ungulates Field observed that ungulates require Q has been shown by Afolayan (1976), who water for drinking, as well as for wallow­ studied these species at the Mkomazi ing during hot weather. Geerling and > z0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 ....u TABLE 2. Approximate Market Prices of Bushmeat, Trophies, and Skins of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Some Large African Mammals

c. Ql 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Price "' Animal species Part of Animal Involved (in Naira)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bushbuck Dressed carcass 50-90 Elephant Dressed carcass 500-800 Tusk 400-600 .a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Buffalo Dressed carcass 300 Skin 80 .. al Cl. Cl. c Lion Dresed carcass 100 ::J 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Skin 80 ~ ..cal Leopard Dressed carcass 110 ..... Skin 100 c Qj'

Red River hog Dressed carcass 20 0 0 0 0 0 2 "'0 Skin 10 >- .. Q Bush pig Dressed carcass al 120 Cl. c: "C c. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ::: Cane rat Dressed carcass 2 al <( .8 c 0 >- Bush fowl Dressed carcass 5 1.1. 0 "C c: Duicker Dressed carcass 20-30 c 0 0 co 0 ... !II lJ') Cane rat Dressed carcass 10-15 "C al 't;;· Python Dressed carcass 100 al .c 0 Skin 60 .. Ql 0 0 0 0 0 < u.. Kob Dressed carcass 70 til ...... c: Skin 8 al C!J • .... c EN c .. 0 0 0 0 0 Warthog Dressed carcass 20 = "',...­C!JCJ)C!'> " :c c:-o Waterbuck Dressed carcass 150 .... "' c: 0 ~ C!J ,...-"' Roan Antelope Dressed carcass 150 al.. E ~ Skin 20 .c 0 co co "',...­ E lJ c: Hartebeest Dressed carcass 150 z= Oribi Dressed carcass 10 ....!II 0 Spotted hyena Dressed carcass 60 1- Skin 40 ..... t"'i 0 co <( 1- <:!'> <:!'> Aardvark Dressed carcass 40 1.1.1 " " 0 -I 1- Dwarf mongoose Dressed carcass 3 = l-< Data from interviews with market women in Ago Omu, Shepeteri, Agungere, Ago Amodu and Aha villages. INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 40 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

Bokdam (1973) classified the large-mam­ animal protein consumed by the people ditions might be to increase the number References mal species they identified in Comoe around the Upper Ogun Game Reserve. of patrolmen in the area. Those patrol­ Afolayan, T.A. (1975) Effects of elephant National Park, Ivory Coast, into three They also depend upon wildlife trophies men who work only on a daily basis activities on forest plantations in Kili­ categories on the basis of the animals' for traditional medicine and for invok­ should be absorbed into the permanent manjaro Forest Game Reserve in Tan­ water requirements. Kob, waterbuck, ing or appeasing the practices of witch­ service to ensure their effective cooper­ zania. 01KOS 26(3):405-410. and red-flanked duicker were classified craft. Studies conducted by Ajayi (1971, ation and participation. Also, more patrol Afolayan, T.A. (1976) Distribution and rel­ as species that reside near water. This 1978) and Asibey (197 4) revealed that wild­ posts and stations sho!Jid be built. Every ative abundance of hartebeest in four was also found to be true for the kob life plays a significant role in the nutri­ effort should be made to encourage the rangelands. Mammalia 40(2):245-256. and the other allied species that we stud­ tion, dress, religion, and employment of participation of the local communities Afol ayan, T.A. and Ajayi, S.S. (1980) The ied in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve. El­ the rural communities of the west Afri­ in every step taken by the state govern­ influence of seasonality on the distri­ ephant and buffalo were classified as can coast. In the study area, the hunters ment to conserve wildlife in the area. bution of large mammals in the Yan­ species that were partial to water and and other traders in bushmeat realize a The revenue realized from the manage­ kari Game Reserve, Nigeria. Afr j Ecol shade but that were also wide ranging. high level of revenue from their illegal ment of the reserve should be used to 78:87-96. The third category included those spe­ sales. They therefore strive to maintain a develop the local communities, in order Ajayi, S.S. (1971) Wildlife as a source of cies that do not have a daily need for flourishing trade in animals, irrespective to ensure their confidence and coopera­ protein in Nigeria: some priorities for water. Species in this category included of the law and the counter-efforts made tion, as well as the success of the whole development. Niger Field 36(3):115-127. hartebeest, roan antelope, warthog, ori­ by game managers. The number of arrests program. We also suggest that the reserve Ajayi, S.S. (1978) The utilization of tropi­ bi, and grey duicker. made, and the cash received in fines real­ not be opened to tourism until 5 years cal forest wildlife: state of knowledge The different vegetation zones also ized from these arrests, are negligible after an adequate level of protection and research priorities. Paper present­ showed variations in the abundance and when compared with the number of ani­ has been achieved and maintained. ed at the Eighth World Forestry Con­ distribution of large mammals. This finding mals that are being killed illegally every This study has shown that wildlife gress, Jakarta, 1978. may be attributed in part to differences in day, especially during the hunting season. meat and trophies make a significant Asibey, E.O.A. (1974) Wildlife as a source plant species composition among the Therefore, it must be particularly contribution to the socioeconomic and of protein in Africa south of the Saha­ the several zones. For example, kob, emphasized that illegal hunting greatly cultural life of the people in the area. ra. Bioi Conserv 6(1):32-39. cane rat, and hare were more abundant affects the abundance and distribution We therefore recommend that hunting Child, G.S. (1974) An ecological survey of in the riparian grassland than in the of the animals in the study area, and not be banned completely in the region. Borgu Game Reserve, FAO/UN, Rome, other vegetation zones. This fact dem­ constitutes an important factor in deter­ Instead, a buffer zone should be created Technical Report No.4, FI:SF/NIR 24. onstrates that water is not the only fac" mining population levels, in addition to around the reserve where controlled hunt­ Dorst,). and Dandelot, P. (1970) A Field tor that determines the distribution of the other crucial factors, water, food, ing can take place, while the reserve Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. large mammals; the relative availability and cover. itself serves as a breeding and growing Collins, London. of perennial grasses for feeding is cru­ ground for the various wildlife species. Field, C. (1968) The Food Habits of Some cial as well. The availability of food (es­ Conclusions and Recommendations Wild Ungulates in Uganda, Ph.D. thesis. pecially browse species) and cover in In this study, we found that the Up­ University of Cambridge, Cambridge, the dense savanna woodland is responsi­ Acknowledgments per Ogun Game Reserve, which is located U.K. ble for the relatively high density of roan in a typical Southern Guinea savanna of We wish to express our profound Geerling, C. (1973) Vegetation map of Up­ antelope, hartebeest, bushbuck, and the West Africa, still contains high densities gratitude to the Chief Conservator of For~ per Ogun Game Reserve, FAO Work­ somewhat lower numbers of duickers in of kob, bushbuck, hartebeest, and roan ests for Oyo State and O.F. Faleye, Assis­ ing Document. FAO Forestry Depart­ this area. This finding supports the con­ antelope. The important factors that were tant Chief Conservator of Forests, Forestry ment, Rome. clusion of Odum (1971) that distribution identified as affecting the abundance Division, Secretariat, lbadan, for giving Geerling, C. and Bokdam, ). (1973) Fauna of large mammals is affected by availa­ and distribution of large mammals in the us permission and the necessary assis­ of the Comoe National Park, Ivory bility of food and cover. Napierbax and reserve are: source of perennial water, tance to carry out our field work in the Coast. Bioi Conserv 5(4):251-257. Sheldrick (1963) have also demonstrated food (browse and grass species), cover, Upper Ogun Game Reserve. Milligan, K.R.N. (1979) An Ecological Basis the importance of browse plants in the dis­ and illegal hunting. We are also highly indebted to Pro­ for the Management of.Lake Kainji Na­ tribution and abundance of . Future prospects for tourism, and fessor S.S. Ajayi, head of the Department tional Park, Nigeria, Ph.D. Thesis. Uni­ Utilization of Wildlife in the consequent benefits to management, of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, versity of I bad an, Nigeria. Upper Ogun Area seem favorable if the present methods University of lbadan, for providing us Napier-Sax, P. and Sheldrick, D.L.W. (1963) It became clear from our study that of protection can be improved upon. with the moral and financial support for Some preliminary observations on the bushmeat comprises the bulk of the One means of ameliorating present con- producing this manuscript. food of in the Tsavo Royal 42 JNT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANJM PROB 4(1) 1983 43 T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article

Bokdam (1973) classified the large-mam­ animal protein consumed by the people ditions might be to increase the number References mal species they identified in Comoe around the Upper Ogun Game Reserve. of patrolmen in the area. Those patrol­ Afolayan, T.A. (1975) Effects of elephant National Park, Ivory Coast, into three They also depend upon wildlife trophies men who work only on a daily basis activities on forest plantations in Kili­ categories on the basis of the animals' for traditional medicine and for invok­ should be absorbed into the permanent manjaro Forest Game Reserve in Tan­ water requirements. Kob, waterbuck, ing or appeasing the practices of witch­ service to ensure their effective cooper­ zania. 01KOS 26(3):405-410. and red-flanked duicker were classified craft. Studies conducted by Ajayi (1971, ation and participation. Also, more patrol Afolayan, T.A. (1976) Distribution and rel­ as species that reside near water. This 1978) and Asibey (197 4) revealed that wild­ posts and stations sho!Jid be built. Every ative abundance of hartebeest in four was also found to be true for the kob life plays a significant role in the nutri­ effort should be made to encourage the rangelands. Mammalia 40(2):245-256. and the other allied species that we stud­ tion, dress, religion, and employment of participation of the local communities Afol ayan, T.A. and Ajayi, S.S. (1980) The ied in the Upper Ogun Game Reserve. El­ the rural communities of the west Afri­ in every step taken by the state govern­ influence of seasonality on the distri­ ephant and buffalo were classified as can coast. In the study area, the hunters ment to conserve wildlife in the area. bution of large mammals in the Yan­ species that were partial to water and and other traders in bushmeat realize a The revenue realized from the manage­ kari Game Reserve, Nigeria. Afr j Ecol shade but that were also wide ranging. high level of revenue from their illegal ment of the reserve should be used to 78:87-96. The third category included those spe­ sales. They therefore strive to maintain a develop the local communities, in order Ajayi, S.S. (1971) Wildlife as a source of cies that do not have a daily need for flourishing trade in animals, irrespective to ensure their confidence and coopera­ protein in Nigeria: some priorities for water. Species in this category included of the law and the counter-efforts made tion, as well as the success of the whole development. Niger Field 36(3):115-127. hartebeest, roan antelope, warthog, ori­ by game managers. The number of arrests program. We also suggest that the reserve Ajayi, S.S. (1978) The utilization of tropi­ bi, and grey duicker. made, and the cash received in fines real­ not be opened to tourism until 5 years cal forest wildlife: state of knowledge The different vegetation zones also ized from these arrests, are negligible after an adequate level of protection and research priorities. Paper present­ showed variations in the abundance and when compared with the number of ani­ has been achieved and maintained. ed at the Eighth World Forestry Con­ distribution of large mammals. This finding mals that are being killed illegally every This study has shown that wildlife gress, Jakarta, 1978. may be attributed in part to differences in day, especially during the hunting season. meat and trophies make a significant Asibey, E.O.A. (1974) Wildlife as a source plant species composition among the Therefore, it must be particularly contribution to the socioeconomic and of protein in Africa south of the Saha­ the several zones. For example, kob, emphasized that illegal hunting greatly cultural life of the people in the area. ra. Bioi Conserv 6(1):32-39. cane rat, and hare were more abundant affects the abundance and distribution We therefore recommend that hunting Child, G.S. (1974) An ecological survey of in the riparian grassland than in the of the animals in the study area, and not be banned completely in the region. Borgu Game Reserve, FAO/UN, Rome, other vegetation zones. This fact dem­ constitutes an important factor in deter­ Instead, a buffer zone should be created Technical Report No.4, FI:SF/NIR 24. onstrates that water is not the only fac" mining population levels, in addition to around the reserve where controlled hunt­ Dorst,). and Dandelot, P. (1970) A Field tor that determines the distribution of the other crucial factors, water, food, ing can take place, while the reserve Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. large mammals; the relative availability and cover. itself serves as a breeding and growing Collins, London. of perennial grasses for feeding is cru­ ground for the various wildlife species. Field, C. (1968) The Food Habits of Some cial as well. The availability of food (es­ Conclusions and Recommendations Wild Ungulates in Uganda, Ph.D. thesis. pecially browse species) and cover in In this study, we found that the Up­ University of Cambridge, Cambridge, the dense savanna woodland is responsi­ Acknowledgments per Ogun Game Reserve, which is located U.K. ble for the relatively high density of roan in a typical Southern Guinea savanna of We wish to express our profound Geerling, C. (1973) Vegetation map of Up­ antelope, hartebeest, bushbuck, and the West Africa, still contains high densities gratitude to the Chief Conservator of For~ per Ogun Game Reserve, FAO Work­ somewhat lower numbers of duickers in of kob, bushbuck, hartebeest, and roan ests for Oyo State and O.F. Faleye, Assis­ ing Document. FAO Forestry Depart­ this area. This finding supports the con­ antelope. The important factors that were tant Chief Conservator of Forests, Forestry ment, Rome. clusion of Odum (1971) that distribution identified as affecting the abundance Division, Secretariat, lbadan, for giving Geerling, C. and Bokdam, ). (1973) Fauna of large mammals is affected by availa­ and distribution of large mammals in the us permission and the necessary assis­ of the Comoe National Park, Ivory bility of food and cover. Napierbax and reserve are: source of perennial water, tance to carry out our field work in the Coast. Bioi Conserv 5(4):251-257. Sheldrick (1963) have also demonstrated food (browse and grass species), cover, Upper Ogun Game Reserve. Milligan, K.R.N. (1979) An Ecological Basis the importance of browse plants in the dis­ and illegal hunting. We are also highly indebted to Pro­ for the Management of.Lake Kainji Na­ tribution and abundance of herbivores. Future prospects for tourism, and fessor S.S. Ajayi, head of the Department tional Park, Nigeria, Ph.D. Thesis. Uni­ Utilization of Wildlife in the consequent benefits to management, of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, versity of I bad an, Nigeria. Upper Ogun Area seem favorable if the present methods University of lbadan, for providing us Napier-Sax, P. and Sheldrick, D.L.W. (1963) It became clear from our study that of protection can be improved upon. with the moral and financial support for Some preliminary observations on the bushmeat comprises the bulk of the One means of ameliorating present con- producing this manuscript. food of elephants in the Tsavo Royal 42 JNT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANJM PROB 4(1) 1983 43 ------·-·- !'

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

National Park (East) of Kenya. E Afr Pellink, E. (1974) Final Report to Nigerian wie auch Raubtiere. Wahrend andere eingeflihrte Saugetiere (hauptsachlich wilde Wild/}. Government. Kainji Lake Research In­ Rinder und Schweine) als Beute gedient haben, haben klirzlich ernsthafte Verwlis­ Odum, E. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecolo­ stitute, New Bussa, Nigeria. tungen der einzigartigen endemischen Galapagos-Fauna stattgefunden. Die haupt­ gy, 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders, London. Wing, D. and Buss, 1.0. (1970) Elephant sachlichen Angriffe richteten sich gegen die Land- und Marine-Iguanas, Schildkroten and Forests, Wildlife Monograph No. 19. und Seevogel, die in Kolonien nisten. Um diesem Problem zu begegnen, lauft seit dem J ahr 1979 ein koordiniertes Vernichtungs- und Studien-Programm in Bezug auf aile Hundepopulationen, und ein Vernichtungs-programm auf der Isla lsabela, begon­ nen in 1981, dauert noch an mit sichtlichem Erfolg. Die Vernichtungskampagne be­ dient sich hauptsachlich sorgfaltig plazierter Fleischkoder, die mit dem Compount Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands: 1080 (Sodium-Monofluoroazetat) vergiftet sind. Untersuchungen am Platz betreffend Verbreitung, Demographie, Verhaltensweisen und Uebertragung von Krankheitsvek­ Impact and Control toren begannen auf der Isla lsabela in 1981. Besonders bemerkenswert ist das haufige Auftreten von filariformen Herzwurm in einigen Saugetierarten inklusive Menschen. Hunde sind wichtige Reservoirs dieses Parasiten. lm folgenden sind die Probleme beschrieben, die durch die Hunde hervorgerufen werden, und Mutmas­ Bruce D. Barnett and Robert L. Rudd sungen angestellt Uber die Art einer selektiven RUckkehr zum Urzustand.

Organisms introduced onto insular ecosystems, after they have become established, Introduction tance from the mainland increases, and on frequently increase to destructive numbers. Several species of mammals introduced islands that do not normally support large onto the Galapagos Islands illustrate this ecological axiom. For example, domestic The introduction of organisms from predators, natural selection has not dogs intentionally introduced now exist as three major types: domestic, free--ranging other areas can easily upset the delicate favored the emergence of avoidance be­ or pariah, and feral. Problems derived from their presence are most apparent on the is­ balance of natural island communities, havior in the endemic fauna. lands of Santa Cruz and lsabela. Feral and pariah dogs are both and predators. especially when such organisms are not A dangerous illustration of these While other introduced mammals (chiefly feral cattle and pigs) have served as prey, in faced with the natural checks to their in­ concepts presently exists in the Galapa­ recent years severe depredations on the unique endemic Ga/apagan fauna have been crease that are normally found in the caused by the dogs. The chief targets have included land and marine iguanas, tor­ home environment. Their rapid and suc­ gos Archipelago, where feral dogs serious­ ly threaten populations of endemic fauna toises, and colonially nesting marine birds. To counter this problem, a coordinated cessful establishment in such circum­ on the islands of Santa Cruz and lsabela eradication and study program on all dog populations has been underway since 1979, stances is likely, and is normally follow­ (Fig. 1 ). Research on feral and domestic and an eradication program on Isla lsabela, begun in 1981, continues with marked ed by an increase in their numbers at the dog populations on lsabela, currently success. Control rests primarily on carefully placed flesh baits poisoned with Com­ expense of native flora and fauna. In being conducted in conjunction with the pound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate]. Field studies on distribution, demography, contrast, island organisms, which have Charles Darwin Research Station and behavior, and disease transmission also began on Isla lsabela in 1981. Particularly been isolated for a long period of time the Galapagos National Park Service, notable is the high incidence of filarial heartworm in several species of mammals, in­ from more complex continental ecosys­ should aid in understanding the establish­ cluding the local human residents. Dogs are important reservoirs of this parasite. tems, have become specialized to a sim­ ment and impact of these kinds of intro­ Descriptions of the problems created by the dogs and speculations on the nature of plified island environment and are often duced predators. Studies of the ecology selective return to the wild state are presented. incapable of withstanding competition and population biology of the dogs can with, or by, introduced species. provide a basis for the development of Zusammenfassung At the same time, other critical factors effective methods for their long-term come into play. MacArthur and Wilson Lebewesen, die in insulare Oekosysteme eingefUhrt werden, vermehren sich control on these islands and in other (1967) pointed out that because a given nach ihrer Etablierung oft in einem zerstorenden Ausmass. Einige der Saugetierarten, J areas where similar problems exist. land area can support far fewer numbers die auf den Galapagos lnseln eingeflihrt wurden, illustrieren dieses okologische Ax­ f of predators than prey, predators will be iom. So existieren zum Beispiel Hunde, die mit Absicht eingeflihrt wurden, heute in History relatively rare, even on large islands; drei Hauptgruppen: als Haustiere, als streunende Tiere oder Parias, und als wilde smaller islands may maintain a carrying The introduction of domestic dogs Tiere. Probleme, die sich aus deren Gegenwart ergeben, zeigen sich deutlich auf den capacity too low to support any perma­ to the Galapagos followed soon after lnseln Santa Cruz und lsabela. Wilde und streunende Hunde sind sowohl Aasfresser nent predator population. Also, the like­ the original colonization of the Archi­ Bruce D. Barnett is at the Charles Darwin Research Station, Isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador and Dr. lihood of dispersal of large, terrestrial pelago. In 1832, Jose Villamil, a native Rudd is a professor in the Department of Zoology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616. predators to islands decreases as the dis­ of Louisiana, was granted permission by

44 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 45 ------·-·- !'

T.A. Afolayan-Large Mammals in Upper Ogun Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

National Park (East) of Kenya. E Afr Pellink, E. (1974) Final Report to Nigerian wie auch Raubtiere. Wahrend andere eingeflihrte Saugetiere (hauptsachlich wilde Wild/}. Government. Kainji Lake Research In­ Rinder und Schweine) als Beute gedient haben, haben klirzlich ernsthafte Verwlis­ Odum, E. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecolo­ stitute, New Bussa, Nigeria. tungen der einzigartigen endemischen Galapagos-Fauna stattgefunden. Die haupt­ gy, 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders, London. Wing, D. and Buss, 1.0. (1970) Elephant sachlichen Angriffe richteten sich gegen die Land- und Marine-Iguanas, Schildkroten and Forests, Wildlife Monograph No. 19. und Seevogel, die in Kolonien nisten. Um diesem Problem zu begegnen, lauft seit dem J ahr 1979 ein koordiniertes Vernichtungs- und Studien-Programm in Bezug auf aile Hundepopulationen, und ein Vernichtungs-programm auf der Isla lsabela, begon­ nen in 1981, dauert noch an mit sichtlichem Erfolg. Die Vernichtungskampagne be­ dient sich hauptsachlich sorgfaltig plazierter Fleischkoder, die mit dem Compount Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands: 1080 (Sodium-Monofluoroazetat) vergiftet sind. Untersuchungen am Platz betreffend Verbreitung, Demographie, Verhaltensweisen und Uebertragung von Krankheitsvek­ Impact and Control toren begannen auf der Isla lsabela in 1981. Besonders bemerkenswert ist das haufige Auftreten von filariformen Herzwurm in einigen Saugetierarten inklusive Menschen. Hunde sind wichtige Reservoirs dieses Parasiten. lm folgenden sind die Probleme beschrieben, die durch die Hunde hervorgerufen werden, und Mutmas­ Bruce D. Barnett and Robert L. Rudd sungen angestellt Uber die Art einer selektiven RUckkehr zum Urzustand.

Organisms introduced onto insular ecosystems, after they have become established, Introduction tance from the mainland increases, and on frequently increase to destructive numbers. Several species of mammals introduced islands that do not normally support large onto the Galapagos Islands illustrate this ecological axiom. For example, domestic The introduction of organisms from predators, natural selection has not dogs intentionally introduced now exist as three major types: domestic, free--ranging other areas can easily upset the delicate favored the emergence of avoidance be­ or pariah, and feral. Problems derived from their presence are most apparent on the is­ balance of natural island communities, havior in the endemic fauna. lands of Santa Cruz and lsabela. Feral and pariah dogs are both scavengers and predators. especially when such organisms are not A dangerous illustration of these While other introduced mammals (chiefly feral cattle and pigs) have served as prey, in faced with the natural checks to their in­ concepts presently exists in the Galapa­ recent years severe depredations on the unique endemic Ga/apagan fauna have been crease that are normally found in the caused by the dogs. The chief targets have included land and marine iguanas, tor­ home environment. Their rapid and suc­ gos Archipelago, where feral dogs serious­ ly threaten populations of endemic fauna toises, and colonially nesting marine birds. To counter this problem, a coordinated cessful establishment in such circum­ on the islands of Santa Cruz and lsabela eradication and study program on all dog populations has been underway since 1979, stances is likely, and is normally follow­ (Fig. 1 ). Research on feral and domestic and an eradication program on Isla lsabela, begun in 1981, continues with marked ed by an increase in their numbers at the dog populations on lsabela, currently success. Control rests primarily on carefully placed flesh baits poisoned with Com­ expense of native flora and fauna. In being conducted in conjunction with the pound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate]. Field studies on distribution, demography, contrast, island organisms, which have Charles Darwin Research Station and behavior, and disease transmission also began on Isla lsabela in 1981. Particularly been isolated for a long period of time the Galapagos National Park Service, notable is the high incidence of filarial heartworm in several species of mammals, in­ from more complex continental ecosys­ should aid in understanding the establish­ cluding the local human residents. Dogs are important reservoirs of this parasite. tems, have become specialized to a sim­ ment and impact of these kinds of intro­ Descriptions of the problems created by the dogs and speculations on the nature of plified island environment and are often duced predators. Studies of the ecology selective return to the wild state are presented. incapable of withstanding competition and population biology of the dogs can with, or predation by, introduced species. provide a basis for the development of Zusammenfassung At the same time, other critical factors effective methods for their long-term come into play. MacArthur and Wilson Lebewesen, die in insulare Oekosysteme eingefUhrt werden, vermehren sich control on these islands and in other (1967) pointed out that because a given nach ihrer Etablierung oft in einem zerstorenden Ausmass. Einige der Saugetierarten, J areas where similar problems exist. land area can support far fewer numbers die auf den Galapagos lnseln eingeflihrt wurden, illustrieren dieses okologische Ax­ f of predators than prey, predators will be iom. So existieren zum Beispiel Hunde, die mit Absicht eingeflihrt wurden, heute in History relatively rare, even on large islands; drei Hauptgruppen: als Haustiere, als streunende Tiere oder Parias, und als wilde smaller islands may maintain a carrying The introduction of domestic dogs Tiere. Probleme, die sich aus deren Gegenwart ergeben, zeigen sich deutlich auf den capacity too low to support any perma­ to the Galapagos followed soon after lnseln Santa Cruz und lsabela. Wilde und streunende Hunde sind sowohl Aasfresser nent predator population. Also, the like­ the original colonization of the Archi­ Bruce D. Barnett is at the Charles Darwin Research Station, Isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador and Dr. lihood of dispersal of large, terrestrial pelago. In 1832, Jose Villamil, a native Rudd is a professor in the Department of Zoology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616. predators to islands decreases as the dis­ of Louisiana, was granted permission by

44 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 45 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

the Ecuadorian government to found a a visiting British researcher (Salvin, Wild dogs were first reported along The dogs present a singular and sur­ colony on the islands as compensation 1876). The first permanent settlement on the coast north of Sierra Negra in 1934 prisingly uniform appearance (Figs. 3 and for his service in that country's war of lsabela was founded by Antonio Gil in by a group of Americans studying marine 4). They are large canids, measuring 50 liberation. He chose to settle on the 1897, and when the Stanford Hopkins Ex­ iguanas in a small cove west of Elizabeth to 70 em high at the shoulder and attain­ island of Floreana (Charles), several pedition visited the village in 1898, they Bay (Robinson, 1936). Although it has ing a length of 100 em from head to tail kilometers inland from Black's Beach. noted large-scale destruction of tortoise been claimed that as many as 5,000 feral root, with conspicuously large ears. Ten years later he left Floreana and eggs by wild dogs along the nearby coast. dogs may have inhabited southern !sa­ ·Most of the animals are short-haired, and founded a colony at Wreck Bay, on the By 1906 almost 200 people lived in the bela in the past (Naveda, 1950), recent white with brown or black spots. There island of San Cristobal (Chatham). Since highland settlement of Santo Tomas. In estimates indicate a total population of may be a reason for this consistency in that early period, feral dogs have existed the same year, passengers on the schooner not more than 500 to 800 animals (Kruuk, appearance: Homeotherms exposed to continuously on both islands (Melville, "Academy" observed wild dogs in the 1979; Moore, 1981 ). high daily temperatures can benefit by 1856; Salvin, 1876; Slevin, 1931, 1959; grasslands above Santo Tomas and along Within the last 100 years, there have maintaining certain characteristics with­ Thornton, 1971) and have only recently the coast several miles from the Villamil been accounts of feral dogs on Santa in the population that reduce the cost of been exterminated by poisoning and community (Slevin, 1931, 1959). By 1913 Cruz as well, but little is known about temperature regulation. Traits such as shooting. the increasing number of feral dogs was the history of their introduction (Salvin, short hair, light coat color, and large Wild dogs were first reported on the described as a "terrible plague" on the 1876; Heller, 1903; Beebe, 1923, 1924). ears may aid the dogs in effectively dis­ island of lsabela (Albemarle) in 1868 by cattle populations in the highlands. Though their numbers are apparently sipating excess heat. Alternatively, the not large (Naveda, 1950; Kruuk, 1979), dogs in this region might look alike on account of geographical isolation, which 9U .,. ..,.. their damage to island fauna has been ,, ,. may have caused a reduction in pheno­ "'-"W severe (Anon., 1976). t•~B 1 tJ l:sla.s Gal&.pagos typic variation within the closed breed­

• VCVII.!Ibt ing group. I Cllf.peppVt) Placental scars in the uteri of 15 fem­ ~ P.ffita I Ab.ingdo>t) Dogs of the Coast ale dogs destroyed during the first months 3> Wol6 of an eradication campaign instituted by At present, feral dogs occur along IWetunM) the Galapagos National Park Service in­ , •ts'I.J the coast of southern lsabela, from Eliza­ ... MCVt~hwa IB.Utd.f.oel ~ 6;1 Gwovua dicate an average litter size of five (TcweJt) beth Bay on the Perry Isthmus to Punta young (S.D. = 0.89). If one assumes that Cristobal. This portion of the island is approximately 400 dogs live along this characterized by extensive lava flows, coastline and that half of these are fem­ Cl" which radiate from the numerous second­ ale, then, given a reproductive interval of ary cones that flank the major volcanoes 6 months for domestic canids, as many of Sierra Negra and Cerro Azul (Fig. 2). as 2,000 new individuals may be intro­ These vast, basaltic lava fields support duced into the population each year. This little animal life, and the dogs are con­ high influx of new animals, however, is fined to a narrow, 200-m strip of land probably counterbalanced by high natal Santa'CJtu.z along the coast, which also supports the and juvenile mortality, combined with a (1>tde6a.Ugab.f.e) , _,) many animals and birds that are associ­ relatively short lifespan for adult dogs. l65l Santa Fe •";; ated with the marine environment. Some (BaJJJWtgto>t) ~ In fact, preliminary age estimates reveal 1 dogs also inhabit the Cartago Bay region ,. SM CJtiAt6ba.f. ,. that most of the animals are young, few I Chath'""l on the eastern side of the isthmus. and living past 5 years of age. Common infes­ the possibility of their continued north­ tation by immitis, a ~ F.f.alt.eaila (Ciuvti.e.h) ward migration toward V61can Alcedo heartworm transmitted by the endemic (Jiij!/ • <:!> E.\ po.iio.f.a (on the northern part of the island) threat­ taeniorhynchus , together (Hood) ens resident populations of land iguanas with the general hardships that are part (Conolophus subcristatus), giant tortoises of life in this environment, may explain ., . (Geochelone e/ephantopus), and breed­ the absence of older dogs. .... ing colonies of flightless cormorants (Nan­ Analysis of 169 fecal samples and nopterum harrisi) and blue-footed boobies the contents of 12 stomachs from coastal FIGURE 1 Map of the Galapagos Island. Historic English names are given parenthetically. (Sula nebouxi). dogs indicates a diet of marine iguana 46 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 47 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

the Ecuadorian government to found a a visiting British researcher (Salvin, Wild dogs were first reported along The dogs present a singular and sur­ colony on the islands as compensation 1876). The first permanent settlement on the coast north of Sierra Negra in 1934 prisingly uniform appearance (Figs. 3 and for his service in that country's war of lsabela was founded by Antonio Gil in by a group of Americans studying marine 4). They are large canids, measuring 50 liberation. He chose to settle on the 1897, and when the Stanford Hopkins Ex­ iguanas in a small cove west of Elizabeth to 70 em high at the shoulder and attain­ island of Floreana (Charles), several pedition visited the village in 1898, they Bay (Robinson, 1936). Although it has ing a length of 100 em from head to tail kilometers inland from Black's Beach. noted large-scale destruction of tortoise been claimed that as many as 5,000 feral root, with conspicuously large ears. Ten years later he left Floreana and eggs by wild dogs along the nearby coast. dogs may have inhabited southern !sa­ ·Most of the animals are short-haired, and founded a colony at Wreck Bay, on the By 1906 almost 200 people lived in the bela in the past (Naveda, 1950), recent white with brown or black spots. There island of San Cristobal (Chatham). Since highland settlement of Santo Tomas. In estimates indicate a total population of may be a reason for this consistency in that early period, feral dogs have existed the same year, passengers on the schooner not more than 500 to 800 animals (Kruuk, appearance: Homeotherms exposed to continuously on both islands (Melville, "Academy" observed wild dogs in the 1979; Moore, 1981 ). high daily temperatures can benefit by 1856; Salvin, 1876; Slevin, 1931, 1959; grasslands above Santo Tomas and along Within the last 100 years, there have maintaining certain characteristics with­ Thornton, 1971) and have only recently the coast several miles from the Villamil been accounts of feral dogs on Santa in the population that reduce the cost of been exterminated by poisoning and community (Slevin, 1931, 1959). By 1913 Cruz as well, but little is known about temperature regulation. Traits such as shooting. the increasing number of feral dogs was the history of their introduction (Salvin, short hair, light coat color, and large Wild dogs were first reported on the described as a "terrible plague" on the 1876; Heller, 1903; Beebe, 1923, 1924). ears may aid the dogs in effectively dis­ island of lsabela (Albemarle) in 1868 by cattle populations in the highlands. Though their numbers are apparently sipating excess heat. Alternatively, the not large (Naveda, 1950; Kruuk, 1979), dogs in this region might look alike on account of geographical isolation, which 9U .,. ..,.. their damage to island fauna has been ,, ,. may have caused a reduction in pheno­ "'-"W severe (Anon., 1976). t•~B 1 tJ l:sla.s Gal&.pagos typic variation within the closed breed­

• VCVII.!Ibt ing group. I Cllf.peppVt) Placental scars in the uteri of 15 fem­ ~ P.ffita I Ab.ingdo>t) Dogs of the Coast ale dogs destroyed during the first months 3> Wol6 of an eradication campaign instituted by At present, feral dogs occur along IWetunM) the Galapagos National Park Service in­ , •ts'I.J the coast of southern lsabela, from Eliza­ ... MCVt~hwa IB.Utd.f.oel ~ 6;1 Gwovua dicate an average litter size of five (TcweJt) beth Bay on the Perry Isthmus to Punta young (S.D. = 0.89). If one assumes that Cristobal. This portion of the island is approximately 400 dogs live along this characterized by extensive lava flows, coastline and that half of these are fem­ Cl" which radiate from the numerous second­ ale, then, given a reproductive interval of ary cones that flank the major volcanoes 6 months for domestic canids, as many of Sierra Negra and Cerro Azul (Fig. 2). as 2,000 new individuals may be intro­ These vast, basaltic lava fields support duced into the population each year. This little animal life, and the dogs are con­ high influx of new animals, however, is fined to a narrow, 200-m strip of land probably counterbalanced by high natal Santa'CJtu.z along the coast, which also supports the and juvenile mortality, combined with a (1>tde6a.Ugab.f.e) , _,) many animals and birds that are associ­ relatively short lifespan for adult dogs. l65l Santa Fe •";; ated with the marine environment. Some (BaJJJWtgto>t) ~ In fact, preliminary age estimates reveal 1 dogs also inhabit the Cartago Bay region ,. SM CJtiAt6ba.f. ,. that most of the animals are young, few I Chath'""l on the eastern side of the isthmus. and living past 5 years of age. Common infes­ the possibility of their continued north­ tation by Dirofilaria immitis, a nematode ~ F.f.alt.eaila (Ciuvti.e.h) ward migration toward V61can Alcedo heartworm transmitted by the endemic (Jiij!/ • <:!> E.\ po.iio.f.a (on the northern part of the island) threat­ mosquito, together (Hood) ens resident populations of land iguanas with the general hardships that are part (Conolophus subcristatus), giant tortoises of life in this environment, may explain ., . (Geochelone e/ephantopus), and breed­ the absence of older dogs. .... ing colonies of flightless cormorants (Nan­ Analysis of 169 fecal samples and nopterum harrisi) and blue-footed boobies the contents of 12 stomachs from coastal FIGURE 1 Map of the Galapagos Island. Historic English names are given parenthetically. (Sula nebouxi). dogs indicates a diet of marine iguana 46 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 47 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

-N-!

ISLA ISABELA-SUR (Albemarle)

1:100'000 (.5cm=1km)

~=Fresh Water

FIGURE 2 The southern portion of Isla lsabela, on which both an eradication and a coordinated field study program are in progress. Physical features and place names are mentioned in text.

(Amblyrhynchus cristatus) (35 percent), A recent report on predation of ma­ FIGURE 3 Pups on coast near Punta Cristobal, Isla lsabela. Note refuges in lava recesses. (Photograph by Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus mendi­ rine iguanas by feral dogs (Kruuk and Tui de R. Moore) culus) (32 percent), juvenile (Za­ Snell, 1981) suggested that these preda­ bela and the coast of Fernandina, where tude of about 250m, it is replaced by open lophus californicus) and fur seal (Arcto­ tors annually consume 27 percent of the the cold waters of the Humboldt current meadows or "pampas." Above 1 ,CXXJ m the cepha/us australis) (8 percent), Audubon iguana population in the region of Calet­ flow through the Bolivar Strait (Houve­ vegetation becomes xerophytic, becom­ shearwater (Puffinus lherminieri) (7 per­ ta Webb alone (Fig. 5). This figure is based naghel, 1978). Penguin populations are ing desert-like on the caldera rim (Hamann, on the nutritive requirements of the cent), pelican (Pe/icanus occidentalis) and extremely sensitive to intense predation 1981 ). Between 100 and 200 feral dogs blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxi) (6 per­ dogs and their observed preference for pressure, and their continued existence live on the open pampas, which cover cent) and traces of dog, cat, and black rat larger iguanas. Two further sets of obser­ in the Archipelago may therefore be threat­ all but the north and northwest slopes. (Rattus rattus) (2 percent). The predomi­ vations, the subsequent censusing of the ened by this new dietary preference of The majority of the Cerro Azul dogs nance of small prey in the diet eliminates iguana populations, which showed a pre­ the dogs. look quite like the coastal animals. Most the need for large hunting packs -we dominance of small- and medium-sized are short-haired and white with brown or have rarely observed groups of more individuals, and analysis of the prey re­ Dogs of Cerro Azul black spots, but longer-haired and darker­ than three individuals. Aggregations of mains left by the dogs and found in their Cerro Azul, the Galapagos' second colored individuals are more common up to 16 individuals have been seen on , support Kruuk and Snell's original tallest volcano (1689 m), is situated on than along the coast (Fig. 6). Also, few of occasion though, usually near sources of hypothesis. Ultimately, the removal of fresh or brackish water. Although we have the larger, breeding members from the the western side of southern Isabel a. The the highland dogs possess the noticea­ watched dogs apparently drinking seawa­ iguana populations will lead to a high prevailing southeasterly winds and fog bly large ears, perhaps because selec­ ter, it seems unlikely that they possess mortality/production ratio and thus por­ coming in from the sea are forced rapid­ tion for heat-dissipating characters may an excretory system efficient enough to tend grave consequences for the iguanas ly upwards and are thereby quickly cooled. not be a strong factor in a region with a salvage adequate amounts of fresh water. on lsabela. More rain falls on the lower elevations considerably cooler climate. This drinking behavior may result from a Galapagos penguins (Spheniscus men­ of the volcano's southern slope than in Counts of placental scars in the deficiency in one or more minerals in diculus) have also become a preferred any other southerly exposed coastal area uteri of six females revealed an average the diet, but only further study of the food item for the dogs in the past 2 years. on the islands. A mesophytic, deciduous, litter size of six (S.D. = 0.75). Adult dogs dogs' physiology can answer this ques­ The breeding range for this species is steppe forest predominates along the coast appear to have a longer lifespan than tion with any degree of certainty. restricted to the northern coast of lsa- which slowly opens up until, at an alti­ those of the coastal region, some reaching

48 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1) 1983 49 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

-N-!

ISLA ISABELA-SUR (Albemarle)

1:100'000 (.5cm=1km)

~=Fresh Water

FIGURE 2 The southern portion of Isla lsabela, on which both an eradication and a coordinated field study program are in progress. Physical features and place names are mentioned in text.

(Amblyrhynchus cristatus) (35 percent), A recent report on predation of ma­ FIGURE 3 Pups on coast near Punta Cristobal, Isla lsabela. Note refuges in lava recesses. (Photograph by Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus mendi­ rine iguanas by feral dogs (Kruuk and Tui de R. Moore) culus) (32 percent), juvenile sea lion (Za­ Snell, 1981) suggested that these preda­ bela and the coast of Fernandina, where tude of about 250m, it is replaced by open lophus californicus) and fur seal (Arcto­ tors annually consume 27 percent of the the cold waters of the Humboldt current meadows or "pampas." Above 1 ,CXXJ m the cepha/us australis) (8 percent), Audubon iguana population in the region of Calet­ flow through the Bolivar Strait (Houve­ vegetation becomes xerophytic, becom­ shearwater (Puffinus lherminieri) (7 per­ ta Webb alone (Fig. 5). This figure is based naghel, 1978). Penguin populations are ing desert-like on the caldera rim (Hamann, on the nutritive requirements of the cent), pelican (Pe/icanus occidentalis) and extremely sensitive to intense predation 1981 ). Between 100 and 200 feral dogs blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxi) (6 per­ dogs and their observed preference for pressure, and their continued existence live on the open pampas, which cover cent) and traces of dog, cat, and black rat larger iguanas. Two further sets of obser­ in the Archipelago may therefore be threat­ all but the north and northwest slopes. (Rattus rattus) (2 percent). The predomi­ vations, the subsequent censusing of the ened by this new dietary preference of The majority of the Cerro Azul dogs nance of small prey in the diet eliminates iguana populations, which showed a pre­ the dogs. look quite like the coastal animals. Most the need for large hunting packs -we dominance of small- and medium-sized are short-haired and white with brown or have rarely observed groups of more individuals, and analysis of the prey re­ Dogs of Cerro Azul black spots, but longer-haired and darker­ than three individuals. Aggregations of mains left by the dogs and found in their Cerro Azul, the Galapagos' second colored individuals are more common up to 16 individuals have been seen on feces, support Kruuk and Snell's original tallest volcano (1689 m), is situated on than along the coast (Fig. 6). Also, few of occasion though, usually near sources of hypothesis. Ultimately, the removal of fresh or brackish water. Although we have the larger, breeding members from the the western side of southern Isabel a. The the highland dogs possess the noticea­ watched dogs apparently drinking seawa­ iguana populations will lead to a high prevailing southeasterly winds and fog bly large ears, perhaps because selec­ ter, it seems unlikely that they possess mortality/production ratio and thus por­ coming in from the sea are forced rapid­ tion for heat-dissipating characters may an excretory system efficient enough to tend grave consequences for the iguanas ly upwards and are thereby quickly cooled. not be a strong factor in a region with a salvage adequate amounts of fresh water. on lsabela. More rain falls on the lower elevations considerably cooler climate. This drinking behavior may result from a Galapagos penguins (Spheniscus men­ of the volcano's southern slope than in Counts of placental scars in the deficiency in one or more minerals in diculus) have also become a preferred any other southerly exposed coastal area uteri of six females revealed an average the diet, but only further study of the food item for the dogs in the past 2 years. on the islands. A mesophytic, deciduous, litter size of six (S.D. = 0.75). Adult dogs dogs' physiology can answer this ques­ The breeding range for this species is steppe forest predominates along the coast appear to have a longer lifespan than tion with any degree of certainty. restricted to the northern coast of lsa- which slowly opens up until, at an alti­ those of the coastal region, some reaching

48 INT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1) 1983 49 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

FIGURE 5 Marine iguana freshly killed and partially eaten by dogs at Punta Cristobal, Isla lsabela. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore)

a history of almost 16,000 years of do­ FIGURE 4 Juvenile female from the "coastal" population at Caletta Webb. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore) mestication (Brisbin, 1974, 1976), display morphological and behavioral traits that an age of 8 to 9 years. One reason for the the usual method of attack; this "strate­ actually reduce their predatory abilities more common occurrence of older ani­ gy" requires a smaller expenditure of en­ but increase their effectiveness as scav­ mals may be that the Aedes taeniorhyn­ ergy and a reduced risk of injury to the engers. Changes in tooth structure, for chus mosquito is less abundant at higher attacker. In this kind of attack, suffi­ example, have resulted in modified mol­ altitudes, explaining why far fewer cases cient damage may be sustained by the ars in domestic canids-from the sharp­ of 0. immitis infestation were discover­ prey such that it later dies of its wounds. cusped, carnassial teeth used for ripping ed within this population. In light of the large number of cattle in and tearing by their wild ancestors, to a Cerro Azul also supports approxi­ the area, this approach would ensure an more smooth-cusped form, so that they mately 2,000 feral cattle, and these serve adequate food supply and allow the have come to resemble teeth used for as a major food source for the dogs (Fig. dogs to obtain most of their nourishment grinding by more herbivorous species. The 7), comprising 50 percent of their diet, by scavenging the remains of their dead inhibition of a killing bite, observed in the remainder of which includes col­ victims. Another explanation for the certain domestic breeds (Fox, 1978), may eopterans (14 percent), orthopterans (11 same strategy is possible, and involves also influence the feeding strategy of percent), grasses and ferns (8 percent), dog modifications in the behavior and/or the Cerro Azul dogs. (6 percent), and traces of cat, ground finch morphology of canids that have been FIGURE 6 Adult male dog from the "highland" (Ceospiza fuliginosa), and black rat (8 subjected to the process of domestica­ population of Cerro Azul, Isla Isabel a. (Photograph percent). Though the cattle appear to be tion. Domestication refers to changes in by Tui de R. Moore) the main staple of the dogs' diet, surpris­ genetic characteristics by selective ingly few successful kills have actually breeding practices applied to a given been witnessed. Harassment seems to be population of animals. Dogs, which have

50 /NT 1 STUD ANJM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 51 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

FIGURE 5 Marine iguana freshly killed and partially eaten by dogs at Punta Cristobal, Isla lsabela. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore)

a history of almost 16,000 years of do­ FIGURE 4 Juvenile female from the "coastal" population at Caletta Webb. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore) mestication (Brisbin, 1974, 1976), display morphological and behavioral traits that an age of 8 to 9 years. One reason for the the usual method of attack; this "strate­ actually reduce their predatory abilities more common occurrence of older ani­ gy" requires a smaller expenditure of en­ but increase their effectiveness as scav­ mals may be that the Aedes taeniorhyn­ ergy and a reduced risk of injury to the engers. Changes in tooth structure, for chus mosquito is less abundant at higher attacker. In this kind of attack, suffi­ example, have resulted in modified mol­ altitudes, explaining why far fewer cases cient damage may be sustained by the ars in domestic canids-from the sharp­ of 0. immitis infestation were discover­ prey such that it later dies of its wounds. cusped, carnassial teeth used for ripping ed within this population. In light of the large number of cattle in and tearing by their wild ancestors, to a Cerro Azul also supports approxi­ the area, this approach would ensure an more smooth-cusped form, so that they mately 2,000 feral cattle, and these serve adequate food supply and allow the have come to resemble teeth used for as a major food source for the dogs (Fig. dogs to obtain most of their nourishment grinding by more herbivorous species. The 7), comprising 50 percent of their diet, by scavenging the remains of their dead inhibition of a killing bite, observed in the remainder of which includes col­ victims. Another explanation for the certain domestic breeds (Fox, 1978), may eopterans (14 percent), orthopterans (11 same strategy is possible, and involves also influence the feeding strategy of percent), grasses and ferns (8 percent), dog modifications in the behavior and/or the Cerro Azul dogs. (6 percent), and traces of cat, ground finch morphology of canids that have been FIGURE 6 Adult male dog from the "highland" (Ceospiza fuliginosa), and black rat (8 subjected to the process of domestica­ population of Cerro Azul, Isla Isabel a. (Photograph percent). Though the cattle appear to be tion. Domestication refers to changes in by Tui de R. Moore) the main staple of the dogs' diet, surpris­ genetic characteristics by selective ingly few successful kills have actually breeding practices applied to a given been witnessed. Harassment seems to be population of animals. Dogs, which have

50 /NT 1 STUD ANJM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 51 I!

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

sive, cutting edges that form huge barri­ Thirty percent of the 70 families in cades, making travel over them slow, pain­ Villamil own dogs. The sex and age distri­ ful, and dangerous. Also, the volcanic butions of this dog population are pre­ flow here occurred so recently that very sented in Table 1. The highly skewed sex little vegetation has colonized the harden­ ratio in favor of male animals (3:1) is the ed lava, and soil is practically nonexis­ result of the selection by local residents tent. Constant exposure to the hot, equa­ for superior performance as working and torial sun often drives temperatures to hunting animals. A small, but constant 35°C (95°F) and, though it is not more number of female dogs is maintained to than 2.5 km wide at its narrowest point compensate for a high mortality rate by of crossing, the rugged topography and continued production of a limited num­ forbidding climate of the flow act as an ber of new individuals. Even though most effective barrier to the unchecked move­ of the dogs in this village are provided ment of terrestrial animal populations food by their owners, it is not uncom­ on lsabela. To the east lies the large mon to see animals combing the beach­ southern slope of Sierra Negra, and the front, taking an occasional lava lizard small settlements of Santo Tomas and (Tropidurus a/bemarlensis), rat, or Sally Villamil lie in the shadow of the vol­ Lightfoot crab (Crapsus grapsus) to sup­ cano. It is the domestic dogs associated plement their diet. with these communities that most likely In the smaller, more dispersed, high­ serve as the origin of the feral dog popu" land district of Santo Tomas, 90 percent lations on the island. FIGURE 7 Feral (criollo or original Spanish) cattle, the chief sustenance of the "highland" dog population of the 42 resident families own dogs; un- on Cerro Azul. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore)

The hunting of large prey could ex­ na, these dogs are being included in the TABLE 1 Sex and Age Distributions .of Domestic Dogs on Isabel a plain the larger observed grou~ sizes eradication program of the National Park among the highland populations (X = 4). Service. The unfortunate result of this No. in age group Dogs from larger packs were commonly policy will be an unchecked growth of Island Santo Tomas Male Female Total seen to break off into smaller groups for the cattle population, and 2,000 large 0-6 months 20 a time, only to later rejoin the same or herbivores can be very destructive to 10 30 6-12 months 17 8 25 another pack. While some domestic breeds the flora of the pampas. These cattle 1-2 years 11 7 18 exhibit a modification of behavior that have already transformed large areas in­ 2-3 years 14 7 21 prevents the establishment and mainte­ to virtual shortgrass deserts by cropping 3-4 years 10 4 14 nance of stable social relationships in a large portion of the native vegetation 4-5 years 13 5 18 5-6 years closed-group situations, other breeds and endangering much of the remainder 3 0 3 6-7 years 0 0 0 demonstrate a high tolerance to additions by destroying the natural watershed of over 7 years 2 0 2 or removals from the pack (Fox, 1971 ). the lower slopes. The fluid social structure observed in Cerro Azul populations could reflect Sierra Negra and the Origins of No. in age group similar domestic modifications of ances­ Feral Populations Villamil Male Female Total tral behavior patterns. In the Cerro Azul highlands, then, Extending southward, forming a col 0-6 months 7 3 10 6-12 months 8 3 we have a unique situation: a feral preda­ that separates the volcanoes of Cerro 11 1-2 years 5 6 tor regulating the numbers of introduced Azul and Sierra Negra, is a narrow band 2-3 years 3 4 herbivores. An even more critical aspect of lava known as "EI Quemado," or "the 3-4 years 0 of this situation is that, because of their Burnt Forest" (see Fig. 2). It is composed 4-5 years 2 1 3 potential for moving down to the coast of broken slabs of volcanic ejecta, with 5-6 years 2 0 2 6-7 years 0 and thus endangering endemic island fau- projecting knobs and ridges and abra- 0 0 over 7 years 3 1 4 52 /NT 1 5TUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 53 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 I!

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

sive, cutting edges that form huge barri­ Thirty percent of the 70 families in cades, making travel over them slow, pain­ Villamil own dogs. The sex and age distri­ ful, and dangerous. Also, the volcanic butions of this dog population are pre­ flow here occurred so recently that very sented in Table 1. The highly skewed sex little vegetation has colonized the harden­ ratio in favor of male animals (3:1) is the ed lava, and soil is practically nonexis­ result of the selection by local residents tent. Constant exposure to the hot, equa­ for superior performance as working and torial sun often drives temperatures to hunting animals. A small, but constant 35°C (95°F) and, though it is not more number of female dogs is maintained to than 2.5 km wide at its narrowest point compensate for a high mortality rate by of crossing, the rugged topography and continued production of a limited num­ forbidding climate of the flow act as an ber of new individuals. Even though most effective barrier to the unchecked move­ of the dogs in this village are provided ment of terrestrial animal populations food by their owners, it is not uncom­ on lsabela. To the east lies the large mon to see animals combing the beach­ southern slope of Sierra Negra, and the front, taking an occasional lava lizard small settlements of Santo Tomas and (Tropidurus a/bemarlensis), rat, or Sally Villamil lie in the shadow of the vol­ Lightfoot crab (Crapsus grapsus) to sup­ cano. It is the domestic dogs associated plement their diet. with these communities that most likely In the smaller, more dispersed, high­ serve as the origin of the feral dog popu" land district of Santo Tomas, 90 percent lations on the island. FIGURE 7 Feral (criollo or original Spanish) cattle, the chief sustenance of the "highland" dog population of the 42 resident families own dogs; un- on Cerro Azul. (Photograph by Tui de R. Moore)

The hunting of large prey could ex­ na, these dogs are being included in the TABLE 1 Sex and Age Distributions .of Domestic Dogs on Isabel a plain the larger observed grou~ sizes eradication program of the National Park among the highland populations (X = 4). Service. The unfortunate result of this No. in age group Dogs from larger packs were commonly policy will be an unchecked growth of Island Santo Tomas Male Female Total seen to break off into smaller groups for the cattle population, and 2,000 large 0-6 months 20 a time, only to later rejoin the same or herbivores can be very destructive to 10 30 6-12 months 17 8 25 another pack. While some domestic breeds the flora of the pampas. These cattle 1-2 years 11 7 18 exhibit a modification of behavior that have already transformed large areas in­ 2-3 years 14 7 21 prevents the establishment and mainte­ to virtual shortgrass deserts by cropping 3-4 years 10 4 14 nance of stable social relationships in a large portion of the native vegetation 4-5 years 13 5 18 5-6 years closed-group situations, other breeds and endangering much of the remainder 3 0 3 6-7 years 0 0 0 demonstrate a high tolerance to additions by destroying the natural watershed of over 7 years 2 0 2 or removals from the pack (Fox, 1971 ). the lower slopes. The fluid social structure observed in Cerro Azul populations could reflect Sierra Negra and the Origins of No. in age group similar domestic modifications of ances­ Feral Populations Villamil Male Female Total tral behavior patterns. In the Cerro Azul highlands, then, Extending southward, forming a col 0-6 months 7 3 10 6-12 months 8 3 we have a unique situation: a feral preda­ that separates the volcanoes of Cerro 11 1-2 years 5 6 tor regulating the numbers of introduced Azul and Sierra Negra, is a narrow band 2-3 years 3 4 herbivores. An even more critical aspect of lava known as "EI Quemado," or "the 3-4 years 0 of this situation is that, because of their Burnt Forest" (see Fig. 2). It is composed 4-5 years 2 1 3 potential for moving down to the coast of broken slabs of volcanic ejecta, with 5-6 years 2 0 2 6-7 years 0 and thus endangering endemic island fau- projecting knobs and ridges and abra- 0 0 over 7 years 3 1 4 52 /NT 1 5TUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 53 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 I! '

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

like Villamil, where more than two dogs aid in developing a conceptual frame­ plentiful around most trap-killed car­ of these problems on other islands. per household is rare, homes in this agri­ work for understanding this process is nec­ casses. These dogs, therefore, are still cultural community support an average of essary. Brisbin (1977) labels animals in somewhat dependent on man for a con­ Control four animals. A 2:1 sex ratio, favoring this free-ranging stage as "pariahs" and stant food supply and, because the ma­ The Galapagos National Park Service, males, is apparent in this population as defines such populations in terms of jority of them are either recently derived in cooperation with the Charles Darwin well, and females are similarly valued those selective forces that act to deter­ from village populations or may associ­ Research Station and the Frankfurt Zoo­ only for their reproductive contribution. mine their future genetic composition. ate with village dogs in a breeding or logical Society, has recently embarked on Few of these village dogs live longer The genetic composition in pariah popu­ other social context, their behavior can be characterized as that of a free-rang­ a campaign to eradicate populations of than 5 years. juvenile mortality is high, lations is determined by breeding pat­ ing or pariah ·population. feral dogs on the islands of Santa Cruz with dog owners often controlling the terns that are influenced by, but not In contrast, dogs that have moved and lsabela. The most effective method size and composition of surviving litters. controlled by, the domesticator. This pat­ terning is apparently the case among westward across the El Quemado lava employed to date involves the use of By choosing the fittest males to main­ dogs lost or abandoned during hunting flow and have come to inhabit the slopes sodium monofluoroacetate (Compound tain effective hunting packs and the fit­ forays from Santo Tomas. Animals lead­ of Cerro Azul practice a direct but rudi­ 1080). This substance was originally de­ test females for breeding, these villagers ing a pariah-type lifestyle assume a cau­ mentary form of predation on the feral veloped for controlling popula­ are practicing a form of selection that il­ tious, yet not quite fearful attitude to­ cattle populations of the area. They too tions, but it has been found to be dif­ lustrates man's role as a domesticator, ward man. A breakdown in the regimen­ ultimately rely on a form of scavenging ferentially toxic to canids at doses as determining the future genetic composi­ tation of social order may occur territor­ to obtain their food. The difference bet­ low as 0.05 mg/kg. And, while 1080 is tion of the dog population and, by selec­ ially; intragroup aggression decreases and ween this strategy and that of the pariah highly toxic, it is undetectable in flesh tion for males, reducing total population there is a marked tendency to rely on animals resides in the fact that these baits. The lag period that follows inges­ size. scavenging more than on true predation dogs are themselves providing the car­ tion before manifest effects appear min­ The unavailability of firearms to to obtain food (Brisbin, 1977). By study­ casses, thereby precluding any depen­ imizes the potential for bait shyness and the inhabitants of Santo Tomas necessi­ ing the differences in these behavioral dence on humans for food. The likelihood association. The suggested use of Com­ tates the use of dogs as an aid in hunting patterns, it may be possible to gauge a of contact with village or pariah popula­ pound 1080 is controversial and in many game. It is not unusual for a dog to be in­ given population's current position along tions is also reduced by the presence of countries is greatly restricted. The risk to jured during a hunt; since it is then of no the continuum of evolution from the do­ a significant geographical barrier, which nontarget species must be considered as further use to its owner, the animal is mestic to the feral condition. Observed further removes the dogs from the in­ well when any pesticide is used, and a normally abandoned. Also, some dogs behavioral patterns may in turn provide direct influence of man. detailed knowledge of the target animal's stray from the hunting party and, if they insight into the historical pattern of dis­ The dogs of lsabela's northern coast behavior and ecology is a prerequisite to are unable to find their way home, they persal of dogs throughout lsabela. are even more isolated from populations safe and effective application of the become forced to fend for themselves. The dogs of Sierra Negra provide an on Sierra Negra and Santo Tomas by the substance (Rudd, 1964). It is these free-ranging individuals that example of differences in feeding habits large and formidable lava fields that On the islands, poison baits, obtain­ occupy an intermediate stage between between free-ranging (pariah) and truly bisect the island on an east-west axis. ed by killing a small number of ­ the truly domestic and truly feral popu­ feral canids. Most of their food is obtain­ These animals derive their sustenance tle, are placed at various locations with­ lations. ed by scavenging the remains of animals by active predation on the endemic fauna in the dogs' known range. By exploiting It is important to distinguish clearly caught in snares placed by the hunting of the coastal region and, by virtue of the domestic trait of predilection for scav­ between truly feral and free-ranging parties from Santo Tomas. These hunt­ this behavior and their breeding pat­ enging, a surprising degree of success in dogs. A feral population is produced ers may set up to 20 traps along any terns, may truly be regarded as feral. controlling populations has been achiev­ when domestic animals escape to a hab­ given animal trail, then return 1 to 2 ed. Baits are well hidden to prevent re­ itat that is similar to that of their wild weeks later to collect their catch. Many The current investigation into the ancestors and thereby come under the of the animals caught in these traps dur­ relative amount of phenotypic variation moval and by the Galapagos influence of natural selection. This pro­ ing the first days after they are set are no within these respective populations may hawks and short-eared owls that also in­ cess requires many generations for com­ longer salvageable by the time that the further elucidate aspects of the discus­ habit the region. These avian predators, plete removal of the constraints impos­ hunters return, and they are therefore sion presented above and reveal a de­ however, are 200 times more resistant to ed by artificial selection, but the process abandoned. Consequently, there is al­ crease in such variation with increasing the poison than the dogs: a dosage of ap­ is rarely as clear-cut as one might sup­ ways a supply of surplus meat to sup­ distance from the source (or domestic) proximately 10 mg/kg is necessary before pose. If evolution is a continuous pro­ port scavenging dogs. Analysis of dog population. By this type of analysis, it the compound becomes lethal. Since a sin­ cess which moves almost imperceptibly feces in the area shows that 70 percent may become possible to trace the history gle bait (1 kg) only contains enough poi­ from one stage to another, considera­ of their diet consists of feral cattle, pigs, of feral dogs on Isabel a and subsequent­ son to ensure the desired effect on can­ tion of some intermediate construct to and burros, and signs of dog activity are ly to apply similar techniques to the study ids (0.1 mg/kg), hawks and owls would 55 54 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 I! '

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

like Villamil, where more than two dogs aid in developing a conceptual frame­ plentiful around most trap-killed car­ of these problems on other islands. per household is rare, homes in this agri­ work for understanding this process is nec­ casses. These dogs, therefore, are still cultural community support an average of essary. Brisbin (1977) labels animals in somewhat dependent on man for a con­ Control four animals. A 2:1 sex ratio, favoring this free-ranging stage as "pariahs" and stant food supply and, because the ma­ The Galapagos National Park Service, males, is apparent in this population as defines such populations in terms of jority of them are either recently derived in cooperation with the Charles Darwin well, and females are similarly valued those selective forces that act to deter­ from village populations or may associ­ Research Station and the Frankfurt Zoo­ only for their reproductive contribution. mine their future genetic composition. ate with village dogs in a breeding or logical Society, has recently embarked on Few of these village dogs live longer The genetic composition in pariah popu­ other social context, their behavior can be characterized as that of a free-rang­ a campaign to eradicate populations of than 5 years. juvenile mortality is high, lations is determined by breeding pat­ ing or pariah ·population. feral dogs on the islands of Santa Cruz with dog owners often controlling the terns that are influenced by, but not In contrast, dogs that have moved and lsabela. The most effective method size and composition of surviving litters. controlled by, the domesticator. This pat­ terning is apparently the case among westward across the El Quemado lava employed to date involves the use of By choosing the fittest males to main­ dogs lost or abandoned during hunting flow and have come to inhabit the slopes sodium monofluoroacetate (Compound tain effective hunting packs and the fit­ forays from Santo Tomas. Animals lead­ of Cerro Azul practice a direct but rudi­ 1080). This substance was originally de­ test females for breeding, these villagers ing a pariah-type lifestyle assume a cau­ mentary form of predation on the feral veloped for controlling rodent popula­ are practicing a form of selection that il­ tious, yet not quite fearful attitude to­ cattle populations of the area. They too tions, but it has been found to be dif­ lustrates man's role as a domesticator, ward man. A breakdown in the regimen­ ultimately rely on a form of scavenging ferentially toxic to canids at doses as determining the future genetic composi­ tation of social order may occur territor­ to obtain their food. The difference bet­ low as 0.05 mg/kg. And, while 1080 is tion of the dog population and, by selec­ ially; intragroup aggression decreases and ween this strategy and that of the pariah highly toxic, it is undetectable in flesh tion for males, reducing total population there is a marked tendency to rely on animals resides in the fact that these baits. The lag period that follows inges­ size. scavenging more than on true predation dogs are themselves providing the car­ tion before manifest effects appear min­ The unavailability of firearms to to obtain food (Brisbin, 1977). By study­ casses, thereby precluding any depen­ imizes the potential for bait shyness and the inhabitants of Santo Tomas necessi­ ing the differences in these behavioral dence on humans for food. The likelihood association. The suggested use of Com­ tates the use of dogs as an aid in hunting patterns, it may be possible to gauge a of contact with village or pariah popula­ pound 1080 is controversial and in many game. It is not unusual for a dog to be in­ given population's current position along tions is also reduced by the presence of countries is greatly restricted. The risk to jured during a hunt; since it is then of no the continuum of evolution from the do­ a significant geographical barrier, which nontarget species must be considered as further use to its owner, the animal is mestic to the feral condition. Observed further removes the dogs from the in­ well when any pesticide is used, and a normally abandoned. Also, some dogs behavioral patterns may in turn provide direct influence of man. detailed knowledge of the target animal's stray from the hunting party and, if they insight into the historical pattern of dis­ The dogs of lsabela's northern coast behavior and ecology is a prerequisite to are unable to find their way home, they persal of dogs throughout lsabela. are even more isolated from populations safe and effective application of the become forced to fend for themselves. The dogs of Sierra Negra provide an on Sierra Negra and Santo Tomas by the substance (Rudd, 1964). It is these free-ranging individuals that example of differences in feeding habits large and formidable lava fields that On the islands, poison baits, obtain­ occupy an intermediate stage between between free-ranging (pariah) and truly bisect the island on an east-west axis. ed by killing a small number of feral cat­ the truly domestic and truly feral popu­ feral canids. Most of their food is obtain­ These animals derive their sustenance tle, are placed at various locations with­ lations. ed by scavenging the remains of animals by active predation on the endemic fauna in the dogs' known range. By exploiting It is important to distinguish clearly caught in snares placed by the hunting of the coastal region and, by virtue of the domestic trait of predilection for scav­ between truly feral and free-ranging parties from Santo Tomas. These hunt­ this behavior and their breeding pat­ enging, a surprising degree of success in dogs. A feral population is produced ers may set up to 20 traps along any terns, may truly be regarded as feral. controlling populations has been achiev­ when domestic animals escape to a hab­ given animal trail, then return 1 to 2 ed. Baits are well hidden to prevent re­ itat that is similar to that of their wild weeks later to collect their catch. Many The current investigation into the ancestors and thereby come under the of the animals caught in these traps dur­ relative amount of phenotypic variation moval and ingestion by the Galapagos influence of natural selection. This pro­ ing the first days after they are set are no within these respective populations may hawks and short-eared owls that also in­ cess requires many generations for com­ longer salvageable by the time that the further elucidate aspects of the discus­ habit the region. These avian predators, plete removal of the constraints impos­ hunters return, and they are therefore sion presented above and reveal a de­ however, are 200 times more resistant to ed by artificial selection, but the process abandoned. Consequently, there is al­ crease in such variation with increasing the poison than the dogs: a dosage of ap­ is rarely as clear-cut as one might sup­ ways a supply of surplus meat to sup­ distance from the source (or domestic) proximately 10 mg/kg is necessary before pose. If evolution is a continuous pro­ port scavenging dogs. Analysis of dog population. By this type of analysis, it the compound becomes lethal. Since a sin­ cess which moves almost imperceptibly feces in the area shows that 70 percent may become possible to trace the history gle bait (1 kg) only contains enough poi­ from one stage to another, considera­ of their diet consists of feral cattle, pigs, of feral dogs on Isabel a and subsequent­ son to ensure the desired effect on can­ tion of some intermediate construct to and burros, and signs of dog activity are ly to apply similar techniques to the study ids (0.1 mg/kg), hawks and owls would 55 54 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 'I I

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

have to consume at least 100 such baits safe, and effective means of reducing feral dogs, and research is continuing in­ tions between humans and their modifi­ to incur any significant toxic effects. On fertility in domestic dog populations (Pi­ to the relative amounts of phenotypic ed environments. the other hand, cats (0.2 mg/kg) and rats neda, 1978). This compound (chlorhexi­ variation within the affected feral popu­ (2.1 to 3.1 mg/kg) are more susceptible to dine digluconate) has been extensively lations, through studies on the skull mor­ the substance, but their eradication would studied for its safety and effectiveness phology and physical characteristics of Acknowledgments be a desirable, if unintended, consequence. for various applications as an antiseptic the animals destroyed to date. Further, We extend our warm thanks to many Any effective control program must in both humans and animals. In the epi­ domestic dogs, endemic pinnipeds, and agencies and individuals who have con­ consider all phases of the target animal's didymis of the male testis, it acts as a humans are being used as the subjects of tributed to this study program. We wish sclerosing agent, which causes a proli­ ecology, and although removing feral an investigation into the epizootiology to thank particularly Dr. Friedemann feration of scar tissue in the epididymal dog populations is one important aspect of canine heartworm. Radio tracking Koster, Director of the Charles Darwin tissue and eventual blockage of sperm of the current effort, action must also be studies on these domestic animals and Research Station on Isla Santa Cruz, passage through the tubule (Pineda taken to limit the future introduction, et on the free-ranging dogs of Sierra Negra Fausto Cepeda and officials in Ecuador establishment, and growth of such popu­ a/., 1977). There appear to be no qualita­ can be expected to produce information of the Servicio Parque Nacional Galapa­ lations. In the case of dogs on lsabela, tive changes in the seminiferous tubules regarding their movements, activity pat­ gos, Allen and Tui de R. Moore and Lin­ steps must be taken to curb reproduc­ or interstitial tissue after treatment, and terns, social organization, and predatory da Michelson, in the Galapagos Islands, tion in domestic populations and pre­ hormone production is not impaired. habits. The testing of alternative con­ and Dean A.G. Marr, Graduate Research vent their dispersal from areas of human Transient scrotal swelling may occur, but traceptive methods, including the use of and Development, University of Califor­ habitation. In one sense, the residents of testicular palpation of test animals has the chemical sterilant chlorhexidine di­ nia, Davis. the island's two settlements already prac­ shown no accompanying pain. This meth­ gluconate, is also planned for the coming year. . tice a form of reproductive control with od of sterilization of large numbers of male The study of feral dogs in the Gala­ their dogs by regulating the number and dogs may reduce the number of pregnant References pagos islands presents opportunities for sex of the surviving young. However, the females sufficiently to restrict total pop­ both basic and applied research and as­ Anonymous (1976) Tortoises, iguanas huge surplus of male animals all but guar­ ulation growth. Moreover, if dominant sumes particular relevance at a time and the menace of feral dogs. Notic antees the impregnation of the fewer males are rendered sterile without af­ when we are only beginning to understand Galapagos 25:1-2. females and thus maintains a steady pro­ fecting their social dominance or aggres­ and to compare general ecological pat­ Beebe, W. (1923) Williams Galapagos Ex­ duction of new individuals. Therefore, a siveness, these dominants might prevent terns on earth. A well-planned, coordi­ pedition. Zoologica 5:3-22. program directed at reducing the num­ matings by their intact subordinates. nated effort to control sympatric popu­ Beebe, W. (1924) Voyage of the Arcturus. ber of potent males in the population lations of feral animals in the Galapagos Putnam, London, U.K. could effectively decrease the rate of Future Research is badly needed. Dogs, cats, rats, pigs, Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1974) The ecology of reproduction to manageable levels. Sur­ burros, goats, cattle and, recently, gui­ Current control procedures have animal domestication. ASB Bull 21: gical vasectomy of male dogs is one nea pigs and poultry have been intro­ drastically reduced the size of feral dog 3-8. technique of contraception which avoids duced to the Archipelago and now pre­ populations along southern lsabela's north­ Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1976) The domestication the problem of sexually interested males sent serious problems on all but a few of ern coast and in the highlands of Cerro of the dog. Purebred Dogs: Am Kennel and unreceptive females that is associ­ the Islands. The removal of only one of Azul and Sierra Negra. Where just 1 year Club Gaz 93:22-29. ated with ovariectomy and ovariohyster­ these species can actually benefit the ago an estimated 300 to 500 dogs roamed Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1977) The Pariah: Its ectomy, and is preferable to orchidecto­ survival and success of another by re­ the coastal region, threatening the sur­ ecology and importance to the origin, my (castration), which ultimately results ducing competition for food or, as in the vival of marine iguanas, penguins, sea development and study of purebred in the diminution of male secondary sex­ case of the dogs and cattle of Cerro lions, and many species of seabirds, to­ dogs. Purebred Dogs: Am Kennel Club ual characteristics (Hopkins eta/., 1976). Azul, eliminating the predation by one day less than 100 dogs remain. Efforts species on another. Understanding the Gaz 95:22-27. The latter method would be particularly are also underway to remove the last in­ complex ecological relationships among Fox, M.W. (1971) The Behavior of , undesirable in instances where males dividuals from the slopes of Cerro Azul. introduced populations and between them Dogs and Related Canids. Harper and are valued for their aggressiveness. Sur­ The effective reduction of these popula­ and the endemic fauna constitutes the Row, New York, NY. gical procedures, however, are time-con­ tions by the eradication program makes first step toward developing sound and Fox, M.W. (1978) The Dog: Its Domestica­ suming and expensive, and would be im­ further studies at this time both imprac­ effective methods of control (Hutchins tion and Behavior. Garland Press, practical in the present situation. But tical and difficult. The population sizes eta/., 1982). By studying these problems in New York, NY. the recent development of a chemical of introduced and endemic prey species relatively simple ecosystems like islands, Hamann, 0. (1981) Plant communities of vasectomizing agent offers considerable are, however, being closely monitored we may be able to gain some insight into the Galapagos islands. Dansk Botan potential for providing a fast, low-cost, to assess the impact of the remaining the general issue of the complex interac- Ark 34(2):1-163. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1} 1983 56 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 57 'I I

B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article

have to consume at least 100 such baits safe, and effective means of reducing feral dogs, and research is continuing in­ tions between humans and their modifi­ to incur any significant toxic effects. On fertility in domestic dog populations (Pi­ to the relative amounts of phenotypic ed environments. the other hand, cats (0.2 mg/kg) and rats neda, 1978). This compound (chlorhexi­ variation within the affected feral popu­ (2.1 to 3.1 mg/kg) are more susceptible to dine digluconate) has been extensively lations, through studies on the skull mor­ the substance, but their eradication would studied for its safety and effectiveness phology and physical characteristics of Acknowledgments be a desirable, if unintended, consequence. for various applications as an antiseptic the animals destroyed to date. Further, We extend our warm thanks to many Any effective control program must in both humans and animals. In the epi­ domestic dogs, endemic pinnipeds, and agencies and individuals who have con­ consider all phases of the target animal's didymis of the male testis, it acts as a humans are being used as the subjects of tributed to this study program. We wish sclerosing agent, which causes a proli­ ecology, and although removing feral an investigation into the epizootiology to thank particularly Dr. Friedemann feration of scar tissue in the epididymal dog populations is one important aspect of canine heartworm. Radio tracking Koster, Director of the Charles Darwin tissue and eventual blockage of sperm of the current effort, action must also be studies on these domestic animals and Research Station on Isla Santa Cruz, passage through the tubule (Pineda taken to limit the future introduction, et on the free-ranging dogs of Sierra Negra Fausto Cepeda and officials in Ecuador establishment, and growth of such popu­ a/., 1977). There appear to be no qualita­ can be expected to produce information of the Servicio Parque Nacional Galapa­ lations. In the case of dogs on lsabela, tive changes in the seminiferous tubules regarding their movements, activity pat­ gos, Allen and Tui de R. Moore and Lin­ steps must be taken to curb reproduc­ or interstitial tissue after treatment, and terns, social organization, and predatory da Michelson, in the Galapagos Islands, tion in domestic populations and pre­ hormone production is not impaired. habits. The testing of alternative con­ and Dean A.G. Marr, Graduate Research vent their dispersal from areas of human Transient scrotal swelling may occur, but traceptive methods, including the use of and Development, University of Califor­ habitation. In one sense, the residents of testicular palpation of test animals has the chemical sterilant chlorhexidine di­ nia, Davis. the island's two settlements already prac­ shown no accompanying pain. This meth­ gluconate, is also planned for the coming year. . tice a form of reproductive control with od of sterilization of large numbers of male The study of feral dogs in the Gala­ their dogs by regulating the number and dogs may reduce the number of pregnant References pagos islands presents opportunities for sex of the surviving young. However, the females sufficiently to restrict total pop­ both basic and applied research and as­ Anonymous (1976) Tortoises, iguanas huge surplus of male animals all but guar­ ulation growth. Moreover, if dominant sumes particular relevance at a time and the menace of feral dogs. Notic antees the impregnation of the fewer males are rendered sterile without af­ when we are only beginning to understand Galapagos 25:1-2. females and thus maintains a steady pro­ fecting their social dominance or aggres­ and to compare general ecological pat­ Beebe, W. (1923) Williams Galapagos Ex­ duction of new individuals. Therefore, a siveness, these dominants might prevent terns on earth. A well-planned, coordi­ pedition. Zoologica 5:3-22. program directed at reducing the num­ matings by their intact subordinates. nated effort to control sympatric popu­ Beebe, W. (1924) Voyage of the Arcturus. ber of potent males in the population lations of feral animals in the Galapagos Putnam, London, U.K. could effectively decrease the rate of Future Research is badly needed. Dogs, cats, rats, pigs, Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1974) The ecology of reproduction to manageable levels. Sur­ burros, goats, cattle and, recently, gui­ Current control procedures have animal domestication. ASB Bull 21: gical vasectomy of male dogs is one nea pigs and poultry have been intro­ drastically reduced the size of feral dog 3-8. technique of contraception which avoids duced to the Archipelago and now pre­ populations along southern lsabela's north­ Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1976) The domestication the problem of sexually interested males sent serious problems on all but a few of ern coast and in the highlands of Cerro of the dog. Purebred Dogs: Am Kennel and unreceptive females that is associ­ the Islands. The removal of only one of Azul and Sierra Negra. Where just 1 year Club Gaz 93:22-29. ated with ovariectomy and ovariohyster­ these species can actually benefit the ago an estimated 300 to 500 dogs roamed Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1977) The Pariah: Its ectomy, and is preferable to orchidecto­ survival and success of another by re­ the coastal region, threatening the sur­ ecology and importance to the origin, my (castration), which ultimately results ducing competition for food or, as in the vival of marine iguanas, penguins, sea development and study of purebred in the diminution of male secondary sex­ case of the dogs and cattle of Cerro lions, and many species of seabirds, to­ dogs. Purebred Dogs: Am Kennel Club ual characteristics (Hopkins eta/., 1976). Azul, eliminating the predation by one day less than 100 dogs remain. Efforts species on another. Understanding the Gaz 95:22-27. The latter method would be particularly are also underway to remove the last in­ complex ecological relationships among Fox, M.W. (1971) The Behavior of Wolves, undesirable in instances where males dividuals from the slopes of Cerro Azul. introduced populations and between them Dogs and Related Canids. Harper and are valued for their aggressiveness. Sur­ The effective reduction of these popula­ and the endemic fauna constitutes the Row, New York, NY. gical procedures, however, are time-con­ tions by the eradication program makes first step toward developing sound and Fox, M.W. (1978) The Dog: Its Domestica­ suming and expensive, and would be im­ further studies at this time both imprac­ effective methods of control (Hutchins tion and Behavior. Garland Press, practical in the present situation. But tical and difficult. The population sizes eta/., 1982). By studying these problems in New York, NY. the recent development of a chemical of introduced and endemic prey species relatively simple ecosystems like islands, Hamann, 0. (1981) Plant communities of vasectomizing agent offers considerable are, however, being closely monitored we may be able to gain some insight into the Galapagos islands. Dansk Botan potential for providing a fast, low-cost, to assess the impact of the remaining the general issue of the complex interac- Ark 34(2):1-163. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1} 1983 56 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 57 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article The Effects of Ethostasis on Farm Animal Behavior:

Heller, E. (1903) Papers from the Hop­ Melville, H. (1856) The Encantadas, In: A Theoretical Overview kins Stanford Expedition, 1898-1899. Four Short Novels. Bantam Paperbacks, XIV Reptiles. Proc Washington Acad New York, NY. Sci 5:39-98. Moore, A. (1981) Special project for the Hopkins, S.C., Schubert, T.A. and Hart, eradication of feral dogs. Unpublish­ A.F. Fraser B.L. (1976) Castration of adult male ed report, Servicio Parque Nacional Ga­ and dogs: Effects on roaming, aggression, lapagos. M.W. Fox urine marking, and mounting. } Am Naveda, B. H. (1950) Galapagos a Ia Vista. Vet Med Assoc 168:1108-1110. El Commercia, Quito, Ecuador. Houvenaghel, G.T. (1978) Oceanograph­ Pineda, M.H. (1978) Chemical vasectomy The solution of animal problems that occur on the farm requires a holistic and ic conditions in the Galapagos Ar­ in dogs. Can Pract 5:34-46. multidisciplinary orientation and analysis, as well as the acquisition of new investiga­ chipelago and their relationships with Pineda, B. H., Reimers, T.J ., Faulkner, L.C., tory tools by both veterinarians and animal scientists. Field studies may be modeled life on the islands, In: R. Boje and M. Hopwood, M.L. and Siegel, G.E., Jr. under more controlled laboratory conditions, but the most relevant investigations Tomczar, eds., Upwelling Ecosystems. (1977) Azoospermia in dogs induced must take place on the farm, and the first level of analysis should be ethological. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 181-200. by injection of sclerosing agents into Domestic animal behavior can be monitored and quantified like any other factor in Hutchins, M., Stevens, V. and Atkins, N. the caudae of the epididymides. Am j the animals' environment; yet it has been virtually ignored in the development of new (1982) Introduced species and the is­ Vet Res 38:831-838. livestock husbandry systems. sue of animal welfare. lnt J Stud Anim Robinson, W.A. (1936) Voyage to Gala­ The relationships between husbandry systems, disease problems, and behavioral Prob 4:318-336. pagos. Harcourt, Brace and World, factors are extremely complex but are known to be interrelated and interdependent. It Kruuk, H. (1979) Ecology and control of New York, NY. is postulated that severely constricting husbandry practices can generate anomalous be­ feral dogs in the Galapagos. Unpub- Rudd, R.L. (1964) Pesticides and the Liv­ havior- a phenomenon termed ethostasis. Applied ethology now has a vital and cen­ 1ished report, Institute of Terrestrial ing Landscape. University of Wiscon­ tral role to play in investigating the problems that have been created by modern inten­ Ecology, Scotland. sin Press, Madison, WI. sive livestock production. Kruuk, H. and Snell, H. (1981) Prey selec­ Salvin, 0. (1876) On the avifauna of the The purpose of this overview, therefore, is to delineate some of the husbandry tion by feral dogs from a population Galapagos Archipelago. Trans Zoo/ Soc factors that can give rise to behavioral anomalies, and to describe various categories of marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cris­ London 9:447-510. of anomalous behavior that are of diagnostic value in clinical appraisals of stressful tatus). j Appl Ecol 18:197-204. Slevin, J.R. (1931) Log of the schooner husbandry. Ready identification may facilitate recognition and correction of prob­ MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. (1967) "Academy." Calif Acad Sci 17:1-162. lems that may lead to lowered productivity, diseases, and economic losses; it may al­ The Theory of Island Biogeography. Slevin, J.R. (1959) The Galapagos Islands: so foster concern for the animals' welfare from an ethical, as well as an economic, per­ Princeton University Press, Princeton, A history of their explorations. Calif spective. These circumstances highlight some of the contemporary animal husbandry NJ. Acad Sci 25:1-150 problems that warrant further research and quantitative analysis. Martinez, N. (1915) lmpresiones de un Vi­ Thornton, I. (1971) Darwin's Islands: A aje. Talleres de Policia Nacional, Qui­ Natural History of the Galapagos. Na­ Zusammenfassung to, Ecuador. tural History Press, New York, NY. Die L6sung von Problemen mit landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren erfordert eine holistische und multidisziplinare Orientierung und Analyse sowie den Einsatz von neuen Untersuchungsmethoden durch Veterinare und Wissenschaftler im tierischen Bereich. Untersuchungen ausserhalb von Laboratorien k6nnen nun an Hand von Modellen unter kontrollierten Bedingungen innerhalb von Laboratorien durchge­ fi.ihrt werden, aber die hauptsachlichsten Untersuchungen mi.issen auf der Farm stattfinden, und der erste Schritt in der Analyse sollte ethologischer Natur sein. Das Verhalten eines landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieres kann wie jeder andere Faktor in der Umwelt eines Tieres beobachtet und quantifiziert werden; dies wurde jedoch in den modernen Viehhaltungssystemen praktisch ignoriert.

Andrew F. Fraser is at the Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. fohn's, Newfoundland, Canada. Or. Michael W. Fox is Director of the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., NW, Washington, DC 20037.

58 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 59 B.D. Barnett & R.L. Rudd-Feral Dogs of Galapagos Original Article The Effects of Ethostasis on Farm Animal Behavior:

Heller, E. (1903) Papers from the Hop­ Melville, H. (1856) The Encantadas, In: A Theoretical Overview kins Stanford Expedition, 1898-1899. Four Short Novels. Bantam Paperbacks, XIV Reptiles. Proc Washington Acad New York, NY. Sci 5:39-98. Moore, A. (1981) Special project for the Hopkins, S.C., Schubert, T.A. and Hart, eradication of feral dogs. Unpublish­ A.F. Fraser B.L. (1976) Castration of adult male ed report, Servicio Parque Nacional Ga­ and dogs: Effects on roaming, aggression, lapagos. M.W. Fox urine marking, and mounting. } Am Naveda, B. H. (1950) Galapagos a Ia Vista. Vet Med Assoc 168:1108-1110. El Commercia, Quito, Ecuador. Houvenaghel, G.T. (1978) Oceanograph­ Pineda, M.H. (1978) Chemical vasectomy The solution of animal problems that occur on the farm requires a holistic and ic conditions in the Galapagos Ar­ in dogs. Can Pract 5:34-46. multidisciplinary orientation and analysis, as well as the acquisition of new investiga­ chipelago and their relationships with Pineda, B. H., Reimers, T.J ., Faulkner, L.C., tory tools by both veterinarians and animal scientists. Field studies may be modeled life on the islands, In: R. Boje and M. Hopwood, M.L. and Siegel, G.E., Jr. under more controlled laboratory conditions, but the most relevant investigations Tomczar, eds., Upwelling Ecosystems. (1977) Azoospermia in dogs induced must take place on the farm, and the first level of analysis should be ethological. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 181-200. by injection of sclerosing agents into Domestic animal behavior can be monitored and quantified like any other factor in Hutchins, M., Stevens, V. and Atkins, N. the caudae of the epididymides. Am j the animals' environment; yet it has been virtually ignored in the development of new (1982) Introduced species and the is­ Vet Res 38:831-838. livestock husbandry systems. sue of animal welfare. lnt J Stud Anim Robinson, W.A. (1936) Voyage to Gala­ The relationships between husbandry systems, disease problems, and behavioral Prob 4:318-336. pagos. Harcourt, Brace and World, factors are extremely complex but are known to be interrelated and interdependent. It Kruuk, H. (1979) Ecology and control of New York, NY. is postulated that severely constricting husbandry practices can generate anomalous be­ feral dogs in the Galapagos. Unpub- Rudd, R.L. (1964) Pesticides and the Liv­ havior- a phenomenon termed ethostasis. Applied ethology now has a vital and cen­ 1ished report, Institute of Terrestrial ing Landscape. University of Wiscon­ tral role to play in investigating the problems that have been created by modern inten­ Ecology, Scotland. sin Press, Madison, WI. sive livestock production. Kruuk, H. and Snell, H. (1981) Prey selec­ Salvin, 0. (1876) On the avifauna of the The purpose of this overview, therefore, is to delineate some of the husbandry tion by feral dogs from a population Galapagos Archipelago. Trans Zoo/ Soc factors that can give rise to behavioral anomalies, and to describe various categories of marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cris­ London 9:447-510. of anomalous behavior that are of diagnostic value in clinical appraisals of stressful tatus). j Appl Ecol 18:197-204. Slevin, J.R. (1931) Log of the schooner husbandry. Ready identification may facilitate recognition and correction of prob­ MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. (1967) "Academy." Calif Acad Sci 17:1-162. lems that may lead to lowered productivity, diseases, and economic losses; it may al­ The Theory of Island Biogeography. Slevin, J.R. (1959) The Galapagos Islands: so foster concern for the animals' welfare from an ethical, as well as an economic, per­ Princeton University Press, Princeton, A history of their explorations. Calif spective. These circumstances highlight some of the contemporary animal husbandry NJ. Acad Sci 25:1-150 problems that warrant further research and quantitative analysis. Martinez, N. (1915) lmpresiones de un Vi­ Thornton, I. (1971) Darwin's Islands: A aje. Talleres de Policia Nacional, Qui­ Natural History of the Galapagos. Na­ Zusammenfassung to, Ecuador. tural History Press, New York, NY. Die L6sung von Problemen mit landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren erfordert eine holistische und multidisziplinare Orientierung und Analyse sowie den Einsatz von neuen Untersuchungsmethoden durch Veterinare und Wissenschaftler im tierischen Bereich. Untersuchungen ausserhalb von Laboratorien k6nnen nun an Hand von Modellen unter kontrollierten Bedingungen innerhalb von Laboratorien durchge­ fi.ihrt werden, aber die hauptsachlichsten Untersuchungen mi.issen auf der Farm stattfinden, und der erste Schritt in der Analyse sollte ethologischer Natur sein. Das Verhalten eines landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieres kann wie jeder andere Faktor in der Umwelt eines Tieres beobachtet und quantifiziert werden; dies wurde jedoch in den modernen Viehhaltungssystemen praktisch ignoriert.

Andrew F. Fraser is at the Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. fohn's, Newfoundland, Canada. Or. Michael W. Fox is Director of the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., NW, Washington, DC 20037.

58 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 59 II

A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

Die Beziehungen zwischen Viehhaltungssystemen, Krankheitsproblemen und While it is not the intention here to of these terms nevertheless does exist. Yerhaltensfaktoren sind ausserst komplex, man weiss jedoch, dass sie miteinander examine the merits and limitations of Definitions of certain broad terms are re­ verkni.ipft und voneinander abhangig sind. In diesem Artikel wird gezeigt, dass the behavioral sciences, certain other quired and are given in this review to besonders einschrankende Viehhaltungspraktiken zu abnormalem Verhalten fi.ihren­ values and attitudes relevant to applied serve as a basis for clear and orderly ein Phanomen, das als Ethostasis bezeichnet werden kann. Die angewandte Etholo­ ethology should be addressed. With farm comprehension, to provide a sound base gie spielt heute eine vitale und zentrale Rolle in der Unterschung der Probleme, animals, concentration on purely econo­ for exercises on interpretative ethology, welche die moderne intensive Tierhaltung mit sich bringt. mic concerns and narrow utilitarian val­ in particular. Zweck der folgenden Ausfi.ihrungen ist es, einige der Faktoren in der Tierhaltung ues can severely limit the capacity for In applied ethology, behavior can aufzuzeigen, die zu abnormalem Verhalten fi.ihren konnen, und die verschiedenen responsible compassion, which is the pri­ be given a two-tier definition as follows. Kategorien von abnormalem Yerhalten zu beschreiben, die von diagnostischem Wert mary ethical ingredient of good animal (1) Behavior is the overt form of the com­ sind in der klinischen Erfassung von Stress in der Tierzucht. Rechtzeitige ldentifizie­ husbandry. The attitudes of the stockman posite neurophysiological functions of rung ermoglicht das Erkennen und die Korrektur von Problemen, die zu verminderter and related variables should always be animals, individually and collectively. Produktivitat, Krankheiten und wirtschaftlichen Verlusten fi.ihren konnen; dies mag considered in any study of farm animal (2) Behavior is, itself, the function by auch die Ri.icksicht auf die Wohlfahrt der Tiere starken sowohl vom ethischen wie behavior. which the animal mediates dynamically auch vom okonomischen Gesichtspunkt aus. Diese Umstande werfen ein Licht auf with its environment. Normally, there­ die gegenwartigen Viehzuchtprobleme, welche eine weitergehende Forschung und Husbandry Systems fore, behavior is an adaptive response to quantitative Analyse rechtfertigen. With the advent of new intensive some change in the internal (physiologi­ methods of animal husbandry, many new cal) or external (physical/social) environ­ behavior problems and new diseases ment. The adaptive role of behavior will have appeared, while others have be­ be discussed below. come more common. In terms of econo­ There are numerous behavior patterns mic losses and animal welfare, the need in animals. Each functional pattern has Introduction to learn the causes and best methods for recognizable similarities in appropriate control of diseases in farm livestock re­ contexts of mediation. These similarities Interpretation The Role of Ethology and Its Limits mains a major concern. Therefore, there constitute the norms of behavior, for a Classical ethology has frequently One important element in achiev­ is an even greater need for some com­ given species and a particular environ­ hesitated to pursue the interpretive as­ ing a broader perspective involves the prehensive way of interpreting animal ment, considering both the physical and pects of behavior studies, taking instead use of our intuition and sense of em­ behavior. Husbandry systems that are social elements of that environment. a relatively narrow, objective approach, pathy. These can be valuable subjective now in widespread use require rigorous However, departures from the establish­ and concentrating on restrained examina­ tools in observing and understanding an­ reappraisal in terms of their effects on ed norms in behavior do occur. tions of observed behavior. Ultimately, imal behavior, although they are often behavior. However, because of economic Littlejohn (1969) has noted that since however, as behavioral information ac­ inhibited in the name of a quasi-scienti­ constraints, it is virtually impossible to normal behavior can be shown to relate cumulates, it begs some broader inter­ fic "objectivity." While objective descrip­ mimic field conditions under even ideal to relevant and complex cirtumstances, pretation. This is particularly true in the tion remains the essential ingredient of laboratory conditions. Thus, many sys­ it must be possible to show that abnor­ case of ethology as it is applied to do­ good science, a mechanistic and often tems are put into use without adequate mal forms of behavior relate to their mesticated animals, whose behavior is reductionistic approach to ethology may field testing. It is our belief that severely own specific circumstances as well. Lit­ extremely dependent upon the complex­ lead to a very narrow or biased under­ restrictive husbandry leads to behavioral tlejohn emphasized the need to recog­ ities of the control involved in their hus­ standing of observations. Intuition and abnormalities; this phenomenon has been nize, in a systematic fashion, this rela­ bandry, especially when confinement and empathy are also valuable assets in prac­ referred to as "ethostasis." Further, rec­ tionship between abnormal behavior and constraint are the main features. Veteri­ ticing good animal husbandry and veteri­ ognition of this phenomenon may com­ its principal physical causes. In his work, nary ethologists, in particular, cannot es­ nary medicine. Use of these faculties prise the essence of any appraisal of the he made exclusive reference to organic cape the responsibility of interpreting does not mean the adoption of a simp! is­ acceptibility of innovative animal hus­ factors such as specific diseases. some of the behavior patterns they study tic anthropomorphic attitude toward an­ bandry. Behavioral abnormalities can be con­ as dependent variables resulting from imals but, rather, a willingness to place Concepts and Terminology sidered to fall into three categories. such control. Then, applied ethologists some trust in our sensitivity to animals, 1. Idiosyncratic Behavior must begin to place these interpretations in order to facilitate the work of the Among ethologists, there has often Certain highly individualized forms within a broader perspective. This arti­ ethologist, veterinarian, and animal hus­ been some hesitancy to define the gene­ of unusual behavior patterns can occur cle is an attempt to make some progress bandryman, as well as to benefit the ani­ ral terminology of their subject, but a in some animals. Some examples include toward this goal. mals under their care or investigation. common understanding of the meanings bulls adopting "dog-sitting" postures,

60 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 61 II

A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

Die Beziehungen zwischen Viehhaltungssystemen, Krankheitsproblemen und While it is not the intention here to of these terms nevertheless does exist. Yerhaltensfaktoren sind ausserst komplex, man weiss jedoch, dass sie miteinander examine the merits and limitations of Definitions of certain broad terms are re­ verkni.ipft und voneinander abhangig sind. In diesem Artikel wird gezeigt, dass the behavioral sciences, certain other quired and are given in this review to besonders einschrankende Viehhaltungspraktiken zu abnormalem Verhalten fi.ihren­ values and attitudes relevant to applied serve as a basis for clear and orderly ein Phanomen, das als Ethostasis bezeichnet werden kann. Die angewandte Etholo­ ethology should be addressed. With farm comprehension, to provide a sound base gie spielt heute eine vitale und zentrale Rolle in der Unterschung der Probleme, animals, concentration on purely econo­ for exercises on interpretative ethology, welche die moderne intensive Tierhaltung mit sich bringt. mic concerns and narrow utilitarian val­ in particular. Zweck der folgenden Ausfi.ihrungen ist es, einige der Faktoren in der Tierhaltung ues can severely limit the capacity for In applied ethology, behavior can aufzuzeigen, die zu abnormalem Verhalten fi.ihren konnen, und die verschiedenen responsible compassion, which is the pri­ be given a two-tier definition as follows. Kategorien von abnormalem Yerhalten zu beschreiben, die von diagnostischem Wert mary ethical ingredient of good animal (1) Behavior is the overt form of the com­ sind in der klinischen Erfassung von Stress in der Tierzucht. Rechtzeitige ldentifizie­ husbandry. The attitudes of the stockman posite neurophysiological functions of rung ermoglicht das Erkennen und die Korrektur von Problemen, die zu verminderter and related variables should always be animals, individually and collectively. Produktivitat, Krankheiten und wirtschaftlichen Verlusten fi.ihren konnen; dies mag considered in any study of farm animal (2) Behavior is, itself, the function by auch die Ri.icksicht auf die Wohlfahrt der Tiere starken sowohl vom ethischen wie behavior. which the animal mediates dynamically auch vom okonomischen Gesichtspunkt aus. Diese Umstande werfen ein Licht auf with its environment. Normally, there­ die gegenwartigen Viehzuchtprobleme, welche eine weitergehende Forschung und Husbandry Systems fore, behavior is an adaptive response to quantitative Analyse rechtfertigen. With the advent of new intensive some change in the internal (physiologi­ methods of animal husbandry, many new cal) or external (physical/social) environ­ behavior problems and new diseases ment. The adaptive role of behavior will have appeared, while others have be­ be discussed below. come more common. In terms of econo­ There are numerous behavior patterns mic losses and animal welfare, the need in animals. Each functional pattern has Introduction to learn the causes and best methods for recognizable similarities in appropriate control of diseases in farm livestock re­ contexts of mediation. These similarities Interpretation The Role of Ethology and Its Limits mains a major concern. Therefore, there constitute the norms of behavior, for a Classical ethology has frequently One important element in achiev­ is an even greater need for some com­ given species and a particular environ­ hesitated to pursue the interpretive as­ ing a broader perspective involves the prehensive way of interpreting animal ment, considering both the physical and pects of behavior studies, taking instead use of our intuition and sense of em­ behavior. Husbandry systems that are social elements of that environment. a relatively narrow, objective approach, pathy. These can be valuable subjective now in widespread use require rigorous However, departures from the establish­ and concentrating on restrained examina­ tools in observing and understanding an­ reappraisal in terms of their effects on ed norms in behavior do occur. tions of observed behavior. Ultimately, imal behavior, although they are often behavior. However, because of economic Littlejohn (1969) has noted that since however, as behavioral information ac­ inhibited in the name of a quasi-scienti­ constraints, it is virtually impossible to normal behavior can be shown to relate cumulates, it begs some broader inter­ fic "objectivity." While objective descrip­ mimic field conditions under even ideal to relevant and complex cirtumstances, pretation. This is particularly true in the tion remains the essential ingredient of laboratory conditions. Thus, many sys­ it must be possible to show that abnor­ case of ethology as it is applied to do­ good science, a mechanistic and often tems are put into use without adequate mal forms of behavior relate to their mesticated animals, whose behavior is reductionistic approach to ethology may field testing. It is our belief that severely own specific circumstances as well. Lit­ extremely dependent upon the complex­ lead to a very narrow or biased under­ restrictive husbandry leads to behavioral tlejohn emphasized the need to recog­ ities of the control involved in their hus­ standing of observations. Intuition and abnormalities; this phenomenon has been nize, in a systematic fashion, this rela­ bandry, especially when confinement and empathy are also valuable assets in prac­ referred to as "ethostasis." Further, rec­ tionship between abnormal behavior and constraint are the main features. Veteri­ ticing good animal husbandry and veteri­ ognition of this phenomenon may com­ its principal physical causes. In his work, nary ethologists, in particular, cannot es­ nary medicine. Use of these faculties prise the essence of any appraisal of the he made exclusive reference to organic cape the responsibility of interpreting does not mean the adoption of a simp! is­ acceptibility of innovative animal hus­ factors such as specific diseases. some of the behavior patterns they study tic anthropomorphic attitude toward an­ bandry. Behavioral abnormalities can be con­ as dependent variables resulting from imals but, rather, a willingness to place Concepts and Terminology sidered to fall into three categories. such control. Then, applied ethologists some trust in our sensitivity to animals, 1. Idiosyncratic Behavior must begin to place these interpretations in order to facilitate the work of the Among ethologists, there has often Certain highly individualized forms within a broader perspective. This arti­ ethologist, veterinarian, and animal hus­ been some hesitancy to define the gene­ of unusual behavior patterns can occur cle is an attempt to make some progress bandryman, as well as to benefit the ani­ ral terminology of their subject, but a in some animals. Some examples include toward this goal. mals under their care or investigation. common understanding of the meanings bulls adopting "dog-sitting" postures,

60 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 61 !I

A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article iTABLE 1 Variety of Environmental Stressors AssodatedwithChrbnic Control of Livestock That May Act Cumulatively on Animals ·

cows rolling their tongues, and horses in animals, can generate various types of knocking stable doors with their fore­ abnormal behavior. Stressor origin Stressor item feet. These manifestations are analo­ gous to vacuum activities, which be­ Stressful Factors Management Improvident welfare come habits over time. Characteristically, Many ambient factors can be seen Nutritional levels they lack clinical or subclinical signifi­ to affect behavior by producing adap­ Husbandry standards cance since they are entirely coexistent tive responses and, as such, are poten­ Environmental variables with other evidence of normal environ­ tial stressors (Table 1). The ambient fac­ Hygienic standards mental mediation. tors that can cause abnormal behavior Noise levels Attritive management policies 2. Clinical Behavior must be individually identified if they In the manifestly sick animal, the are to be appreciated and controlled. The cause-and-effect relationship be­ Space Social density array of signs and symptoms of illness or Peck order status tween environmental stressors in chronic dysfunction frequently includes signifi­ Group size control conditions and anomalous be­ cant alterations of behavior. Such cl in i­ Permitted movement havior have already been investigated cally aberrant behavior assists in draw­ Area per head by applied ethologists who have worked ing attention to the dysfunction and also Isolation independently, although along essentially aids in its precise identification. Clinical parallel lines (Kiley-Worthington, and subclinical behavioral signs combine 1977; Constraint Hardware controls (Stalls, Tethers, Races, Crushes) Ewbank, 1978; Fraser, 1980; Fraser and organic (i.e., infectious or nutritional) Special suppressive devices Fox, 1978; Sambraus, 1981 ). These investi­ Restrictive housing systems sickness and abnormal behavior. A sub­ gators have found that some forms of hus­ clinical nutritional deficiency, for exam­ bandry evidently create many stressors. ple, may lead to cannibalistic behavior or . Stress Criteria With these considerations in mind, Accumulated observations now clear­ 3. Anomalous Behavior Formerly, it was generally consider­ we offer the following definition: An ly show that appraisal and recognition of Medical irregularities are termed ed that the presence of stress was dif­ animal can be said to be in a state of etho-anomalies comprise a sound and log­ anomalies. Irregular forms of behavior ficult to determine in animals. However, stress if it is required to make abnormal ical means whereby stress in animals can occur in animals that are not manifestly a report delineating the valid use of the or extreme adjustments in its physiology be identified. Furthermore, ·it is clear clinically ill. These behavioral anomalies term stress in a veterinary context, by or behavior in order to cope with ad­ that biochemical or physiological data exist in characteristic forms, each of Fraser et a/. (1975), has been so widely verse aspects of its environment and man­ alone may be misleading or inconclusive which is an ethological entity with its accepted that we can conclude that this agement. Extreme behavioral adjust­ (Anchel, 1976). It has been found, in own mediative significance. problem has been satisfactorily address­ ments (i.e., dysstatic rather than studying anomalous behavior within var­ The more commonly recognized ed. That report states: homeostatic) can only be corrected by ious husbandry systems that, although forms of anomalies in veterinary science We cannot hope to delineate any removing the animal from the pathogenic stressors can be cumulative (Craig, 1981 ), are physical, but behavioral anomalies single biological phenomenon or environment or by adjusting those fac­ animals are capable of tolerating a sum can be classed as etho-anomalies. Some principle by defining the term stress, tors in the environment that were respon­ of stressors, up to a certain level. This forms of anomalous behavior can be but we do require that the term be sible for creating the ethostatis (Table 2). critical level for combined stressors grouped into major syndromes. Such etho­ defined sufficiently that it can be Therefore we can say that a husbandry shows variability among individuals. anomalies occur, characteristically, in used in a tangible way in discussing system can be considered stressful if it animals that have been placed under Confinement Husbandry Systems a variety of veterinary problems. makes abnormal or extreme demands on controlled environments, either in high­ Modern forms of animal husbandry The term should be used where there the animal and thereby sets up a condi­ density groups at one extreme, or in a are progressively developing into sys­ are extremes of bodily states, but tion of ethostasis. Finally, an individual state of solitary confinement at the oth­ tems that usually increase the density of should not imply any measurable er (Bryant, 1972; Jackson, 1976; Wood­ factor, such as an extreme of temperature, animals held in groups (Dougherty, 1976). parameter which necessarily sum­ Gush, 1973). may be called a stressor if it contributes Although some farm animal ethologists mates various reactions to adversi­ to the stressful nature of a particular have begun to examine these newer Ethostasis ty. Furthermore, the term should en­ system of husbandry. Social homeosta­ methods of husbandry, there is inad­ The term ethostasis (Fraser, 1974) compass states of coping as well as sis, such as crowding together to keep equate knowledge about the responses has recently come into use to describe those of collapse, and states involv­ warm, is adaptive, but a practice like of the animals kept under such manage­ the circumstances in which management ing disturbed behavior as well as this may have negative or maladaptive ment systems (Ewbank, 1969; Loew, 1972; practices, by preventing or restricting those involving altered physiologi­ consequences if it interferes with food Duncan, 1974; Kiley-Worthington, 1977; the major behavioral patterns inherent cal function. intake or other normal functions. Sambraus, 1981). Some examples of restric- 62 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 63 !I

A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article iTABLE 1 Variety of Environmental Stressors AssodatedwithChrbnic Control of Livestock That May Act Cumulatively on Animals ·

cows rolling their tongues, and horses in animals, can generate various types of knocking stable doors with their fore­ abnormal behavior. Stressor origin Stressor item feet. These manifestations are analo­ gous to vacuum activities, which be­ Stressful Factors Management Improvident welfare come habits over time. Characteristically, Many ambient factors can be seen Nutritional levels they lack clinical or subclinical signifi­ to affect behavior by producing adap­ Husbandry standards cance since they are entirely coexistent tive responses and, as such, are poten­ Environmental variables with other evidence of normal environ­ tial stressors (Table 1). The ambient fac­ Hygienic standards mental mediation. tors that can cause abnormal behavior Noise levels Attritive management policies 2. Clinical Behavior must be individually identified if they In the manifestly sick animal, the are to be appreciated and controlled. The cause-and-effect relationship be­ Space Social density array of signs and symptoms of illness or Peck order status tween environmental stressors in chronic dysfunction frequently includes signifi­ Group size control conditions and anomalous be­ cant alterations of behavior. Such cl in i­ Permitted movement havior have already been investigated cally aberrant behavior assists in draw­ Area per head by applied ethologists who have worked ing attention to the dysfunction and also Isolation independently, although along essentially aids in its precise identification. Clinical parallel lines (Kiley-Worthington, and subclinical behavioral signs combine 1977; Constraint Hardware controls (Stalls, Tethers, Races, Crushes) Ewbank, 1978; Fraser, 1980; Fraser and organic (i.e., infectious or nutritional) Special suppressive devices Fox, 1978; Sambraus, 1981 ). These investi­ Restrictive housing systems sickness and abnormal behavior. A sub­ gators have found that some forms of hus­ clinical nutritional deficiency, for exam­ bandry evidently create many stressors. ple, may lead to cannibalistic behavior or pica. Stress Criteria With these considerations in mind, Accumulated observations now clear­ 3. Anomalous Behavior Formerly, it was generally consider­ we offer the following definition: An ly show that appraisal and recognition of Medical irregularities are termed ed that the presence of stress was dif­ animal can be said to be in a state of etho-anomalies comprise a sound and log­ anomalies. Irregular forms of behavior ficult to determine in animals. However, stress if it is required to make abnormal ical means whereby stress in animals can occur in animals that are not manifestly a report delineating the valid use of the or extreme adjustments in its physiology be identified. Furthermore, ·it is clear clinically ill. These behavioral anomalies term stress in a veterinary context, by or behavior in order to cope with ad­ that biochemical or physiological data exist in characteristic forms, each of Fraser et a/. (1975), has been so widely verse aspects of its environment and man­ alone may be misleading or inconclusive which is an ethological entity with its accepted that we can conclude that this agement. Extreme behavioral adjust­ (Anchel, 1976). It has been found, in own mediative significance. problem has been satisfactorily address­ ments (i.e., dysstatic rather than studying anomalous behavior within var­ The more commonly recognized ed. That report states: homeostatic) can only be corrected by ious husbandry systems that, although forms of anomalies in veterinary science We cannot hope to delineate any removing the animal from the pathogenic stressors can be cumulative (Craig, 1981 ), are physical, but behavioral anomalies single biological phenomenon or environment or by adjusting those fac­ animals are capable of tolerating a sum can be classed as etho-anomalies. Some principle by defining the term stress, tors in the environment that were respon­ of stressors, up to a certain level. This forms of anomalous behavior can be but we do require that the term be sible for creating the ethostatis (Table 2). critical level for combined stressors grouped into major syndromes. Such etho­ defined sufficiently that it can be Therefore we can say that a husbandry shows variability among individuals. anomalies occur, characteristically, in used in a tangible way in discussing system can be considered stressful if it animals that have been placed under Confinement Husbandry Systems a variety of veterinary problems. makes abnormal or extreme demands on controlled environments, either in high­ Modern forms of animal husbandry The term should be used where there the animal and thereby sets up a condi­ density groups at one extreme, or in a are progressively developing into sys­ are extremes of bodily states, but tion of ethostasis. Finally, an individual state of solitary confinement at the oth­ tems that usually increase the density of should not imply any measurable er (Bryant, 1972; Jackson, 1976; Wood­ factor, such as an extreme of temperature, animals held in groups (Dougherty, 1976). parameter which necessarily sum­ Gush, 1973). may be called a stressor if it contributes Although some farm animal ethologists mates various reactions to adversi­ to the stressful nature of a particular have begun to examine these newer Ethostasis ty. Furthermore, the term should en­ system of husbandry. Social homeosta­ methods of husbandry, there is inad­ The term ethostasis (Fraser, 1974) compass states of coping as well as sis, such as crowding together to keep equate knowledge about the responses has recently come into use to describe those of collapse, and states involv­ warm, is adaptive, but a practice like of the animals kept under such manage­ the circumstances in which management ing disturbed behavior as well as this may have negative or maladaptive ment systems (Ewbank, 1969; Loew, 1972; practices, by preventing or restricting those involving altered physiologi­ consequences if it interferes with food Duncan, 1974; Kiley-Worthington, 1977; the major behavioral patterns inherent cal function. intake or other normal functions. Sambraus, 1981). Some examples of restric- 62 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1] 1983 63 A.F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects ofEthostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

tive husbandry practices currently in use 7. Many dairy cattle operations now that have become very adaptable to cessive grooming in calves can lead to are listed below: keep the animals in an indoor system, tightly packed conditions have a limited the formation of hair balls in the alimen­ with set daily routines of movement 1. Prolonged enclosure within nar­ ability to adjust to population densiti!=!S tary canal, with such clinical conse­ from holding quarters to milking quarters row stalls is a common feature in some that are sufficiently high so as to pro­ quences as acute obstruction and rumen and back. forms of modern swine husbandry. hibit social hierarchical systems from ulceration. 8. Recreational horses are frequently 2. In association with (1 ), some operating satisfactorily. For example, Another form of anomalous oral be­ maintained in separate stalls and are not swine practices also uti! ize a chain the form of aggression exhibited be­ havior has been observed more recently given the same quantity and quality of tether, which affixes a harness around tween animals to maintain a stable peck­ in adult dairy cattle that are closely con­ work and exercise that they were former­ the pig by a chain to a point on the floor. order under lower-density conditions is fined in pens during non-lactating periods. ly afforded. 3. Isolated stalls are used for the usually no more than a gesture. But This etho-anomaly appears as "tongue­ 9. Sheep are permanently restrict­ husbandry of calves in systems of veal when the subordinate animal does not rolling," which involves extending the ed indoors in certain new husbandry sys­ production. have adequate space to avoid the ag­ tongue and rolling it within the mouth tems. 4. The flock densities of birds in en­ gressor's gesture, the aggressor will (Fraser, 1980). closure systems now being used for lay­ These and many other examples of begin to display true agonistic behavior. "Orthostasis" in calves is a further ing hens in the poultry industry have ethostatic circumstances may not ap­ Space is required for avoidance. As soon behavioral problem in which the calf reached an extreme level. Frequently, pear to be particularly noxious events as injuries result, subordinate animals spends a large proportion of its time three birds are contained within one but, given frequent repetition over time, that are marked by them become sub­ each day in a static standing position. cage of spatial dimensions originally de­ they can become significantly stressful jected to increased aggressive attention. When newborn calves are confined in signed for one bird. (Fox, 1977). Within a comparatively short time, inju­ isolation, particularly when they are un­ 5. Fattening swine are frequently Crowding ries from agonistic encounters can be able to s~e others and are confined on held in dense groups during the later When population density reaches a found on several of the animals in an af­ unsuitable or uncomfortable flooring, stages of their growing periods. level that produces etho-anomalies, it fected group. the total quantity of time spent each 6. Feeding cattle are kept in groups, can be termed crowding (Davis, 1971). day in lying down is markedly reduced, the densities of which are still increasing. Even those species of domestic animals Observejtions compared with the norm. Orthostatic calves are subject to fatigue and, in due Species Forms of £tho-Anomalies course, this fatigue predisposes them to TABLE 2 Possible Consequences of Environmental Stimuli/Stressors Swine. When confined within stalls neonatal disorders such as diarrhea (Fox, such as feeding or farrowing stalls for ex­ pers. comm., 1981). tended periods of time, swine frequently Sheep. Among breeding ewes in ex­ exhibit anomalous behavior that takes the perimental husbandry systems that in­ behavioral------adaptation form of habitual mouthing of stall parts. volve chronic confinement within rows / homeostasis , Confined sows will indulge in chewing of pens of limited size, anomalous behav­ upon stall nipple-type automatic ior, in the form of "wool-picking" or behavioral change ~ waterers for long periods of time. They "wool-pulling," has been observed. The ~ behavioral------maladaptation indicative Stimulus dysstasis of ethostasis will also engage in extended bar biting sheep pull with their mouths on the behavior on the metal piping at the front strands of wool on the backs of the sheep of their stalls. Further, swine crowded in near them. Ultimately, subordinate Stressor/s ~ pens will frequently show tail biting. sheep in the affected group lose their Cattle. In cattle, numerous forms of long-fiber wool over the back or even

phy,lologl"l chooge~ anomalous behavior can be seen in those over the entire body (Fig. 1 ). systems of management that feature Poultry. The anomalous behaviors close confinement. lntersucking behav­ associated with crowding among poultry physiological ------maladaption, manifested ior can be observed in groups of young have become common knowledge. The dysfunctions persist as Selye's syndrome or , calves kept under crowded conditions principal one is , a less drastic secondary disease within pens. Growing calves kept in con­ form of which is feather-picking. Canni­ finement frequently display excessive self­ balism can be seen in adult poultry; it grooming. They may also lick a pen fix­ can also be seen in young poultry at the physiological ------adaptation ture excessively, forming pools of saliva brooding and rearing stages. This behav­ homeostasis on the floor beneath such fixtures. Ex- ior pattern has led to the widespread

64 ' /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 tNT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 65 A.F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects ofEthostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

tive husbandry practices currently in use 7. Many dairy cattle operations now that have become very adaptable to cessive grooming in calves can lead to are listed below: keep the animals in an indoor system, tightly packed conditions have a limited the formation of hair balls in the alimen­ with set daily routines of movement 1. Prolonged enclosure within nar­ ability to adjust to population densiti!=!S tary canal, with such clinical conse­ from holding quarters to milking quarters row stalls is a common feature in some that are sufficiently high so as to pro­ quences as acute obstruction and rumen and back. forms of modern swine husbandry. hibit social hierarchical systems from ulceration. 8. Recreational horses are frequently 2. In association with (1 ), some operating satisfactorily. For example, Another form of anomalous oral be­ maintained in separate stalls and are not swine practices also uti! ize a chain the form of aggression exhibited be­ havior has been observed more recently given the same quantity and quality of tether, which affixes a harness around tween animals to maintain a stable peck­ in adult dairy cattle that are closely con­ work and exercise that they were former­ the pig by a chain to a point on the floor. order under lower-density conditions is fined in pens during non-lactating periods. ly afforded. 3. Isolated stalls are used for the usually no more than a gesture. But This etho-anomaly appears as "tongue­ 9. Sheep are permanently restrict­ husbandry of calves in systems of veal when the subordinate animal does not rolling," which involves extending the ed indoors in certain new husbandry sys­ production. have adequate space to avoid the ag­ tongue and rolling it within the mouth tems. 4. The flock densities of birds in en­ gressor's gesture, the aggressor will (Fraser, 1980). closure systems now being used for lay­ These and many other examples of begin to display true agonistic behavior. "Orthostasis" in calves is a further ing hens in the poultry industry have ethostatic circumstances may not ap­ Space is required for avoidance. As soon behavioral problem in which the calf reached an extreme level. Frequently, pear to be particularly noxious events as injuries result, subordinate animals spends a large proportion of its time three birds are contained within one but, given frequent repetition over time, that are marked by them become sub­ each day in a static standing position. cage of spatial dimensions originally de­ they can become significantly stressful jected to increased aggressive attention. When newborn calves are confined in signed for one bird. (Fox, 1977). Within a comparatively short time, inju­ isolation, particularly when they are un­ 5. Fattening swine are frequently Crowding ries from agonistic encounters can be able to s~e others and are confined on held in dense groups during the later When population density reaches a found on several of the animals in an af­ unsuitable or uncomfortable flooring, stages of their growing periods. level that produces etho-anomalies, it fected group. the total quantity of time spent each 6. Feeding cattle are kept in groups, can be termed crowding (Davis, 1971). day in lying down is markedly reduced, the densities of which are still increasing. Even those species of domestic animals Observejtions compared with the norm. Orthostatic calves are subject to fatigue and, in due Species Forms of £tho-Anomalies course, this fatigue predisposes them to TABLE 2 Possible Consequences of Environmental Stimuli/Stressors Swine. When confined within stalls neonatal disorders such as diarrhea (Fox, such as feeding or farrowing stalls for ex­ pers. comm., 1981). tended periods of time, swine frequently Sheep. Among breeding ewes in ex­ exhibit anomalous behavior that takes the perimental husbandry systems that in­ behavioral------adaptation form of habitual mouthing of stall parts. volve chronic confinement within rows / homeostasis , Confined sows will indulge in chewing of pens of limited size, anomalous behav­ upon stall nipple-type automatic ior, in the form of "wool-picking" or behavioral change ~ waterers for long periods of time. They "wool-pulling," has been observed. The ~ behavioral------maladaptation indicative Stimulus dysstasis of ethostasis will also engage in extended bar biting sheep pull with their mouths on the behavior on the metal piping at the front strands of wool on the backs of the sheep of their stalls. Further, swine crowded in near them. Ultimately, subordinate Stressor/s ~ pens will frequently show tail biting. sheep in the affected group lose their Cattle. In cattle, numerous forms of long-fiber wool over the back or even

phy,lologl"l chooge~ anomalous behavior can be seen in those over the entire body (Fig. 1 ). systems of management that feature Poultry. The anomalous behaviors close confinement. lntersucking behav­ associated with crowding among poultry physiological ------maladaption, manifested ior can be observed in groups of young have become common knowledge. The dysfunctions persist as Selye's syndrome or , calves kept under crowded conditions principal one is cannibalism, a less drastic secondary disease within pens. Growing calves kept in con­ form of which is feather-picking. Canni­ finement frequently display excessive self­ balism can be seen in adult poultry; it grooming. They may also lick a pen fix­ can also be seen in young poultry at the physiological ------adaptation ture excessively, forming pools of saliva brooding and rearing stages. This behav­ homeostasis on the floor beneath such fixtures. Ex- ior pattern has led to the widespread

64 ' /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 tNT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 65 A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

deteriorates as it passes feces that con­ behavior are shown in Table 3. tain a significant proportion of undigest­ ed material. Then, it will participate only Discussion reluctantly in activities for which it has The environmental circumstances, previously been adequately trained. given here as forms of chronic control or General £tho-Anomalous Entities chronic restriction, impose two main defi­ Many of those who are investigating ciencies in the physiology of perception, etho-anomalies in farm animals suspect namely, hypostimulation and hypokines­ that animal producers are not sufficient­ thesia (diminished sense of body move­ ly aware that their animals need quality ment). and variety in the environment. Inad­ It is important to differentiate be­ equate attention to either of these con­ tween stimuli and stimulation. Stimuli ditions can increase the stressful charac­ are perceptible external factors, whereas ter of some forms of controlled environ­ stimulation is the excitation process that ments to the point where etho-anomalies occurs within the sensorium of the per­ become inevitable. The range of etho-ano­ ceiving animal. The quantity of stimuli malies that can appear in this kind of sit­ can affect the type of stimulation that re­ uation is much greater than those describ­ sults. Stimuli of the same type eventually ed in the previous section and includes: lose their potential value for further Freezing- This indicates tonic im­ stimulation, but a deficit in one type of FIGURE 1 Wool pulling in sheep. The sheep on the left still has its full fleece; that in the center has been mobility or catatonic behavior. It can stimulus can be compensated by an in­ almost completely "fleeced"; that on the right is partially fleeced. occasionally be observed in crease in another, alternative stimulus, when an animal has been subjected to i.e., by variability. Stimuli contribute and routine debeaking of young birds, as a cribber when it habitually sets its aversive stimulation in circumstances quantitatively to the quality of pooled which serves to obscure this anomalous upper incisor teeth on a firm object such from which it is unable to escape. The stimulation through variability. Environ­ behavior. Broiler poultry kept on deep as a manger and sucks in air, usually behavior has various manifestations, but mental quality, therefore, can be assessed making a characteristic grunting sound litter may develop serious problems from they are all characterized by a general iz­ on the basis of its potential for stimulus at the same time. In time, this aeropha­ ingesting large quantities of the litter. ed hypotonic state that resembles con­ variability. In the absence of stimulus gia has a chronic adverse effect on the Boredom, social facilitation, and nutri­ scious collapse. variability, it appears that anxious states animal's health. Wind-sucking is simply tional deficiency pica may be involved Coprophagia- The eating of feces can become established in an animal. a form of cribbing in which the horse in this behavior. may be normal behavior in very young These states then become manifested as does not need to bite onto an object Various forms of displacement acti­ animals, but not in adults. In adult horses, etho-anom al ies. while the air is being sucked in. vities in poultry have also been reported it is usually observed in individuals that Abnormally decreased mobility and Weaving in horses is another form by Duncan and Wood-Gush (1974). These are kept under chronic control and are abnormally decreased motor function or of stereotyped behavior. Stereotypes, displacement activities, when increased not provided with adequate exercise or di­ activity are termed hypokinesia. This previously documented by Fox (1971 ), in intensity and incidence, can become versionary activities. It occurs, together condition has multiple causes. The criti­ can become etho-anomalies when their etho-anomal ies. with "anal massage," in swine kept un·­ cal effect of this state is a marked reduc­ intensity and incidence become exces­ der intensive husbandry (Sambraus, 1979). tion in the animal's sensation of its own sive. In weaving, the horse rocks from movement. Horses. Among domestic animals, one side to the other. A similar etho-ano­ The Orosthenia Syndrome The various forms of sense organs (in the stable vices of horses probably con­ maly is stall-walking-when the animal Mouth-based stereotypies constitute tendons, joints, and muscles) that respond stitute the most well-recognized form of moves back and forth in a repetitive, pre­ a complex syndrome that covers a variety to mechanical action, movement, posi­ anomalous behavior. These have recent­ cise type of movement that usually in­ of manifestations of pathologically ex­ ly been well reviewed by Houpt (1981 ). volves stepping actions of the forefeet. cessive mouthing behavior in animals. tion, touch, and pressure constitute a They are understood to be consequences This may be sustained for such long per­ Several manifestations have already been major source of the sensory input of ani­ of boredom that result when horses are iods of time that the progressive drain described by Kiley-Worthington (1977). mals. Among these kinds of input is gravi­ kept in stables for long periods of time on the animal's energy becomes signifi­ Most forms of orosthenia are associated ty, which acts on the body variably, ac­ without the provision of adequate exer­ cant. In these cases, the animal's physi­ with the simultaneous occurrence of cording to its movement and position. cise or activity. The most common forms cal condition deteriorates. Another etho­ chronic control, on the one hand, and The sense of muscular effort that accom­ of such etho-anomalies include cribbing anomaly is commonly known as "sour­ hypostimulation (reduced stimulation), panies a voluntary motion of the body is and wind-sucking. A horse is described ness." The temperament of a sour horse on the other. Examples of these kinds of termed kinesthesia. Dysfunctions of the 66 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 67 A. F. Fraser & M. W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article

deteriorates as it passes feces that con­ behavior are shown in Table 3. tain a significant proportion of undigest­ ed material. Then, it will participate only Discussion reluctantly in activities for which it has The environmental circumstances, previously been adequately trained. given here as forms of chronic control or General £tho-Anomalous Entities chronic restriction, impose two main defi­ Many of those who are investigating ciencies in the physiology of perception, etho-anomalies in farm animals suspect namely, hypostimulation and hypokines­ that animal producers are not sufficient­ thesia (diminished sense of body move­ ly aware that their animals need quality ment). and variety in the environment. Inad­ It is important to differentiate be­ equate attention to either of these con­ tween stimuli and stimulation. Stimuli ditions can increase the stressful charac­ are perceptible external factors, whereas ter of some forms of controlled environ­ stimulation is the excitation process that ments to the point where etho-anomalies occurs within the sensorium of the per­ become inevitable. The range of etho-ano­ ceiving animal. The quantity of stimuli malies that can appear in this kind of sit­ can affect the type of stimulation that re­ uation is much greater than those describ­ sults. Stimuli of the same type eventually ed in the previous section and includes: lose their potential value for further Freezing- This indicates tonic im­ stimulation, but a deficit in one type of FIGURE 1 Wool pulling in sheep. The sheep on the left still has its full fleece; that in the center has been mobility or catatonic behavior. It can stimulus can be compensated by an in­ almost completely "fleeced"; that on the right is partially fleeced. occasionally be observed in ruminants crease in another, alternative stimulus, when an animal has been subjected to i.e., by variability. Stimuli contribute and routine debeaking of young birds, as a cribber when it habitually sets its aversive stimulation in circumstances quantitatively to the quality of pooled which serves to obscure this anomalous upper incisor teeth on a firm object such from which it is unable to escape. The stimulation through variability. Environ­ behavior. Broiler poultry kept on deep as a manger and sucks in air, usually behavior has various manifestations, but mental quality, therefore, can be assessed making a characteristic grunting sound litter may develop serious problems from they are all characterized by a general iz­ on the basis of its potential for stimulus at the same time. In time, this aeropha­ ingesting large quantities of the litter. ed hypotonic state that resembles con­ variability. In the absence of stimulus gia has a chronic adverse effect on the Boredom, social facilitation, and nutri­ scious collapse. variability, it appears that anxious states animal's health. Wind-sucking is simply tional deficiency pica may be involved Coprophagia- The eating of feces can become established in an animal. a form of cribbing in which the horse in this behavior. may be normal behavior in very young These states then become manifested as does not need to bite onto an object Various forms of displacement acti­ animals, but not in adults. In adult horses, etho-anom al ies. while the air is being sucked in. vities in poultry have also been reported it is usually observed in individuals that Abnormally decreased mobility and Weaving in horses is another form by Duncan and Wood-Gush (1974). These are kept under chronic control and are abnormally decreased motor function or of stereotyped behavior. Stereotypes, displacement activities, when increased not provided with adequate exercise or di­ activity are termed hypokinesia. This previously documented by Fox (1971 ), in intensity and incidence, can become versionary activities. It occurs, together condition has multiple causes. The criti­ can become etho-anomalies when their etho-anomal ies. with "anal massage," in swine kept un·­ cal effect of this state is a marked reduc­ intensity and incidence become exces­ der intensive husbandry (Sambraus, 1979). tion in the animal's sensation of its own sive. In weaving, the horse rocks from movement. Horses. Among domestic animals, one side to the other. A similar etho-ano­ The Orosthenia Syndrome The various forms of sense organs (in the stable vices of horses probably con­ maly is stall-walking-when the animal Mouth-based stereotypies constitute tendons, joints, and muscles) that respond stitute the most well-recognized form of moves back and forth in a repetitive, pre­ a complex syndrome that covers a variety to mechanical action, movement, posi­ anomalous behavior. These have recent­ cise type of movement that usually in­ of manifestations of pathologically ex­ ly been well reviewed by Houpt (1981 ). volves stepping actions of the forefeet. cessive mouthing behavior in animals. tion, touch, and pressure constitute a They are understood to be consequences This may be sustained for such long per­ Several manifestations have already been major source of the sensory input of ani­ of boredom that result when horses are iods of time that the progressive drain described by Kiley-Worthington (1977). mals. Among these kinds of input is gravi­ kept in stables for long periods of time on the animal's energy becomes signifi­ Most forms of orosthenia are associated ty, which acts on the body variably, ac­ without the provision of adequate exer­ cant. In these cases, the animal's physi­ with the simultaneous occurrence of cording to its movement and position. cise or activity. The most common forms cal condition deteriorates. Another etho­ chronic control, on the one hand, and The sense of muscular effort that accom­ of such etho-anomalies include cribbing anomaly is commonly known as "sour­ hypostimulation (reduced stimulation), panies a voluntary motion of the body is and wind-sucking. A horse is described ness." The temperament of a sour horse on the other. Examples of these kinds of termed kinesthesia. Dysfunctions of the 66 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 67 !I'll

• TABLE 3 Manifestations of Orosthenia S~ndrome and As~~~-iated A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article Clinical Sequelae

2. Etho-anomalies characteristical­ ior: Causes and Implications for Animal Care and Management. Prentice-Hall Examples of orosthenia Clinical sequelae ly persist once they become established. The frequency of their manifestation is Englewood Cliffs, NJ. ' affected by remissions and exacerbations Davis, D.E. (1971) Physiological effects Crib biting and aerophagia in horses Deterioration of physical condition; occasional of the associated causal factors. of continued crowding, In: A.H. Esser, colic 3. Etho-anomalies are "enzootic" ed., Behavior and Environment. Plenum in nature; they are limited to given circum­ Press, New York, NY, pp. 133-147. Tail biting in swine Deterioration of physical condition; abscessed hindquarters stances and transmissible by mimickry. Dougherty, R.W. (1976) Problems associ­ 4. Anomalous behavior in animals ated with feeding farm livestock un­ Bar biting in swine Reduced production and subfertility in sows is inconsistent with the attainment of op­ der intensive systems. World Rev Nutr lntersucking in calves Hair ball in calves timum health, welfare, and production. Diet 25:249-275. Excess grooming in calves Hair ball in calves 5. Etho-anomalies constitute prima Duncan, I.J.H. (1974) A scientific assess­ facie evidence of stress in an individual ment of welfare. Wool pulling in sheep Loss of fleece and impairment of physical Duncan, I.J.H. and Wood-Gush, D.C.M. condition or within a group of represented animals: In the final analysis, humane treat­ (1974) The effect of rauwolfia tranquil­ Tongue rolling in cattle Unknown- possibly deterioration in physical ment, animal health, and financial prof­ izer on stereotyped movements in frus­ condition its are more interdependent than they trated domestic fowl. Appl Anim Ethol Feather pecking in poultry Loss of feather cover; trauma are mutually exclusive (Fraser, 1973). As 1:67-76. Excessive water drinking in confined horses, Excessive water intake to 2 to 3 times normal Brantas (1975) states "Welfare is a rela­ Ekesbo, I. (1977) Ethics, ethology, and an­ sheep (polydipsia nervosa) quantity; bloating; possible bowel torsion tive concept. Profit is a matter related to imal health in modern Swedish live­ welfare [cited in Anon., Poultry Welfare stock production, In: European Asso­ Report, 1981]. Determining the relation­ ciation for Animal Production, 28th An­ ship between welfare and profit is an ethi­ nual Meeting, Brussels, Belgium. sensory system resulting from reduced shqws such a close, well-defined tempo­ cal matter." Applied ethology, in address­ Ewbank, R. (1969) Behavioural implica­ sensory input are evidently capable of ral relationship between stressor and ing the behavioral needs of the animal tions of intensive animal husbandry. causing adverse effects on environmen­ anomaly that the connection between that must be taken into consideration to Outlook Agric 6:41-46. tal mediation, and anomalous forms of the two has been clearly demonstrated. promote optimal health, can create the Ewbank, R. (1978) Stereotypies in clinical behavior are the result. Establishing this temporal relationship essential bridge between ethics (and ani­ veterinary practice, In: Proceedings of It is evident that altered behavior is must be considered a primary require­ mal rights) and profits. the 1st World Congress on Ethology Ap­ one of the principal dysfunctions reveal­ ment for "proving" a cause-and-effect plied to Zootechnics, pp. 499-502. ing stress, as it has been defined here. Al­ relationship between certain stressors Fox, M.W. (1971) Psychopathology in man tered behavior of this sort is manifested and anomalous responses. It is believed References and lower animals. jAm Vet Med As­ as frank anomalies. While it is generally by some investigators that a considera­ Anchel, M. (1976) Beyond "adequate" vet­ soc 159:66-77. recognized that stress alters behavior, ble number of as yet unidentified etho­ erinary care. 1 Am Vet Med Assoc 168: Fox, M.W. (1978) Laboratory and ethology the precise dose-response relationships anomalies still await our recognition, 513-517. experimental values. Appl Anim Ethol remain to be elucidated. Thus, although definition, and report (Campbell, 1975). Anonymous (1981) Poultry Welfare Report;. 4:92. many environmental features are clearly 1st European Symposium. World Soci­ Fraser, A.F. (1973) Stress-free management recognized as evident stressors, others Conclusion ety for the Protection of Animals, Zu­ pays off. Dairy Farmer, November, pp. are only putative stressors. This inconclu­ rich, Switzerland. 48-49. siveness is due to inadequate study of It is postulated here that behavioral Brantas, C.C. (1975) Welzijn produktie en Fraser, A.F. (1974) Ethostasis: A concept the subtle dose-responsiveness between anomalies in animals are products of a profit. Tijdschr Diergeneesk 1 00(13): of restricted behavior as a stressor in stressors and behavior. For examples, noise phenomenon of ethostasis and that they 703-708. animal husbandry. Br Vet j 130:85. per se is not necessarily a stressor, but an can be assumed to conform to certain Bryant, M.J. (1972) The social environment: Fraser, A.F. (1980) Farm Animal Behaviour, increase in this stimulus, in either vol­ laws. behaviour and stress in housed live­ 2nd ed. Bailliere Tindall, London, U.K. ume or duration, will eventually lead to Five primary postulates concerning stock. Vet Rec, March 25, pp. 351-358. Fraser, A.F. and Fox, M.W. (1978) Intensive gross behavioral and physiological path­ etho-anomalies can be stated as follows: Campbell, W.E. (1975) Behavior Problems confinement farming: ethological vet­ ologies (Ekesbo, 1977). 1. Beyond a critical sum, stressors in Dogs. American Veterinary Publica­ erinary and ethical issues, In: Proceed­ However, we can say that the chron­ generate forms of anomalous animal be­ tions, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA. ings 1st World Congress on Ethology ological sequence observed in many of havior that are specific and peculiar in Craig, J.Y. (1981) Domestic Animal Behav- Applied to Zootechnics, pp. 25-26. the anomalous conditions described above their manifestations. INT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 69 68 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 !I'll

• TABLE 3 Manifestations of Orosthenia S~ndrome and As~~~-iated A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects of Ethostasis Review Article Clinical Sequelae

2. Etho-anomalies characteristical­ ior: Causes and Implications for Animal Care and Management. Prentice-Hall Examples of orosthenia Clinical sequelae ly persist once they become established. The frequency of their manifestation is Englewood Cliffs, NJ. ' affected by remissions and exacerbations Davis, D.E. (1971) Physiological effects Crib biting and aerophagia in horses Deterioration of physical condition; occasional of the associated causal factors. of continued crowding, In: A.H. Esser, colic 3. Etho-anomalies are "enzootic" ed., Behavior and Environment. Plenum in nature; they are limited to given circum­ Press, New York, NY, pp. 133-147. Tail biting in swine Deterioration of physical condition; abscessed hindquarters stances and transmissible by mimickry. Dougherty, R.W. (1976) Problems associ­ 4. Anomalous behavior in animals ated with feeding farm livestock un­ Bar biting in swine Reduced production and subfertility in sows is inconsistent with the attainment of op­ der intensive systems. World Rev Nutr lntersucking in calves Hair ball in calves timum health, welfare, and production. Diet 25:249-275. Excess grooming in calves Hair ball in calves 5. Etho-anomalies constitute prima Duncan, I.J.H. (1974) A scientific assess­ facie evidence of stress in an individual ment of welfare. Wool pulling in sheep Loss of fleece and impairment of physical Duncan, I.J.H. and Wood-Gush, D.C.M. condition or within a group of represented animals: In the final analysis, humane treat­ (1974) The effect of rauwolfia tranquil­ Tongue rolling in cattle Unknown- possibly deterioration in physical ment, animal health, and financial prof­ izer on stereotyped movements in frus­ condition its are more interdependent than they trated domestic fowl. Appl Anim Ethol Feather pecking in poultry Loss of feather cover; trauma are mutually exclusive (Fraser, 1973). As 1:67-76. Excessive water drinking in confined horses, Excessive water intake to 2 to 3 times normal Brantas (1975) states "Welfare is a rela­ Ekesbo, I. (1977) Ethics, ethology, and an­ sheep (polydipsia nervosa) quantity; bloating; possible bowel torsion tive concept. Profit is a matter related to imal health in modern Swedish live­ welfare [cited in Anon., Poultry Welfare stock production, In: European Asso­ Report, 1981]. Determining the relation­ ciation for Animal Production, 28th An­ ship between welfare and profit is an ethi­ nual Meeting, Brussels, Belgium. sensory system resulting from reduced shqws such a close, well-defined tempo­ cal matter." Applied ethology, in address­ Ewbank, R. (1969) Behavioural implica­ sensory input are evidently capable of ral relationship between stressor and ing the behavioral needs of the animal tions of intensive animal husbandry. causing adverse effects on environmen­ anomaly that the connection between that must be taken into consideration to Outlook Agric 6:41-46. tal mediation, and anomalous forms of the two has been clearly demonstrated. promote optimal health, can create the Ewbank, R. (1978) Stereotypies in clinical behavior are the result. Establishing this temporal relationship essential bridge between ethics (and ani­ veterinary practice, In: Proceedings of It is evident that altered behavior is must be considered a primary require­ mal rights) and profits. the 1st World Congress on Ethology Ap­ one of the principal dysfunctions reveal­ ment for "proving" a cause-and-effect plied to Zootechnics, pp. 499-502. ing stress, as it has been defined here. Al­ relationship between certain stressors Fox, M.W. (1971) Psychopathology in man tered behavior of this sort is manifested and anomalous responses. It is believed References and lower animals. jAm Vet Med As­ as frank anomalies. While it is generally by some investigators that a considera­ Anchel, M. (1976) Beyond "adequate" vet­ soc 159:66-77. recognized that stress alters behavior, ble number of as yet unidentified etho­ erinary care. 1 Am Vet Med Assoc 168: Fox, M.W. (1978) Laboratory and ethology the precise dose-response relationships anomalies still await our recognition, 513-517. experimental values. Appl Anim Ethol remain to be elucidated. Thus, although definition, and report (Campbell, 1975). Anonymous (1981) Poultry Welfare Report;. 4:92. many environmental features are clearly 1st European Symposium. World Soci­ Fraser, A.F. (1973) Stress-free management recognized as evident stressors, others Conclusion ety for the Protection of Animals, Zu­ pays off. Dairy Farmer, November, pp. are only putative stressors. This inconclu­ rich, Switzerland. 48-49. siveness is due to inadequate study of It is postulated here that behavioral Brantas, C.C. (1975) Welzijn produktie en Fraser, A.F. (1974) Ethostasis: A concept the subtle dose-responsiveness between anomalies in animals are products of a profit. Tijdschr Diergeneesk 1 00(13): of restricted behavior as a stressor in stressors and behavior. For examples, noise phenomenon of ethostasis and that they 703-708. animal husbandry. Br Vet j 130:85. per se is not necessarily a stressor, but an can be assumed to conform to certain Bryant, M.J. (1972) The social environment: Fraser, A.F. (1980) Farm Animal Behaviour, increase in this stimulus, in either vol­ laws. behaviour and stress in housed live­ 2nd ed. Bailliere Tindall, London, U.K. ume or duration, will eventually lead to Five primary postulates concerning stock. Vet Rec, March 25, pp. 351-358. Fraser, A.F. and Fox, M.W. (1978) Intensive gross behavioral and physiological path­ etho-anomalies can be stated as follows: Campbell, W.E. (1975) Behavior Problems confinement farming: ethological vet­ ologies (Ekesbo, 1977). 1. Beyond a critical sum, stressors in Dogs. American Veterinary Publica­ erinary and ethical issues, In: Proceed­ However, we can say that the chron­ generate forms of anomalous animal be­ tions, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA. ings 1st World Congress on Ethology ological sequence observed in many of havior that are specific and peculiar in Craig, J.Y. (1981) Domestic Animal Behav- Applied to Zootechnics, pp. 25-26. the anomalous conditions described above their manifestations. INT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 69 68 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects ofEthostasis Review Article LeBislation &Regulation

Fraser, D., Ritchie, ).S.D. and Fraser, A.F. Loew, F.M. (1972) The veterinarian and in­ At the end of World War II, there One of the major stumbling blocks (1975) The term stress in a veterinary tensive livestock production: humane were only 14 zoos in Britain. This number in this proposed piece of legislation was context. Br Vet j 131:653-662. considerations. Can Vet j 13:229-233. slowly increased throughout the fifties un­ the question of enforcement or, more Houpt, K. (1981) Equine behavior problems Sambraus, H.H. (1979) A study of anal til, in 1961, the number had reached 31. precisely, who was to be designated as in relation to humane management. lnt massage and subsequent ingestion of During the next 10 years almost 100 ani­ the agent of enforcement? In the United J Stud Anim Prob 2:329-337. feces in fattening pigs. Dtsch Fierarztl mal collections were added to this figure. Kingdom, the responsibility for enforc­ Jackson, W.T. (1976) Design and farm an­ Wschr 86:58-62. No statute governed the way in ing much legislation devolves upon the imal welfare. Vet Rec, July 24, pp. 64- Sambraus, H.H. (1981) Abnormal behav­ which wild animals were kept in captivity, local authority, such as the County 66. ior as an indication of immaterial suf­ and many proprietors were entirely ig­ Council or District Council, and many of Kiley-Worthington, M. (1977) Behaviour­ fering. lnt j Stud Anim Prob 2:245-248. norant of the requirements of the exotic the Acts relating to animal welfare legis­ al Problems of Farm Animals. Oriel Wood-Gush, D.G.M. (1973) Animal welfare species in their care. Their conduct fell lation fall into this category. In the view Press, London, U.K. in modern agriculture. Br Vet j 129: short of overt cruelty and physical neg­ of the RSPCA, in certain cases this en­ Littlejohn, A. (1969) An approach to clin­ 167-174. lect, which would have left them amen­ forcement has proven to be inadequate. ical veterinary ethology. Br Vet j 125: able to prosecution, but many of the So the RSPCA, and many of Britain's 46-48. new wave of zoos were really substandard leading zoos, objected strongly to the ghettos displaying inadequate standards suggestion that zoos should be inspected of welfare, accommodation, and safety. by the local authority. They felt that the These establishments appeared to exhib­ science of captive animal management it wildlife simply for monetary gain. had advanced sufficiently in recent years Concern about the standards of zoo to warrant zoo inspection by experts, animal management, accommodation, and that local authorities were unlikely and public and staff safety grew. By the to have sufficient incentive to consult early seventies, an attempt was made to such experts. introduce into Parliament a "Bill to Con­ It was also felt that the local authori­ trol Zoological Gardens." This bill was ty might well have a personal interest in doomed from the outset for, while the a zoo in his or her area; for instance, better zoos of Britain accepted the idea many authorities lease the land to the that some form of control was needed, zoo. Even in those cases where there is the commercialized zoos banded together no direct financial link between zoo and in a concentrated effort to change the local authority, it is not uncommon for proposed legislation. The British govern­ the council members to look upon the ment told the zoo world to "get its zoo as a free tourist attraction, especial­ house in order" and return with concrete ly when it is located in a coastal resort. proposals, agreeable to all, at a later date. Zoos also generate income: in the U.K. The issue remained dormant for all property owners pay an annual tax to U.S. Postal Service, STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION: (Required by Act of August 12, 1970: Section 3685, the local authority based on the no­ Title 39, United States Code). (1) Title of Publication: International journal for the Study of Animal Problems. (1 A) Publication No. 558-290. (2) some years, despite protests from organ­ Date of filing: September 29, 1982. (3) Frequency of issue: quarterly. (3A) No. of issues published annually: four. (38) Annual subscription izations like the RSPCA about the appal­ tional value of the premises. Equally, rates: $45,$25,$17.50. (4) Location of known office of publication: 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (5) Location of the headquar­ ters or general business offices of the publishers: 2100 l Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (6) Publisher: The Humane Society of the United ling conditions in a number of zoos, un­ some zoos felt that they might be subject States and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Editorial offices: 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. Editor: Dana H. Murphy, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. Production Manager: Christine Zimmermann, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, til the gauntlet was once again picked to unfair restrictions if the council felt DC 20037. (7) Owner: The Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (8) Known bondholders, mortgag­ up, on this occasion by Lord Craigton, at hostile to a particular collection. Lord ees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages or other securities: None. (9) For completion by non-profit organizations authorized to mail at special rates (Section 132.122, PSM): The purpose, function and nonprofit sta­ that time Chairman of the Federation of Craigton accepted these points as mat­ tus of this organization and the exempt status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. (1 O) Extent and nature of publication: (I) Average no. copies of each issue during the preceding 12 months. (10A) Total no. copies printed (Net Press Run) Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and ters of concern and consulted with the 1,910. (108} Paid Circulation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales: None. {2) Mail subscriptions: 531. (10C) Ireland. Lord Craigton agreed to draft a Secretary of State for the Environment. Total paid circulation (Sum of 1081 and 1082): 531. (10D) Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary and other free copies: 55. (10E) Total distribution {Sum of C and D): 586. {10Fl Copies not distributed {1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled bill to license zoos. Over a 2-year period, It was subsequently agreed that an in­ after printing: 1,324. {2) Returns from news agents: Not applicable. (10G) Total (Sum of E. F1, and F2 should equal net press run shown in (A): 1,910. {II) Actual no. copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: (10A) Total no. copies printed (Net Press Run): 1,500. {108) Paid Cir­ he consulted with many people in the dependent panel of experts should be culation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales: None. (2) Mail subscriptions: 580. (10C) Total paid circulation zoo industry and the animal welfare field. established for the purposes of zoo in­ {Sum of 1081 and 1082): 580. {10D) Free distribution by mall, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary, and other free copies: 76. (10E) Total distribution (Sum of C and D): 656. (10F) Copies not distributed (1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing: 844. (2) In the winter of 1980 his bill was picked spection. This panel would be known as Returns from news agents: Not applicable. {10G) Total (Sum of E, F1, and F2 should equal net press run shown in (A): 1,500. up by john Blackburn, and introduced, the Secretary of State's List. {11} I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Christine Zimmermann, Production Manager with some minor amendments, into the This new agreement represents an House of Commons. innovation in British legislation. What it 70 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1] 1983

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 71 A. F. Fraser & M W. Fox-Effects ofEthostasis Review Article LeBislation &Regulation

Fraser, D., Ritchie, ).S.D. and Fraser, A.F. Loew, F.M. (1972) The veterinarian and in­ At the end of World War II, there One of the major stumbling blocks (1975) The term stress in a veterinary tensive livestock production: humane were only 14 zoos in Britain. This number in this proposed piece of legislation was context. Br Vet j 131:653-662. considerations. Can Vet j 13:229-233. slowly increased throughout the fifties un­ the question of enforcement or, more Houpt, K. (1981) Equine behavior problems Sambraus, H.H. (1979) A study of anal til, in 1961, the number had reached 31. precisely, who was to be designated as in relation to humane management. lnt massage and subsequent ingestion of During the next 10 years almost 100 ani­ the agent of enforcement? In the United J Stud Anim Prob 2:329-337. feces in fattening pigs. Dtsch Fierarztl mal collections were added to this figure. Kingdom, the responsibility for enforc­ Jackson, W.T. (1976) Design and farm an­ Wschr 86:58-62. No statute governed the way in ing much legislation devolves upon the imal welfare. Vet Rec, July 24, pp. 64- Sambraus, H.H. (1981) Abnormal behav­ which wild animals were kept in captivity, local authority, such as the County 66. ior as an indication of immaterial suf­ and many proprietors were entirely ig­ Council or District Council, and many of Kiley-Worthington, M. (1977) Behaviour­ fering. lnt j Stud Anim Prob 2:245-248. norant of the requirements of the exotic the Acts relating to animal welfare legis­ al Problems of Farm Animals. Oriel Wood-Gush, D.G.M. (1973) Animal welfare species in their care. Their conduct fell lation fall into this category. In the view Press, London, U.K. in modern agriculture. Br Vet j 129: short of overt cruelty and physical neg­ of the RSPCA, in certain cases this en­ Littlejohn, A. (1969) An approach to clin­ 167-174. lect, which would have left them amen­ forcement has proven to be inadequate. ical veterinary ethology. Br Vet j 125: able to prosecution, but many of the So the RSPCA, and many of Britain's 46-48. new wave of zoos were really substandard leading zoos, objected strongly to the ghettos displaying inadequate standards suggestion that zoos should be inspected of welfare, accommodation, and safety. by the local authority. They felt that the These establishments appeared to exhib­ science of captive animal management it wildlife simply for monetary gain. had advanced sufficiently in recent years Concern about the standards of zoo to warrant zoo inspection by experts, animal management, accommodation, and that local authorities were unlikely and public and staff safety grew. By the to have sufficient incentive to consult early seventies, an attempt was made to such experts. introduce into Parliament a "Bill to Con­ It was also felt that the local authori­ trol Zoological Gardens." This bill was ty might well have a personal interest in doomed from the outset for, while the a zoo in his or her area; for instance, better zoos of Britain accepted the idea many authorities lease the land to the that some form of control was needed, zoo. Even in those cases where there is the commercialized zoos banded together no direct financial link between zoo and in a concentrated effort to change the local authority, it is not uncommon for proposed legislation. The British govern­ the council members to look upon the ment told the zoo world to "get its zoo as a free tourist attraction, especial­ house in order" and return with concrete ly when it is located in a coastal resort. proposals, agreeable to all, at a later date. Zoos also generate income: in the U.K. The issue remained dormant for all property owners pay an annual tax to U.S. Postal Service, STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION: (Required by Act of August 12, 1970: Section 3685, the local authority based on the no­ Title 39, United States Code). (1) Title of Publication: International journal for the Study of Animal Problems. (1 A) Publication No. 558-290. (2) some years, despite protests from organ­ Date of filing: September 29, 1982. (3) Frequency of issue: quarterly. (3A) No. of issues published annually: four. (38) Annual subscription izations like the RSPCA about the appal­ tional value of the premises. Equally, rates: $45,$25,$17.50. (4) Location of known office of publication: 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (5) Location of the headquar­ ters or general business offices of the publishers: 2100 l Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (6) Publisher: The Humane Society of the United ling conditions in a number of zoos, un­ some zoos felt that they might be subject States and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Editorial offices: 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. Editor: Dana H. Murphy, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. Production Manager: Christine Zimmermann, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, til the gauntlet was once again picked to unfair restrictions if the council felt DC 20037. (7) Owner: The Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. (8) Known bondholders, mortgag­ up, on this occasion by Lord Craigton, at hostile to a particular collection. Lord ees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages or other securities: None. (9) For completion by non-profit organizations authorized to mail at special rates (Section 132.122, PSM): The purpose, function and nonprofit sta­ that time Chairman of the Federation of Craigton accepted these points as mat­ tus of this organization and the exempt status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. (1 O) Extent and nature of publication: (I) Average no. copies of each issue during the preceding 12 months. (10A) Total no. copies printed (Net Press Run) Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and ters of concern and consulted with the 1,910. (108} Paid Circulation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales: None. {2) Mail subscriptions: 531. (10C) Ireland. Lord Craigton agreed to draft a Secretary of State for the Environment. Total paid circulation (Sum of 1081 and 1082): 531. (10D) Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary and other free copies: 55. (10E) Total distribution {Sum of C and D): 586. {10Fl Copies not distributed {1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled bill to license zoos. Over a 2-year period, It was subsequently agreed that an in­ after printing: 1,324. {2) Returns from news agents: Not applicable. (10G) Total (Sum of E. F1, and F2 should equal net press run shown in (A): 1,910. {II) Actual no. copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: (10A) Total no. copies printed (Net Press Run): 1,500. {108) Paid Cir­ he consulted with many people in the dependent panel of experts should be culation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales: None. (2) Mail subscriptions: 580. (10C) Total paid circulation zoo industry and the animal welfare field. established for the purposes of zoo in­ {Sum of 1081 and 1082): 580. {10D) Free distribution by mall, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary, and other free copies: 76. (10E) Total distribution (Sum of C and D): 656. (10F) Copies not distributed (1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing: 844. (2) In the winter of 1980 his bill was picked spection. This panel would be known as Returns from news agents: Not applicable. {10G) Total (Sum of E, F1, and F2 should equal net press run shown in (A): 1,500. up by john Blackburn, and introduced, the Secretary of State's List. {11} I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Christine Zimmermann, Production Manager with some minor amendments, into the This new agreement represents an House of Commons. innovation in British legislation. What it 70 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(1] 1983

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 71 I~ means, in practice, is that although a Parliament, there has been consultation and "Techniques for Pest Control." But from strains that have already adapted. local authority functions as the licensing with the various bodies concerned with there were several seminars that indicat­ Yet evidence of concern about ani­ body for the purposes of the act and will zoos, and a draft Code of Practice has ed, by both title and content, that the mal welfare did show up in some presen­ make inspections of the zoo premises, it subsequently been submitted to the gov­ biomedical establishment is beginning tations. In this regard, two discussions is obligated to include, among its inspec­ ernment department concerned. This code to become aware of animal welfare con­ demonstrated just how divergent the tion team, some members drawn from the is of a high standard, and if the quality cerns. Several of these relevant sym­ possible approaches to assessing animal Secretary of State's List. This novel pro­ of the inspectors matches it, and the leg­ posia are summarized here. welfare can be. P.J. Matthews (National vision must be read in conjunction with islation is enforced with vigor, it may Animal Disease Center, Ames, lA) outlin­ another significant section, entitled "Sec­ well mean an end to the slum zoos of "Care and Use of Domestic Farm Animals ed an arithmetical scale for determining retary of State's Standards," which reads: Britain. in Research" well-being. In his technique, a list of ele­ "After consulting such persons on the At present, the Zoo Licensing Act With the exception of Bernard Rollin ments presumed to be easily observable list and such other persons as he thinks has not yet been brought into force, pend­ (Colorado State University, Fort Collins) indicators of well-being is drawn up for fit, the Secretary of State may from time ing decisions on the standards to be ap­ who stressed the innate moral relevance each species (such as appetite, coat con­ to time specify standards of modern zoo plied and the membership of the list. of animal interests and their individual dition, clean I iness), and a score is given practice, that is, standards with respect Once it is in force, the RSPCA will moni­ and distinctive natures, one might have for each characteristic, for each animal to the management of zoos and the ani­ tor its effect with interest. If it appears concluded from this session that the (3, 2, 1, 0 for good, fair, poor, or negative mals in them." This may seem a some­ to fail in its objective, namely, an im­ speakers had met beforehand and agreed indications, respectively). The total score what ambiguous statement that implies provement in the welfare of captive ani­ to several assumptions about farm ani­ provides an overall index of the animal's some degree of circularity. It certainly mals, the Society will once again focus its mals. First, no one questioned the notion welfare. attention on legislation, urging an inter­ leaves the details of welfare conditions that factory farms are a necessary ele­ Conversely, R. L. Brooks advocated to be incorporated in a Code of Practice, pretation more favorable to the welfare ment in a modern economy. R.L. Preston that empathy be the main ingredient in but it clearly allows room for further of zoo animals. (Texas Technical University, Lubbock) judging an animal's well-being: "Just maneuver if the legislation fails to im­ noted that, since only 3-4 percent of the look the animal in the eye," he said. prove standards adequately; and it does S.A. Ormrod U.S. population feed the other 97 per­ have the advantage that improvements Chief Wildlife Officer cent, confinement units are the only way "Current Federal Animal Welfare Policies in standards do not have to be won in RSPCA that farmers can meet mass-consumer and Regulations" Parliament. This is significant. demands. Second, it was assumed that The first speaker, Connie Kagan The Zoo Licensing (no. 2) Bill (as it despite the problems that confinement (Cannon House Office Building, Wash­ was called) had a fairly stormy passage introduces, it does convey considerable ington, DC) summarized the provisions through Parliament, and many amend­ benefits. P.O. Gray (Animal Diseases Re­ of H.R. 6928, currently pending legisla­ ments that the RSPCA had hoped for search Institute, Ontario, Canada) extol­ tion for regulating the care of lab ani­ were lost in the process. However, some Current led the advantages of a totally controlled mals. The bill's principal provisions in­ progress was realized. A particularly environment and implied that any stress­ clude (1) promoting the development of worrying provision that related to the related problems that may show up in alternative methods to animal tests, (2) setting up of temporary seaside zoos Events farm animals can be solved simply by a mandatory accreditation for all labs, with­ was successfully removed as a result of little more thought by any competent in 10 years, by a recognized agency I ike Society pressure, and the RSPCA also engineer. D.L. Brooks (College of Veteri­ AALAC, and (3) a requirement that re­ obtained a tighter definition of what nary Medicine, University of California, search proposals make some estimate of constitutes a zoo, removing one poten­ MEETING REPORTS Davis) offered the oft-repeated senti­ the animal stress involved in the study, tial loophole involving trade in wild ani­ ment that "the pasture can cause more and justify the necessity for such stress mals. The bill finally became an Act of problems than the feedlot," since pas­ in terms of potential benefit. Parliament on July 27,1981. turing introduces complex problems like It is therefore apparent why the She then ticked off the standard argu­ American Association for Laboratory mud and weeds. RSPCA is not entirely satisfied with the ments advanced against the bill by the Animal Science- Annual Meeting completed Act, as there is little in the So when the speakers averred.(most scientific community, and gave logical way of welfare considerations specifi­ notably, Dr. Preston) that the standards formulations to counter each argument. cally written into it. And it is regrettable The 33rd Annual Session of AALAS, used in domestic-animal research ought For example, researchers often claim that the .Act appears to rely solely on convened in Washington, DC, was princi­ to be those of a "well-run farm," it could that legislation isn't necessary, since good faith; for upon the inspectors' inter­ pally concerned with keeping its mem­ be concluded that they meant a well-run their own standards are sufficiently high pretation of the Act, and the standards bers up to date on how to run an animal confinement operation. R.L. Preston be­ as to make self-regulation at least as ef­ prescribed by the Code of Practice, will lab, with scant consideration given to gan his talk with a list of eight assump­ fective as regulation by government. Dr. depend the quality of British zoos. the enormous ethical questions related tions, among them: man does have domin­ Kagan responded that, if this is true, why Nonetheless, it would be wrong to to whether anyone ought to be running a ion over animals; farm animals are very should laboratories resist requirements condemn this piece of legislation at this lab at all. Typical sessions in this vein flexible and adaptable; the animals found which only ask them to do what they are early stage. Since the Act was passed by. were "Diseases of Rodents and Rabbits" in a confinement unit today are derived already doing anyway? In answer to pro-

72 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 73 I~ means, in practice, is that although a Parliament, there has been consultation and "Techniques for Pest Control." But from strains that have already adapted. local authority functions as the licensing with the various bodies concerned with there were several seminars that indicat­ Yet evidence of concern about ani­ body for the purposes of the act and will zoos, and a draft Code of Practice has ed, by both title and content, that the mal welfare did show up in some presen­ make inspections of the zoo premises, it subsequently been submitted to the gov­ biomedical establishment is beginning tations. In this regard, two discussions is obligated to include, among its inspec­ ernment department concerned. This code to become aware of animal welfare con­ demonstrated just how divergent the tion team, some members drawn from the is of a high standard, and if the quality cerns. Several of these relevant sym­ possible approaches to assessing animal Secretary of State's List. This novel pro­ of the inspectors matches it, and the leg­ posia are summarized here. welfare can be. P.J. Matthews (National vision must be read in conjunction with islation is enforced with vigor, it may Animal Disease Center, Ames, lA) outlin­ another significant section, entitled "Sec­ well mean an end to the slum zoos of "Care and Use of Domestic Farm Animals ed an arithmetical scale for determining retary of State's Standards," which reads: Britain. in Research" well-being. In his technique, a list of ele­ "After consulting such persons on the At present, the Zoo Licensing Act With the exception of Bernard Rollin ments presumed to be easily observable list and such other persons as he thinks has not yet been brought into force, pend­ (Colorado State University, Fort Collins) indicators of well-being is drawn up for fit, the Secretary of State may from time ing decisions on the standards to be ap­ who stressed the innate moral relevance each species (such as appetite, coat con­ to time specify standards of modern zoo plied and the membership of the list. of animal interests and their individual dition, clean I iness), and a score is given practice, that is, standards with respect Once it is in force, the RSPCA will moni­ and distinctive natures, one might have for each characteristic, for each animal to the management of zoos and the ani­ tor its effect with interest. If it appears concluded from this session that the (3, 2, 1, 0 for good, fair, poor, or negative mals in them." This may seem a some­ to fail in its objective, namely, an im­ speakers had met beforehand and agreed indications, respectively). The total score what ambiguous statement that implies provement in the welfare of captive ani­ to several assumptions about farm ani­ provides an overall index of the animal's some degree of circularity. It certainly mals, the Society will once again focus its mals. First, no one questioned the notion welfare. attention on legislation, urging an inter­ leaves the details of welfare conditions that factory farms are a necessary ele­ Conversely, R. L. Brooks advocated to be incorporated in a Code of Practice, pretation more favorable to the welfare ment in a modern economy. R.L. Preston that empathy be the main ingredient in but it clearly allows room for further of zoo animals. (Texas Technical University, Lubbock) judging an animal's well-being: "Just maneuver if the legislation fails to im­ noted that, since only 3-4 percent of the look the animal in the eye," he said. prove standards adequately; and it does S.A. Ormrod U.S. population feed the other 97 per­ have the advantage that improvements Chief Wildlife Officer cent, confinement units are the only way "Current Federal Animal Welfare Policies in standards do not have to be won in RSPCA that farmers can meet mass-consumer and Regulations" Parliament. This is significant. demands. Second, it was assumed that The first speaker, Connie Kagan The Zoo Licensing (no. 2) Bill (as it despite the problems that confinement (Cannon House Office Building, Wash­ was called) had a fairly stormy passage introduces, it does convey considerable ington, DC) summarized the provisions through Parliament, and many amend­ benefits. P.O. Gray (Animal Diseases Re­ of H.R. 6928, currently pending legisla­ ments that the RSPCA had hoped for search Institute, Ontario, Canada) extol­ tion for regulating the care of lab ani­ were lost in the process. However, some Current led the advantages of a totally controlled mals. The bill's principal provisions in­ progress was realized. A particularly environment and implied that any stress­ clude (1) promoting the development of worrying provision that related to the related problems that may show up in alternative methods to animal tests, (2) setting up of temporary seaside zoos Events farm animals can be solved simply by a mandatory accreditation for all labs, with­ was successfully removed as a result of little more thought by any competent in 10 years, by a recognized agency I ike Society pressure, and the RSPCA also engineer. D.L. Brooks (College of Veteri­ AALAC, and (3) a requirement that re­ obtained a tighter definition of what nary Medicine, University of California, search proposals make some estimate of constitutes a zoo, removing one poten­ MEETING REPORTS Davis) offered the oft-repeated senti­ the animal stress involved in the study, tial loophole involving trade in wild ani­ ment that "the pasture can cause more and justify the necessity for such stress mals. The bill finally became an Act of problems than the feedlot," since pas­ in terms of potential benefit. Parliament on July 27,1981. turing introduces complex problems like It is therefore apparent why the She then ticked off the standard argu­ American Association for Laboratory mud and weeds. RSPCA is not entirely satisfied with the ments advanced against the bill by the Animal Science- Annual Meeting completed Act, as there is little in the So when the speakers averred.(most scientific community, and gave logical way of welfare considerations specifi­ notably, Dr. Preston) that the standards formulations to counter each argument. cally written into it. And it is regrettable The 33rd Annual Session of AALAS, used in domestic-animal research ought For example, researchers often claim that the .Act appears to rely solely on convened in Washington, DC, was princi­ to be those of a "well-run farm," it could that legislation isn't necessary, since good faith; for upon the inspectors' inter­ pally concerned with keeping its mem­ be concluded that they meant a well-run their own standards are sufficiently high pretation of the Act, and the standards bers up to date on how to run an animal confinement operation. R.L. Preston be­ as to make self-regulation at least as ef­ prescribed by the Code of Practice, will lab, with scant consideration given to gan his talk with a list of eight assump­ fective as regulation by government. Dr. depend the quality of British zoos. the enormous ethical questions related tions, among them: man does have domin­ Kagan responded that, if this is true, why Nonetheless, it would be wrong to to whether anyone ought to be running a ion over animals; farm animals are very should laboratories resist requirements condemn this piece of legislation at this lab at all. Typical sessions in this vein flexible and adaptable; the animals found which only ask them to do what they are early stage. Since the Act was passed by. were "Diseases of Rodents and Rabbits" in a confinement unit today are derived already doing anyway? In answer to pro-

72 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 73 testations that development of alterna­ handled properly are the best study sub­ in Knoxville, TN. Sponsored by the As­ anthropomorphical projection should not tives is expensive, and being done by in­ jects." sociation of American Veterinary Medical be used to abolish or change them." dustry and government already, Dr. Kagan Charles McCarthy of NIH stressed Colleges, American Veterinary Medical Society's expectations of veterinary stated that this is true to some extent, the role of individual responsibility Association (AVMA), National Science medicine were also discussed by Roger but it is also clear that specific legisla­ which each laboratory must assume in Foundation, and the University of Tennes­ Caras, an ABC news correspondent. He tion and funding would speed the rate of using animals. Like many speakers at the see, the meeting was attended by admin­ expressed concern over the adversary re­ innovation of alternatives immensely conference, he referred to the Taub istrators, faculty members, and students lationship some veterinarians have tak­ and foster broader acceptance of them. case, and declared that its verdict was from all across North America. en vis-a-vis local humane shelters regard­ Recent changes in the administration "sad but necessary." He viewed the ter­ The objective of the symposium was ing spay/neuter clinics. He noted that his of the Animal Plant and Health Inspec­ mination of Taub's studies as "a tragic to develop an awareness among veteri­ correspondence over the years indicates tion Service were detailed by Arnold waste." In general, however, he assured nary educators of the need to establish that the public expects the veterinarians Matchett of USDA. In terms of organiza­ the audience that the whole sordid Taub formal coursework in the veterinary cur­ to know everything about animals, includ­ tion, there will now be two Directors affair represented an extreme rarity in riculum that deals with values, ethical ing areas outside the realm of traditional under the Deputy Administrator for animal care. Yet he did go on at some considerations, and moral judgments. The medicine, such as behavior, wildlife, and Animal Health Programs. One of these length about the increasing unease in breadth of this subject was covered by show animals. represents a new position: Director of society, reflected in research institu­ utilizing speakers from quite diverse back­ An effective teaching model used Animal Care. Animal care staff (except tions, caused by a lack of confidence grounds, in conjunction with a number of at Colorado State University to teach for those in Compliance) will be transfer­ that current regulations can ensure even different forums to present their material. ethics to veterinary students was present­ red to the line operation of Veterinary an adequate level of care for animals. A journalist, philosophers, academicians, ed by Dr. Harry Gorman and Bernard Rol­ Services, which supervises field enforce­ and clinicians from both human and vet­ lin, Ph.D. They developed an antagonist/ ment. Compliance will become part of a "Institutional Animal Care Committee" erinary medicine presented lectures, work­ advocate role-playing session that is de­ Like many discussions that revolve new overall Compliance section, within shops, clinical grand rounds, panel discus­ signed to contrapose students on the basic the program services staff of Veterinary around organizational and bureaucratic sions, and a video vignette. ethical issues relevant to veterinary med­ Services, to be headed up by the Direc­ matters, the session on animal care com­ The symposium addressed the im­ icine. These exercises challenge students mittees entailed a good deal of highly tor of Animal Care. In each area office, a portance of, and the methodology by to deal with the controversies they must abstract (and therefore vague) language, veterinary officer will be designated to which, value dimensions can be taught, face within the university, as well as those exhortations related to very I ittle (if any­ coordinate animal care activities. Under as well as specific ethical issues that they will face when in practice, thereby thing) of substance, and advocacy of a this new organizational structure, staff face the profess ion. giving them the opportunity to examine whole range of policies that could only will be afforded direct control and com­ AVMA president Dr. Jacob E. Mosier the process by which ethical decisions are munication with field personnel. The be contradictory if actually put into prac­ opened the symposium by stating that made. Gorman and Rollin stressed that tice. In short, it was dull. The only items staff is also looking at ways to derive "caring is the first concept of this sym­ the simple regurgitation of facts does not maximum benefit from attending veteri­ of interest were a presentation on the posium." He discussed the need to teach facilitate building a code of ethics, and narians at registered research facilities, successful efforts of the Canadian sys­ ethical values as well as develop success­ that students need exposure to social and and at ways to ensure that inspections tem of voluntary control, by H.C. Row­ ful models in the learning process in or­ moral issues problem solving, and con­ are carried out only by qualified and sell (Canadian Council on Animal Care), successful in part because of its tradition der to find "new avenues for action." sideration of nonempirical questions. concerned personnel. Toward this end, a The forces that induce a reconsider­ Looking to the future of veterinary new field manual to assist in making pro­ of involvement by the Canadian Federa­ ation of the significance of ethics in vet­ medicine, Dr. William F. McCulloch of per inspections is being drafted, and a tion of Humane Societies, and a discus­ erinary medical education were discuss­ Texas A&M urged that the profession National Animal Welfare Advisory Board, sion by David Phelan (Smith Kline and ed by Dr. Hyram Kitchan, dean of the keep up with the public's perceptions of comprised of representatives from in­ French Laboratories, Philadelphia), in University of Tennessee Veterinary Col­ medicine and health care and advocated dustry, humane groups, dealers, and ex­ which industry's distaste for any commit­ lege. The value of animals is emotionally. a more holistic approach. This involves hibitors, will be established. tees was expressed, and sole rei iance on based, he noted, and also dependent on the knowledge and use of ecological prin­ · Next, Paul Lepore of the FDA spoke the attending veterinarian was proposed the nature of the companion animal/hu­ ciples and the practice of preventive on laboratory practices. His goal, the as a substitute for the ACC.- D. H. Murphy man bond. This bond may be the greatest medicine. "Otherwise," he said, "outside assu ranee that all toxicology data re­ force in changing the veterinary profes­ lated to drugs be valid and reproducible, forces will continue to have a greater ef­ did mean that some minimal standards sion, he said. Just as the value placed fect on the profession than what we do for lab animal care would have to be upon animals in society is increasing, so within it." Symposium on Veterinary Medical guaranteed, such as sufficient space for is the sophistication of medicine and Other highlights of the symposium Education- Ethical Dimensions each animal, well-managed storage facili­ health care, and so the public expects included a survey on student concerns ties, and adequate cleaning of all areas veterinarians to be consumate experts in and value issues; clinical grand round involved in housing and experiments. He Exploring ethical and value issues caring for animals. Referring to specific case studies involving ethical issues in stated that: "I see no conflict between in veterinary medicine was the theme of ethical issues facing the profession. Kit­ animal behavior, small- and large-animal adequate care and welfare, and good toxi­ the 8th Symposium on Veterinary Medi­ chen stated: "Economics shouldn't be used medicine, public health and regulatory cology tests, since animals that are cal Education held on June 28-30, 1982 to maintain production methods, just as medicine; and a slide show on art in vet-

74 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4{1) 1983 75 testations that development of alterna­ handled properly are the best study sub­ in Knoxville, TN. Sponsored by the As­ anthropomorphical projection should not tives is expensive, and being done by in­ jects." sociation of American Veterinary Medical be used to abolish or change them." dustry and government already, Dr. Kagan Charles McCarthy of NIH stressed Colleges, American Veterinary Medical Society's expectations of veterinary stated that this is true to some extent, the role of individual responsibility Association (AVMA), National Science medicine were also discussed by Roger but it is also clear that specific legisla­ which each laboratory must assume in Foundation, and the University of Tennes­ Caras, an ABC news correspondent. He tion and funding would speed the rate of using animals. Like many speakers at the see, the meeting was attended by admin­ expressed concern over the adversary re­ innovation of alternatives immensely conference, he referred to the Taub istrators, faculty members, and students lationship some veterinarians have tak­ and foster broader acceptance of them. case, and declared that its verdict was from all across North America. en vis-a-vis local humane shelters regard­ Recent changes in the administration "sad but necessary." He viewed the ter­ The objective of the symposium was ing spay/neuter clinics. He noted that his of the Animal Plant and Health Inspec­ mination of Taub's studies as "a tragic to develop an awareness among veteri­ correspondence over the years indicates tion Service were detailed by Arnold waste." In general, however, he assured nary educators of the need to establish that the public expects the veterinarians Matchett of USDA. In terms of organiza­ the audience that the whole sordid Taub formal coursework in the veterinary cur­ to know everything about animals, includ­ tion, there will now be two Directors affair represented an extreme rarity in riculum that deals with values, ethical ing areas outside the realm of traditional under the Deputy Administrator for animal care. Yet he did go on at some considerations, and moral judgments. The medicine, such as behavior, wildlife, and Animal Health Programs. One of these length about the increasing unease in breadth of this subject was covered by show animals. represents a new position: Director of society, reflected in research institu­ utilizing speakers from quite diverse back­ An effective teaching model used Animal Care. Animal care staff (except tions, caused by a lack of confidence grounds, in conjunction with a number of at Colorado State University to teach for those in Compliance) will be transfer­ that current regulations can ensure even different forums to present their material. ethics to veterinary students was present­ red to the line operation of Veterinary an adequate level of care for animals. A journalist, philosophers, academicians, ed by Dr. Harry Gorman and Bernard Rol­ Services, which supervises field enforce­ and clinicians from both human and vet­ lin, Ph.D. They developed an antagonist/ ment. Compliance will become part of a "Institutional Animal Care Committee" erinary medicine presented lectures, work­ advocate role-playing session that is de­ Like many discussions that revolve new overall Compliance section, within shops, clinical grand rounds, panel discus­ signed to contrapose students on the basic the program services staff of Veterinary around organizational and bureaucratic sions, and a video vignette. ethical issues relevant to veterinary med­ Services, to be headed up by the Direc­ matters, the session on animal care com­ The symposium addressed the im­ icine. These exercises challenge students mittees entailed a good deal of highly tor of Animal Care. In each area office, a portance of, and the methodology by to deal with the controversies they must abstract (and therefore vague) language, veterinary officer will be designated to which, value dimensions can be taught, face within the university, as well as those exhortations related to very I ittle (if any­ coordinate animal care activities. Under as well as specific ethical issues that they will face when in practice, thereby thing) of substance, and advocacy of a this new organizational structure, staff face the profess ion. giving them the opportunity to examine whole range of policies that could only will be afforded direct control and com­ AVMA president Dr. Jacob E. Mosier the process by which ethical decisions are munication with field personnel. The be contradictory if actually put into prac­ opened the symposium by stating that made. Gorman and Rollin stressed that tice. In short, it was dull. The only items staff is also looking at ways to derive "caring is the first concept of this sym­ the simple regurgitation of facts does not maximum benefit from attending veteri­ of interest were a presentation on the posium." He discussed the need to teach facilitate building a code of ethics, and narians at registered research facilities, successful efforts of the Canadian sys­ ethical values as well as develop success­ that students need exposure to social and and at ways to ensure that inspections tem of voluntary control, by H.C. Row­ ful models in the learning process in or­ moral issues problem solving, and con­ are carried out only by qualified and sell (Canadian Council on Animal Care), successful in part because of its tradition der to find "new avenues for action." sideration of nonempirical questions. concerned personnel. Toward this end, a The forces that induce a reconsider­ Looking to the future of veterinary new field manual to assist in making pro­ of involvement by the Canadian Federa­ ation of the significance of ethics in vet­ medicine, Dr. William F. McCulloch of per inspections is being drafted, and a tion of Humane Societies, and a discus­ erinary medical education were discuss­ Texas A&M urged that the profession National Animal Welfare Advisory Board, sion by David Phelan (Smith Kline and ed by Dr. Hyram Kitchan, dean of the keep up with the public's perceptions of comprised of representatives from in­ French Laboratories, Philadelphia), in University of Tennessee Veterinary Col­ medicine and health care and advocated dustry, humane groups, dealers, and ex­ which industry's distaste for any commit­ lege. The value of animals is emotionally. a more holistic approach. This involves hibitors, will be established. tees was expressed, and sole rei iance on based, he noted, and also dependent on the knowledge and use of ecological prin­ · Next, Paul Lepore of the FDA spoke the attending veterinarian was proposed the nature of the companion animal/hu­ ciples and the practice of preventive on laboratory practices. His goal, the as a substitute for the ACC.- D. H. Murphy man bond. This bond may be the greatest medicine. "Otherwise," he said, "outside assu ranee that all toxicology data re­ force in changing the veterinary profes­ lated to drugs be valid and reproducible, forces will continue to have a greater ef­ did mean that some minimal standards sion, he said. Just as the value placed fect on the profession than what we do for lab animal care would have to be upon animals in society is increasing, so within it." Symposium on Veterinary Medical guaranteed, such as sufficient space for is the sophistication of medicine and Other highlights of the symposium Education- Ethical Dimensions each animal, well-managed storage facili­ health care, and so the public expects included a survey on student concerns ties, and adequate cleaning of all areas veterinarians to be consumate experts in and value issues; clinical grand round involved in housing and experiments. He Exploring ethical and value issues caring for animals. Referring to specific case studies involving ethical issues in stated that: "I see no conflict between in veterinary medicine was the theme of ethical issues facing the profession. Kit­ animal behavior, small- and large-animal adequate care and welfare, and good toxi­ the 8th Symposium on Veterinary Medi­ chen stated: "Economics shouldn't be used medicine, public health and regulatory cology tests, since animals that are cal Education held on June 28-30, 1982 to maintain production methods, just as medicine; and a slide show on art in vet-

74 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{1] 1983 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4{1) 1983 75 erinary medicine by Mariana R. Burt of some of the fiddling in this symposium the Massachusetts SPCA. should have been heard by all. Sophie the American Society for Environmental animal technician and the animal user? Scott Sanderson J akowska, of the International Union for History. For more information, write to To answer these questions, reports of School of Veterinary Medicine the Conservation of Nature & Natural him at Editorial Offices, Environmental LASA/UFAW working groups on rats and University of Minnesota Resources, detailed the more positve Review, University of Denver, Denver, mice, rabbits and guinea pigs, dogs and 80208. environmental stance that the Roman co cats, and new and old world primates will be presented, as well as presentations by Colloquium on "The Place of Animals Catholic Church is now taking in Latin AALAS- Pound Animal Meeting distinguished speakers and related poster in Religion" America. The paper of Po-Keugn lp (Uni­ versity of Western Ontario) on "Taoism For the second year running, the 1982 sessions. Contact LASA/UFAW Sympo­ This discussion, held at the University and the Foundation of Environmental Eth­ Annual Conference of the American As­ sium, 8, Hamilton Close, Potters Bar, of Denver, September 3Q-October 1, 1982, ics" ought to be wallpapered throughout sociation for Laboratory Animal Science Herts, EN6 3QD, U.K. was a lively, timely, and informative col­ the Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, DC) considered the issue loquium. Fresh moral and ethical dimen­ and Department of the Interior and, for of pound animals. As was pointed out by ASTM Committee E-47 on Biological Ef­ sions, cultural perceptions, and meta­ good measure, affixed to the ceilings in a member of the audience, the 1982 ses­ fects and Environmental Fate: .7th Sym­ physical constructs were drawn from Gorshak's and Watt's offices, along with sion covered a lot of the same ground posium of Aquatic Toxicology, April17- such diverse sources as Taoism, Judaism, the inspiring paper of Gerard Reed (Point that was covered in 1981, but there were 19, 1983, Milwaukee, WI. Papers are now Greco-Roman history, and American In­ Lama College), "Homily on Black Elk," one or two interesting new points raised. being solicited for this meeting in the dian anthropology. While no consensus in which he described the native Ameri­ Ronald Flatt from Iowa State University following subject areas: new methods and was reached on any topic, minds were can environmental ethic. told the audience about an agreement concepts for testing and assessing the aqua­ opened to new possibilities. The aca­ J. Donald Hughes (University of Den­ worked out with a local humane society tic hazard of materials (e.g., chemicals, demic rigor and excellent scholarship ver) exposed the Greek roots of Christ­ in which veterinary students, after some efflents); sublethal effects; bioavailabil ity that was demonstrated during this meet­ ianity that led to the "death" of Pan and instruction, polish their surgical skills by and recent advances in environmental ing of diverse minds can give us some his subsequent transmutation into a Satan­ performing free spay/neuter work for the chemistry; biological and ecological im­ hope that some more mature minds and ic archetype in his presentation, "Pan: humane society. He also encouraged other plications of responses of organisms to dedicated souls are endeavoring to con­ Environmental Ethics in Greek Polythe­ institutions to adopt an open-door poli­ materials; and lab vs. field- how good struct a conceptual and ethical framework ism." He traced the link between the cy and noted that Iowa State now has a is our predictive capability and what to deal with their own existential angst, desacralization of nature and the present representative of the local humane soci­ confounds extrapolation and assessment as well as the emotional, social, and eco­ state of our relationship with nature and ety on their animal care committee. in situ. Contact Program Chairman, Dr. nomic and environmental ills that afflict God. Martin LaBar (Central Wesleyan Col­ The most disappointing talk was Rick D. Cardwell, Envirosphere Company, civilized society today. But we will still lege) examined the text of the Bible in his the one that dealt with alternatives to 400 112th Avenue N.E., Bellevue, WA have to be patient. For some minds are paper, "A Biblical Perspective on Nonhu­ random-source dogs. The analysis of the 98004. still lost in such conceptual games as man Organisms: Values, Moral Consider­ suitability of different animal models the meaning and structure of reality; un­ ability and Moral Agency," to show that was only superficial, and the speaker de­ Association of Institutes for Tropical reconciled, dialectic paradoxes; and the the Bible does indicate that animals are scended to the depths of banality when Veterinary Medicine: International Con­ superiority of one conceptual structure morally considerable, and that we as the he said "I I ike to use dogs because I I ike ference on Impact of Diseases on Live­ or school over another. sole moral agents on earth must realize dogs." stock Production, May 9-13, 1983, Kis­ Emphasis was, disappointingly, placed the spiritual value of considering nature simmee, FL. Contact Dr. M.J. Burridge, more on the environment than on wild and all creatures morally. Jay McDaniel, FORTHCOMING Director, Center for Tropical Animal and domesticated animals, though rec­ Hendrix College, offered "Christianity Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, ognition was given to the plight of endan­ and the Need for New Vision," and Ber­ MEETINGS Box J-136, University of Florida, Gaines­ gered species, whales, and factory-farmed nard H. Baumrin (City University of New Universities Federation for Animal Wel­ ville, FL 32610. animals. More than one participant ex­ York) presented "Whose World?-A Jew­ fare and Laboratory Animal Science Asso­ Latham Foundation, AVMA, and CVMA: pressed concern over the lack of focus ish View of Man's Place in Nature." It ciation: Joint Symposium on Standards in Conference on the People/Animal Bond, on humans, whose psyche inevitably de­ became clear that the Old Testament Laboratory Animal Management, March June 17-18,1983, Irvine, CA. Interdiscip­ termines how we perceive, treat, and re­ (before the demise of Pan) reflects a far 30-31, 1983, London, U.K. New U.K. leg­ linary perspectives on people-animal re­ late to animals and nature, and how we greater awareness of the sacramental as­ islation is expected to call for codes of lationships and environments will com­ cope with anxiety and our fear of both life pects and ecological, ethical responsibili­ practice on the housing and care of lab­ prise the focus of this event. Contact Wil­ and death (fears that even motivate peo­ ties in the human relationship with the oratory animals. This symposium will ad­ liam J. Winchester, DVM, Department of ple to hold colloquia such as this, or rest of creation than does the New Test­ dress several questions concerning the Animal Resources, University of Califor­ write materials justifying factory farm­ ament (which is more concerned with content of this legislation: (1) How can nia, Irvine, CA 92717. ing, greater spending on military arms, how people treat each other). the comfort and well-being of laboratory and the stockpiling of nuclear weapons). Professor J. Donald Hughes announc­ animals be assessed? What are the phys­ Latham Foundation, AVMA, and CVMA: Professor Nero may have fiddled ed the inception of a new journal, Envi­ iological and behavioral needs of labo­ Conference on the People/Animal Bond, while contemporary Rome burned, but ronmental Review, to be published by ratory animals? Can the needs of the ani­ mal be compatible with the needs of the University of Minnesota, June 21-22,1983, 76 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 77 erinary medicine by Mariana R. Burt of some of the fiddling in this symposium the Massachusetts SPCA. should have been heard by all. Sophie the American Society for Environmental animal technician and the animal user? Scott Sanderson J akowska, of the International Union for History. For more information, write to To answer these questions, reports of School of Veterinary Medicine the Conservation of Nature & Natural him at Editorial Offices, Environmental LASA/UFAW working groups on rats and University of Minnesota Resources, detailed the more positve Review, University of Denver, Denver, mice, rabbits and guinea pigs, dogs and 80208. environmental stance that the Roman co cats, and new and old world primates will be presented, as well as presentations by Colloquium on "The Place of Animals Catholic Church is now taking in Latin AALAS- Pound Animal Meeting distinguished speakers and related poster in Religion" America. The paper of Po-Keugn lp (Uni­ versity of Western Ontario) on "Taoism For the second year running, the 1982 sessions. Contact LASA/UFAW Sympo­ This discussion, held at the University and the Foundation of Environmental Eth­ Annual Conference of the American As­ sium, 8, Hamilton Close, Potters Bar, of Denver, September 3Q-October 1, 1982, ics" ought to be wallpapered throughout sociation for Laboratory Animal Science Herts, EN6 3QD, U.K. was a lively, timely, and informative col­ the Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, DC) considered the issue loquium. Fresh moral and ethical dimen­ and Department of the Interior and, for of pound animals. As was pointed out by ASTM Committee E-47 on Biological Ef­ sions, cultural perceptions, and meta­ good measure, affixed to the ceilings in a member of the audience, the 1982 ses­ fects and Environmental Fate: .7th Sym­ physical constructs were drawn from Gorshak's and Watt's offices, along with sion covered a lot of the same ground posium of Aquatic Toxicology, April17- such diverse sources as Taoism, Judaism, the inspiring paper of Gerard Reed (Point that was covered in 1981, but there were 19, 1983, Milwaukee, WI. Papers are now Greco-Roman history, and American In­ Lama College), "Homily on Black Elk," one or two interesting new points raised. being solicited for this meeting in the dian anthropology. While no consensus in which he described the native Ameri­ Ronald Flatt from Iowa State University following subject areas: new methods and was reached on any topic, minds were can environmental ethic. told the audience about an agreement concepts for testing and assessing the aqua­ opened to new possibilities. The aca­ J. Donald Hughes (University of Den­ worked out with a local humane society tic hazard of materials (e.g., chemicals, demic rigor and excellent scholarship ver) exposed the Greek roots of Christ­ in which veterinary students, after some efflents); sublethal effects; bioavailabil ity that was demonstrated during this meet­ ianity that led to the "death" of Pan and instruction, polish their surgical skills by and recent advances in environmental ing of diverse minds can give us some his subsequent transmutation into a Satan­ performing free spay/neuter work for the chemistry; biological and ecological im­ hope that some more mature minds and ic archetype in his presentation, "Pan: humane society. He also encouraged other plications of responses of organisms to dedicated souls are endeavoring to con­ Environmental Ethics in Greek Polythe­ institutions to adopt an open-door poli­ materials; and lab vs. field- how good struct a conceptual and ethical framework ism." He traced the link between the cy and noted that Iowa State now has a is our predictive capability and what to deal with their own existential angst, desacralization of nature and the present representative of the local humane soci­ confounds extrapolation and assessment as well as the emotional, social, and eco­ state of our relationship with nature and ety on their animal care committee. in situ. Contact Program Chairman, Dr. nomic and environmental ills that afflict God. Martin LaBar (Central Wesleyan Col­ The most disappointing talk was Rick D. Cardwell, Envirosphere Company, civilized society today. But we will still lege) examined the text of the Bible in his the one that dealt with alternatives to 400 112th Avenue N.E., Bellevue, WA have to be patient. For some minds are paper, "A Biblical Perspective on Nonhu­ random-source dogs. The analysis of the 98004. still lost in such conceptual games as man Organisms: Values, Moral Consider­ suitability of different animal models the meaning and structure of reality; un­ ability and Moral Agency," to show that was only superficial, and the speaker de­ Association of Institutes for Tropical reconciled, dialectic paradoxes; and the the Bible does indicate that animals are scended to the depths of banality when Veterinary Medicine: International Con­ superiority of one conceptual structure morally considerable, and that we as the he said "I I ike to use dogs because I I ike ference on Impact of Diseases on Live­ or school over another. sole moral agents on earth must realize dogs." stock Production, May 9-13, 1983, Kis­ Emphasis was, disappointingly, placed the spiritual value of considering nature simmee, FL. Contact Dr. M.J. Burridge, more on the environment than on wild and all creatures morally. Jay McDaniel, FORTHCOMING Director, Center for Tropical Animal and domesticated animals, though rec­ Hendrix College, offered "Christianity Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, ognition was given to the plight of endan­ and the Need for New Vision," and Ber­ MEETINGS Box J-136, University of Florida, Gaines­ gered species, whales, and factory-farmed nard H. Baumrin (City University of New Universities Federation for Animal Wel­ ville, FL 32610. animals. More than one participant ex­ York) presented "Whose World?-A Jew­ fare and Laboratory Animal Science Asso­ Latham Foundation, AVMA, and CVMA: pressed concern over the lack of focus ish View of Man's Place in Nature." It ciation: Joint Symposium on Standards in Conference on the People/Animal Bond, on humans, whose psyche inevitably de­ became clear that the Old Testament Laboratory Animal Management, March June 17-18,1983, Irvine, CA. Interdiscip­ termines how we perceive, treat, and re­ (before the demise of Pan) reflects a far 30-31, 1983, London, U.K. New U.K. leg­ linary perspectives on people-animal re­ late to animals and nature, and how we greater awareness of the sacramental as­ islation is expected to call for codes of lationships and environments will com­ cope with anxiety and our fear of both life pects and ecological, ethical responsibili­ practice on the housing and care of lab­ prise the focus of this event. Contact Wil­ and death (fears that even motivate peo­ ties in the human relationship with the oratory animals. This symposium will ad­ liam J. Winchester, DVM, Department of ple to hold colloquia such as this, or rest of creation than does the New Test­ dress several questions concerning the Animal Resources, University of Califor­ write materials justifying factory farm­ ament (which is more concerned with content of this legislation: (1) How can nia, Irvine, CA 92717. ing, greater spending on military arms, how people treat each other). the comfort and well-being of laboratory and the stockpiling of nuclear weapons). Professor J. Donald Hughes announc­ animals be assessed? What are the phys­ Latham Foundation, AVMA, and CVMA: Professor Nero may have fiddled ed the inception of a new journal, Envi­ iological and behavioral needs of labo­ Conference on the People/Animal Bond, while contemporary Rome burned, but ronmental Review, to be published by ratory animals? Can the needs of the ani­ mal be compatible with the needs of the University of Minnesota, June 21-22,1983, 76 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 77 St. Paul, MN. This meeting will also pro­ Vienna, Austria. Contract Secretary, A set of four criteria, developed by To have your name placed on the vide a forum for an interdisciplinary dis­ IEMT, Johann-Biobner Gasse 2, A 1120, W.E. Bunney, former head of the National FACT SHEET mailing list, write FACT, cussion of "the bond"; many of the discip­ Vienna, Austria. Institute of Mental Health, is used as a Inc., P.O. Box 14599, Chicago, IL 60614. lines represented have not previously ad­ benchmark for assessing the various ani­ dressed the topic of human/animal bond­ mal models of human mental illness. Ac­ ing. Contact William). Winchester, DVM, cording to the criteria, the animal model Department of Animal Resources, Univer­ and the human illness must have similar Anti-Cruelty Statutes, State by State sity of California, Irvine, CA 92717. causes, symptoms, responses to treatment, ANNOUNCEMENTS and underlying neurobiological mecha­ A useful guide for animal rights ad­ International Council for laboratory An­ nisms. The author then examines the cur­ vocates, the "Analysis of Anti-Cruelty imal Science: "The Contribution of Lab­ rent models for several types of illness Statutes in Reference to Exemptions for oratory Animals to the Welfare of Man (, depression, phobia and Experimentation," is a distillation of a obsession, etc.) and demonstrates the and Animals: Past, Present, and Future," "Psychology Experiments on Animals" research project undertaken by the Soci­ woeful inadequacy of the animal models July 31-August 5, 1983, Vancouver, BC, from NEAVS ety for Animal Rights on how the various Canada. Topics covered will include: a for each disease. At the end of the book, state laws deal with animal cruelty in geographic overview of laboratory animal Kuker-Reines concludes that the differ­ U.S. laboratories. Of the 50 states, 32 The New England Anti-Vivisection science; the animal model in gerontolo­ ences between humans and other animals have no specific exemptions for research Society has published a concise and lucid gical studies; the development, status, are sufficiently profound as to make any and testing activities, 6 have exemptions summary of the arguments on one side and future of international quality in attempts at constructing cross-species for certain research facilities, and the of the debate about whether animals can laboratory animals (standardization); analogies about mental pathologies a other 12 states grant a total exemption (or should) serve as suitable models for and new and future trends in biotechnol­ pointless task. to all research and testing activities. The human psychopathologies. fn Psychology ogy. Contact Mr. D. Jol, ICLAS/ CALAS The book is available from NEAVS, guide can be obtained from SAR, Inc., Experiments on Animals, author Brandon 1983, Box 286, 810 West Broadway, Van­ 1 Bulfinch Place, Boston, MA 02114. 421 South State Street, Clarks Summit, Kuker-Reines traces the development of couver, BC, Canada VSZ 1)8. PA18411. the idea that animals can substitute for humans from the early days of psycholo­ Australian Society for the Study of Ani­ gical research. In their efforts to elevate Farm Facts mal Behavior and the Australian Academy psychology to the status of a true natural Pharmaceutical Manufacturers of Sciences: 18th International Ethologi­ science, investigators locked onto the The Farm Animal Care Trust has be­ Association Now Favors Modification cal Conference, August 29-September 6, microbiological dictum of Koch's postu­ gun publication of a single-page news­ of the Standard lD50 1983, Brisbane, Australia. Potential par­ lates, which state that proof of causation letter, FACT SHEET (three-hole punched ticipants are being given early notifica­ for infectious disease must be obtained for inclusion in a binder), on farm animal The PMA represents 149 research­ tion for this conference, since this is the in animal models. A second contributing problems and new husbandry systems to based drug companies that, together, ac­ first time an International Ethological factor to the premise that animal minds help alleviate the problems. Sample top­ count for most of the new prescription Conference has been open to all behavi­ can be considered merely as simple ana­ ics covered in recent issues: drugs that are developed in the U.S. In oral scientists, and therefore no chan­ logs of human minds was the later work • The Globovolg Egg System, a new October 1982, the PMA issued an offi­ nels of communication have been estab­ of Pavlov. Observing that certain sets of non-intensive housing design for laying cial report in which the role of the me­ lished to reach all those who might be experimental conditions made dogs react hens that features a central row of nest dian lethal dose (LDSO) test was reassess­ interested in attending. The content of in frustration by squealing and thrashing boxes along the length of the building, ed, in light of the real needs of toxicolo­ the plenary sessions has not yet been de­ about, Pavlov assumed that he had found with wire floors placed over a manure. gists and clinical pharmacologists, as termined, and the committee sponsoring an animal parallel to human neurosis. In pit on either side of the nest area. The well as the actual context of the test: it the conference would welcome any sug­ other hypnotized dogs, he thought he rec­ nest areas are provided with perches, is but one of a battery of tests used to gestions on possible session topics. Plen­ ognized the symptoms of schizophrenia. and above the nest boxes is a 5-m-wide determine the safety of a new drug. ary sessions will be strongly didactic, The author argues that it is the very platform that also runs the length of the The report notes that since but will also provide a general overview fact that using animals as models means building. of recent developments and highlight guessing about which outside manifesta­ • The dubious nutrional quality of Scientific needs rarely require an ex­ any problems or controversies. Contact tions (symptoms) are clues to what's with­ white veal, and some alternatives to spe­ act value, practices and regulations Conference Secretary, Animal Behavior in, so that these symptoms can be dupl i­ cial-feed veal operations. should be changed to provide the op­ Unit, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, cated in test animals, that has made psy­ • Antibiotics in animal feed; some tion of obtaining adequate informa­ Australia 4067. chological studies in animals, at best, statistics on the quantities used annually tion on the acute toxicity of a drug, simply a waste of time, when "psycholo­ are given, with a discussion of the wide­ with fewer animals than the precise IEMT: International Symposium on Pets gists are not even sure of what behaviors ranging adverse effects of overuse of an­ LD50 test demands .... }ust as mean­ and Society on the 80th Birthday of Pro­ comprise the 'core symptoms' of each tibiotics, especially the creation of new ingful information can be obtained fessor Konrad Lorenz, October 17-19, 1983, type of illness in people" (p. 17). antibiotic-resistant microbial strains. with fewer animals.

78 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) r983 79 St. Paul, MN. This meeting will also pro­ Vienna, Austria. Contract Secretary, A set of four criteria, developed by To have your name placed on the vide a forum for an interdisciplinary dis­ IEMT, Johann-Biobner Gasse 2, A 1120, W.E. Bunney, former head of the National FACT SHEET mailing list, write FACT, cussion of "the bond"; many of the discip­ Vienna, Austria. Institute of Mental Health, is used as a Inc., P.O. Box 14599, Chicago, IL 60614. lines represented have not previously ad­ benchmark for assessing the various ani­ dressed the topic of human/animal bond­ mal models of human mental illness. Ac­ ing. Contact William). Winchester, DVM, cording to the criteria, the animal model Department of Animal Resources, Univer­ and the human illness must have similar Anti-Cruelty Statutes, State by State sity of California, Irvine, CA 92717. causes, symptoms, responses to treatment, ANNOUNCEMENTS and underlying neurobiological mecha­ A useful guide for animal rights ad­ International Council for laboratory An­ nisms. The author then examines the cur­ vocates, the "Analysis of Anti-Cruelty imal Science: "The Contribution of Lab­ rent models for several types of illness Statutes in Reference to Exemptions for oratory Animals to the Welfare of Man (schizophrenia, depression, phobia and Experimentation," is a distillation of a obsession, etc.) and demonstrates the and Animals: Past, Present, and Future," "Psychology Experiments on Animals" research project undertaken by the Soci­ woeful inadequacy of the animal models July 31-August 5, 1983, Vancouver, BC, from NEAVS ety for Animal Rights on how the various Canada. Topics covered will include: a for each disease. At the end of the book, state laws deal with animal cruelty in geographic overview of laboratory animal Kuker-Reines concludes that the differ­ U.S. laboratories. Of the 50 states, 32 The New England Anti-Vivisection science; the animal model in gerontolo­ ences between humans and other animals have no specific exemptions for research Society has published a concise and lucid gical studies; the development, status, are sufficiently profound as to make any and testing activities, 6 have exemptions summary of the arguments on one side and future of international quality in attempts at constructing cross-species for certain research facilities, and the of the debate about whether animals can laboratory animals (standardization); analogies about mental pathologies a other 12 states grant a total exemption (or should) serve as suitable models for and new and future trends in biotechnol­ pointless task. to all research and testing activities. The human psychopathologies. fn Psychology ogy. Contact Mr. D. Jol, ICLAS/ CALAS The book is available from NEAVS, guide can be obtained from SAR, Inc., Experiments on Animals, author Brandon 1983, Box 286, 810 West Broadway, Van­ 1 Bulfinch Place, Boston, MA 02114. 421 South State Street, Clarks Summit, Kuker-Reines traces the development of couver, BC, Canada VSZ 1)8. PA18411. the idea that animals can substitute for humans from the early days of psycholo­ Australian Society for the Study of Ani­ gical research. In their efforts to elevate Farm Facts mal Behavior and the Australian Academy psychology to the status of a true natural Pharmaceutical Manufacturers of Sciences: 18th International Ethologi­ science, investigators locked onto the The Farm Animal Care Trust has be­ Association Now Favors Modification cal Conference, August 29-September 6, microbiological dictum of Koch's postu­ gun publication of a single-page news­ of the Standard lD50 1983, Brisbane, Australia. Potential par­ lates, which state that proof of causation letter, FACT SHEET (three-hole punched ticipants are being given early notifica­ for infectious disease must be obtained for inclusion in a binder), on farm animal The PMA represents 149 research­ tion for this conference, since this is the in animal models. A second contributing problems and new husbandry systems to based drug companies that, together, ac­ first time an International Ethological factor to the premise that animal minds help alleviate the problems. Sample top­ count for most of the new prescription Conference has been open to all behavi­ can be considered merely as simple ana­ ics covered in recent issues: drugs that are developed in the U.S. In oral scientists, and therefore no chan­ logs of human minds was the later work • The Globovolg Egg System, a new October 1982, the PMA issued an offi­ nels of communication have been estab­ of Pavlov. Observing that certain sets of non-intensive housing design for laying cial report in which the role of the me­ lished to reach all those who might be experimental conditions made dogs react hens that features a central row of nest dian lethal dose (LDSO) test was reassess­ interested in attending. The content of in frustration by squealing and thrashing boxes along the length of the building, ed, in light of the real needs of toxicolo­ the plenary sessions has not yet been de­ about, Pavlov assumed that he had found with wire floors placed over a manure. gists and clinical pharmacologists, as termined, and the committee sponsoring an animal parallel to human neurosis. In pit on either side of the nest area. The well as the actual context of the test: it the conference would welcome any sug­ other hypnotized dogs, he thought he rec­ nest areas are provided with perches, is but one of a battery of tests used to gestions on possible session topics. Plen­ ognized the symptoms of schizophrenia. and above the nest boxes is a 5-m-wide determine the safety of a new drug. ary sessions will be strongly didactic, The author argues that it is the very platform that also runs the length of the The report notes that since but will also provide a general overview fact that using animals as models means building. of recent developments and highlight guessing about which outside manifesta­ • The dubious nutrional quality of Scientific needs rarely require an ex­ any problems or controversies. Contact tions (symptoms) are clues to what's with­ white veal, and some alternatives to spe­ act value, practices and regulations Conference Secretary, Animal Behavior in, so that these symptoms can be dupl i­ cial-feed veal operations. should be changed to provide the op­ Unit, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, cated in test animals, that has made psy­ • Antibiotics in animal feed; some tion of obtaining adequate informa­ Australia 4067. chological studies in animals, at best, statistics on the quantities used annually tion on the acute toxicity of a drug, simply a waste of time, when "psycholo­ are given, with a discussion of the wide­ with fewer animals than the precise IEMT: International Symposium on Pets gists are not even sure of what behaviors ranging adverse effects of overuse of an­ LD50 test demands .... }ust as mean­ and Society on the 80th Birthday of Pro­ comprise the 'core symptoms' of each tibiotics, especially the creation of new ingful information can be obtained fessor Konrad Lorenz, October 17-19, 1983, type of illness in people" (p. 17). antibiotic-resistant microbial strains. with fewer animals.

78 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) r983 79 !il!j•

II As detailed in the the sym­ life as tame as the old rural- and large­ I The LDSO, the PMA states, also has inher­ Animals, Nature & Albert Schweit­ journal, I ent disadvantages: results are highly sus­ zer, edited with commentary by Ann Cot­ posium that did take place was limited ly agrarian- one; and, ultimately, to pro­ ! ceptible to the vagaries of the many ex­ trell Free (available from and published in scope beforehand to the topic of bio­ claim a victor in the pitched battle be­ perimental variables involved, and the in part by The Humane Society of the Unit­ assay techniques, on the premise that tween Science and Sensibility for control LDSO value obtained has only limited utili­ ed States, Washington, DC, 1982). The this area offered some more easily defin­ of public policy. ty in estimating dose levels for further life of Albert Schweitzer- his work, his able parameters on which to base a dis­ Turner chronicles the simultaneous subacute and chronic studies. ideals, and his sentiments on nature and cussion, such as costs and legal require­ burgeoning of empathy for the suffering ments for testing. Now, the published Therefore, the PMA recommends an human life- are set forth in this book, of animals and their use in scientific ex­ proceedings provides copies of the pa­ alternative test procedure, which has been which is comprised principally of quota­ perimentation. Abetting the inevitable pers presented and transcripts of the found acceptable to most U.S. regulatory tions by Schweitzer himself, with com­ and violent convergence of these two agencies in non-rodents. The PMA group panel discussion sessions. Ironically, ments by editor Lee interspersed. The phenomena is the newfound abhorrence advises that this alternative technique many of the papers focus on animal book is also a collection of photographs, of pain: Science begins to learn to al­ be considered acceptable for tests in rod­ models. Some samples: "Animal Method­ of Schweitzer and the African people for leviate pain; people begin to hate pain ent species, too. In this technique, test ology for Toxicity Testing," "In Vitro and whom he felt such a strong vocation, as as it is no longer an uncontrollable part substances are administered to the same Systems for Detection and well as the animals and plants with whom In Vivo of life on earth; the new sensitivity to small group of animals in increasing Development of Anticancer Drugs," and he felt so close a bond. Schweitzer's pain in general leads to a revulsion at doses that are spaced over intervals of 1 "The Use of Chimpanzees in Biomedical "reverence for life" philosophy emerges the pain inflicted by Homo sapiens (now, to 4 days. The maximal tolerated dose Research." as a central theme, as his thoughts on thanks to Science, acknowledged to be a and minimal lethal dose can be determin­ lab animals, meat eating, hunting, fal­ member of the animal kingdom) upon his ed from the results, and an estimate of conry, animal rights, and euthanasia are fellow animals; Science begins to inflict the LDSO made as well. At the same time, explored. pain upon animals deliberately, in order data can be collected on clinical signs to learn to alleviate it more effectively. of overdose and organ toxicity. Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain, Victorians cling tenaciously to the belief For a copy of the report, contact Phar­ and Humanity in the Victorian Mind, James they inherit from the Enlightenment of maceutical Manufacturers Association, Turner (The Johns Hopkins University the perfectibility of man; Science be­ 1100 15th Street, N.W., Washington, DC Press, Baltimore, 1980). "The His tory of comes the new vehicle of amelioration; 20005. Trends in Bioassay Methodology: In the Victorian Age will never be written: Science's seemingly deliberate cruelty Vivo, In Vitro, and Mathematical Approach­ we know too much about it." Or so la­ appears to be anything but a sign of an es (proceedings of a symposium sponsor­ mented Lytton Strachey in his preface to improved human spirit. As if that were ed by the National Institutes of Health, Eminent Victorians. To explore this "sin­ not a bucketful already, this ironic U.S. Department of Health and Human gular epoch," Strachey counseled, the drama is played out against the backdrop Book News Services, NIH Publication No. 82-2382, historian must "row out over that great of the class-conscious doubts and fears Bethesda, MD, 1981). In an earlier issue of ocean of material, and lower down into of the Industrial Revolution. the journal (2(3):151-156), we reported on it, here and there, a I ittle bucket, which Mr. Turner's principal hypothesis is The Canadian Seal Hunt: A Moral Is­ an NIH-sponsored conference that was will bring up to the light of day some char­ that animal welfare got an early lead in sue (proceedings of a symposium spon­ intended to establish the state-of-the-art acteristic specimen, from those far depths, the race for reforms and stayed out in sored by the Canadian Federation of Hu­ in alternatives to the use of laboratory to be examined with a careful curiosity." front for much of the century because mane Societies, Toronto, Canada, 1982). animals. The findings of the conference In Reckoning with the Beast, James animal protection, unlike many of the In February of 1982, the CFHS held a were to be used by Congress as part of Turner dips his bucket into a sea alive movements to aid various segments of conference that attempted to analyze the requisite data for an informed hear­ with the reform of nineteenth-century. suffering humanity, posed no substantial the ethical aspects of sealing in a non­ ing on H.R. 4805, the Research Moderni­ manners and mores and brings it up drip­ threat to the established social order. He emotional fashion and, as part of this ef­ zation Act, which was first introduced in ping to exercise his particular curiosity finds "compassion damned up behind a fort, to assess the costs and benefits of mid-1979. At about the same time, NIH upon the origins of the animal welfare wall of convention, ideology, and inter­ the seal hunt to both humans and animals. had begun to study its own procedures movement in England and America. The est." Sailing between the Scylla and Cha­ The published proceedings contains talks and funding mechanisms, to see what sorts resu It is a slender (140 pages of well-writ­ rbydis of "sympathy and social caution," on "Moral Concern and the Ecosphere" of support it was giving to the develop­ ten text) but thoroughly documented (38 compassionate Victorians could exer­ by John Livingston, "Moral Concern and ment of alternatives; the Government pages of very interesting notes) examina­ cise their urge to succor upon the "one Animals" by Bernard Rollin, and "Moral Accounting Office, too, had expressed tion of the struggles of proper Victorians, wholly acceptable obje~::t of benevo­ Concern and the Harp Seal Hunt" by an interest in NIH policy on alternatives. both eminent and anonymous, to recon­ lence: the suffering beast." Wayne Sumner (a revised version of Dr. Yet, with all this impetus, the meeting cile the ancient fear of the "animal" in The conflicts of philosophies and Sumner's paper appears in this issue of did not take place until February 1981, man with the new understanding of man desires in Reckoning are described in the journal). A verbatim transcript of the because of reluctance at NIH to hold as animal; to accommodate the old spirit­ their full complexity; the players are not. panel session that followed the formal any public forum at all on the topic of ualism to the new materialism; to render The ravenous reader of history, sated papers is also included. alternatives. the new urban- and largely industrial- upon a particular historian's bill of fare,

80 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 !NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 81 !il!j•

II As detailed in the the sym­ life as tame as the old rural- and large­ I The LDSO, the PMA states, also has inher­ Animals, Nature & Albert Schweit­ journal, I ent disadvantages: results are highly sus­ zer, edited with commentary by Ann Cot­ posium that did take place was limited ly agrarian- one; and, ultimately, to pro­ ! ceptible to the vagaries of the many ex­ trell Free (available from and published in scope beforehand to the topic of bio­ claim a victor in the pitched battle be­ perimental variables involved, and the in part by The Humane Society of the Unit­ assay techniques, on the premise that tween Science and Sensibility for control LDSO value obtained has only limited utili­ ed States, Washington, DC, 1982). The this area offered some more easily defin­ of public policy. ty in estimating dose levels for further life of Albert Schweitzer- his work, his able parameters on which to base a dis­ Turner chronicles the simultaneous subacute and chronic studies. ideals, and his sentiments on nature and cussion, such as costs and legal require­ burgeoning of empathy for the suffering ments for testing. Now, the published Therefore, the PMA recommends an human life- are set forth in this book, of animals and their use in scientific ex­ proceedings provides copies of the pa­ alternative test procedure, which has been which is comprised principally of quota­ perimentation. Abetting the inevitable pers presented and transcripts of the found acceptable to most U.S. regulatory tions by Schweitzer himself, with com­ and violent convergence of these two agencies in non-rodents. The PMA group panel discussion sessions. Ironically, ments by editor Lee interspersed. The phenomena is the newfound abhorrence advises that this alternative technique many of the papers focus on animal book is also a collection of photographs, of pain: Science begins to learn to al­ be considered acceptable for tests in rod­ models. Some samples: "Animal Method­ of Schweitzer and the African people for leviate pain; people begin to hate pain ent species, too. In this technique, test ology for Toxicity Testing," "In Vitro and whom he felt such a strong vocation, as as it is no longer an uncontrollable part substances are administered to the same Systems for Detection and well as the animals and plants with whom In Vivo of life on earth; the new sensitivity to small group of animals in increasing Development of Anticancer Drugs," and he felt so close a bond. Schweitzer's pain in general leads to a revulsion at doses that are spaced over intervals of 1 "The Use of Chimpanzees in Biomedical "reverence for life" philosophy emerges the pain inflicted by Homo sapiens (now, to 4 days. The maximal tolerated dose Research." as a central theme, as his thoughts on thanks to Science, acknowledged to be a and minimal lethal dose can be determin­ lab animals, meat eating, hunting, fal­ member of the animal kingdom) upon his ed from the results, and an estimate of conry, animal rights, and euthanasia are fellow animals; Science begins to inflict the LDSO made as well. At the same time, explored. pain upon animals deliberately, in order data can be collected on clinical signs to learn to alleviate it more effectively. of overdose and organ toxicity. Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain, Victorians cling tenaciously to the belief For a copy of the report, contact Phar­ and Humanity in the Victorian Mind, James they inherit from the Enlightenment of maceutical Manufacturers Association, Turner (The Johns Hopkins University the perfectibility of man; Science be­ 1100 15th Street, N.W., Washington, DC Press, Baltimore, 1980). "The His tory of comes the new vehicle of amelioration; 20005. Trends in Bioassay Methodology: In the Victorian Age will never be written: Science's seemingly deliberate cruelty Vivo, In Vitro, and Mathematical Approach­ we know too much about it." Or so la­ appears to be anything but a sign of an es (proceedings of a symposium sponsor­ mented Lytton Strachey in his preface to improved human spirit. As if that were ed by the National Institutes of Health, Eminent Victorians. To explore this "sin­ not a bucketful already, this ironic U.S. Department of Health and Human gular epoch," Strachey counseled, the drama is played out against the backdrop Book News Services, NIH Publication No. 82-2382, historian must "row out over that great of the class-conscious doubts and fears Bethesda, MD, 1981). In an earlier issue of ocean of material, and lower down into of the Industrial Revolution. the journal (2(3):151-156), we reported on it, here and there, a I ittle bucket, which Mr. Turner's principal hypothesis is The Canadian Seal Hunt: A Moral Is­ an NIH-sponsored conference that was will bring up to the light of day some char­ that animal welfare got an early lead in sue (proceedings of a symposium spon­ intended to establish the state-of-the-art acteristic specimen, from those far depths, the race for reforms and stayed out in sored by the Canadian Federation of Hu­ in alternatives to the use of laboratory to be examined with a careful curiosity." front for much of the century because mane Societies, Toronto, Canada, 1982). animals. The findings of the conference In Reckoning with the Beast, James animal protection, unlike many of the In February of 1982, the CFHS held a were to be used by Congress as part of Turner dips his bucket into a sea alive movements to aid various segments of conference that attempted to analyze the requisite data for an informed hear­ with the reform of nineteenth-century. suffering humanity, posed no substantial the ethical aspects of sealing in a non­ ing on H.R. 4805, the Research Moderni­ manners and mores and brings it up drip­ threat to the established social order. He emotional fashion and, as part of this ef­ zation Act, which was first introduced in ping to exercise his particular curiosity finds "compassion damned up behind a fort, to assess the costs and benefits of mid-1979. At about the same time, NIH upon the origins of the animal welfare wall of convention, ideology, and inter­ the seal hunt to both humans and animals. had begun to study its own procedures movement in England and America. The est." Sailing between the Scylla and Cha­ The published proceedings contains talks and funding mechanisms, to see what sorts resu It is a slender (140 pages of well-writ­ rbydis of "sympathy and social caution," on "Moral Concern and the Ecosphere" of support it was giving to the develop­ ten text) but thoroughly documented (38 compassionate Victorians could exer­ by John Livingston, "Moral Concern and ment of alternatives; the Government pages of very interesting notes) examina­ cise their urge to succor upon the "one Animals" by Bernard Rollin, and "Moral Accounting Office, too, had expressed tion of the struggles of proper Victorians, wholly acceptable obje~::t of benevo­ Concern and the Harp Seal Hunt" by an interest in NIH policy on alternatives. both eminent and anonymous, to recon­ lence: the suffering beast." Wayne Sumner (a revised version of Dr. Yet, with all this impetus, the meeting cile the ancient fear of the "animal" in The conflicts of philosophies and Sumner's paper appears in this issue of did not take place until February 1981, man with the new understanding of man desires in Reckoning are described in the journal). A verbatim transcript of the because of reluctance at NIH to hold as animal; to accommodate the old spirit­ their full complexity; the players are not. panel session that followed the formal any public forum at all on the topic of ualism to the new materialism; to render The ravenous reader of history, sated papers is also included. alternatives. the new urban- and largely industrial- upon a particular historian's bill of fare,

80 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{1) 1983 !NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 81 !11!1

wipes his chin and wonders what might have been omitted from the menu. In Turner's case, it would seem that he has omitted any flavoring that would render the early animal welfare advocates­ Faith of Our Fathers Dept. li II the perfervid antivivisectionists in par­ II· But still another inquiry remains; one often agitated by the more recondite ,, ticular- palatable to modern tastes. Could 'I' Nantucketers. Whether owing to the almost omniscient look-outs at the mast­ all of the founding mothers and fathers of \I heads of the whale-ships, now penetrating even through Behring's straits, "ii the Humane Movement have been so un­ and into the remotest secret drawers and lockers of the world; and the thou­ remittingly smug, snobbish, self-righteous, sand harpoons and lances darted along all continental coasts; the moot point and strident as Turner portrays them? is, whether Leviathan can long endure so wide a chase, and so remorseless a But if the biographical sketches havoc; whether he must not at last be exterminated from the waters, and the seem lopsided, Turner does credit Victo­ last whale, like the last man, smoke his last pipe, and then himself evaporate rian animal protectionists with having in the final puff. "mobilized the humane sensibilities of Comparing the humped herds of whales with the humped herds of buf­ those among the English and American falo, which, not forty years ago, overspread by tens of thousands the prairies middle classes too timid to venture into of Illinois and Missouri, and shook their iron manes and scowled with their the more controversial efforts to relieve thunder-clotted brows upon the sites of populous river-capitals, where now suffering." He acknowledges that the the polite broker sells you land at a dollar an inch; in such a comparison an abhorrence of suffering, once learned irresistible argument would seem furnished, to show that the hunted whale on animals, bore many fruits in the so­ cannot now escape speedy extinction. cial reforms that ameliorated conditions But you must look at this matter in every light. Though so short a period for children, laborers, the elderly, and ago-not a good life-time-the census of the buffalo in Illinois exceeded the other exploitable segments of society census of men now in London, and though at the present day not one horn or caught in the machinery of changing times. hoof of them remains in all that region; and though the cause of this won­ But perhaps the most fruitful legacy be­ drous extermination was the spear of man; yet the far different nature of the queathed to the Space Age by Victorian whale-hunt peremptorily forbids so inglorious an end to the Leviathan. For­ animal lovers was to make of the natural ty men in one ship hunting the Sperm Whale for forty-eight months think world and human ethics a laminate: the they have done extremely well, and thank God, if at last they carry home the corollary concepts of reverence for life oil of forty fish. Whereas, in the days of the old Canadian and Indian hunters and animal rights. It will devolve to another historian a few generations and trappers of the West, when the far west (in whose sunset suns still rise) hence to depict the good, bad, and cur­ was a wilderness and a virgin, the same number of moccasined men, for the ious consequences of these notions in same number of months, mounted on horse instead of sailing in ships, would the twentieth century. It is to be hoped have slain not forty, but forty thousand and more buffaloes; a fact that, if that this future historian will possess Mr. need were, could be statistically stated. Turner's articulateness and fidelity to Furthermore: concerning these last mentioned Leviathans, they have the message of the drama, while at the two firm fortresses, which, in all human probability, will for ever remain im­ same time showing just a shade more pregnable. And as upon the invasion of their valleys, the frosty Swiss have charity to the actors. retreated to their mountains; so, hunted from the savannas and glades of the middle seas, the whale-bone whales can at last resort to their Polar citadels, Anna Fesmire and diving under the ultimate glassy barriers and walls there, come up among icy fields and floes; and in a charmed circle of everlasting December, bid defiance to all pursuit from man. Wherefore, for all these things, we account the whale immortal in his species, however perishable in his individuality. He swam the seas before the continents broke water; he once swam over the site of the Tuileries, and Windsor Castle, and the Kremlin. In Noah's flood he despised Noah's Ark; and if ever the world is to be again flooded, like the Netherlands, to kill off its rats, then the eternal whale will still survive, and rearing upon the topmost crest of the equatorial flood, spout his frothed defiance to the skies. Herman Mellville, Moby Dick

82 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 83 !11!1

wipes his chin and wonders what might have been omitted from the menu. In Turner's case, it would seem that he has omitted any flavoring that would render the early animal welfare advocates­ Faith of Our Fathers Dept. li II the perfervid antivivisectionists in par­ II· But still another inquiry remains; one often agitated by the more recondite ,, ticular- palatable to modern tastes. Could 'I' Nantucketers. Whether owing to the almost omniscient look-outs at the mast­ all of the founding mothers and fathers of \I heads of the whale-ships, now penetrating even through Behring's straits, "ii the Humane Movement have been so un­ and into the remotest secret drawers and lockers of the world; and the thou­ remittingly smug, snobbish, self-righteous, sand harpoons and lances darted along all continental coasts; the moot point and strident as Turner portrays them? is, whether Leviathan can long endure so wide a chase, and so remorseless a But if the biographical sketches havoc; whether he must not at last be exterminated from the waters, and the seem lopsided, Turner does credit Victo­ last whale, like the last man, smoke his last pipe, and then himself evaporate rian animal protectionists with having in the final puff. "mobilized the humane sensibilities of Comparing the humped herds of whales with the humped herds of buf­ those among the English and American falo, which, not forty years ago, overspread by tens of thousands the prairies middle classes too timid to venture into of Illinois and Missouri, and shook their iron manes and scowled with their the more controversial efforts to relieve thunder-clotted brows upon the sites of populous river-capitals, where now suffering." He acknowledges that the the polite broker sells you land at a dollar an inch; in such a comparison an abhorrence of suffering, once learned irresistible argument would seem furnished, to show that the hunted whale on animals, bore many fruits in the so­ cannot now escape speedy extinction. cial reforms that ameliorated conditions But you must look at this matter in every light. Though so short a period for children, laborers, the elderly, and ago-not a good life-time-the census of the buffalo in Illinois exceeded the other exploitable segments of society census of men now in London, and though at the present day not one horn or caught in the machinery of changing times. hoof of them remains in all that region; and though the cause of this won­ But perhaps the most fruitful legacy be­ drous extermination was the spear of man; yet the far different nature of the queathed to the Space Age by Victorian whale-hunt peremptorily forbids so inglorious an end to the Leviathan. For­ animal lovers was to make of the natural ty men in one ship hunting the Sperm Whale for forty-eight months think world and human ethics a laminate: the they have done extremely well, and thank God, if at last they carry home the corollary concepts of reverence for life oil of forty fish. Whereas, in the days of the old Canadian and Indian hunters and animal rights. It will devolve to another historian a few generations and trappers of the West, when the far west (in whose sunset suns still rise) hence to depict the good, bad, and cur­ was a wilderness and a virgin, the same number of moccasined men, for the ious consequences of these notions in same number of months, mounted on horse instead of sailing in ships, would the twentieth century. It is to be hoped have slain not forty, but forty thousand and more buffaloes; a fact that, if that this future historian will possess Mr. need were, could be statistically stated. Turner's articulateness and fidelity to Furthermore: concerning these last mentioned Leviathans, they have the message of the drama, while at the two firm fortresses, which, in all human probability, will for ever remain im­ same time showing just a shade more pregnable. And as upon the invasion of their valleys, the frosty Swiss have charity to the actors. retreated to their mountains; so, hunted from the savannas and glades of the middle seas, the whale-bone whales can at last resort to their Polar citadels, Anna Fesmire and diving under the ultimate glassy barriers and walls there, come up among icy fields and floes; and in a charmed circle of everlasting December, bid defiance to all pursuit from man. Wherefore, for all these things, we account the whale immortal in his species, however perishable in his individuality. He swam the seas before the continents broke water; he once swam over the site of the Tuileries, and Windsor Castle, and the Kremlin. In Noah's flood he despised Noah's Ark; and if ever the world is to be again flooded, like the Netherlands, to kill off its rats, then the eternal whale will still survive, and rearing upon the topmost crest of the equatorial flood, spout his frothed defiance to the skies. Herman Mellville, Moby Dick

82 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 83 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMAL PROBLEMS Mobilization for Animal Rights (meeting report) 3(2):162 More on Animal Experiments- British Association (meeting report) 3(3):254 (Volume 3, Numbers 1-4) National Society for Medical Research (meeting report) 3(1,):58 TITLE INDEX No Need to Be Boxed In: Group Pens and Grain for Veal Calves (comment) 3(3):207-210 Non-animal Alternatives- Tissue Culture Methods (meeting report) 3(3):253-254

Oxford Vegetarians- A Personal Account, The (editorial) 3(1):6-9 Major Articles AFMA Objects to Statement on Veal Study (letters) 3(2):85 Producers Respond to HSUS Veal Campaign (letters) 3(2):82 Animal Liberation- The Modern Revival (editorial) 3(1 ):5-6 Animal Rights and "Religious Politics" (editorial) 3(2):88-89 Reader Survey (editorial) 3(4):265-266 Attitudes Toward Animal Suffering: An Exploratory Study (original/review article) 3(1):42-49 Reply to Edward Ludwig (letters) 3(2):83 Reporting Requirements Under the Animal Welfare Act: Their Inadequacies and the Public's Right Behavior Inconsistent with Attitudes? (letters) 3(3):175-176 to Know (comment) 3(3):210-218 Better Source for Canadian Report (letters) 3(2):85 Bureaucracy and Wildlife: A Historial Overview (original/review article) 3(2):140-157 SCAW Conference Studies Responsible Use of Animals (meeting report) 3(3):252 Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (meeting report) 3(1 ):58-60 Changes Needed in U.K. Animal Experiment Law (meeting report) 3(3):250-252 "Show Dog" Syndrome, The (editorial) 3(1):3-5 Changing Concept of Animals as Property, The (comment) 3(4):295-300 Silver Spring 17, The (comment) 3(3):219-227 Slippery Semantics of a Word: "Dominion", The (editorial) 3(3):178-179 Deep Woodchip Litter: Hygiene, Feeding and Behavioral Enhancement in Eight Primate Species Some Thoughts on the Laboratory Cage Design Process (original/review article) 3(3):234-242 (original/review article) 3(4):308-317 Strategy for Dog-Owner Education, A (comment) 3(1):24-28 Discrepancy Between Successful Adaptation and Welfare (letters) 3(4):262-263 Striving for Common Ground: Humane and Scientific Considerations in Contemporary Wildlife Dr. Beilharz Responds (letters) 3(4):263-264 ·Management (original/review article) 3(2):137-140 Dr. Fox Responds (letters) 3(3):174-175 Swiss Symposium: "Medicine and Animal Experiments" (meeting report) 3(1 ):56-57

Economics of Farm Animal Welfare, The (comment) 3(4):301-307 Turtle Excluder Device (letters) 3(1):2 Effects of Psycho-physiological Stress on Captive Dolphins (comment) 3(3):193-198 Equine Behavior Problems (letters) 3(1 ):2 Unnecessary Suffering: Definition and Evidence (original/review article) 3(2):131-137 Eternal Gap Between Ideals and Behavior, The (letters) 3(4):262 Updating the British Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876: Can the Center Hold? (comment) 3(2):125-130 Ethical Issues and Future Directions in Wildlife Management (original/review article) 3(3):242-248 Urban Wildlife Habitat- Present and Future (original/review article) 3(3):229-233 Experiences in the Protection of the Large Predators in Finland (original/review article) 3(1):33-41 News and Analysis Future of Research into Relationships Between People and Their Animal Companions, The (comment) A Lift for "Down" Cows 3(4):270-271 3(4):283-294 A Look at the LD50 55 Years Later 3(2):104 ·Alternatives at NIH? 3(3):191-192 Genetic Adaptation in Relation to Animal Welfare (comment) 3(2):117-124 Alternatives in Canada 3(3):185 American Psychological Association and Dr. Taub 3(4):273 How to Compose a Laboratory Animal Use Report for the USDA (editorial) 3(2):89 And a Quarter for the Dryer 3(2):1 05 HSUS Counters (Veal Producers) (letters) 3(2):83 Animal Rights and Poultry: A Framework for Discussion 3(2):90-91 AVMA Animal Welfare Committee to Focus on "Veterinarian Awareness" 3(3):187 In Defense of Pound Dogs in Teaching and Research (letters) 3(2):83-85 Adrenal Steroid Insufficiency in Racehorses 3(3):187-188 Infectious Diseases and Wildlife (meeting report) 3(2):161-162 International Meeting on the Human/Animal Companion Bond (meeting report) 3(1):53-54 Ban on Sperm Whaling May End 3(3):190-191 Introduced Species and the Issue of Animal Welfare (original/review article) 3(4):318-336 Between a Rock and a Hard Place 3(3):183 Is There Really a Market for Milk-Fed Veal? (editorial) 3(2):87-88 Bird Banding Bad for Birds? 3(4):271 Issue of Science and the Issue of Care, The (editorial) 3(3):177-178 BVA and Animal Experimentation, The 3(3):186-187 journal Editorial Vindicates Vivisectionists (letters) 3(3):174 Captive Bolt Shooting 3(2):92 judea-Christian Tradition and the Human/Animal Bond (comment) 3(3):198-207 Clever Modification of Ames Test Monitors Environmental Mutagens 3(3):190 Control Action Attempted by Interior and EPA 3(2):99-104 Laboratory Animals: Unification of Legislation in Europe (comment) 3(1):20 Language of Animal Exploitation, The (editorial) 3(4):267 Debate in Europe over Standards for Battery Hens 3(1):10-12 London Symposium on Alteratives (meeting report) 3(2):160-161 Defense Alternatives 3(4):268 LD50 Test, The (meeting report) 3(1):54-56 Draize Campaign- A Summary, The 3(2):94-97

Man's Management of Domestic Species (meeting report) 3(3):252-253 Farm Animal Research- For Producers or for the Animals? 3(1):12-14 Message from Pano, A (comment) 3(1 ):28-32 FDA Approves Contraceptive 3(4):268-269 84 /NT I STUD ANJM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 85 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMAL PROBLEMS Mobilization for Animal Rights (meeting report) 3(2):162 More on Animal Experiments- British Association (meeting report) 3(3):254 (Volume 3, Numbers 1-4) National Society for Medical Research (meeting report) 3(1,):58 TITLE INDEX No Need to Be Boxed In: Group Pens and Grain for Veal Calves (comment) 3(3):207-210 Non-animal Alternatives- Tissue Culture Methods (meeting report) 3(3):253-254

Oxford Vegetarians- A Personal Account, The (editorial) 3(1):6-9 Major Articles AFMA Objects to Statement on Veal Study (letters) 3(2):85 Producers Respond to HSUS Veal Campaign (letters) 3(2):82 Animal Liberation- The Modern Revival (editorial) 3(1 ):5-6 Animal Rights and "Religious Politics" (editorial) 3(2):88-89 Reader Survey (editorial) 3(4):265-266 Attitudes Toward Animal Suffering: An Exploratory Study (original/review article) 3(1):42-49 Reply to Edward Ludwig (letters) 3(2):83 Reporting Requirements Under the Animal Welfare Act: Their Inadequacies and the Public's Right Behavior Inconsistent with Attitudes? (letters) 3(3):175-176 to Know (comment) 3(3):210-218 Better Source for Canadian Report (letters) 3(2):85 Bureaucracy and Wildlife: A Historial Overview (original/review article) 3(2):140-157 SCAW Conference Studies Responsible Use of Animals (meeting report) 3(3):252 Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (meeting report) 3(1 ):58-60 Changes Needed in U.K. Animal Experiment Law (meeting report) 3(3):250-252 "Show Dog" Syndrome, The (editorial) 3(1):3-5 Changing Concept of Animals as Property, The (comment) 3(4):295-300 Silver Spring 17, The (comment) 3(3):219-227 Slippery Semantics of a Word: "Dominion", The (editorial) 3(3):178-179 Deep Woodchip Litter: Hygiene, Feeding and Behavioral Enhancement in Eight Primate Species Some Thoughts on the Laboratory Cage Design Process (original/review article) 3(3):234-242 (original/review article) 3(4):308-317 Strategy for Dog-Owner Education, A (comment) 3(1):24-28 Discrepancy Between Successful Adaptation and Welfare (letters) 3(4):262-263 Striving for Common Ground: Humane and Scientific Considerations in Contemporary Wildlife Dr. Beilharz Responds (letters) 3(4):263-264 ·Management (original/review article) 3(2):137-140 Dr. Fox Responds (letters) 3(3):174-175 Swiss Symposium: "Medicine and Animal Experiments" (meeting report) 3(1 ):56-57

Economics of Farm Animal Welfare, The (comment) 3(4):301-307 Turtle Excluder Device (letters) 3(1):2 Effects of Psycho-physiological Stress on Captive Dolphins (comment) 3(3):193-198 Equine Behavior Problems (letters) 3(1 ):2 Unnecessary Suffering: Definition and Evidence (original/review article) 3(2):131-137 Eternal Gap Between Ideals and Behavior, The (letters) 3(4):262 Updating the British Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876: Can the Center Hold? (comment) 3(2):125-130 Ethical Issues and Future Directions in Wildlife Management (original/review article) 3(3):242-248 Urban Wildlife Habitat- Present and Future (original/review article) 3(3):229-233 Experiences in the Protection of the Large Predators in Finland (original/review article) 3(1):33-41 News and Analysis Future of Research into Relationships Between People and Their Animal Companions, The (comment) A Lift for "Down" Cows 3(4):270-271 3(4):283-294 A Look at the LD50 55 Years Later 3(2):104 ·Alternatives at NIH? 3(3):191-192 Genetic Adaptation in Relation to Animal Welfare (comment) 3(2):117-124 Alternatives in Canada 3(3):185 American Psychological Association and Dr. Taub 3(4):273 How to Compose a Laboratory Animal Use Report for the USDA (editorial) 3(2):89 And a Quarter for the Dryer 3(2):1 05 HSUS Counters (Veal Producers) (letters) 3(2):83 Animal Rights and Poultry: A Framework for Discussion 3(2):90-91 AVMA Animal Welfare Committee to Focus on "Veterinarian Awareness" 3(3):187 In Defense of Pound Dogs in Teaching and Research (letters) 3(2):83-85 Adrenal Steroid Insufficiency in Racehorses 3(3):187-188 Infectious Diseases and Wildlife (meeting report) 3(2):161-162 International Meeting on the Human/Animal Companion Bond (meeting report) 3(1):53-54 Ban on Sperm Whaling May End 3(3):190-191 Introduced Species and the Issue of Animal Welfare (original/review article) 3(4):318-336 Between a Rock and a Hard Place 3(3):183 Is There Really a Market for Milk-Fed Veal? (editorial) 3(2):87-88 Bird Banding Bad for Birds? 3(4):271 Issue of Science and the Issue of Care, The (editorial) 3(3):177-178 BVA and Animal Experimentation, The 3(3):186-187 journal Editorial Vindicates Vivisectionists (letters) 3(3):174 Captive Bolt Shooting 3(2):92 judea-Christian Tradition and the Human/Animal Bond (comment) 3(3):198-207 Clever Modification of Ames Test Monitors Environmental Mutagens 3(3):190 Coyote Control Action Attempted by Interior and EPA 3(2):99-104 Laboratory Animals: Unification of Legislation in Europe (comment) 3(1):20 Language of Animal Exploitation, The (editorial) 3(4):267 Debate in Europe over Standards for Battery Hens 3(1):10-12 London Symposium on Alteratives (meeting report) 3(2):160-161 Defense Alternatives 3(4):268 LD50 Test, The (meeting report) 3(1):54-56 Draize Campaign- A Summary, The 3(2):94-97

Man's Management of Domestic Species (meeting report) 3(3):252-253 Farm Animal Research- For Producers or for the Animals? 3(1):12-14 Message from Pano, A (comment) 3(1 ):28-32 FDA Approves Contraceptive Dog Food 3(4):268-269 84 /NT I STUD ANJM PROB 4(1) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 85 ! ~~~

I[ I II jil I Feeder Pigs Demonstrate Stress via Radio 3(1 ):1 0 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMAL PROBLEMS Fish Relieved to Find They Are Animals 3(3):182-183 Follow-up: Pulmonary Hemorrhage in Racehorses 3(2):92-93 (Volume 3, Numbers 1-4) li French Stand Firm on Right to Hunt, The 3(2):91 Friendliness and Pigs 3[2):97 AUTHOR INDEX ill Further Work on EEC Standards for Battery Cages 3(3):182-183 :1 I i Good Marks for Calves 3(2):91-92 Anderson, J.R. 3(4):308-318 Levinson, B.M. 3(4):283-294 I Atkins, N. 3(4):318-336 Lovenheim, P.C. 3(2):106-109 Jewish Ritual Slaughter May Ignore Animals' Welfare 3[2):92 3(4):346-348 3(3):21 0-218

Mickey Revisited 3[4):268 Mixed Reviews for Automatic Poultry Walker 3(3):188 Beilharz, R.G. 3(2):117-124 McCarthy, V.P. 3(4):295-300 Mung Beans May Replace Animals for Screening New Drugs 3(4):269-270 Braithwaite, J. 3(1 ):42-49 McGrew, W.C. 3(1):66-68 Braithwaite, V. 3(1):42-49 Miller, H. B. 3(1):64-66 New Electric Stunning Methods 3(2):97-99 Morgan-Jones, S.C. 3(4):308-318 NIH Animal Welfare Guidelines 3(4):269 Carter, N. 3(3):193-198 Mosner, M.S. 3(3):207-21 0 No British Aid for LD50 Alternatives 3(3):186 Cass, J.M. 3(2):89 Murphy, D.H. 3(1):14-19 Placenta a Practical Medium for Microsurgical Training 3[2):104 Chamove, A.S. 3(4):308-318 3(1):53-54 Pound Animals for Research Institutions? 3(3):180-182 Conway, W.G. 3(1):28-32 3(2):87-88 Protecting Laboratory Animals 3(3):185 3(2):1 09-116

Results of the First U.S. Trial of the Quantock Group-Pen System for Raising Calves 3(4):272-273 Dunbar, I. 3(2):24-28 3(4):275-282 Rites of Passage of a Hunter, The 3(4):271-272 Ekesbo, ). 3(2):167-168 Ormrod, S.A. 3(4):354-355 Separating the Dogs from the 3[4):274 Sheep Become Latest Victims of Intensive Farming Conditions 3(2):93 Fox, M.W. 3(1):3-5 Pulliainen, E. 3(1):33-41 Sociology and Wildlife: The Tuna-Porpoise Controversy 3[3):184-185 3(2):88-89 Standing on Their Own Two Feet 3(3):188-189 "Surplus Population" and the Hunter 3(2):90 3(3):178-179 Rimbach, ).A. 3(3):198-207 Survey Uncovers Americans' Ignorance About Animals 3(3):189-190 3(3):258-260 Rowan, A.N. 3(1):3 3(4):267 3(1 ):5-6 Taking a More Accurate Census 3(3):183-184 Frucht, K. 3(1):56-57 3(1):54-56 Those Ultrasonic Devices for Pest Control 3(4):269 3(2):158-159 3(1):58 Tissue Culture Course Funded 3(2):92 3(4):343-345 3(1 ):58-59 Wild and Exotic Pets: Better Off in the Wild 3(2):93-94 3(3):177-178 Grandy, J.W. 3(3):242-248 3(3):219-227 Book Reviews 3(4):265-266 Animal Rights and Human Morality 3(1):64-66 Hampson,). 3(2):125-130 Rozemond, H. 3(1 ):20-23 Animals Are Equal. An Exploration of Animal Consciousness 3(1):66-68 Farm Animal Behaviour 3[2):167-168 Heneson, N. 3(1 ):50-53 Question of Animal Awareness. Evolutionary Continuity of Mental Experience, The 3(1):66-68 Hurnik, F. 3(2):131-137 Sambraus, H.H. 3(4):355 Self-Awareness in Domesticated Animals 3(3):258-260 Hutchins, M. 3(4):318-336 Singer, P. 3(1):6-9 Solomon, M. 3(1):210-218 Legislation and Regulation Jones, S. P. 3(4):308-318 Stevens, V. 3(4):318-336 Animal Experimentation Hearings 3(1):50-53 Australian Senate Inquiry into Animal Welfare 3(3):249-250 Council of Europe 3(2):159-160 Kellert, S.R. 3(2):137-140 Tylka, D. 3(3):229-233 Swiss Animal Protection Law- Promise and Compromise, The 3(2):158-159 Langenau, E.E. 3(2):140-157 Wallace, M.E. 3(3):234-242 Lehman, H. 3(2):131-137 Webster, A.).F. 3(4):301-306

/NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 87 86 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 ! ~~~

I[ I II jil I Feeder Pigs Demonstrate Stress via Radio 3(1 ):1 0 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMAL PROBLEMS Fish Relieved to Find They Are Animals 3(3):182-183 Follow-up: Pulmonary Hemorrhage in Racehorses 3(2):92-93 (Volume 3, Numbers 1-4) li French Stand Firm on Right to Hunt, The 3(2):91 Friendliness and Pigs 3[2):97 AUTHOR INDEX ill Further Work on EEC Standards for Battery Cages 3(3):182-183 :1 I i Good Marks for Calves 3(2):91-92 Anderson, J.R. 3(4):308-318 Levinson, B.M. 3(4):283-294 I Atkins, N. 3(4):318-336 Lovenheim, P.C. 3(2):106-109 Jewish Ritual Slaughter May Ignore Animals' Welfare 3[2):92 3(4):346-348 3(3):21 0-218

Mickey Revisited 3[4):268 Mixed Reviews for Automatic Poultry Walker 3(3):188 Beilharz, R.G. 3(2):117-124 McCarthy, V.P. 3(4):295-300 Mung Beans May Replace Animals for Screening New Drugs 3(4):269-270 Braithwaite, J. 3(1 ):42-49 McGrew, W.C. 3(1):66-68 Braithwaite, V. 3(1):42-49 Miller, H. B. 3(1):64-66 New Electric Stunning Methods 3(2):97-99 Morgan-Jones, S.C. 3(4):308-318 NIH Animal Welfare Guidelines 3(4):269 Carter, N. 3(3):193-198 Mosner, M.S. 3(3):207-21 0 No British Aid for LD50 Alternatives 3(3):186 Cass, J.M. 3(2):89 Murphy, D.H. 3(1):14-19 Placenta a Practical Medium for Microsurgical Training 3[2):104 Chamove, A.S. 3(4):308-318 3(1):53-54 Pound Animals for Research Institutions? 3(3):180-182 Conway, W.G. 3(1):28-32 3(2):87-88 Protecting Laboratory Animals 3(3):185 3(2):1 09-116

Results of the First U.S. Trial of the Quantock Group-Pen System for Raising Calves 3(4):272-273 Dunbar, I. 3(2):24-28 3(4):275-282 Rites of Passage of a Hunter, The 3(4):271-272 Ekesbo, ). 3(2):167-168 Ormrod, S.A. 3(4):354-355 Separating the Dogs from the Coyotes 3[4):274 Sheep Become Latest Victims of Intensive Farming Conditions 3(2):93 Fox, M.W. 3(1):3-5 Pulliainen, E. 3(1):33-41 Sociology and Wildlife: The Tuna-Porpoise Controversy 3[3):184-185 3(2):88-89 Standing on Their Own Two Feet 3(3):188-189 "Surplus Population" and the Hunter 3(2):90 3(3):178-179 Rimbach, ).A. 3(3):198-207 Survey Uncovers Americans' Ignorance About Animals 3(3):189-190 3(3):258-260 Rowan, A.N. 3(1):3 3(4):267 3(1 ):5-6 Taking a More Accurate Census 3(3):183-184 Frucht, K. 3(1):56-57 3(1):54-56 Those Ultrasonic Devices for Pest Control 3(4):269 3(2):158-159 3(1):58 Tissue Culture Course Funded 3(2):92 3(4):343-345 3(1 ):58-59 Wild and Exotic Pets: Better Off in the Wild 3(2):93-94 3(3):177-178 Grandy, J.W. 3(3):242-248 3(3):219-227 Book Reviews 3(4):265-266 Animal Rights and Human Morality 3(1):64-66 Hampson,). 3(2):125-130 Rozemond, H. 3(1 ):20-23 Animals Are Equal. An Exploration of Animal Consciousness 3(1):66-68 Farm Animal Behaviour 3[2):167-168 Heneson, N. 3(1 ):50-53 Question of Animal Awareness. Evolutionary Continuity of Mental Experience, The 3(1):66-68 Hurnik, F. 3(2):131-137 Sambraus, H.H. 3(4):355 Self-Awareness in Domesticated Animals 3(3):258-260 Hutchins, M. 3(4):318-336 Singer, P. 3(1):6-9 Solomon, M. 3(1):210-218 Legislation and Regulation Jones, S. P. 3(4):308-318 Stevens, V. 3(4):318-336 Animal Experimentation Hearings 3(1):50-53 Australian Senate Inquiry into Animal Welfare 3(3):249-250 Council of Europe 3(2):159-160 Kellert, S.R. 3(2):137-140 Tylka, D. 3(3):229-233 Swiss Animal Protection Law- Promise and Compromise, The 3(2):158-159 Langenau, E.E. 3(2):140-157 Wallace, M.E. 3(3):234-242 Lehman, H. 3(2):131-137 Webster, A.).F. 3(4):301-306

/NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 87 86 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983 INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Exclusive publication: Unsolicited articles are accepted with the understanding that they are not being submitted for publication elsewhere. Material accepted for publication im­ plies transfer of copyright to the journal. Solicited articles will be dealt with on an individual basis.

Manuscripts: -including footnotes, references, tables and figure legends- must be typewritten, double-spaced on 8 V2 x 11 inch bond paper leaving generous margins. Manu­ scripts must be in English using the preferred spelling in the Webster's Third International Dic­ tionary. Submit original and two (2) copies. Manuscript organization: Title page (pg. 1) containing title of the article (maximum of 48 characters), author(s), affiliation, present address, address where proofs should be sent; Ab­ stract (pg. 2); Text (begin pg. 3), which includes introduction, methods/procedures, results, dis­ cussion, conclusion, acknowledgments, references, tables, and figure legends. Special instruc­ tions for the copy editor or printer should be affixed on the original copy. Abbreviations and units: Standard dictionary abbreviations are generally accepted. Other abbreviations should be explained when first mentioned. 51 units are preferred. References: The Harvard System, not a numbering system, should be used for the citation of references in the text, e.g., Jones (1971) or (Jones and Smith, 1971) or (Jones eta/., 1971). Where more than one paper by the same author(s) has appeared in one year, the reference should be distinguished by "a," "b," "c," etc. (e.g., 1971a). The list of references should bear­ ranged alphabetically by authors' names and chronologically per author. References cited with "eta/." in the text should include a// authors' names in the reference list. Titles: Journals should be abbreviated in accordance with the Chemical Abstract Service Source Index. References to books/monographs should include editors, edition/volume num­ ber, publisher, city and state/country where published and relevant page numbers. A paper in press may be referenced if it has been accepted for publication. References to personal communications and unpublished work are permitted in the text only. Sample references Smith, J. (1970) The effect of stress in swine on meat quality. 1 Appl Ethol 5:125-127. Smith, J. and Jones, 5. (1970) Animals, 2nd ed., Academic Press, New York, NY, pp. 8-14. Tables: These should be concise and typed double-spaced throughout. Figures: Submit 3 sets of glossy prints (no negatives) with identifying arrows and letters contrasting sharply with the background. Indicate on the back the author's name, figure num­ ber and "top." Figure Legends: Captions should contain sufficient information allowing the figure to be clearly understood without reference to the text.

Types of articles: The following requirements are given as a guide only; one double­ spaced, typed page contains approximately 250 words. News and Comment Articles: 1000-2000 words and where necessary, brief references cited, e.g. {App/ Etho/10:111, 1979) in the text. Review Articles: 5000-8000 words with a comprehensive list of references to be used as source material. Original Articles: Up to 5000 words or long enough to provide an adequate introduction (stating the objective of the study and why it is considered necessary), description of methods (including an outline on the treatment of the research animals and the number of animals used), and combined results/discussion section. Articles that deal with research involving ani­ mals must acknowledge the ethical dimensions of the work; concerning specifics, potential authors may want to consult the editorial office.

Refereeing: Major articles will be subject to refereeing by members of the Editorial Advi­ sory Board and/or other selected experts. Insofar as is possible, both manuscripts and referees' reports will be anonymous.

Reprints: Authors of all articles will only receive reprints if specifically requested and a charge will be levied to cover the cost. Send manuscripts to: The Editors, Journal Division, Institute for the Study of Animal Prob­ lems, 2100 L Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20037.

88 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(1) 1983