1 Foreword

ince the earliest days of motoring, the British have taken their cars to mainland Europe. During 1999, an estimated 8 million people, travelling Sin 3.5 million cars, will have crossed the Channel on holiday or business. For the Millennium, the AA’s Great British Motorist report follows them.

Our surveys of transport and travel show up all the ambiguities felt by the British in their relationship with the rest of Europe: so much is the same but there are so many real national differences. They show what we do well – road safety is the shining example – and where we lag behind.

France is the destination for most British motorists. A generation ago, the British motorist made derogatory remarks about the quality of French roads. Sir Brian Shaw They squeezed the last expensive drops of lower grade French fuel from their Chairman tanks on the drive to Calais and then queued to fill up as they came off the AA Motoring Policy Committee ferry at Dover.

Today the picture is reversed. Britain has the most expensive fuel in Europe and the fill-up is on the French side. And the trip to and from the British Channel ports will be characterised by roadworks and hold-ups on Western Europe’s most congested roads.

What is true on the roads is just as true for rail. The Eurostar from Paris or Brussels cuts its travel speed in half as it enters Britain. The missing high-speed rail link between London and Ashford will be at least a decade late in arriving. Planning and transport finance systems have shown themselves incapable of delivering key transport upgrades whatever they are – roads, rail, or airports.

The comparison also holds for cities. A generation ago, London Underground could still be talked of as one of the finest and most comprehensive networks in the world. Not today. Its shabby, crowded services are operated with antiquated equipment that frequently fails.

At the root of the problem is the run down in investment. This has affected every link in the chain – poor maintenance, low quality, inadequate capacity, and bad day-to-day management. The government must make a step change in transport investment, and attract the best and the brightest people, if Britain is to get back on track. It needs to put in place a formal, structured programme of workable, value-for-money projects that will tackle the major transport problems and bottlenecks.

The Great British Motorist report has much to entertain. But it has a serious purpose. There are lessons both for motoring and for wider transport policy by benchmarking ourselves with the best in Europe. 2 Summary

n just a decade, visits from Britain to mainland Europe with a car have doubled to about 8 million people and 3.5 million cars a year. There is great Iinterest in Europe and how the UK compares. The Great British Motorist report looks at how British motorists get to mainland Europe, differences in Europeans’ driving habits, their travel and their transport infrastructure, and the different concerns European motorists have.

Every year more than one in seven British motorists take their car abroad.

Summer holiday trips to France dominate these journeys. There are more than 15 times the number of trips to France with a car than to any other country.

The Channel Tunnel now takes more than a quarter of all motorists going abroad with their car.

Patterns of travel differ across Europe. Some of the key factors affecting them are: how far people live from work; density of population; and the degree of urbanisation in a country.

The British have the longest commute times in Europe – on average 46 minutes to get to work and back again, compared with a European average of 38 minutes.

The Dutch live closest to each other, with 376 persons/km2, and the Finns furthest apart (15 persons/km2).

The UK has 240 persons/km2, but Scotland has 66 persons/km2; and south- east England has 653 persons/km2, getting on for double the Netherlands’.

Belgium is the most urban country in Europe, followed by the Netherlands and Britain.

Populations are growing, slowly in most parts of Europe, but faster in others, and generally by 5-15 per cent since the early 1970s. Britain is at the low end of this range. Where there are changes throughout Europe is in the mix of the population, with the population ageing.

The Swedes and Italians lead the way with proportionally more older people.

Generally, there is a move of populations from the inner areas of cities as people move to the suburbs – 5-15 per cent in many cities in the last 30 years, and more in some others. Some cities, such as Manchester and Zurich, have 3 Summary retained people in their inner areas. 600 CAR OWNERSHIP IN SELECTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AUSTRIA ITALY SPAIN Car ownership per head of 500 DENMARK NETHERLANDS SWEDEN FRANCE PORTUGAL UK population has been increasing in GERMANY 400 GREECE every part of Europe but the Swedes, IRELAND Dutch and French slowed down or 300 plateaued in the mid-1990s. Car 200

ownership is strongly linked to Cars per 1000 persons prosperity. Historically, any slowing in 100 the growth of car ownership has 0 been linked to recession in national 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 economies.

Car ownership is higher in rural areas than in towns and cities, reflecting the cost and difficulty of parking and easier access to public transport in urban areas. Denmark demonstrates the distortions induced by a high car purchase tax – lower car ownership, and cars used more intensively. Car ownership can also be affected by a reduction in the number of young people reaching driving age.

Car ownership in the UK is low compared with the European Union (EU) average (376 cars per 1,000 persons in 1997, compared with 450).

Transport by road dominates travel throughout Europe (with an average of 12,548 km travelled per person per year by all land-based modes):

About 80 per cent of European travel is by car, proportionally more DISTANCE TRAVELLED PER PERSON PER YEAR BY ALL LAND TRANSPORT 17 by the Greeks, Irish and British (all AND BY CAR, 1997 16 86-87 per cent of land-based travel)… 15 TOTAL, ALL LAND TRANSPORT PRIVATE CAR 14 …but less by the Austrians and 13 Danes (73 per cent) where the 12 terrain and good alternatives 11 10 make public transport and cycling 9 attractive. ’000s Kilometres per person year, 8 7 E D EL A B S UK EURO NL FIN P L F IRL I DK British drivers are those most likely 15 to say that their car is extremely or very important to them.

The Danes and Dutch cycle a lot and the British and several other nationalities very little. It is unlikely that the UK target of doubling cycling by 2002 (compared with 1996 levels) will be met.

The British make the least use of non-car modes of transport of all European countries.

National motoring stereotypes seem to be borne out by the statistics and by what people say about themselves:

The Germans reflect their relative prosperity – they have high car ownership, drive comparatively few small cars and are well-insured. 4

Many French drivers say they drink alcohol most days, but very little, and 75 per cent say they drive after drinking, but are not above the legal limit.

Italians are more likely to drive small cars, to drive fast, and not to wear a seat belt.

Swedes have big cars, use seat-belts routinely, and seldom drive after drinking alcohol.

The British lie near the average on many measures although they tend towards larger cars (many company-purchased as new), comprehensive insurance and, reflecting a change in attitudes over the last 20 years, almost half say they never drive after drinking. The British are far from complacent – they have one of the best road safety records but also express more concern compared with most other countries about road safety issues.

Portugal is one of the poorest countries in Europe; its motorists again have relatively small cars.

Motorists show a loyalty to cars manufactured in their own country:

The French buy Renault (27 per cent of the market), Peugeot (17 per cent) and Citroën (12 per cent). The Italians buy Fiat (33 per cent of the market). The picture is similar in Germany – Volkswagen (21 per cent) and Opel (16 per cent). The Spanish buy SEAT (20 per cent of the market) but there are also large numbers of Renault and Peugeot. The Swedes are loyal to the Volvo (24 per cent). It dominates the market to a degree comparable with Fiat in Italy. The British buy Ford (20 per cent), Vauxhall (14 per cent) and Rover (11 per cent), together with Japanese makes (13 per cent).

In the Netherlands, Denmark and Switzerland where there is less indigenous manufacturing, Ford, Volkswagen, Opel/GM and Japanese manufacturers lead the market.

The British pay more than the rest of Europe for most of their cars.

There is variation in some of the negative effects of the car between country:

The British, Icelanders, Norwegians and Swedes enjoy the safest travel in Europe, but the British suffer most car crime.

From the figures that are available, the accident risk per vehicle kilometre in Portugal is particularly high – almost four times that in Britain.

Parts of Britain’s national road network are more congested than anywhere else in Western Europe.

Some of the environmental effects of road transport such as noise, vibration, and pollutants vary considerably from place to place, as do the approaches taken to treat them. For example:

Pollutant levels in Athens and other hot, still southern European cities such as Milan and Turin are often double those in similarly-sized cities in the UK. 5 Summary

Motorists in six European countries RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES OVERALL were asked to rank their concerns 1.4 from a list of 10 issues known to worry UK motorists: fuel costs; 1.2 government tax-take from fuel; the 1.0 lack of investment in roads and

(separately) public transport; car 0.8 crime; traffic congestion; the poor driving behaviour of other drivers; Concern 0.6 proposals for paying to use roads; 0.4 the effect of the car on the environment; and the risk of being 0.2 injured in a road accident. 4,168 motorists in Germany, France, Italy, 0.0 Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol the Netherlands, Spain and Britain environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost were questioned.

The cost of petrol or diesel features highest as a concern, followed by the amount of tax taken by government and the poor behaviour of other drivers. 49 per cent of all motorists rank fuel costs in their top three concerns.

Of the 10 issues, motorists are least concerned about the effect of the car on the environment. Only 15 per cent rank the effect of the car on the environment in their top three concerns.

The Germans are those most concerned (relative to other concerns) about the cost of fuel, followed by the French. 85 per cent of German motorists (and 56 per cent of French) rank the cost of fuel in their top three concerns (compared with 45 per cent of British motorists). The Germans, French and British are those most concerned about the level of tax-take in fuel.

The British are those most concerned about the lack of investment in both roads and public transport. 26 per cent of British motorists rank investment in roads in their top three concerns (compared with the average of 19 per cent).

The Dutch are those most concerned about the behaviour of other drivers. 60 per cent of Dutch motorists rank the behaviour of other drivers in their top three concerns (compared with 24 per cent of British motorists).

The cost of fuel is more of an issue in rural areas across Europe than in urban areas. 55 per cent of motorists in rural areas rank the cost of fuel as one of their three main concerns (compared with 44 per cent in urban areas).

There are differences within Britain and within other countries:

The Scots are concerned about lack of investment in roads and about proposals for paying for the use of roads. 40 per cent of Scots motorists rank proposals to charge for the use of roads in their top three concerns (compared with only 18 per cent in Britain as a whole).

In London there is concern about lack of investment in public transport and about the effect of the car on the environment. 33 per cent of motorists in London rank the effect of the car on the environment in their 6

top three concerns (compared with 16 per cent in Britain as a whole, 26 per cent in Paris, 19 per cent in Madrid and 8 per cent in the cities Amsterdam/ Rotterdam/The Hague).

Compared with Parisians, Londoners show a greater concern over lack of investment in both roads and public transport and about car crime.

63 per cent of motorists in the Amsterdam/Rotterdam/The Hague areas rank concern about proposals for paying for the use of roads in their top three concerns (compared with just 15 per cent in Paris, 13 per cent in London and 11 per cent in Madrid).

38 per cent of motorists in the South of Italy and on Italy’s Mediterranean islands rank the poor driving behaviour of others in their top three concerns (compared with 33 per cent in Italy as a whole).

There are individual differences across Europe:

Male drivers are generally more concerned than women about cost issues (fuel prices and tax-take) – 51 per cent of men rank fuel costs in their top three concerns (compared with 47 per cent of women). The comparable figures for tax-take are 41 per cent (men) and 33 per cent (women).

Women are more concerned than men about the poor driver behaviour of others and the risk of being involved in an accident. 42 per cent of women rank the issue of poor driver behaviour in their top three concerns (compared with 33 per cent of men).

57 per cent of motorists under 25 rank the cost of fuel in their top three concerns (compared with 49 per cent of all motorists). Younger motorists are more likely than older motorists to be concerned about the cost of fuel.

Relative to GDP, the most recent figures from the EU show that in 1996 British road-users had the second lowest investment in infrastructure of any European country (only the Danes invest less).

PRICE OF 95 OCTANE LEAD FREE PETROL AND FRACTION In 1996 the UK was taxing at the 1.0 OF THE PRICE THAT IS TAX, 1999 upper end of the European range of PRICE overall road taxation. Since then, the 0.9 TAX FRACTION UK POST-MARCH 1999 BUDGET UK’s unique fuel tax escalator has 0.8 resulted in the highest fuel tax in

0.7 Europe and a consequential rise in total tax-take. 0.6

0.5 82 per cent of motorists believe that it is unacceptable that so little of 0.4 their motoring taxes is invested in 0.3 roads and public transport.

0.2 Price (euro/litre), and fraction of price that is tax Price (euro/litre), In 1999 the British motorist paid 0.1 the highest price for petrol and diesel 0.0 in the EU. L EL E IRL P A D DK B I F FIN S NL UK 7 Summary

BENCHMARKING WITH MAINLAND EUROPE

In many areas of transport, the UK does not do things as to implement by when. Programmes must take no more well as its EU partners. Road safety is an exception, but than 5-7 years to deliver. there is still huge scope to reduce deaths and casualties. Action is needed to overcome the UK’s motoring and Successful European transport systems typically have transport problems to meet the concerns of motorists an enabling strategic authority that oversees the total identified in this study. roads and transport service and commissions services from service providers. In London, the Mayor’s electoral The UK has taxed high and invested low. It must authority must be harnessed to reverse chronic road and invest at the same level as the rest of Europe if the transport decline and demonstrate a better way forward transport system is to be made as good – typically that can serve as an example to the rest of the UK. double today’s annual amount of £6 billion. The UK has invested too little in quality modes of The UK’s fuel tax escalator, introduced under a transport to make them attractive alternatives to the car. “green” cloak to raise revenue, must be scrapped Better public transport can and should carry more of the immediately. transport strain but it can only reduce the amount of overall travel by car at the margin. Road tolls, collected by a private company or independent authority, are broadly tolerated across The UK is poorly served by major roads and Europe where it is clear that the money raised is flowing motorways and many are overcrowded. Traffic directly into the provision of new roads, bridges and management, bypasses, improved links to the regions, tunnels. No country in Europe has implemented a system targeted widening (using tunnels where there are of road pricing that manages the demand for roads by pressing environmental constraints), and priority lanes matching it to the supply available. Government must where they are justified (but they must be additional, re-build the trust that what motorists pay will be spent not replacements) offer solutions. on better roads and transport. Toxic emissions are falling as a result of better There is no need for the UK to have the worst car technology and ever-tightening regulations. The UK crime rate in Europe. Improving enforcement, securing must raise awareness of the importance of vehicle car parks and increasing motorists’ awareness of how to maintenance in reducing toxic emissions, take protect themselves will help. Manufacturers must enforcement action against wilful gross polluters, continue to make their vehicles more secure. advocate yet further tightening of heavy diesel regulations in the light of technological development, UK private buyers pay more for new cars than others and seek fair and efficient ways to scrap the oldest, most in Europe. Privileged exemptions from full competition polluting vehicles. for manufacturers and dealers expire in 2002. If a new exemption deal does not bring clear advantages to the Car manufacturers must fulfil or exceed their consumer, the exemption must be scrapped. important agreement with the European Commission to develop and sell ever more fuel-efficient vehicles and First to industrialise, the UK has been a leader out of meet the motorists’ proportionate share in the reduction industrialisation. The subsequent decentralisation goes of “greenhouse” emissions. some way to explaining the UK’s long commute times and low patronage of public transport. Measures to The best of European streetscape design, particularly counter land-use planning that reinforce unnecessary car that providing for pedestrians and cyclists and treating use must be further developed. noise, should be adopted.

Upgrades to the UK’s roads and transport system take Although many other parts of Europe do not generations and what is then delivered is often far less generally have the traffic density and congestion than originally conceived. The proper debate and encountered in the UK, many have more technology to consultation on what needs to be done must be manage incidents and congestion. The UK must adopt followed by clear, realistic investment decisions on what and implement European best practice. 8 To mainland Europe!

ince the birth of motoring, British cent of trips include children. motorists have been taking their Scars to mainland Europe. The France has always been the country amount of travel to Europe by all means most often visited as an end-destination, of transport has increased greatly in the and almost all the growth in the past 20 past 15 years, and travel to Europe with a years in visits to Europe by British car has increased as part of this trend.1 motorists with their car has been to About three times as many British France (many of the recent visits have motorists take their car to Europe as been short and shopping-related). In European motorists bring their car to 1997, 80 per cent of all visits to Europe the UK. with a car were to France.

Since 1990, visits to Europe with a car Visits to Europe by sea, and by sea by UK residents have doubled to about 8 with a car, are mainly for “independent million people and 3.5 million cars a year. holidays”. Visits for business, to visit Increasingly, if people go by ferry, they friends and on inclusive tour holidays take the car. are mainly by air. Half of all visits by sea were for independent holidays or to Surprisingly, 85 per cent of British visit friends. motorists never take their car abroad. Those most likely to do so are aged 35 to In 1998, almost a quarter of trips to 54: about 20 per cent of motorists in this Europe with a car were day trips. 10 per age group take their car abroad. Trips cent were short trips of one or two once or twice a year are most common by nights, with the majority lasting three to people aged 45 to 54, but more frequent 14 nights. For motorists resident in trips are made by the 55 to 64-year-olds London and south-east England, 37 per who do travel – the young retired. cent of trips to Europe were day trips.

About a third of all trips to Europe Just as France dominates destinations were made in June, July and August – the for British travellers to Europe, the ferries summer period predominates. About 45 from Dover and Folkestone, and the per cent of all trips are made by two Channel Tunnel, dominate how motorists 1 Sources and references to text and charts are provided on pages 44-46. adults with no children; around 30 per prefer to cross the channel.

40 VISITS TO MAINLAND EUROPE BY UK RESIDENTS HOW OFTEN DO BRITISH MOTORISTS TAKE 8 THEIR CAR ABROAD? 35 SEA/TUNNEL WITH CAR 7 SEA ONCE PER 2-3 YEARS TWICE A YEAR 30 AIR 6 ONCE A YEAR 3+ TIMES A YEAR TUNNEL 25 TOTAL – SEA, AIR & TUNNEL 5 20 4 15 3 10 Visits per year (millions) Visits Percentage of age group Percentage 2 5 1 0 0 17 – 23 24 – 34 35 – 44 45 – 54 55 – 64 65+ Age group 1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Consistent growth in travel by air, sea and tunnel The pattern varies by age group, but the annual trip abroad is common 9 Transport users, journeys and context

Happy motoring:

‘‘What started as the prerogative of the rich and the status seeker is now available to all. Most of all, the motor car has made this possible. We may reflect on the motoring pioneers with polite amusement, but without them the motoring holiday today would be very different. France: Boulogne in 1925 was very different from today’s roll-on, roll-off ferry or the 20 minutes it takes in the Channel Tunnel …wherever you travel you will find road improvement PARTS OF MAINLAND EUROPE VISITED WITH A CAR BY UK RESIDENTS 8 schemes. The new highways of

7 END DESTINATION the world are taking shape, 1982 1987 and one day no corner of the 6 1992 1997 5 globe will be too remote for the adventurous motorist.’’ 4 Co-driver: the AA motorists’ companion. The Automobile Association, Fanum House, London, 1965. 3 Visits per year (millions) Visits 2

1

0 Total France Belgium Netherlands Germany Iberia Italy Scandinavia Switzerland Austria

Travel abroad has increased, but most motorists only get as far as France

DEPARTURES FROM BRITISH PORTS BY UK RESIDENTS VISITING EUROPE 7 BY SEA OR TUNNEL, 1997

6 END DESTINATION TOTAL SCANDINAVIA FRANCE IBERIA 5 BELGIUM AUSTRIA NETHERLANDS ITALY GERMANY SWITZERLAND 4

3

2 Departures per year (millions)

1

0 Dover & Folkstone Channel Tunnel Other Channel ports East Coast ports Le Shuttle: a major contribution to the cross- Dover or Folkstone to France – the typical journey to mainland Europe channel growth of the past decade 10 Geography and road links

espite the diversity of Europe, people who are urban (and possibly some similar developments, changes and differences in definition of “urban” Dtrends occur in most countries. between states). Belgium is most urban, Cities develop suburbs, and in many, but with 97 per cent of Belgians living in not all, the populations of the inner towns and cities. Portugal is the least – areas fall. The populations are ageing. only 37 per cent live in urban areas. Average household sizes get smaller. In countries with sizeable rural populations, Even with the large rural areas of people move to the towns. Jobs in Scotland and Wales, the UK is one of the mining, agriculture and manufacturing more urban countries. are declining, while jobs in service sectors are expanding. Companies are Population density varies greatly becoming continental or global. Most between countries. Not surprisingly, the Denmark: every country has its open spaces but cities have a McDonald’s restaurant, Netherlands is the most densely most people in Europe live in towns many have a Hilton hotel or a populated of the 15 countries in the Benetton store. European Union (EU), with 376 persons/km2; Finland is the least, with 15 Some of the similarities are the result persons/km2. The UK and Germany have of increasing car ownership. Cars require almost the same population density, a standard of roads which look much the about 240 persons/km2. But most of same everywhere to the lay eye – Europe is much less crowded than the although often these have a different UK. France has less than half the driving “feel”. Travel means people population density, and this is experience shops and services that are immediately apparent in the wide, empty available elsewhere, and leads to each landscapes and uncrowded roads. country importing popular aspects of other cultures. Comparing the length and quality of the road network in different countries Across Europe, most people live in is difficult because administrative towns. But there are big differences descriptions do not necessarily reflect between countries in the percentage of the situation encountered by the

100 URBAN POPULATIONS IN 400 POPULATION DENSITY IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, 1997 EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, 1997 90 350 80 300 70 250 60

50 200

40 150 30 100 20 Urban population, percentage of total Urban population, 50 10 Population density, persons per square kilometre density, Population

0 0 P IRL EL FIN A I F E EURO S DK D L UK NL B FIN S IRL E EL A P F EURO DK L I D UK B NL 15 15 More than 80 per cent of the population is classified as urban in seven states The Netherlands is about 17 times more densely populated than Finland 11 Transport users, journeys and context

Government says it wants a world-class transport system…

‘‘A modern transport system is vital to our country’s future. We need a transport system which supports our policies for more jobs and a strong economy, which helps increase prosperity and tackles social exclusion. We also need a transport system which doesn’t damage our health and provides a better quality of life now – for everyone – without passing onto future France: a large relatively empty country but the cities are densely populated. This pattern affects generations a poorer world.’’ both urban and inter-city travel A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p22. motorist. In the UK and France, there are Benelux countries, at the crossroads of many miles of dual carriageway trunk Europe, have well developed motorways and national roads that are not built to catering for transit traffic. Finland and …but will it provide full motorway standard – for example, Sweden have little provision, but they are the means? without either hard shoulders or split- on the edge of Europe with low level junctions. In the UK these roads population densities. ‘‘The Department should carry high traffic flows. clarify the role of its targets. If motorway loading is viewed in terms Too many are ‘aspirational’. The countries with the greatest of volume of traffic per unit length of population density also have the greatest road, the UK has very low “levels of Too often they are invented density of motorway (kilometre of road service”. UK motorways carry very high without sufficient thought per square kilometre of land). France volumes, with accompanying congestion, and rejected if they seem too and Spain have more motorway than on larger parts of the network for longer might be expected but the UK has less periods than the rest of Europe. For difficult to meet.” than the European average despite its example, most average flows in France House of Commons Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs Committee Fifteenth Report, Departmental Annual Report 1999 and population density. Germany and the are about a third of those in the UK. Expenditure Plans 1999-2002, July 1999, para. 14.

MOTORWAY PROVISION IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, 1996 60

50

40

30

20

10 Motorway length, km per 1000 square kilometre length, Motorway

0 IRL FIN S EL P UK EURO E F A DK I D L B NL 15 Germany: in today’s global markets this scene in Many European countries have more motorway per area of land than the UK Berlin could be anywhere 12 Populations and cars

ith a population of 59 million, Populations are ageing everywhere. In the UK has about 16 per cent, the UK, 16 per cent of people are aged Wor one in six, of the people of over 65; by 2008 there will be more the EU’s 15 member states. people over 60 than children under 16. Ireland has a particularly young Through most of Europe, populations population, while Sweden’s and Italy’s are are growing but some more slowly than particularly older ones. The numbers of others. Europe as a whole increased by 10 very old people, aged 80 and over, are per cent between 1970-1997, UK 6 per forecast to increase fastest of all. cent, Germany 6 per cent, Italy 7 per cent, Austria 8 per cent, Spain 16 per cent, There is a range of prosperity across France 15 per cent. By 2020, Germany, Europe. Greece, Portugal and Spain have Italy and Spain are forecast to be losing appreciably lower GDP per person, with CHANGES IN THE PROPORTION population. In all European countries, the levels 68 to 78 per cent of the European OF PEOPLE LIVING IN sizes of households are reducing. There average in 1997. The UK, Irish Republic, INNER CITY AREAS are major implications for car ownership Sweden and Finland are about average, levels as more people live alone, and with values of 97 to 101 per cent of the Nottingham 1970 1980 more older people and more families average. Belgium, Denmark, Germany, 1990 Manchester break up into smaller units. France, Italy, the Netherlands and Austria 2000 are a little higher, with GDPs per person Leeds

Bristol 4.0 CHANGES IN HOUSEHOLD SIZES IN SELECTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

3.5 Zurich 3.0

2.5 Bergen 2.0

Oslo 1.5 DENMARK NETHERLANDS FINLAND SWITZERLAND

Persons per household Persons 1.0 Kuopio FRANCE UK 0.5 ITALY W. GERMANY

Tampere 0.0

Helsinki 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Households are getting smaller, but most will still want a car

Waterloo VERY ELDERLY POPULATIONS IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 8 Namur 1996 7 2020 Liege 6

5 Dresden 4 Berlin 3

2 Klagenfurt 1 0 10203040506070 of population aged 80 plus Percentage Percentage of population living in inner area 0 IRL P NL FIN L EL E B A EURO DK D UK F I S Some cities buck the trend, but generally people 15 are moving out The UK’s population: old compared with Europe now, but younger in comparison by 2020 13 Transport users, journeys and context

It was ever thus:

‘‘Television-sets and washing machines may for the time being take precedence in the hierarchy of domestic needs, but as a longer term objective it is questionable whether anything is so much desired as a family car.”

Traffic in towns. Reports of the steering group and working group appointed by the Minister of Transport, 1963, p10.

Italy: an ageing population that is the second-oldest in Europe; and is projected to be the oldest within the next 20 years More women driving: of 103 to 116. At the top is Luxembourg, some in the 1990s as economies faltered ‘‘…car ownership and driving with a GDP per person 1.65 times the due to the tough financial disciplines among females is expected to European average for its 300,000 people. aimed at enabling European economic become closer to that now convergence following the Maastricht In most of Europe, cities have been Treaty. shown by males. losing population from their inner areas as people move to suburbs, sometimes to Car ownership in Sweden, which was …car availability and car use get space to keep a car. But some, for the highest in Europe in 1970, peaked in increase with income.” example Zurich, have retained people in 1990, fell until 1994 and has since risen a DETR National Road Traffic Forecasts (Great Britain) 1997. the inner area of the city. In London and little; the same fall since 1990 has Dublin the population is increasing in occurred in Finland. In France, car some parts of the inner city. ownership has been almost static since the early 1990s, and in the Netherlands Generally, people get cars as soon as it has fallen in recent years. But in every they can afford them. There are more European country except Finland, young, older people and women driving. including those where car ownership In every country in Europe car ownership had been falling, it rose between 1996 has been increasing, but it slowed in and 1997.

600 CAR OWNERSHIP IN SELECTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AUSTRIA ITALY SPAIN 500 DENMARK NETHERLANDS SWEDEN FRANCE PORTUGAL UK GERMANY 400 GREECE IRELAND 300

200 Cars per 1000 persons 100

0

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Ireland: a vibrant economy and a young Recession, the number of new drivers, taxation and much else affect growth population to enjoy it 14 Transport use in Europe

oad transport is dominant 400 km. Bus and coach travel accounts for DISTANCE TRAVELLED PER PERSON throughout Europe. On average, over 2,000 km per person in Denmark PER YEAR BY NON-CAR LAND TRANSPORT, 1997 Rthe total distance per person per and over 1,500 km per person in Italy, year travelled by land transport is 12,554 Austria and Finland; in France the figure E POWERED km. Of this distance, 10,173 km (81 per is just over 700 km per person, and in the 2-WHEELER (1995) BUS OR COACH cent) is by car. But there are big UK 730 km. Rail is used a lot in Austria, D TRAM OR METRO RAIL differences between the use of cars, France, Denmark and Italy. Metro and EL PEDAL CYCLE (1995) buses, bicycles and other forms of land tram are used particularly in Austria, transport in different countries. France and Sweden. Cycling makes a A substantial contribution in Denmark and B The average distance travelled by the Netherlands. The UK makes the least people in Denmark (where a very large use of non-car forms of transport. S proportion of Danish women are in work) is more than 16,000 km. The average The distances people travel, and the UK distance by car in Denmark is more than types of transport used in different EURO 12,000 km, despite car ownership being countries, reflect the pattern of land 15 only 340 cars per 1,000 people. High development in different countries. For NL purchase tax on cars in Denmark may example, because of its terrain, distort the pattern of normal car usage. development in Austria lies in corridors FIN The average distance travelled by along valleys. Linear development can P Austrians is 11,400 km, of which 8,312 km be well served by bus and train and is by car. In Spain, Germany and Greece, they are well-used in Austria. The L the average distance travelled is about Netherlands has high population density 11,000 km and the distance by car 8,913, and a longstanding policy to plan F 9,030 and 9,833 km respectively. developments accessible by public IRL transport. Even so, the Netherlands has Use of the non-car land modes varies only moderate use of bus and train – it is I greatly between countries. Powered the high use of personal transport, the

DK 2-wheelers account on average for more bike, that stands out. Greeks make little than 900 km per person travelled in Italy, use of non-car forms of transport. In a 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Kilometres per person per year almost 10 per cent of the distance country where taxi fares are low, even travelled by car. In no other European buses are only used half as much as the The UK is bottom of the league for the combined total travel by public transport and bike country do they contribute more than average for Europe. Car-use in the UK is close to the European average. But it is the use of pedal cycles and powered DISTANCE TRAVELLED PER PERSON PER YEAR BY ALL LAND TRANSPORT 17 2-wheelers that is particularly small. AND BY CAR, 1997 16

000s TOTAL, ALL LAND TRANSPORT ’ 15 PRIVATE CAR The average length of time it takes to 14 get to and from work in any country is 13 determined by many factors – the 12 flexibility of the labour market and 11 willingness to travel, where jobs and 10 9 homes are, and the quality of the

Kilometres per person per year, Kilometres per person year, 8 transport system. Commuting time 7 varies substantially between countries. E D EL A B S UK EURO NL FIN P L F IRL I DK 15 The average for Europe is a total of 38 Great variation in the amount of travel, with the UK close to the average, but proportionally more by car minutes (to and from work) per day, 15 Transport users, journeys and context

Why we use the car:

“Increasingly, people do not have real choices. For many people using a car is now no longer a choice but a necessity. Nowhere is this clearer than in the rural communities with no daily bus service. For those who rely on public transport it is all too often inadequate, suffering from declining standards and services.”

A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p12. France: the TGV is a flagship for investment in comfortable high speed rail between major cities and to other parts of Europe “But people will not switch from the comfort of their cars to but it varies from 23 minutes in Italy to Netherlands and the UK not far behind. buses that are old, dirty, 46 minutes in the UK, the longest commuting time in Europe. In Greece, The British and Dutch are those most unreliable and slow. Too often 9 per cent of workers commute for more likely to say that their cars are “extremely buses have been treated and than two hours a day, with Portugal, the or very important” to them. seen as ‘second class’ transport. It doesn’t have to be like this AVERAGE TIME SPENT COMMUTING IN EUROPE, 1996 50 and it is certainly not the case in 45 40 many other European 35 countries.” 30

minutes per day A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s – 25 White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p40. 20 15 10

Commuting time 5 0 I E P A F DK EURO B IRL L S EL FIN NL D UK 15 The UK’s commuters travel longer than others

IMPORTANCE OF A CAR TO MOTORISTS, 1993 80 EXTREMELY OR VERY IMPORTANT 70 IMPORTANT NOT VERY OR NOT AT ALL IMPORTANT 60

50

40

30

Percentage of motorists Percentage 20

10

0 I F B CH E D P NL UK Italy: the powered 2-wheeler is almost a way Very few motorists anywhere say that the car is unimportant of life 16 Drivers’ choices and attitudes

he surveys for the European speeding. Only 2 per cent have been SARTRE project on driver attitudes found guilty of drink-driving. to road safety, matched to the cars TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED T people own in different countries, IN GERMANY, 1997 provide thumbnail sketches of national 1. VW Golf/Vento 289,182 8.2% drivers. Inevitably, there is a potential for FRENCH DRIVERS France is a prosperous 2. Opel Astra 199,254 5.4% stereotyping and caricature, but there are country, with a GDP/person of 104 per 3. Opel Corsa 142,750 4.1% real differences between countries cent of the European average, but 4. VW Passat 141,092 4.0% nonetheless. Europe is certainly not a unemployment was 12 per cent in 1997. 5. Opel Vectra 140,964 4.0% homogenous entity – there are real Car ownership, at 478 per 1,000 persons, national characteristics. is above the European average. About 73 Some examples: per cent of adults hold driving licences for cars. Most drivers have fully comprehensive insurance.

GERMAN DRIVERS Even with the 67 per cent of drivers report that they inclusion of the former East Germany, are very concerned about Germany is a prosperous country, with a unemployment, 41 per cent about GDP/person of 109 per cent of the pollution and 40 per cent about crime. European average (based on purchasing 46 per cent are very concerned about TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED power). Unemployment in 1997 was 10 road safety and 26 per cent about IN FRANCE, 1997 per cent; car ownership in 1997 was 505 congestion. 80 per cent always use seat 1. Renault Mégane 143,821 8.4% per 1000 persons, the third highest in belts in town and 90 per cent on main 2. Renault Clio 119,844 7.0% Europe. Most German cars have engines roads and motorways. 3. Peugeot 306 96,509 5.6% of 1,300 to 1,900 cc, with cars of more 4. Renault Twingo 82,315 4.8% than 2,000 cc not uncommon. About 80 Many drivers say that they drink most 5. Peugeot 106 81,757 4.8% per cent of adults hold a car driving days, but very little. They say they often licence. Four-fifths (79 per cent) of drivers drive after drinking, but are not above the have comprehensive insurance. legal limit (0.5mg/ml adopted recently). They consider French drivers respect speed 60 per cent of drivers say they are very limits, and only 9 per cent have been fined concerned about unemployment, 50 per for speeding, but they think limits should cent about crime and 38 per cent about be higher on motorways. pollution. Only 28 per cent are concerned about road accidents and 23 per cent about congestion. For three-quarters of drivers, a car is “just a means of ITALIAN DRIVERS Prosperity in Italy is transport”. similar to that in France, with the GDP TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED per head 103 per cent of the European IN ITALY, 1997 German drivers are satisfied with the average, and an unemployment rate of 1. Fiat Punto 374,670 15.5% current drink/drive limit (0.8mg of 12 per cent in 1997. Italy has the highest 2. Fiat Bravo/Brava 116,974 4.9% alcohol per millilitre of blood). 80 per level of car ownership in Europe, with 3. Fiat Panda 112,729 4.7% cent report that they always wear seat 577 cars per 1,000 persons in 1997, but 4. Lancia Y 112,549 4.7% belts in towns, and about 90 per cent on the majority are small cars. 14 per cent of 5. Fiat Cinquecento 101,733 4.2% main roads and motorways. 20 per cent cars purchased in 1997 had an engine of are against speed limits on motorways less than 1,000 cc. 55 per cent of drivers and 30 per cent have been fined for have only the legal minimum insurance. 17 Transport users, journeys and context

France: drivers think that speed limits on motorways should be higher, but they also have a relatively high respect for speed limits

59 per cent of drivers say they are lowest in Europe. Car ownership is 372 concerned about unemployment, 48 per per 1,000 people, similar to that in the cent about crime and 47 per cent about UK, but has fallen from a peak in 1994. pollution. Only 39 per cent are concerned Only 2 per cent of cars have engines of about road accidents and 30 per cent less than 1,000 cc. 68 per cent have TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED about congestion. Many Italian drivers comprehensive insurance, but 4 per cent IN THE NETHERLANDS, 1997 never fasten their seat belts: 53 per cent admit to having uninsured cars. in towns, 22 per cent on main roads and 1. Opel Astra 25,810 5.4% 12 per cent on motorways. They say they 41 per cent of drivers say they are 2. VW Golf 20,505 4.3% are not very careful when driving, drive concerned about crime, 28 per cent 3. Renault Mégane 18,129 3.8% fast and often do not use a seat belt, about unemployment and 26 per cent 4. VW Polo 17,779 3.7% even though they are aware that it about pollution. 28 per cent are 5 Opel Corsa 16,417 3.4% reduces the risk of serious injury. concerned about road accidents and the same percentage about congestion. 40 per cent of drivers say they never drink, 22 per cent drink most days and 12 Although many drivers report that per cent drive after drinking. 35 per cent they drink most days, half of them drink never drive when over the legal limit only one to two units and half never (0.8mg/ml), though 72 per cent expect drive after drinking (limit 0.5mg/ml). never to be tested for alcohol. Half would Most drivers agree with the existing like to see higher speed limits on speed limits, but 28 per cent have been motorways and main roads, and almost fined for speeding. 30 per cent have been fined for speeding TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED in the past three years. IN SWEDEN, 1997

SWEDISH DRIVERS GDP is slightly lower 1. Volvo 800 25,972 11.5% in Sweden than the UK, at 97 per cent of 2. Volvo 900 14,285 6.3% DUTCH DRIVERS The Netherlands’ the European average and the 3. Volvo S40/V40 11,182 5.0% prosperity is similar to that of France, unemployment rate in 1997 was 10 per 4. Ford Escort 9,089 4.0% with GDP per head 105 per cent of the cent. 83 per cent of drivers live in small 5. Ford Mondeo 7,645 3.4% European average. Its unemployment towns (2,000 to 100,000 population). rate in 1997 was 5 per cent, one of the About 80 per cent of adults hold car 18

Drivers’ choices and attitudes continued

driving licences, and 77 per cent of drivers British cars (often bought from new by have comprehensive insurance. Car companies) are rather powerful, 26 per ownership was the highest in Europe in cent 1,800 cc or more. 78 per cent of TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED 1970, but is now below the average at drivers have comprehensive insurance. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1997 419 per 1,000 persons. Ownership peaked 1. Ford Fiesta 119,471 5.5% in 1990 and then fell to 409 per 1,000 in 62 per cent of drivers say they are very 2. Ford Escort 113,522 5.2% 1994, from which it has slowly grown concerned about crime, 43 per cent about 3. Ford Mondeo 107,239 4.9% again. 36 per cent of cars had engines of unemployment and 42 per cent about 4. Vauxhall Vectra 93,778 4.3% more than 2,000 cc. pollution. Despite the UK’s excellent road 5. Vauxhall Astra 89,537 4.1% safety record, 47 per cent are concerned Rather few Swedish drivers say they about road accidents. 47 per cent (more are concerned about social or traffic than anywhere except Greece) are also issues. 34 per cent are concerned about concerned about congestion. unemployment, 24 per cent about pollution, 20 per cent about crime, 14 per About 90 per cent of drivers always cent about road accidents and 6 per cent use their seat belt in towns, 92 per cent about congestion. 82 per cent always use on main roads and 94 per cent on their seat belt in towns and over 90 per motorways. They say they are careful cent on main roads and motorways. drivers, and would like to see lower speed Drivers are relatively careful and public- limits in built-up areas. They do not like to TOP FIVE CARS PURCHASED spirited while driving. drive fast. More than half of all drivers say IN PORTUGAL, 1997 they never drive after drinking. The legal 1. Opel Corsa 20,370 9.5% Most report that they drink less than limit is 0.8mg/ml. 7 per cent say they have 2. Fiat Punto 19,832 9.3% once a week and 80 per cent never drive been fined for speeding. 3. Ford Fiesta 14,731 6.9% after drinking. Almost none drive while 4 VW Polo 13,419 6.3% over the legal limit (0.2mg/ml, the lowest 5. Renault Clio 12,211 5.7% in the EU) or have been fined for drink/driving. About 20 per cent of PORTUGUESE DRIVERS Portugal is one drivers often exceed the speed limit on of the poorest countries in Europe, main roads and motorways, and half of with GDP per head of only 71 per cent all drivers think the limit should be higher of the European average, but the on motorways, but lower in urban areas. unemployment rate in 1997 was just 7 Most drivers think their speed is rarely per cent. Car ownership, at 297 per 1,000 checked and only 10 per cent have been persons, is the second lowest in Europe. fined for speeding. The average car in Portugal is small. In 1997, 12 per cent of new cars had engines smaller than 1,050 cc and 55 per cent of all new cars were in the mini or supermini UK DRIVERS The prosperity of the UK is size class. close to the European average, with GDP per head at 99 per cent. Unemployment Portugal is the most rural of the EU’s is relatively low, with a rate in 1997 of 7 15 member states. 36 per cent of drivers per cent. Car ownership, at 376 per 1,000 came from towns of less than 2,000 people, is below the European average of inhabitants. About 42 per cent of adults 450 per 1,000. 68 per cent of adults hold hold car driving licences. 21 per cent of a driving licence for cars – 81 per cent of drivers were aged less than 25 years old, all men and 57 per cent of all women. and 11 per cent had less than two years 19 Transport users, journeys and context

Why people choose what they do:

“Individual manufacturers obviously seek to promote the sale of one car rather than another, but I have no doubt that the real reason why people buy cars is because they are such Sweden: Volvo has long been the favourite car of the Swedes and they are relatively careful and extraordinarily useful and public-spirited when driving attractive things… it is the sheer driving experience. 57 per cent of drivers records in Europe. convenience of the car that is its have the minimum car insurance. own best salesman. We ignore More than one person in four drinks 65 per cent of Portuguese drivers say most days, and 13 per cent drive after this fact at our peril.” they are concerned about drinking. 40 per cent of drivers are Professor Sir Colin Buchanan, Traffic Engineering and Control, July 1973, pp134-135. unemployment, 55 per cent about road satisfied with the current alcohol limit accidents and 54 per cent about crime. (0.5mg/ml), but 30 per cent think it Only 29 per cent are concerned about should be reduced. 28 per cent of drivers traffic congestion. 75 per cent of drivers exceed the speed limit on the motorway always wear a seat belt in town, 84 per often or always, and a similar percentage cent on main roads and 89 per cent on exceed the limits in towns. More than motorways. Portugal has one of the half of drivers want the limit on worst, if not the worst, road safety motorways increased.

AVERAGE AND COMPARATIVE EUROPEAN DATA Unemployment 11% Legal alcohol limit Car ownership 450 cars/1,000 persons 1 state (Sweden) 0.2mg/ml 9 states 0.5mg/ml Average engine size approx. 1,600 cc 5 states (inc. UK) 0.8mg/ml

Licence holding 54% of total Wear seat belts population, about in towns 64% 70% of adults on main roads 80% on motorways 85% Have comprehensive insurance 62% Wanted higher speed limits Concerned about on motorways 42% unemployment 56% crime 47% Fined for speeding* 18% pollution 40% road accidents 39% Found guilty of drink/driving* 1%

congestion 29% *in past three years Ford: it is a particular favourite with the British, but it sells well everywhere 20 The European car fleet

ALFA-ROMEO PEUGEOT n 1997, there were 168 million cars in Group, including Audi and SEAT, which LANCIA CITROËN the 15 member states of the EU – 450 produced 2.4 million cars. The next three FIAT SEAT BMW VOLVO Icars for every 1,000 people, or less than manufacturers were General Motors MERCEDES SAAB VW/VW + AUDI ROVER two adults for every car. And in 1996, 13 (Opel and Vauxhall), with 1.7 million; AUDI FORD million cars were produced in Europe. Ford, with 1.6 million; and Renault, with OPEL/GM GROUP JAPANESE RENAULT HYUNDAI The biggest manufacturer was the VW 1.5 million. The largest far-eastern manufacturer was Toyota, with 117,000 cars, followed by Honda with 106,000. REGISTRATIONS OF NEW CARS IN FRANCE, ITALY AND GERMANY, 35 BY MANUFACTURER, 1996 Where a country has a strong car 30 industry, its citizens buy its cars (even

25 though some of what they buy may be made elsewhere). This is demonstrated by 20 the makes of cars purchased in different 15 countries. Where a country does not have

10 a major motor industry, the cars purchased are more evenly distributed by

Percentage of cars by manufacturer Percentage 5 country of manufacture. 0 France Italy Germany Home-based marques: led by Renault in France, Fiat in Italy and Volkswagen in Germany For many years there has been concern among British motorists that they are REGISTRATIONS OF NEW CARS IN SPAIN, UK AND SWEDEN, paying more for their cars than their 25 BY MANUFACTURER, 1996 counterparts elsewhere in Europe. Differentials are due in part to 20 fluctuating exchange rates (a factor reducing with the introduction of the 15 euro) and the different tax regimes across Europe. However, the issue of whether 10 some manufacturers have pricing policies

5 that improperly disadvantage the

Percentage of cars by manufacturer Percentage consumer is currently being examined by

0 competition authorities. Exemplary fines Spain UK Sweden have already been levied by European Peugeot and SEAT in Spain, Ford in Britain and Volvo in Sweden authorities against those manufacturers setting prices anti-competitively. REGISTRATIONS OF NEW CARS IN THE NETHERLANDS, DENMARK AND 25 SWITZERLAND, BY MANUFACTURER, 1996 SELECTED EU CAR PRICE DIFFERENTIALS UK Cheapest 20 Country

15 Ford Fiesta 135.5% 92.0% Vauxhall Vectra 119.4% 82.6% 10 Rover 214 161.4% 100.0% Honda Civic 173.5% 91.8%

5 100% corresponds to price in cheapest euro-zone country, Percentage of cars by manufacturer Percentage 1 May 1999; percentages less than this show lowest price is outside the euro-zone 0 Netherlands Denmark Switzerland British motorists are paying more and many A less pronounced pattern in countries where manufacturing is not so strong suspect that they are paying too much 21 Transport users, journeys and context

Competition?

“…we are concerned that UK car buyers appear to be suffering as a result both of car manufacturers’ wishing to increase their market share elsewhere and of Germany: cars are relatively large, with comparatively few under 1,200 cc manufacturers’ confidence, well-founded or not, that UK The size of cars purchased in different proportions of executive and luxury cars. new car buyers will be willing countries is different. Cars bought in to go on paying over the odds.” Portugal and Italy tend to have smaller The average age of cars, and so the The Trade and Industry Committee (Session 1998-99) on engines – averaging only 1,340 cc and percentage of the fleet replaced each Vehicle Pricing (HC64), para. 17, 8 December 1998. 1,390 cc respectively. In France, Germany, year, differs in different countries. In the Netherlands, Belgium and the UK, Sweden, car purchases in 1996 were one- cars tend to have medium sized engines – twentieth the number of cars in the fleet, the average sizes are between 1,620 cc and in Norway, one-sixteenth. In Ireland, and 1,690 cc. Cars in Switzerland tend the purchases were one-tenth the to have bigger engines – the average size number in the fleet. For half the is 1,824 cc. countries analysed the car fleet was 11 to 13 times the number of cars purchased Portugal and Italy have high annually. Cars appear to last longest in percentages of “superminis”, and Italy Mediterranean countries (Spain, Greece has a relatively high percentage of and Italy), where little salt is used on the “minis”. Only Denmark and the UK have roads, and Norway and Sweden, where high proportions of upper medium cars, the problem of corrosion has long been a and France and the UK have the highest priority for Scandinavian manufacturers.

NEW CARS PURCHASED IN 1997 BY ENGINE CAPACITY 40 Less than 1000cc 1000 – 1200cc 1200 – 1500cc 1500 – 1800cc 35 1800 – 2000cc 2000 – 2500cc 2500 – 3000cc 3000cc plus 30

25

20

15

10

5 Percentage of cars in engine capacity group Percentage 0 B CH D F NL I P UK Britain: coming down in price, but should British Many small-engined cars in Italy and Portugal; fewer in other countries motorists be able to save even more? 22 Road safety and attitudes

here are substantial differences in perhaps it is an awareness of road safety road safety between the various that conditions safe behaviour. TEuropean member states. The UK and Sweden are the safest countries in Surveys of drivers’ attitudes and the EU, and, with Iceland and Norway, behaviour in different countries suggest probably the safest in the world. As a that these may contribute to some driver, the British motorist abroad will be degree towards the differences in concerned as to how much less safe the accident rates in different countries. For roads are. The fact is that the accident example, 32 per cent of drivers in Greece data per vehicle kilometre are not even claim to drive through amber lights often available in some of the least safe or always, compared with 13 per cent in countries. The figures for the road traffic the UK. But in Belgium, which has a poor deaths per million vehicles, however, record for car-user deaths, only 9 per cent show that the risk in Greece and Portugal claim to do so. is probably about twice that in Belgium and almost four times that in the UK. Attitudes to legislative control of drinking and driving vary greatly CAR OCCUPANT DEATHS There are differences in the degree of between the north and south of Europe. PER BILLION CAR KILOMETRES, 1996 concern for road safety expressed by In Greece and Italy, less than a quarter of drivers in the SARTRE surveys – although drivers disagree with the statement UK to some degree the results are influenced “People should be free to decide for by the likelihood of honest reporting on themselves how much they can drink

S any given topic. The chart below shows before driving”; in Sweden and Finland, the percentage of drivers “very more than 80 per cent of drivers disagree. concerned” about road accidents, and The accident rate in the south of Europe FIN the accident rate for that country, is two to four times that in the north. expressed as fatalities per 100,000 NL population. There is large variation in Drivers’ reported observance of speed reported level of concern and little limits varies between countries and types relationship with the real situation. For of roads. Drivers said they exceeded the CH example, British drivers have a high level speed limit more often on motorways of concern despite having one of the and main roads than in built-up areas. N safest road systems in the world – The highest percentages of drivers

IRL PERCENT OF DRIVERS VERY CONCERNED ABOUT ROAD ACCIDENTS AND 70 ROAD ACCIDENT DEATHS PER 100,000 POPULATION, 1996

D 60 ROAD ACCIDENT DEATHS PER 100,000 POPULATION DRIVERS VERY CONCERNED ABOUT ROAD ACCIDENTS 50 about road accidents A ” 40

30 B very concerned “ 20 03691215 10 Car occupant deaths per billion car kilometres Road accident deaths per 100,000 population

Percent drivers Percent 0 N S UK NL FIN CH DK D I IRL A B E F L EL P Risk of death per kilometre driven is very low in the UK Little relationship between concerns about road accidents and risk of death 23 Transport users, journeys and context

Good, but no room for complacency:

“To improve safety and save lives, action must be taken across a number of fronts – including improvements in the behaviour of drivers, riders and pedestrians; enhancements in vehicle safety; better roads and road engineering; and better enforcement.”

A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p82. Accidents: all new cars sold in Europe must conform to safety standards and the AA is a founding sponsor of the European crash-testing programme which rates the safety of new cars “We wish particularly to claiming to exceed speed limits were in often or always, measurements show that improve the safety of more Portugal and Greece, followed quite on motorways, 54 per cent of cars are vulnerable road users, including closely by Sweden, Spain and the UK. In exceeding the 70 mph limit and 19 per pedestrians (particularly the UK, where 29 per cent of drivers cent are exceeding the limit by more than claim to exceed motorway speed limits 10 mph. children), cyclists and motorcyclists, in a way that is DRIVING THROUGH AMBER LIGHTS OFTEN, VERY OFTEN OR ALWAYS 35 consistent with encouraging

30 more cycling and walking.”

A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s 25 White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p83. 20

15

10

5

0

Percentage of drivers who admit to this behaviour Percentage B A UK IRL FIN CH F S E D NL I P EL

Take special care at traffic lights in Greece, Italy, Portugal and the Netherlands!

DRIVERS REPORTING THEY OFTEN OR ALWAYS EXCEED THE SPEED LIMIT 50 45 ON MOTORWAYS ON MAIN ROADS 40 IN BUILT-UP AREAS 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 FIN IRL D B A F CH I NL UK E S EL P Percentage of drivers reporting they exceed speed limit Percentage Speeding: most European drivers admit to it, but On every class of road, Portugal leads the way in speeding relatively few say they speed in built-up areas 24 Environmental

ANNUAL AVERAGE

NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) LEVELS IN EUROPEAN CITIES issues Fribourg ll European countries and the Air quality varies considerably between Birmingham European Parliament and cities. Cities may also have high levels of Commission have policies one pollutant and low levels of another. Lisbon A to reduce the environmental impact of For example, London and Paris have transport. The European motoring relatively high levels of nitrogen dioxide Bonn organisations and motor industry, notably (a slightly brownish gas that irritates the Stuttgart through the manufacturers’ body, ACEA, airways), but low levels of ozone (a very are working with them. reactive gas derived from oxygen, formed Karlsruhe by the action of sunlight on air containing Road transport: causes noise and a mixture of pollutants). Fribourg has a Zurich vibration; emits pollutants that cause low level of nitrogen dioxide and a high poor local air quality, particularly in cities; level of ozone. Athens and Turin have high Paris emits gases that cause soil and water to levels of both. Not only does air quality

London become acidic on a regional scale; emits vary by place, so too does the percentage carbon dioxide, which contributes to the of cars with a catalytic converter. In 1996 Turin “greenhouse” effect that is widely the average for the 15 EU states was 35 blamed for climatic changes; and causes per cent. This varied between 16-18 per Athens nuisance, disturbance and fear for people cent (France, Portugal and Spain), but near roads. much less in Greece (possibly a few per Milan cent) to 25-29 per cent (Belgium, Denmark, 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 Road traffic is the largest external France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway Annual average nitrogen dioxide level, microgrammes per cubic metre cause of noise in houses. The number of and the UK) and 50-61 per cent (Austria, houses exposed to high noise levels Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden). Terrain, climate and level of emissions help to determine air quality depends on whether dwellings are 75 per cent of cars in Switzerland had a clustered along busy roads and on catalytic converter. whether countries have built bypasses to PASSENGER CAR FUEL-EFFICIENCY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES keep traffic away from where people live. There are very few cities in which air The British motorist in France will often quality is not improving. Improvements (CO2 values) notice quieter road surfaces and the use are partly the result of a reduction in the of larger and more architecturally- use of coal for domestic heating, partly a USA developed noise barriers than would be reduction in the amount of heavy the case in Britain. industry that emits smoke, dust and various pollutant gases, and partly a

Japan MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE NOISE LEVELS FOR ROAD VEHICLES 95

LORRIES 90 EU CARS

85

80 ACEA 2008

target dB(A) Noise level, 75 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 CO emissions (g/km) 2 70 1972 1983 1988-89 1995-96 Carbon dioxide emissions from new cars will be Date of introduction of regulated noise level cut by a quarter over the next decade A car in 1972 was allowed to make more noise than the biggest lorry today 25 Transport users, journeys and context

Progress here, and more expected:

“The adoption of tighter European noise emission standards for road vehicles over the last ten years has had a noticeable effect on noise emitted from vehicles in urban areas, but not so far on noise emitted from traffic travelling at higher speeds on inter-urban roads.”

A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p136.

“We estimate that European Greece: vehicle exhaust emissions in Athens are more likely than most cities to exceed permitted levels for nitrogen dioxide and ozone initiatives aimed at tightening vehicle and fuel standards have result of reducing the amount of exhaust by the EU, and have been reduced the potential to reduce busy pollutants emitted per kilometre by steadily over time (see page 47), but motor vehicles. For example, in Paris, the in some places poorly-maintained central urban area road traffic concentration of lead dust in the air in vehicles and slow moving buses and nitrogen oxide emissions by up 1993 was 5 per cent of that in 1975. For trucks contribute to poor air quality. to 67 per cent and particulate sulphur dioxide (very little of which comes from road traffic) it was only 10 The voluntary agreement by car emissions up to 70 per cent per cent of that in 1960. makers will, when implemented, below 1996 levels by 2010. exceed the motorists’ proportionate Action at the local level…[has] The allowable exhaust emissions and share of the Kyoto agreement on noise levels from vehicles are regulated carbon dioxide reduction. the potential to deliver further significant savings.” THE RELATIVE FALL IN TOXIC EMISSIONS SINCE 1992 A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p35. AS A RESULT OF THE EURO STANDARDS (medium-sized car, urban test cycle)

Fuel CO HC NOx PM10

Petrol pre-Euro I 100 100 100 5

Petrol Euro-I 15 9 19 2

Petrol Euro-II 10 4 9 2

Petrol Euro-III 7 3 6 2

Petrol Euro-IV 4 2 3 2

Diesel pre-Euro I 7 10 43 100

Diesel Euro-I 4 4 29 55

Diesel Euro-II 3 3 21 31

Diesel Euro-III 2 2 13 20

Diesel Euro-IV 2 1 7 10 France: an enlightened approach to the Many cars in 1992 emitted as much of some toxic emissions as 20 or more cars today management of traffic noise 26 What concerns drivers

he AA routinely asks motorists amount of tax-take in fuel and the about what concerns them as behaviour of other drivers. Other issues Tdrivers and users of cars. Issues such show a very similar but lower level of as cost, congestion and personal security concern. There is least concern over the frequently come to the fore. effect of the car on the environment. Concern over lack of investment in roads As part of the research for The Great is slightly greater than concern over lack British Motorist report, drivers in France, of investment in buses and trains. Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Britain were asked to rank1 their 49 per cent of all motorists rank the three main motoring concerns from a list cost of fuel in their top three concerns that comprised the cost of petrol or (and 28 per cent ranked it as their top diesel; the amount of tax in the price of concern). Congestion: a worry for motorists in urban areas; petrol or diesel; the lack of investment in drivers in Madrid and Paris are particularly concerned roads and (separately) public transport; 38 per cent of all motorists rank the theft of or from cars; traffic congestion; tax-take in fuel in their top three concerns. the behaviour of other drivers; proposals for paying to use roads; the effect of the 36 per cent of motorists rank the poor car on the environment; and the risk of behaviour of other drivers in their top being injured in a road accident. three concerns.

The survey was carried out in June and 26 per cent of motorists rank traffic July 1999 among 4,168 motorists in congestion in their top three concerns. samples representative of the adult 1 The ranking of any concern is relative to others and therefore populations of the six countries. 15 per cent of motorists rank the strong feeling on one issue will diminish concern about others. A high level of concern in any country or area about general effect of the car on the environment in transport issues such as the level of investment in roads and public transport, for example, would reduce the score attributable to other Overall, the greatest concern is the their top three concerns (and only 3 per concerns such as fuel costs. The scale of “concern” is an average immediate “it affects me” issue of the cent rank it as their top concern). derived by scoring the main concern as 3, the second concern as 2 and the third as 1. The survey did not include Northern Ireland. cost of petrol or diesel, followed by the The concern over the cost of fuel is greatest in Germany and France. Relative RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES OVERALL 1.4 concern over tax-take is high in these countries and in Britain. Most noticeably 1.2 in the Netherlands, but also in Spain, France and Italy, there is concern over 1.0 the behaviour of other drivers. The Netherlands also bucks the trend in that, 0.8 probably because of recent controversial proposals by the Dutch government, Concern 0.6 there is greater concern there than elsewhere about paying to use roads. 0.4 In Spain there is a high level of concern

0.2 about the risk of being injured in a road accident. The British rate the lack 0.0 of investment in roads and public Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost transport higher than any of their five The cost of fuel leads the way European neighbours. 27 Survey of drivers’ concerns

Fuel costs: a concern everywhere, but motorists are also disturbed about how much tax they pay on Speeding: a source of some of the concern in the forecourt the Netherlands, France, Spain and Italy?

85 per cent of motorists in Germany use roads in their top three concerns (and 56 per cent in France) rank the cost (compared with 18 per cent of motorists of fuel in their top three concerns in Britain). (compared with 45 per cent of motorists in Britain). 48 per cent of motorists in Spain rank the risk of being injured in a road 60 per cent of motorists in the accident in their top three concerns Netherlands rank the behaviour of other (compared with 8 per cent in Britain). drivers in their top three concerns (compared with 24 per cent of motorists 26 per cent of motorists in Britain rank in Britain). the lack of investment in roads in their top three concerns (compared with an 40 per cent of motorists in the average of 19 per cent in the survey). Netherlands rank paying extra charges to

RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES BY COUNTRY 2.0

1.8 GREAT BRITAIN FRANCE 1.6 GERMANY ITALY 1.4 NETHERLANDS SPAIN 1.2

1.0 Concern 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost Investment: Europe’s motorists are more Great variations between countries over some concerns concerned about roads than public transport 28 Concerns: Differences within countries

The issues that concern motorists most there than in other countries. 37 per cent in Britain as a whole). differ from country to country, but there are also clear differences within 55 per cent of motorists in rural areas 40 per cent of motorists in Scotland countries. IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS rank the cost of fuel as one of their three rank proposals to charge for the use of concerns are noticeably different (though main concerns (compared with 44 per roads in their top three concerns unsurprisingly less so in the very built-up cent in urban areas). (compared with only 18 per cent in Netherlands). The cost of fuel is an issue Britain as a whole). everywhere but generally more so in IN BRITAIN concern over the lack of rural areas although this is not a investment in roads is greatest in 33 per cent of motorists in London consistent pattern in every country. Tax- Scotland and least in London and the rank the lack of investment in buses and take and poor driver behaviour is an issue South. Concern over proposals to charge trains in their top three concerns in both urban and rural areas. for the use of roads is also greater in (compared with only 21 per cent in Scotland than in other parts of Britain. Britain as a whole). Car crime, traffic congestion, investment in buses and trains and concerns about In London, more motorists are concerned 33 per cent of motorists in London the effect of the car on the environment over the lack of investment in buses and rank the effect of the car on the are generally more of a concern in the trains, and the effect of the car on the environment in their top three concerns urban environment. Apart from the environment. (compared with 16 per cent in Britain as a Netherlands, the urban versus rural whole). differences are also very small in 43 per cent of motorists in Scotland Germany, except that investment in rank lack of investment in roads in their IN FRANCE the main differences to show roads is much more of an urban concern top three concerns (compared with only up are between Paris and the rest of the

RELATIVE CONCERN BY URBAN AND RURAL AREAS 1.4 1.3 GREAT BRITAIN 1.2 RURAL 1.1 SEMI-URBAN 1.0 URBAN 0.9 0.8 0.7

Concern 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

1.4 1.3 SIX EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 1.2 RURAL 1.1 SEMI-URBAN 1.0 URBAN 0.9 0.8 0.7

Concern 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost Some easily-understood differences between urban and rural areas 29 Survey of drivers’ concerns

country and are largely a reflection on IN GERMANY there are very few The Hague are very concerned about the urban versus rural life. Parisian differences between the areas of the road tolls and are relatively more motorists are less likely than the rest of country that were analysed. concerned than Londoners about the the country to be concerned about the behaviour of other drivers. cost of petrol (and the tax-take), but are IN THE CITIES that are examined in this noticeably more likely to be concerned study (London, Paris, Amsterdam/ 33 per cent of motorists in London about traffic congestion and investment Rotterdam/The Hague, Madrid and rank the effect of the car on the in buses and trains. Barcelona) the concerns of motorists can environment in their top three concerns be compared. (compared with 26 per cent in Paris, 19 In the south-west of France there is per cent in Madrid and 8 per cent in the relatively more concern about the effect The level of concern of London motorists three Dutch cities). of the car on the environment and about over the lack of investment in both roads proposals to charge for the use of roads. and public transport and car crime is 63 per cent of motorists in the greater than that for other cities. Amsterdam/Rotterdam/The Hague areas 26 per cent of motorists in the south- rank concern about proposals for paying west rank concern about paying for roads Correspondingly, motorists in Madrid and for the use of roads in their top three in their top three concerns (compared Paris are more concerned than Londoners concerns (compared with just 15 per cent with 17 per cent in France as a whole). about traffic congestion and the risk of in Paris, 13 per cent in London and 11 per being injured in an accident, while those cent in Madrid). IN SPAIN, similarly, traffic congestion is motorists in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and much more of a concern in Madrid and Barcelona than elsewhere. CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES BY AREA OF GREAT BRITAIN 1.4 42 per cent of motorists in Madrid and SCOTLAND 1.3 39 per cent in Barcelona rank traffic NORTH 1.2 MIDLANDS congestion in their top three concerns 1.1 SOUTH (compared with 30 per cent in Spain as a LONDON 1.0 whole). 0.9 0.8 IN ITALY concern over car crime, poor 0.7 driver behaviour and injury-risk in an Concern 0.6 accident is greatest in the regions, 0.5 including the south and Italy’s 0.4 Mediterranean islands. 0.3 0.2 38 per cent of motorists in Italy’s south 0.1 0.0 and the Mediterranean islands rank poor Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost driver behaviour of others in their top three concerns (compared with 33 per Great concern in Scotland about road charging and investment; concern everywhere about petrol cost cent in Italy as a whole). CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES BY SELECTED CITIES 1.6 IN THE NETHERLANDS, reflecting the 1.5 LONDON 1.4 PARIS controversy in that country, there is 1.3 THREE DUTCH CITIES MADRID more concern over proposals for 1.2 paying for the use of roads in the 1.1 Amsterdam/Rotterdam/The Hague areas 1.0 and in the rest of the west than in other 0.9 0.8 parts of the country. Concern 0.7 0.6 63 per cent of motorists in the 0.5 Amsterdam/Rotterdam/The Hague areas 0.4 0.3 and 48 per cent in the rest of west 0.2 Netherlands rank proposals for paying for 0.1 0.0 the use of roads in their top three Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol concerns (compared with 40 per cent in environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost the Netherlands as a whole). Drivers in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague worry about tolls and road rage 30 Concerns: Differences between individuals

MEN are generally slightly more (compared with 47 per cent of women). concerned than women about the cost issues (fuel, tax-take and paying for the 41 per cent of men rank tax-take in use of roads), road investment and fuel in their top three concerns congestion. WOMEN are markedly more (compared with 33 per cent of women). concerned about the poor driver behaviour of others, and about the risk of 21 per cent of men rank the issue of being injured in an accident, the effect of investment in roads in their top three the car on the environment and car crime. concerns (compared with 15 per cent of women). 51 per cent of men rank the cost of fuel in their top three concerns 42 per cent of women rank the issue

RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES BY GENDER 1.4 1.3 MALE FEMALE 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7

Concern 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost Women worry more than men about personal security and green issues

RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES 1.8 BY INCOME (GREAT BRITAIN) 1.6 TOP INCOME GROUP MIDDLE INCOME GROUP 1.4 LOW INCOME GROUP

1.2

1.0

Concern 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 Car on Investment Road tolls/ Investment Injury in Car Traffic Poor driver Petrol Petrol environment buses/trains Town charges in roads accident crime congestion behaviour tax cost Spain: lack of investment in public transport is not a major concern to the Spaniards Unsurprisingly, the better-off worry less about petrol prices 31 Survey of drivers’ concerns

of poor driver behaviour in their top driving behaviour of others. three concerns (compared with 33 per cent of men). 57 per cent of motorists under 25 rank the issue of the cost of fuel in their top 24 per cent women rank the risk of three concerns (compared with 49 per being injured in an accident in their top cent of all motorists). three concerns (compared with 17 per cent of men). 49 per cent of motorists in France older than 44 are likely to rank the issue ACROSS AGE GROUPS there is an overall of the poor driving behaviour of others in consistency in the level of concern, but their top three concerns (compared with there are some notable exceptions. 39 per cent of younger age groups). Younger motorists are generally more likely than others to be concerned LEVEL OF INCOME, as may be expected, about the cost of fuel. Concern over the affects the degree of concern about tax-take is slightly higher among petrol prices, with the better-off less middle-aged and older motorists than concerned in most countries. In Britain, younger ones. However, in Britain, motorists in the top income bracket both young and older motorists are (many of whom are using their cars for likely to be concerned about the cost of business) are more concerned than others fuel. Middle-aged and older drivers in about traffic congestion, the poor driving France are more likely to be concerned behaviour of others and the effect of the than younger drivers about the poor car on the environment. Car crime: it worries people who live in towns more than those in rural areas

RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT MOTORING ISSUES BY AGE 1.6 1.5 PETROL COST TRAFFIC CONGESTION ROAD TOLLS/ TOWN CHARGES PETROL TAX CAR CRIME INVESTMENT BUSES/TRAINS 1.4 POOR DRIVER BEHAVIOUR INJURY IN ACCIDENT CAR ON ENVIRONMENT 1.3 INVESTMENT IN ROADS 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8

Concern 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 15 – 24 25 – 34 35 – 44 45 – 54 55 – 64 65+ Age groups

Few differences by age, although the young worry about petrol prices…

RELATIVE CONCERN ABOUT PETROL COST AND TAX-TAKE 1.8 BY AGE (GREAT BRITAIN) 1.6

1.4 PETROL COST PETROL TAX 1.2

1.0

Concern 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 15 – 24 25 – 34 35 – 44 45 – 54 55 – 64 65+ Age groups

…and in Britain older people are concerned too 32 Transport provision

irst Italy and then Germany By 1970 Britain had 1,021 km of PERCENTAGE OF ALL JOURNEYS developed basic motorway motorway opened. Road spending fell by MADE BY BICYCLE, 1991-95 Fnetworks between the two world two-thirds in the 1970s, picked up in the NL wars. In 1946, the then Ministry of 1980s, but by 1999 England’s road Groningen Amsterdam Transport issued a map of proposed programme contained an average of only motorways in Britain. It was in all five schemes per annum, with upgrades DK essentials the network of the M1, M4, in Scotland all but halted. In the five Nakskov Copenhagen M5, M6 and M62 motorways built in years 1994-1998 inclusive, the French the 1950s and 1960s. By 1970, France government invested 74 billion francs S had constructed 1,125 km of inter-urban (about £8 billion) in the national road Västeras Göteborg motorways, linking Paris to France’s system. Most of the investment in French second and third cities, and to the main motorways has come from companies D Channel ports. The French master plan is that hold concessions for motorways, and Münster Freiburg for 12,120 km of motorways and 4,410 these investments have been increasing km of major highways. The aim is to have in real terms since the mid-1980s. B few areas more than 30 minutes from a Between 1993 and 1997, the motorway Bruges Brussels motorway or major highway by the year companies spent 80 billion francs (more 2005. On average, France has opened than £8 billion) on improvements and on FIN 252 km of new motorways every year constructing new motorways. Oulu Helsinki since 1970.

A INVESTMENT BY FRENCH MOTORWAY CONCESSIONAIRE COMPANIES Salzburg 18 Vienna IN REAL TERMS AT 1995 VALUE 16 IMPROVEMENTS F 14 NEW MOTORWAYS TOTAL Strasbourg 12

Paris 1995 value

– 10 UK 8 Cambridge 6 London 4 Billions of Francs Billions of Francs 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2 Cycling as a percentage of all journeys 0 1980 81 82 83 84 1985 86 87 88 89 1990 91 92 93 94 1995 With exceptions, generally little bicycle use in the UK and France (and it is not increasing) 10 years and more of consistent spending

TRAVEL PER PERSON PER YEAR BY BUS, PERCENTAGE OF LINKS ON NETWORKS OF 2,500 30 TRAM AND METRO, 1997 28 NATIONAL ROADS THAT ARE CONGESTED FOR 26 MORE THAN ONE HOUR PER DAY, 1996 2,000 BUS AND COACH 24 TRAM AND METRO 22 20 1,500 18 16 14 1,000 12

Percent of links Percent 10 8 500 6 Kilometres per person year, 4 2 0 0 F UK D EL NL L EURO S E B P IRL I A FIN DK DK FIN L S EL IRL A F P B CH D I NL CZ E SL UK PL 15 Very low use of public transport in the UK The UK has the worst congestion in Western Europe 33 Planning and paying for transport

We understand the problems:

“Congestion and unreliability of journeys add to the costs of business, undermining competitiveness particularly in our towns and cites where traffic is worst… The convenience of the car is eroded by congestion and driving is becoming increasingly stressful.” Germany: leading the way in pedestrianisation, with Copenhagen following shortly after. Norwich A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s began the trend in Britain White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p11.

In 1996, the European Parliament that defines the transport policy for the “Public transport offers an adopted a system of “Trans-European region; and the operating entity that alternative sometimes. Networks (TENs)”, agreed in the provides public transport. Similar However, trip-making behaviour Maastricht Treaty. These are road, rail arrangements apply in many other and waterway routes that serve trans- countries and cities. using the car has developed in European traffic. The Trans-European such a way that the prospect of Network comprises existing national roads The British motorist will find good switching to public transport is and motorways which can be upgraded public transport in virtually every major with financial assistance from the EU to city of mainland Europe, almost always unrealistic in many cases.” be more suitable for long-haul traffic. operating as a single company, with S Glaister and D Graham, Who spends what on motoring in the UK?, AA, Basingstoke, 1996, p2. through-ticketing and area travel cards, The European Centre for Infrastructure and comprehensive information for Studies showed, in a survey of about passengers. Public transport is well-used 3,000 links of the national road networks in mainland Europe. Of course, there is in 19 European countries, that 24 per also excellent (but often isolated) public cent of UK links were congested for more transport in parts of Britain, but this is than one hour and that the UK’s record not the general rule. Outside urban was second only to Poland. areas, the situation is not so good. As in much of Britain, a car is essential for During the 1980s and 1990s, transport normal rural life. planning went out of fashion in Britain and provision of public transport was Many measures for vulnerable road- increasingly left to commercial users have come from mainland Europe – enterprises. In mainland Europe, the first pedestrianised shopping street although the operation of many bus was in Essen (in 1952), extensive services and some railways was privatised, infrastructure for cyclists is in place in the planning of public transport many countries, and the Dutch have led remained a government function. the way with their version of “home zones”. Without similar investment it is In France, for example, urban unlikely that, for example, the UK target transport involves two bodies: a of doubling cycling by 2002 (compared The Netherlands: Amsterdam’s lively market municipality or group of municipalities with 1996 levels) will be achieved. draws in both local people and tourists 34 Transport tax and spend

he governments of almost every investment can be due to high taxation or TOTAL ROAD TAXATION European country use their low investment. Another way to examine RELATIVE TO GOVERNMENT SPENDING ON ROADS, 1996 Tmotorists as sources of general tax and spend is to normalise both by GDP revenue. Except for Luxembourg, (to correct for “ability to pay”). In 1996 D European governments collect more the UK was towards the top of the range taxation from motorists than they spend in terms of taxation, with a total road tax CH on providing and maintaining roads. The of 3.7 per cent of GDP, and since then the latest complete comparisons are from fuel tax escalator will have moved the UK DK 1996. International Road Federation even further up the scale.

FIN figures show ratios ranging from 1.6 times as much taxation as expenditure in Although road taxation was introduced E Switzerland to more than 5 times in the across Europe to pay for roads, the extent Netherlands and Austria. In 1996, the UK to which tax has been related to I collected 4.8 times as much tax as it expenditure over time has varied. The invested in roads, and was towards the Germans and Swiss have maintained the S high end of the European countries. But strongest investment link. Finland and these 1996 figures almost certainly badly Italy have both high taxation (Italy F understate the current UK mismatch. because it is one of the few reliable means

UK Previous AA studies estimate that in the of raising funds for the Exchequer) and UK in 1997/98, road taxation was 5.3 high expenditure; Austria has high NL times government investment in roads. taxation and low expenditure. AA research This difference has escalated year by year, shows that 82 per cent of motorists believe A with above-inflation increases in fuel that the high taxation and low

0123456 duty over seven successive Budgets expenditure in the UK is unacceptable. Total road taxes/government spending on roads matched by reductions in roads spending. Government spending on road In 1996 the UK taxed high and invested little. The picture is worse today A high ratio of taxation relative to construction, maintenance and

TOTAL ROAD TAXATION RELATIVE TO GDP, 1996 TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT 6 1.8 RELATIVE TO GDP, 1994

1.6 5 1.4

4 1.2

1.0 3 0.8

2 0.6 Taxation as a percentage of GDP Taxation Investment as a percentage of GDP 0.4 1 0.2

0 0.0 L CH D NL DK E S F UK A FIN I DK UK NL B I A F IRL FIN D L S E P

High in 1996; higher now thanks to the UK’s controversial fuel tax escalator The UK was second-bottom to Denmark in terms of transport investment 35 Planning and paying for transport

Minimum expectations…

“We have matched spending to our priorities. For transport, these are to ensure that we properly maintain and manage our existing infrastructure and that we support the delivery of integrated transport locally to reduce congestion…”

A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone. The Government’s White Paper on the Future of Transport, July 1998, p93.

…that may not be achieved:

Austria: imaginative and creative solutions like the Europa bridge need serious investment over “We are very disappointed that many years and were built before recent cutbacks in that country the Department is still unable to estimate the extent of the operation, takes between 0.5 and 1.5 per on fuel. When the price of fuel in the cent of GDP. There are two sources of early months of 1999 was published by backlog of trunk and local road information on expenditure on roads. the European Commission in April 1999, maintenance and the cost of EU Transport in Figures 1999 provides the UK had the highest price for petrol in overcoming it …Targets must be estimates for EU member states for 1994, Europe. After the March 1999 Budget in and the IRF provides figures for a wider the UK, the tax-take from petrol was 85 set for the elimination of this range of countries for 1996. The UK is per cent and this is not exceeded backlog over ten years. Priority towards the lower end of the range of anywhere in Europe. The situation for should be given to the countries for both sources. diesel fuel is even more extreme: diesel in the UK cost 1.01 euro/litre in early 1999 maintenance of the more In the UK a relatively high proportion while most countries were in the range heavily used roads.” of the total road taxation comes from tax 0.60 to 0.67 euro/litre. House of Commons Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs Committee Fifteenth Report, Departmental Annual Report 1999 and Expenditure Plans 1999-2002, July 1999, para. 58. PRICE OF 95 OCTANE LEAD FREE PETROL AND FRACTION 1.0 OF THE PRICE THAT IS TAX, 1999 PRICE 0.9 TAX FRACTION UK POST-MARCH 1999 BUDGET 0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2 Price (euro/litre), and fraction of price that is tax Price (euro/litre),

0.1

0.0 L EL E IRL P A D DK B I F FIN S NL UK Austria: trams, like these in Vienna, offer an The UK petrol prices and tax-take are the highest in Europe attractive choice for some trips 36 When things go wrong

adly, not all visits to mainland Europe and agencies such as ferry companies for by British motorists go smoothly. the remainder. SCommon problems involve break- downs, accidents and theft from cars. In 1998 the AA’s French Operations Centre handled just under 80,000 calls for In 1998 about 3.5 million trips were assistance and its European Operations made to mainland Europe, with an Centre more than 61,000. average of 2.5 passengers per car. Almost a third of travellers went without any Emergency repairs were provided to cover other than their basic motoring those covered by AA Five Star: spare parts insurance. The AA provided additional were sent to stranded motorists; travel cover through its Five Star scheme to costs were reimbursed and hotel bills about a quarter, all other motoring paid; vehicles were repatriated and organisations together for about a third, chauffeurs were sent to drive cars home when owners were taken ill abroad.

DURATION OF TRIPS TO EUROPE BY UK MOTORISTS 25 WITH THEIR CAR, 1998 Drivers who take day trips to mainland Europe are only half as likely to take out breakdown cover as those who take short 20 breaks of one or two nights away or those who go for longer. 15 Just as British motorists experience

10 problems in Europe, so do other motorists in their own countries. Road

Percentage of motorists with car Percentage accident risk has been dealt with on 5 pages 22-23. It is interesting also to compare the call-out rates for roadside 0 1 day 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-12 13-14 15 plus assistance (usually as a result of only nights nights nights nights nights nights breakdown) from some of the European Day trips and the annual holiday dominate motoring organisations and the motorists that they cover, and to compare the theft PERCENTAGE OF MOTORISTS WHO ARE VICTIMS OF CAR CRIME, 1996 of and from cars in various countries. 10 National temperament and culture and 9 THEFT OF CAR the age and characteristics of the car parc 8 THEFT FROM CAR contribute to differences. 7

6 In the 20 countries surveyed there was

5 a range of call-out rates. Most motoring organisations can expect calls for 4 assistance each year from between one in 3 two and one in four motorists covered. 2 Percentage of owners victims once or more Percentage 1 There are a number of exceptions, 0 almost certainly caused by local custom A FIN CH Northern S NL F Scotland England Ireland & Wales and practice and the conditions of the Theft of cars is 15 times more likely in England and Wales than in Switzerland cover. For example, far fewer motorists in 37 When things go wrong

Breakdown cover: about a third of UK motorists take the risk of having none when they go abroad

Sweden and Iceland make use of the Northern Ireland, this possibly related to service – one in 30 and one in 32 terrorist activity. It is estimated that the respectively. This may be because of the ratio of unreported:reported theft from The AA: helping to support the UK’s first greater self-reliance or car reliability vehicles in Britain is about 2:1. complete network of air ambulances required in the northern climate, or even geographical remoteness from help. CALL-OUTS FROM SELECTED EUROPEAN MOTORING CLUBS In Greece, the situation is reversed and Country Membership (m) Rank order of motorists use the service on average estimate at call outs almost twice a year. The Automobile and end 1998 per member, Touring Club of Greece (ELPA) blames this 1998 (1 – high)* Greece 0.142 1 on an aged car parc, poorly-maintained Spain 0.786 2 roads, “indifference to car maintenance” Belgium 0.898 3 and “Mediterranean temperament”. UK (AA) 9.474 4 ELPA also has a strong service tradition of Ireland (AA) 0.185 5 not limiting the frequency with which Austria 1.292 6 those covered may call for assistance, no Italy 1.250 7 matter how trivial the request. Portugal 0.180 8 The Netherlands 3.460 9 Theft of and from cars also shows Lithuania 0.017 10 great variation between countries. Of Slovenia 0.101 11 those surveyed in the 1996 International Hungary 0.302 12 Crime Victimisation Survey, theft of and Switzerland 1.369 13 from cars was greatest in England and Czech. Republic 0.216 14 Germany** 13.898 15 Wales, followed by Scotland. Cyprus 0.009 16 Finland*** 0.070 17 The incidence of car crime in France is Norway 0.420 18 similar to that in Scotland but the other Sweden 0.120 19 countries in the survey all experienced less Iceland 0.019 20 crime, some substantially less. However, it * member benefits and assistance practice varies between motoring organisation is notable that the proportion of the theft ** the ADAC is an association of a number of clubs Roadside assistance: call out rates vary from *** Autoliitto: assistance also provided to some non-members of to theft from cars is relatively high in country to country 38 Lessons from Europe

enmark and its anomalous car tax situation aside, in the EU only Greece, Ireland and Portugal, historically three of the least prosperous Dcountries, have a substantially lower car ownership than the UK. Car- use in the UK is near the EU average.

Some aspects of transport the UK does as well as, if not better than, its EU partners – road safety is an obvious example. But in other areas the UK does not compare well. It has performed poorly in planning, investment and implementation, and in day-to-day management of the roads and transport system. Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, has recognised this.

Motorists’ major concerns (outlined on pages 26-31) are “me issues” – what “Anybody who travels on our roads and railways motorists pay, what they get in return, their personal security as they travel, knows that after years of neglect and under- investment, Britain suffers from an overcrowded, and the frustrations such as congestion that they put up with on the way. The under-financed and under-maintained transport actions that need to be taken come from these concerns. system.” Gordon Brown MP, 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review

What motorists Taxation too high – investment too low pay The UK has taxed high and invested low. It should invest to the same level as Europe if its transport system is to be made as good as the rest of Europe – typically double today’s annual amount of £6 billion. Of all the reasons for Britain’s transport poverty, it is the failure to invest that is the key. Poor planning and low quality of design and implementation all flow from a basic failure to invest.

The fuel tax escalator – stop it now The UK’s fuel tax escalator, introduced under a “green” cloak to raise revenue, must be scrapped immediately.

Road pricing? – no thanks! The diversion of motoring taxes to other programmes is common across Europe. The survey shows the current concerns in the Netherlands and Scotland about controversial proposals in both countries to charge motorists new additional amounts for driving on

Awareness up: existing roads. However, road tolls, collected by a the AA Fair private company or independent authority, are broadly Deal for Motorists tolerated across Europe, where it is clear that the money campaign raised is flowing directly into the provision of new roads, bridges and 39 Lessons from Europe tunnels. No country in Europe has implemented a system of road pricing that manages the demand for roads by matching it to the supply available. Government must re-build the trust that what motorists pay will be spent on better roads and transport.

Car prices – why pay more? The UK’s private buyers pay more for their new cars than anyone else in Europe. The obstacle course involved in buying a right- hand-drive car abroad has hampered a competitive market. The introduction of the euro, and the information on dealers and agents now available on the Internet, is assisting greater transparency in European pricing. Exemplary fines have been imposed on car manufacturers for anti-competitive behaviour. There are currently privileged exemptions from full competition for car manufacturers and dealers but From the Austrians and Dutch: “No!” to new tolls for old roads these expire in 2002. In the past, these special exemptions have brought advantages to the consumer for servicing and spare parts. If a new exemption deal does not bring clear advantage to the consumer, the exemption should be scrapped.

Car crime – unacceptably high Personal security The UK should not have to accept that it has the worst car crime rate in Europe. Improving enforcement, securing car parks and increasing motorists’ and safety awareness of how to protect themselves will help. Manufacturers must continue to make their vehicles ever more secure.

Road safety – courtesy and care The UK has one of the best road safety records in Europe and is more concerned about road safety than most other European nations. By comparison with Europe, the UK’s driving standards and attitudes to issues such as drink-driving are enviable. Despite the UK’s success, there remains huge scope to reduce deaths and casualties and the UK must watch for new ideas coming from mainland Europe. As in other parts of Europe, there is also a need to counter irresponsible behaviour on ever more crowded and Gender: women have greater concerns than men stressful roads. about personal security

Land-use planning – a long-term issue Transport planning Where people live, work, shop and spend leisure time determines where and how far they travel. It is generally accepted that the UK and the Netherlands led Europe in following the American pattern of decentralisation of people and jobs that is common in post-industrial societies. Going farther and to widely dispersed places goes some way to explaining the UK’s long commute times and low patronage of public transport, and is consistent with a flexible labour market. Measures currently being put in place to counter some of the excesses of bad land-use planning must continue. Other countries are also struggling with these issues. 40

Strategic planning – no more snakes and ladders Upgrades to the UK’s roads and transport system take generations to come to fruition and what is then delivered is often far less than originally conceived. A proper debate and consultation on what needs to be done must be followed by clear, realistic and financeable decisions on what to implement by when. Programmes should take no more than 5-7 years to deliver.

Enabling authorities plan and commission Successful European transport systems typically have an enabling strategic authority overseeing the total roads and transport service. That body commissions services from service providers. The UK turned its back on strategic Investment in quality: France’s concessionaire planning in the 1980s but is now seeking to reintroduce it. The planned companies have spent well Strategic Rail Authority and election of a London Mayor, echoing London’s Parisian counterpart, are opportunities. In London, the Mayor’s electoral authority must be harnessed to reverse chronic road and transport decline and provide an example of a better way forward for the rest of Britain.

The UK’s strategic road network – congestion and missing links

Investment in quality: a planning system that The UK has the sparsest motorway network in Europe for its size and shows what will be provided and when population density, and the worst congestion. The M1, M6 and M25 each carry 2-3 times the traffic burden of motorways doing a similar job in many parts of Europe. Bypasses are decades overdue and there remain many gaps in the network. The UK’s regions are also poorly served. Major road building programmes through greenfield sites is now unacceptable but a third of all traffic is on motorways and trunk roads. The core network must be given the capacity to cope and so stop traffic drift onto unsuitable town and country roads. The solutions are traffic management, targeted widening (using tunnels on the European model wherever there are pressing environmental constraints), and priority lanes where they are justified (but these must be additional, not replacements).

Transport choice – can make a small but important difference Britain has invested too little in quality modes of transport to make them attractive alternatives to the car. Many of the UK’s buses and trains are shabby and downmarket compared with their European equivalents. Better public transport can and should carry more of the transport strain – it can win a greater market share of travel in some critical corridors or urban centres. But better public transport can only reduce the amount of overall travel by car at the margin. 41 Lessons from Europe

Toxic emissions and air quality – getting better Vehicle emissions Ever-tightening pan-European regulations introduced since 1992 and better technology mean that levels of toxic emissions from vehicles, and particularly from cars, have fallen quickly. This rapid fall will continue across Europe as new, cleaner vehicles replace older dirty ones. The UK must now raise awareness of the importance of vehicle maintenance, take enforcement action against the wilful gross polluter, advocate yet further tightening of heavy diesel regulations in light of technology development, and seek fair and efficient ways to scrap the oldest, most polluting vehicles.

Fuel efficiency – technology not taxation Following the Kyoto conference, Europe is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 8 per cent of their 1990 levels in the period 2008- 2012. European motorists will achieve their full share of this cut in emissions, and save money, as a result of the agreement between car manufacturers and the European Commission to develop and sell more fuel-efficient vehicles. The UK government, however, has accepted that the UK should have a 12.5 per cent share and even has a “goal” for a 20 per cent reduction. The practical consequences or sense of this higher national commitment have not been sufficiently explained to, or debated with, Britain’s motorists. The government must make clear if and why it expects Britain’s motorists to carry a significantly greater burden than other European motorists.

Investment in quality: the Netherlands’ culture of cycling, supported by good infrastructure

Quality and design – getting the detail right New ideas Britain needs to adopt the best of European design. The Dutch have invested 9,68 to provide “home zones” and an appropriate scale, pace and place for cyclists and pedestrians in the road hierachy; the Germans led in pedestrianisation Extraction Air frais and many have followed; the French have provided innovation and architectural appeal in the design of noise barriers and have put a high 2,55 priority on the treatment of noise. 1,00

Technology and innovation – tomorrow’s answers now Extraction Air frais Despite the fact that many other parts of Europe do not generally have the traffic density and congestion encountered in the UK, they do have greater ability to cope with incidents and congestion when they do appear. The Innovation under construction: a new path for Dutch, for example, have incident management and speed and automatic motorists means less traffic in Versailles lane control to a much greater extent than exists in the UK. The UK’s M25 variable speed limit trial has shown (after early problems) the scope for using technology for better traffic management. With growing technological convergence of systems on the road, in the car, and mobile communications, there is major scope for raising the quality of road management and information services to Britain’s motorists in future. 470 70 E39 Lillehammer E16 525 Mora

122 7 190 42 Bergen E16 363 257 Kinsarvik E6 7 45 13 61 N E18 OSLO E134 E18 11 E18 39 Karlstad 112

E 342 European 163 227 Stavanger 330 E6 road links 256 317 E39 E20 E18 293 Inverness A E4 96 170 Kristiansand 151 A82 40 Göteborg Jönköping 270 A9 Aberdeen A90 A82 254 202 240 E39 E 11 6 Aalborg / A9 E 2 E45 0 Glasgow 90 M Edinburgh 229 M74 75 M8 E4 A1 261

Londonderry 155 229 Århus Helsingborg 11 E A6 A77 A 173 47 Stranraer 7 N15 250 M A75 64 E22 2 4 (M 9 Sligo 69 Newcastle E45 KØBENHAVN A28 202 A upon Tyne Carlisle ) E20 Malmö N16 Belfast 96 Odense E20 M E20 M1 Esbjerg 73 6 E20 203 N17 A1 11 E47 A1(M 143 N 4 168 E45 N1 GBM 194 DK IRL 213 156 Galway A65 5

220 M6 184A7 E47 N6 DUBLIN Leeds E45 Kiel 105 N7 62 Hull N18 Liverpool M

71 264 A7 199 E47 105

M6 Manchester A23 E45 101 Rostock Limerick A55 A1 N21 N24 142 1 A1 1 105 E65 N11 197 A A19 M Lübeck 303 A5 200 GB E22 A24 E251 248 E26 E55 N25 M54 Cork Waterford 42 A28E22 101 Hamburg N22 A27 M 69 E28 199 196 7E22 119 287 A487 Birmingham M A17 Norwich 1E22 E26/E55A24 M A A 142 6 A14 Bremen 152 E234 E45 127 M A31 A11 E22 40 194 185 A28 70 A7 A11 M5 M

) M50 1 E37 M4 AMSTERDAMA7 164 A14 A6 BERLIN A1 Oxford 11 A1 1(M A2 E19 A30E30 288 M A A12 E30 E30 188 Den Haag A4 E30 Hannover A13 Cardiff Arnhem E30 M4 M4 LONDON Rotterdam Bielefeld A2 E51 NL A 1 178 Magdeburg 200 210 3 3 A9 A M5 A34 M20 E35 A M3 E45 130 VlissingenA58 A27 A2E34 333 A30 Southampton 125 E312 A50 A44 7 E Oostende A67 A Dover Brugge A67 E34 Essen E331 D A27 A23 A2 E55 Plymouth A35 A A45 221 A38 A31 10 4 E34 E25 Leipzig

Calais E A1 A4 E40 A13 Portsmouth A259 A26 A 40 7Antwerpen 187 2 197 E1 A13 210 E42 5 BRUSSEL/ B Köln Erfurt 417 E E15 A4 4 498 Dresden BRUXELLES A3 0 E40 /E A1696E40 A3 E40 N1 Lille 4 A4 E40 1 5 41Chemnitz E42 Bonn A 8 E5 LiègeA60 E4

GBA A26 E19 A1 125 Charleroi E42 A3 A7 A72 A2 E411 A4 E35 GBG Amiens A26 Cherbourg A48 A61 E45 A29 171 E31 A3 Le Havre E44228 E41 E12 A28 GBJ 290 E17 L E51 E25 A1 A93 N13 255 N89 Frankfurt 231 A3E45 ± D6 Rouen E15 Plze 240 am Main A9 324 A16 Caen N158 A13 N51 5 D5 A1 Reims LUXEMBOURG E50 139 Nürnberg Brest A6 A E50 St Malo 216 144 E41 E50 234 N138 E05 A A6 26 N12 N137 E50 4E50/E25 PARIS A4 1 88 A 8 250 Metz A4 E25 E43 4 A A9 Regensburg A10 E17 96 E 297 A7 E45 A81 E05 A3 3 N165 A Nancy Stuttgart E Rennes E50 E50 93 56 A26 A A11 116 5 E05 A A5 279 E60 136 176 6 Strasbourg A8 E15 N E41 A8E52 125 E53 E35/E52 A7 Le Mans 10 Orléans E21 E52 92 Lin E03 57 N137 N138 A A5E54 203 191 A A8 A71 A81 E43 106 E E23 A11 60 A31 München E56 N77 N83 E35 A10 206 A8 E09 200 171 A96 E /E60 319 45 Nantes Tours E05 A5 43 A8E52 A1 A E E45 A

6 E21 Basel 18 61 93 N76 E15 A95 Salzburg N 8 1 N 1 N151 A3 3 1 4 E60 9 404 A 172 Dijon A36 90 A12 A A83 Bourges 241 A2 Zürich 409 2 Innsbruck 10 N148 282 N151 A1 A1 A13 329 A3 S16 E55 5 N147 E2 BERNE35 2 FL E60 E45 SS49 332 A71 F 1 E66 100

E15 191 E62 A E05 / 13 6 345 43 0 25 176 CH Bolzano/ S A E 5 1 A20 E11 A A40 E S5 E A E Bozen 1 E21 A1 A9 2 2 Limoges A40 Genève 62 259 A E09 Clermont- A72

E70 1 S Ferrand 42 E21 A40 A27 179 A A26 161 E45 Lyon SS2 N21 293 A5 /E70 A SS26 2 181 E25 2 E N89 A41 E55 43 A9 E64 A N89 E70 A20 105 A A4 1 N E35 A4 T Bordeaux A47 E70 286 138 Verona 4 204 4 6 A4 8 A Milano Bréscia A75 Venézia 287 A22 109 N140 A32 127 La Coruña/ 301 49 Grenoble E64 E70

NVI A E70 Torino E55 N20 A Coruña 262 381 7 A21 E45 A 197

N634 A6 E70 A62 E15 25 331 A21 A26 A 130 1E35 A13 184 N88 298 E E70/E05 D933 A7 E72 E717 SS309 E1 Oviedo Santander E9 196 A15

N N634 10 N75 E31

9 Bologna N124 A1

VI San N N88 N9 A 286 Sebastián/ A A Génova E35 317 Bilbao/ 7 N85 A12 E70 Donostia 64 A9 85 N120 A68 Nîmes E7 N202 E80 246 Vigo A66 111 630 Bilbo 63 Toulouse N2 Pau 414 A E15 14 441 A10 RSM N A8 N525 150 155 A11 32 3 E712 Firenze N525 N627 1 E80 195 N117 A Nice N 6 144 Montpellier A51A8 E76 SS3 274 1E80 E80 MC A68 N Pisa 371 N611 A1 8 Pamplona/

1 E 601 3 / N20 148 A50 5 A14 620 E 15 Marseille A1 A Iruñea IC N A4 IP4E82 NVI Burgos A 192 Perúgia E15 E35 Andorra la Vella E55 2 467 298 261 388 A9 Perpignan SS1 Porto N A68 N330 AND E 289 Valladolid 4 Bastia 5 IP5 E07 353 E5 266 SS3

N620 I E80

E1 E80 Salamanca N A24 1 378 N601 N111 Zaragoza 153 153

A C1313 E80 N5 185 141 A 318 0 0 A2 12 A24 185 N62 1 E90 NII E90 A2 N193 N17 E82 A6 E15 E80 218 NII 326 E90 A7 Ajaccio 170 118 9 1 N198 IC2 A V ROMA A1 P 287 MADRID Barcelona E4 N1 E /IP1 8 Bonifacio E N 337 2 / 362 III A1 1 329 E E901 N630 NV E90 N N234 IV E15 Ólbia N LISBOA N301 A7 Sassari SS597 A6/ IP E90 SS131 SS199 A2 351

274 A 105 256 NIII Mérida 301 31 dcn SS131 IP8 N Palma 341 260 Valencia 201 Albacete A7 295 SS131 C715 IP1 N430 E15 1 E05 E N433 N330 N630 166 N120 N1 Córdoba 187 2 IP1 NIV N301 Cágliari Lagos E1 449 A49 149 NIVE05 86 E Alicante 1 247 134 Faro Sevilla Murcia 305 340 N 32 256 A4 N323 N342 3 5 260 N 0 N3 N332 P Cádiz E 42 Granada N3 Málaga N 40 340 E15 A 29

E5 GBZ A S Tanger Gibraltar

ALGER Ouahran Ksontina TUNIS 75 6 307 M10 Lahti E12 7E18 E63 103 381 E75 4 1 E18 Sankt-Peterburg Turku/ 164 HELSINKI/ E4 7 Åbo HELSINGFORS E20 0 S M11 43 European road links 322 1E20 Uppsala 381 TALLINN 283 E18 M10 M7 E95 8 STOCKHOLM 20 M 192 E20 M 694 Örebro 4 166 EST E4 307 Norrköping M20

168 A1 E4 283 RUS A2 MOSKVA

M2 400 M5 ¯ 543 RIGAA7 325 A9 E22 LV E30 M1 494

A

11 A10 291 502 A

1 3 LT 371

Klaipéda A2 M3 E95 A1 319 M2 VILNIUS 1 E30 M A3 RUS M12 213 335 MINSK The countries with the greatest 105 185 A229 A4 Kaliningrad 248 M20 population density also have the 259 M13 Gdansk´ 291 greatestA142 density of motorway 7 SU E28 324 E7 6 7 22 1 (kilometre313 of road per square 5 Gomel M2 303 354 Bialystok E95 E93 363 kilometre of land). France and Spain Szczecin E75 346 Bydgoszcz 161 M3 8 18 E30 10 10 196 1 M13 have more motorway than might be E261 7 M 622 3 1 E7 E 7 6 E75 5 expected but the UK has less than 5 PL WARSZAWA198 2 E30 Brest 89 Kharkiv A2 E30 Poznan 308 the European Union average despite E30 M14 20 0 283 2 KYÏV M E261 E67 its population density. Germany and 19 E40 A15 331 M 484 330 175 345 E40 E36 A12 M17 537 the Benelux countries, at the 8 E67 295

A4 A256 4E40 E40 E77 4 crossroads ofM2 Europe, have well Wroclaw E75 3 UA E95 5 E40 1 developed motorways catering for 267 M

335 20 E65 Lviv 391 E55 278 E67 Kraków 0 E40 M14 1 8 A267 E93 transit traffic. To the north and east, 4 489 D11 E67 35 7 E40 A259 E442 295 countries have little provision, but PRAHA 61 CZ E77 E462 4 E D1 E461 43 E50 35 59 they are on the edge of Europe, /E 17 6 46 M14 387 D1 E50 M 38 61 E50 Chernivtsi E59Brno 50 628 either with low population 257 331 /E50 MD E75 322 E55 SK E85

D M23 3

2 densities or have experienced

E77 E65 303 CHISINÀU M 7 66 D61 E573 189 14 nz 2 E58 under-development behind the E71 4 313 E60 1 Odessa A1 WIEN BRATISLAVA 1 241 173 3 E7 113 M3 former Iron Curtain. M 192 A A2 1 E60/E75 BUDAPEST E60 E59 4 E581 1 E60 A9 24 Simferopol' E57 318 H 252 Oradea

5 11 A2 E66/E71 E75 7 E671 Graz E73 E71 M E66 357 6 79 RO 379 E574 E65/ 7 476 Klagenfurt 168 E61 208 7 73 57 E81 E85 218 E 2 SLO LJUBLJANA Pécs 2 69 Timisoaraç E59 2 E ZAGREB 59 7 1E70 5 E70 65 6 E A1 Trieste Novi Sad 162 E70 Pitestiç E70 BUCURESTI 426 E6512 385 3

HR 1 E70 1-9 325 113 E 275 7 E70 E70 0 73 65 124 / 5 BEOGRAD E 8 16 E87 Craiova 9 156 6 Ruse 5 E70 2 BIH 22 1 A2 E7 E65 5 5 5 5E761 237 198 Varna 18 E83 Samsun 464 3 324 SARAJEVO 81 482 YU 17 Ni 1-12E80 Burgas Split ´ BG 21 8 2 161 A2 347 E80 8 9 100 E73 5/E E6 2 203 SOFIYA A1 414 2 E75 E80 E87 Dubrovnik 1 8 E89 Plovdiv 555 E65 385 O 5 Podgorica 150 184 Istanbul -4 E88 E80 E80 O-4 354 200 0-3 E80 4 Pescara 178 SKOPJE 4 18 E8 115 ANKARA E75 5 A25 320 1 0 663 E87 E90 MK 246 2 E9 Bursa 80 A14 200 200 124 TR E5 E65 E90 5 302 550 45 I TIRANË 26 200 E90 247 220 750 2 AL 592 84 Thessaloníki E90 E A14 550 A1 Bari Napoli Bríndisi E87 479 E75

A3 154 SS7 96 472 E45 E90 SS16 300 E 462 0 278 1 Lárisa S O- 565

S 6 30 Adana 206 E92 650 E92 456 52 Igoumenitsa 368 Izmir 0- EL E90 E55 O-32 320E87 237 1 E75 569

550 350 Antalya 535 400 205 E94 AT H ÍNA E45 Pátra 8A E65 3 A 400 Messina Ammóchostos A20 Réggio di Calábria LEFKOSÍA Palermo263 E65 (Gazimagusa) E90 E45 7 (LEFKOSA) A19 SS113 92 A19 Kalamáta A18 CY Lárnaka S 210 A1 S11 Catánia 489 Episkopi E45

Chaniá Irakleío E75 90 44

Sources and Abbreviations Photographs references TSGB (year) Photographs were provided with the Transport Statistics Great Britain, (year) kind permission and assistance of the AA Department of the Environment, Editorial Picture Library and the sources Transport and the Regions, listed below: The Stationery Office, London, annual. Page 9 – Boulogne, 1925: National Motor TT 1997 Museum; Le Shuttle: AA Membership Travel Trends – A report on the 1997 Photo Library. international passenger survey Office for National Statistics, The Stationery Office, Page 17 – France: A6/A31 motorway: AA London, 1998. Membership Photo Library.

EU 1999 Page 19 – Ford: National Motor Museum. Transport in Figures, EU web site europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg07, 1999. Page 21 – Germany: National Motor Museum; Britain: AA Motoring Policy Omnicar Unit. Omnicar 1998 Survey; motoring abroad questions. Results provided by the AA. Page 23 – Accidents: Euro NCAP; Speeding: AA Motoring Policy Unit. Europcar 1993 The Pan European Motorist Report 1993, Page 25 – Noise barrier in Paris 20e: Mairie Europcar, Paris. de Paris.

SARTRE 2 Page 27 – Fuel costs: AA Motoring Policy The attitude and behaviour of European Unit; “White van man”: AA Motoring car drivers to road safety – SARTRE 2 Policy Unit; Investment: AA Motoring reports, INRETS, F-94114 Arcueil, April Policy Unit. 1998. Page 31 – Car crime: AA Motoring Policy World Automotive Statistics Unit. Motor Industry of Great Britain 1998 – World Automotive Statistics Society of Page 37 – Breakdown cover, Helicopter Motor Manufacturers and Traders, and Touring Club Suisse: AA Membership London, 1998. Photo Library.

Motor Vehicle Data Pages 38-41 – Gordon Brown: Rex Motor Vehicle Data – 998 edition AAMA Features; Road pricing: Österreichischer American Automotive Manufacturing Automobil-, Motorrad- und Touring Club; Association, Washington DC, 1998. Stop pay as you drive: Koninklijke Nederlandse Toeristenbond ANWB; Gerondeau Gender: AA Membership Photo Library; C Gerondeau Transport in Europe Artech French motorway: Autoroutes du Sud de House Inc, Boston and London, 1998. la France, (Benoit Pesle); Map of French motorway: Ministère de L’Équipement, Living conditions in Europe des Transports et du Logement; Cyclist: Living conditions in Europe – selected AA Motoring Policy Unit; Tunnel: social indicators. EUROSTAT, Office Cofiroute. for Official Publications, Luxembourg/HMSO London. Pages 42-43 – Map: ©AA Cartographic. 45 Sources and references

Sources Conference of Ministers of Transport, Pages 22-23 Charts – Car occupant Paris, 1998. Prosperity: figures are deaths: TSGB 1998, Table 8.7. Total road Pages 8-9 Charts – Visits to mainland GDP/person in PPP (purchasing power deaths, 1995: TSGB 1998, Table 8.7; Total Europe: TT 1997, Table 2.08 plus TSGB parity), EU 1999, Table 1.3. vehicles, 1995: TSGB 1998, Table 8.3. 1979, Table 1.15; TSGB 1987 Table 1.5; Drivers concerned about accidents and TSGB 1998 Table 1.9. How often do Pages 14-15 Charts – Travel by non-car road accident deaths; road accident British motorists take their car abroad? land transport, by car and by all land deaths per 100,000 population; TSGB Omnicar survey, 1998. Parts of mainland transport: EU 1999, Tables 5.2 (car, 1997); 1998, Table 8.7. Drivers concerned about Europe visited: TT 1997, Table 6.07. 5.3 (powered 2-wheelers, 1995); 5.4 road accidents: SARTRE 2, Table 2.1. International Passenger Transport, DOT, (buses and coaches, 1997); 5.5 (tram and Driving through amber lights: SARTRE 2, HMSO, 1990; Table 3.6b. Port Statistics, metro, 1997); 5.6 (railways, 1997); 5.8a Figure 2.7. Drivers exceeding the speed DOT, HMSO, 1996; Table 2.7b. Departures (bicycle, 1995). Totals by summing limit: SARTRE 2, Table 5.1. from British ports: TSGB 1998, Table 1.11, separate modes. Time spent commuting: Text – People deciding how much they EU plus rest of Western Europe. Living conditions in Europe, Pages 108 can safely drink before driving: SARTRE 2, Text – Three times as many British and 109. Original data, Second European Figure 3.2. Percentage of cars exceeding motorists take their cars to Europe. TSGB Survey on Working Conditions 1996, speed limits in UK: TSGB 1998, Tables 4.12 1998, Table 1.11. In 1997, 7.845 million European Foundation for the and 4.13. UK residents travelled to Europe with a Improvement of Living and Working car and 2.287 million Europeans visited Conditions, Dublin. Importance of a car: Pages 24-25 Charts – Nitrogen oxide in the UK. 85 percent of British motorists Europcar 1993, Table 11. European cities: Gerondeau, Figure 42. never take their car abroard: Omnicar Passenger car fuel efficiency: AIT/FIA. survey 1998. Composition of groups Pages 16-19 Charts and text – Top five Noise levels for road vehicles: Limits are travelling: Omnicar survey 1998. makes of car: World Automotive for cars and for goods vehicles with Percentages by Channel Tunnel: TT 1997, Statistics, Table 38 (new registrations). engines of over 150 kW. Set by Directive Table 4.07. Duration of trips: Omnicar Economic data (GDP per person and 70/157/EEC relating to the permissible survey 1998. unemployment rate): EU 1999, Table 1.3. sound level and the exhaust system of Car ownership: EU 1999, Table 3.1b. motor vehicles, and Directives 77/212/EEC, Pages 10-11 Charts – Urban populations: Engine size: World Automotive Statistics, 81/334/EEC, 84/424/EEC and 92/97/EEC, all EU 1999, Table 1.5, data for 1997. Table 40 (new registrations). Power to amending Directive 70/157/EEC. Toxic Population density: EU 1999, Table 1.5, weight ratio: SARTRE 2, Chapter 8. emissions table: quoted in Consultation data for 1997. Motorway provision: Driving Licences: Guide on driver on reform of Vehicle Excise Duty to EU 1999, Tables 2.2 (km motorways at licensing 1998, CIECA (Commission ensure a cleaner environment, HM end 1996) and 1.5 (area). Internationale des Examens de Conduite Treasury 1998. Text – People moving from country to Automobile), Brussels, 1998. Where Text – Traffic noise heard in houses: town, and out of inner cities: Gerondeau, drivers live: SARTRE 2, Chapter 8. Fighting Noise OECD, Paris, 1986; Pages 7- Figure 13; ECMT, OECD 1995 page 15. Insurance: SARTRE 2, Chapter 8. Concerns: 10 and Figure 1. Air quality: Gerondeau, Ageing population: see chart, page 12. SARTRE 2, Table 2.1. Alcohol when pages 185-216 and Figures 37-42. driving, seat belt use, speeding: SARTRE Percentage of cars with catalytic Pages 12-13 Charts – Changes in inner 2, Chapter 8. Guilty of speeding and drink converters: Touring Club Suisse. city areas: ECMT, OECD, Paris, 1995, driving: SARTRE 2, Figure 5.10 and Figure 2.6. Household sizes: 1960-1980, tabulation of question 25. Pages 32-33 Charts – Journeys by bicycle: ECMT, OECD, Paris, 1995, Figure 2.8; 1985- EU 1999, Table 5.8b; data for 1991-1995. 1995, Living conditions in Europe, page Pages 20-21 Charts – New cars in various Investment by French motorway 36. Very elderly populations: original countries: Motor Vehicle Data 1998, companies: Road Handbook 1998, French data, EUROSTATS Demographic Statistics national tables. Cars by engine capacity: Ministry of Equipment, Transport and 1997. Quoted from Marcellini F, C World Automotive Statistics, Table 40. Housing, Paris La Défense F-92055, page Gagliardi and F Leonardi, Transport and Car price table: XX. Travel by bus, tram and metro: EU ageing of the population, ECMT Round europa.eu.int/comm/dg04/aid/en/car.htm 1999, Tables 5.4 and 5.5. Congested road Table 112, European Conference of Text – Vehicles from different links: State of European Infrastructure Ministers of Transport, Paris, 1998. Car manufacturers: Motor Vehicle Data 1998, 1996, European Centre for Infrastructure ownership: EU 1999, Table 3.1b. page 71, Western Europe, production Studies, Rotterdam. Text – population data: paragraphs 1 and 1994-1996. Categories of cars (superminis, Text – Motorway construction in Britain: 2; EU 1999, Table 1.5. Forecast for 2020, etc): World Automotive Statistics, Table T P Hughes Roads policy at national, Marcellini F, C Gagliardi and F Leonardi, 39. Lives of cars: Size of car fleet in 1997; regional and local levels and the role of Transport and ageing of the population, EU 1999, Table 3.2: New cars purchased in motorways in 20 years of British ECMT Round Table 112, European 1996; Motor Vehicle Data 1998. Motorways, Institution of Civil 46

Sources and Engineers, London, February 1980. Acknowledgements Kilometres of motorways in France: Road references Handbook 1998 French Ministry of Researched and written by Equipment, Transport and Housing, Paris Dr C G B (Kit) Mitchell and La Défense F-92055. Kilometres of Dr Steve Lawson. motorways in Britain: TSGB 1979, Table 2.56c; TSGB 1998, Table 3.18. Trans- Policy and direction from John Dawson European Networks: Trans-European and Bert Morris. Networks Report, Office for Official Editing by David Tattersall. Substantial Publications of the European assistance from Sheila Jackson. Communities, Luxembourg, 1995. Survey research (pages 26-31) from Organisation of public transport in Capibus European omnibus survey, France: EU The Citizens Network – June-July 1999, commissioned and Fulfilling the potential of public transport analysed with AA Market Research. in Europe European Commission Green Paper, Brussels, 1996, Page 44. Other assistance generously provided by Pedestrianisation: A A Wood The the following: Allgemeiner Deutscher Pedestrian in Social and political Automobil-Club e.V, Automobile Club consequences of the motor car, ed. P M d’Italia, British Road Federation, Brittany Townroe, David and Charles, Newton Ferries Information Bureau, DETR Abbot, 1974. Statistics, National Motor Museum, Danish Ministry of Transport, The Pages 34–35 Charts – Road taxation European Commission Transport relative to government spending: World Directorate-General, The European Road Statistics 1999, Tables X and XI. Data Commission Representation in the United for 1996. Separate calculations for Kingdom, Direction des Routes, Ministère Germany and the UK – details available de l’Équipement, des Transports et du from the authors. The GDP for Germany Logement, Norges Automobil-Forbund, in 1995, 1,622,300 m SDR, is assumed to Oil Price Assessment Limited, SWOV, apply in 1996. Transport infrastructure Touring Club Suisse, Transport Research investment relative to GDP: EU 1999, Laboratory Library and TRL Safety and Table 1.6. Price of petrol and fraction that Environment, World Highways and by the is tax: EU 1999, Table 1.10. following AA sources: Editorial Picture Library, Group Strategy, International Pages 36-37 Charts – Duration of trips to Development, International Services, Europe: Omnicar survey 1998. Motorists Market Research, Members’ Magazine, who are victims of car crime: Data Membership Picture Library. excerpts from the Dutch Ministry of

Justice, 1996 International crime The AA toxic tailpipe index and CO2 index victimisation survey provided by the are produced by NETCEN. Data provided European Secure Vehicle Alliance. Table: for 1998 are provisional and subject to Call-outs: the largest motoring club in change on completion of the annual each country listed. inventory for that year. Text – 3.5 million trips is the number of British cars going to Europe. The number of passengers associated with these trips is about 8 million. Crime: Home Office.

Pages 38-41 Text – Land-use planning and decentralisation: see Hall The geographer’s and planner’s perspective Information from the AA’s report in Bannister and Hall, Transport and The Great British Motorist may be freely public policy planning pp18-22, Mansell, quoted provided the source is London 1981. acknowledged. 47 AA indices

The AA routinely collects data as part of its service to motorists and customers. AA indices Some of this information is presented as indices below, 100 being the value for the initial comparison period.

Year 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 AA index of (cash) Running 100 103 82 85 89 94 101 103 costs per mile Standing 100 107 88 89 93 97 102 106 for a 1,401-2,000 cc car Total 100 106 86 88 91 96 101 105 assuming 10,000 miles *In 1994 the index was re-calibrated to reflect the need for less frequent servicing, routine repairs and per year* replacements and to reflect the improved reliability of newer cars.

Year 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 AA fuel price survey (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) (Apr) index of cash cost, and tax Cash cost 100 110 112 120 121 130 144 154 as percentage of price Per cent tax 66 66 65 72 77 77 82 82** (unleaded petrol) **85 per cent in March 1999

Year 94 95 96 97 98 99 AA insurance index (Jul) (Jul) (Jul) (Jul) (Jul) (Jul) (cash costs for car insurance) Comprehensive 100 98 93 105 114 126 Non-comprehensive 100 98 96 106 115 127

Period 92 96 96 96 96 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 AA toxic Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 tailpipe index*** NOx 100 83 81 79 83 77 76 74 73 71 66 64 68 (all vehicles) PM10 100 83 80 77 83 73 73 69 69 68 62 59 64 CO 100 77 76 76 78 70 71 70 70 66 63 63 67 VOC 100 76 74 73 75 68 68 66 66 62 59 57 60 Benzene 100 73 71 71 72 64 64 62 62 58 52 55 51 ***Re-based October 1999

*** Period 92 96 96 96 96 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 AA CO2 index Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 (passenger cars) CO2 100 100 97 96 106 102 101 94 105 105 94 95 105 ***Re-based October 1999

Period 96 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 99 99 AA gridlock gauge Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Reported 100 116 121 134 142 153 147 147 157 154 154 incidents 48

AA Motoring Policy The AA was founded in 1905 to promote and to defend the interests of pioneer motorists. Concern for road safety was enshrined in its first Rules, and and Road Safety public affairs have remained at its heart for more than 90 years. Research Today, it is the responsibility of the AA Motoring Policy Committee to look after these interests and press for safer, cleaner and more efficient motoring. The Committee:

comprises individuals with wide business, operational and public policy experience;

is assisted by advisors of high standing in academic, government and public life, independent of party politics.

The AA Motoring Policy Committee is required to:

oversee AA policy and opinion research and ensure that it is carried out with full regard to professional and technical integrity and on the basis that it should withstand peer review or audit by experts;

ensure that AA motoring policy work is carefully matched to the concerns and aspirations of motorists, as identified through surveys and direct contact with motorists;

approve the AA stance on major issues of the day;

guide a programme of activity on issues of core concern to motorists – consumer affairs, roads and transportation, road safety and environmental matters.

Day-to-day public policy activity is undertaken by the AA Motoring Policy Unit and by a separate, independent charity, the AA Foundation for Road Safety Research, established in 1986.

Details of research undertaken by the AA Motoring Policy Unit and the AA Foundation for Road Safety Research, and research and policy publications, may be obtained from them at:

Norfolk House Priestley Road Basingstoke Hampshire RG24 9NY E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.theaa.com