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- based meritocratic reward structures reward meritocratic based - eurs, acquiring expertise in emerging in expertise eurs, acquiring stronomy and the goals ofastronomers thegoals and stronomy l reward structures? While there are are no there structures? reward lWhile dologies in astronomy? Is there an optimuman there Is astronomy? in dologies
rom 20th century astronomy that offer illustrative guidelines guidelines illustrative offer that astronomy 20throm century
disciplinary entrepren disciplinary
- *
14 2009 14 – Speaker
* Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Commons Creative theof terms the under author(s) the by owned Copyright
Discovery of Astronomical theRate Accelerating Brazil Rio Janeiro, de August11
at what worked well and what did not prove to be especially effective. presentation effective. This to especially be prove not did what and well worked what at f studies case several willprovide these questions. through thinking helpfulfindin might astronomers areas of physics, or have they been most effective when they manage to attract this tothey attract manage when effective most been they orhave of physics, areas ofcorrelation the degree Does ofphysics? disciplines thenew from expertise and talent ofa ofpatrons goals and the motives between produces production?What knowledge ofsubsequent nature and the quality influence elite robustordiscipline: more product better a regiona institutional and social, oregalitarian hint that indicators historical well may be there these, like to questions answers absolute priorities setting when does work whatnot and works aboutwhat say history can What metho and programs research fornew technologies or upon proven asbuilding such innovation, riskand between balance effective most been astronomers technologies?Have unproven new with experimenting toolor cross as builders David H. DeVorkin H. David Museum and Space Air National Institution Smithsonian USA 20560, WashingtonDC, [email protected] Back to the Future
PoS(sps5)002
, 2 to to 20th - DeVorkin
history’s history’s value: what we choose we what choose
or doing history, not predicting the future. the predicting Space Science Space Science Library, Vol. I I agree with that; at the least
. 1 as as a culture go toabout aagreeing
r characters of early and mid
1368 . - ) "Whereof "Whereof what’s past is prologue…” 1354 1997
( ,
33 1950, The Birth, Near Death, and of Resurrection a 215. 215. American Astronomical Society, 199th AAS -
- Tempest Tempest
2 nt.
askville.amazon.com/SimilarQuestions.do? , 201
) left left to the Historians.” om om
André André Heck (ed.). Astrophysics and
2002 ( 54. Fr 54.
The The U.S. National Archives has taken Shakespeare's advice, - eties eties on its surface are far too complex. William knewShakespeare ine 253 ine l ialists, congressional staffers, anyone looking for precedent as well as 1, 1,
Yerkes Yerkes Observatory, 1892 le for producing the world of astronomy we encounter today. The best webest today. The we encounter ofastronomy the world leforproducing The view from the observatory: history is too important to be left to historiansthe is be left important too history to observatory: the from view The quoted quoted passage in the
- ,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press of Chicago University Chicago: . I'll not be covering all the questions I raised in my . abstract, chosen but in have I'll my raised notall I the questions covering be
. Allan as well Allan Sandage traced has the scientific contributions evolution of and staff actII, scene actII,
,
3
astronomers astronomers need to be aware of their disciplinary history for a wide variety of reasons. rs rs and books. But implication to that these avoid any are the only works worth citing, I’ll n Tempest
Donald E Osterbrock E Donald Donald Donald E. Osterbrock, The
bservatory. 1 2 3 The of is The history all astronomy the richer for by shown interest the great astronomers. Certainly To To this preamble, and the cryptic title for my talk meant to evoke a sense of futility, I might Don Osterbrock, who Don is Osterbrock, well toknown of fromus, all talents his considerable shifted astronomy Prologue + Brief Introduction to Historical Works of Special Interest to Practicing Astronomers Astronomers toPracticing ofSpecial Interest toHistorical Works Brief Introduction Organizations and in strategies III. astronomy Past Scientific Research Institution Research Scientific In: In: 280. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Society, Astronomical American Publishers of the Bulletin #31.01; Meeting, ... century astronomy century with his biographies and institutional histories, and has lent his own particular views to works what and does not work inin especially astronomy, his study of the rise and fall and rise of the O Yerkes would be useful for practitioners seeking enlightenme seeking useful forpractitioners wouldbe 1.1 in recent years Don Osterbrock has illuminated many of the majo anecdotal, notanecdotal, encyclopedic growth in of two astronomy. The firstaspects knowledge to called be illustrate might are what important in practice “acceptable astronomy.” By that mean I how astronomers particular world view. And the second will historical deal work with I’ve conducted in taking risks. the past, and are Both therefore derivative of works pape adapted published these from are previously distilled from feelthatI astronomy of modern history the on literature historical general ofthe areview short with begin only add that knowing your history may well be useful in knowing how and why certain takenwerecertain why how usefulpaths in and well history knowing may thatbe knowing your add only responsib were time that past in can do is examine what worked well in the past, what choices were risksmade, taken, and what worked out and what didn’t, and why. Know too that this is far from a prime motivation f mine at least. Mindful that there are an infinity of contingencies to consider inproblem choice, any I process leading present to here a few ways things seemed to work out in the past. My presentation is to do today that determines our future. attractsD.C.thearchives in main its is past on Indeed, “What’s building Washington, prologue” carving more than historians: policy spec insight. Niels Bohr, people famous by however full is quotes of humorous The Web future.” aboutthe (orespecially was it Yogi Berra?) has cautioned that “Prediction is hard . . . the the extent that Given the tenor of this special session at the IAU GA, here I explore only one facet What can ofhistory say about works what and what does not work when setting priorities for research new programs and methodologies in astronomy? History can provide clues and possibly templates, but predictions. The not world and the soci this when he crafted his is telling us Shakespeare that events of oft make the past up today's world, but also that it is 1. Introductio 1. to its many ago history feeling years that, as the title to his Doggett Prize lecture at the 199th of meeting the AAS, attests “History is too toImportant be Back to the Future Backthe to PoS(sps5)002
, . 7 . The
, , pt 1, Giant 1940 - 31
DeVorkin , , Karl Hufbauer
Owen Owen Gingerich, and Matt Matt Stanley and
70.
, ) nship nship and establishes broke new ground by
1984 ( Cambridge, U.K.; York: New U.K.; Cambridge,
, The History of Astronomy from
nity this nity during time is limited . ith ith works by ) One astronomer who has made a Discovery
4 H. H. Kargon, Joseph N. Tatarewicz Astronomy? How astronomers responded Astronomy? How astronomers and and McCray’s recent study of bservatories
O Cosmic of AURA and the Observatories, National by American astronomy: community, careers, and careers, community, American astronomy: Robert Robert
y . id not why.work, and The following case February 2004 February (
cs. Cambridge [England] [England] ; York cs. New Cambridge : Cambridge
ational ational . ) N Although Harwit at Although a waslevel deeper concerned , , whose
5 3 1997 Who Speaks for
(
focused focused stud
, , and what d Space Telescope projects projects that characterize recent astronomy were both - A le cost and risk. One of the case studies I will review studieswillreview of the One case risk. le here and cost I ed
64. 64. See also Dieter B. Herrmann, Historical Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
Giant telescopes: astronomical ambition and the promise of technology of promise and the ambition astronomical Giant telescopes: Exploring the Sun: Solar Science Since Galileo AURA and its US US and its AURA
,
I, I,
(1991), (1991),
ce of funding patterns in postwar American byastronomy the author, would
American American Astronomy: Community, Careers and Power, 1859 . H. David DeVorkin, )
with with contributions by Paul A. Hanle, 1997 Century, it usefulstillCentury, very provides forhints can influence how changes these Centennial History of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Volume 1 The Mount (
, (1984). th o: University of Chicago Press of Chicago o: University
competition competition and priority setting can have profound influences on the way the . Translated and revised by Kevin Krisciunas. Cambridge: CUP Cambridge: Krisciunas. by Kevin revised and Translated . re re thoroughly than most what the discipline “astrophysics” meant to astronomers
. W. Patrick McCray . W. Patrick ) the technique. The nature ofthe technique. or that this stimulates robustness the profession restricts : Frank K. Edmondson, K. Frank :
Harvard University Harvard Press,University 2004. . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press University Cambridge UK: . Cambridge,
: k. structureHierarchical and funding patterns inchanged drastically the postwar era, of . Chicag . 1989 . (
In In both, one can see how mega but also explores the growth and continual adjustment of this relatio
6 1940 Quoted in Karl Hufbauer Allan Allan Sandage 8 John Lankford; with the assistance ofSlavings L. Ricky assistance the with John Lankford; Martin Harwit Martin - Robert W. Smith Mass .
92.
- 4 5 6 7 8
These are These but a very few of the many major works in the of history recent astronomy that feelI If If I were asked which works by historians are most illuminating of recent astronomy, but that ersity Press ersity Acceptable Practice in Astronomy Practicein Acceptable eals with acceptable practice in thediscipline. in practice with acceptable eals n his general history of solar research, (2000), 55 (2000), space telescope a: telescope space studyand NASA, science, technology, of politi Univ Cambridge, Frank Edmondson, and a reconnaissan listing this out round Press University Cambridge to government funding after World War I Wilson Observatory Wilson Hertzsprung to Herschel 1859 power, d 2. community, community, but how done. is itself science could on usefulwhat provide workperspective from studies, adapted work I've done over the years, are presented in the thathopes they will offer direct access to where instances behavior as well as new and techniques innovation, were important. The first career career paths of individuals to and appropriate as the changing nature of course, and some the of questions this is deemed captured by reading in Robert peers recent Smith’s landmark historical that study literature, but of were is the best Telescopes explored generally by influenced by the cultural values of formal and informal social structures within the modern scientific astronomy," criteria for what he calls the “robustness” of a the answers can in where to compared methodologies be terms ofa and particular question discipline, the reliability, its ability to bring different techniques and of power or fidelity has been explored in Lankford’s his Although depiction of the changing nature of the astronomical commu to the first half ofthe 20 offer that perspectives are distinctly historical, I would certainly PatrickMcCray start like scholars and younger John Lankford w Smith, Robert Hufbauer, Karl I not only explores mo over time, starting with Germans who saw it as a "coalescence" of "physics and chemistry with exploring the relationship of new techniques and new technologies, especially new telescopes, on the ratetelescopes, and new technologies, of especially new the relationship techniques new exploring of of new of discovery classes objects in the universe. with establishing guidelines and criteria for evaluating the his work astronomy, reality has widely been recognized or as a landmark statement on the importance of reliability fostering of new discoveries in face evenin of the considerab technologies new this question. addresses Back to the Future Backthe to and programming at the institution tohelped he maintain and prosper. departure significant from this pattern is Harwit Martin PoS(sps5)002
36
s based s
DeVorkin ge? ge? Size? al ributed, see: A the the foundation of
- e e fact that the dominant omposition? October 1916. Box 72.1(c), Box 1916. October
. Variously att C n a 1916 lecture he pointed 1916pointed a he n lecture
re re ofcomposed generally the same , 183. ) , , and a bit notwere ofwaiving, hand 186. nes nes to vary? The discovery that there ,
1983 . (
) lecture manuscript, lecture
ly hewn to overturn the dominant view ofthe view the todominant overturn hewn ly (1983)
dynamics
UL/HNR Kenat 4 ped with those refinements after training underwith after those training ped refinements E A
Boltzmann Boltzmann equation, or, equation,just the Boltzmann terms terms of the temperature of the gas, the pressure, and 12 -
Ralph Ralph http://quotes4all.net/quote_989.html The The spectroscopist FowlerAlfred in 1918agreed, claiming
11
1920s, equip . - ce, in western textbooks, the famous relation what what caused the widths of li
--
hen DeVorkin and DeVorkin
What What might now be taken for granted, like th --
9 Recent Work in Stellar Physics, Proceedings of the Physical Society, London Society, Physical the of Proceedings Physics, in Stellar Work Recent David David
13 Astronomers like Henry Norris Russell shared this view; i this view; shared Norris Russell like Henry Astronomers ibrary Henry Norris Russell Papers (P Russell Norris Henry ibrary ng...
Nernst's heat theorem, chemical thermo chemical theorem, heat Nernst's A. Milne, Milne, A. g g that the proportions were the same, but as each new element was discovered,
10
- Fowler, 1918, 204, quoted in DeVorkin and Kenat and DeVorkin quoted204, in 1918, Fowler, Russell, "The Scientific Approach to Christianity" Christianity" Approach to Scientific "The Russell, held opinion held in astronomy, since ever the sun, moon and planets became physical under quote from 95. from quote -
emerging emerging that promised to reveal the principles. underlying As E. A. Milne observed in proceeds, proceeds, it becomes less and less probable that the Sun contains any elements which do astronomers astronomers of that time keenly knew that such pronouncements stood on unsure ground. dward
E Often Often attributed to Carl Sagan, see: H. N. N. H. Alfred Rowland, quoted in quoted in Rowland, 113;
-- 9 10 11 12 But it was through Saha's work that a path was final was a path that work Saha's through Butitwas
understandi was Milne speaking ofhere the work of a scholar, whoBengalese Saha, Megnad young was the ...... although most observational astronomers and most typically astronomers generally, Americans and Continental Europeans, correlations were they had pretty been finding impressed and with building upon spectroscopic parallaxes, for the an observational decades mass (the luminosity empiric relation) P/L there relation, were some who worried in the late teens through 1920 that all this lacked physical But long A "Extraordinary "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" Carl Sagan once argued, regarding the 13 94
, :
inal inal form, upon based in principles chemical applied thermodynamics to Bohr Saha’s theory, theory rinceton University L University rinceton (1924) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Truzzi P relative relative abundances of the elements in the universe. Over the next decade, this with view changed the radically application of Saha’s ionization theory to orig composition studies in stellar atmospheres. In its was tonot acceptable European and who setastrophysicists, American quickly about the task of refining on it itselaborating the midand use. By Fowler made a lot of noise about them. But people like Milne were skeptical until the equation wa untilthe skeptical were likeMilne But people lotaboutthem. ofa noise Fowlermade upon theory solid practice. acceptable So and R. Milne H. Fowler the rederived relations using the statistical mechanics of gases established by Boltzmann came astrophysics, known quantitative as the Saha 1906. in died Ludwig though even first to show that there is a relationship between the appearance of a line in a spectrum and the number of relative atoms toavailable produce that line in the energy needed to ionize the element. Saha's first papers were noticed because people like Alfred was was only then 1924 may be practically identical with that of the Earth." thatof the with identical practically be may do of the What spectra about the stars reveal stars themselves? Temperature? And what about effects luminosity were relations between the spectra of stars and their brightnesses was remarkable, many and ways. was interpreted Much of stellar astronomy in 1920 was based upon empirical correlation; physical theory not here suggestin especially in 1895 when Ramsay identified helium, the conviction that there was chemical unity sway. in held cosmos the elements exist in chemical the same stars as in out the in of that Nature unity "The that the concept meant Earth to the remote limits of the universe.” that: "as work not also intoenter the composition of the Earth. seems It natural to infer that the composition of the Sun element in the sun and stars is hydrogen, was not always so. so. always wasnot is hydrogen, stars sun and in the element the telescope, scrutiny by is that they, and all in bodies the universe, a 1891 materials. In Rowland claimed that Henry "were the whole toearth be toheated the temperature of the Sun, its spectrum would probably resemble that of the Sun very closely." Of course, Rowland was Back to the Future Backthe to results of paranormal research. PoS(sps5)002
395
emed 186. 186. See - entors on entors on
DeVorkin 188, where188, o calibrate ocalibrate - was was also a
, 185 ) , 187 For the present, )
ention. ention. ugh ugh there were a 15 1983 (
When Russell When found 1983 least least an approximate
(
16 in (1984), in Heramundanis ed.,
its marginal appearance in the -- ady ady suggested that Saha’s methods could vered vered another "very much more serious
194, 194, andin DeVorkin Kenat
- 14
, in , A. in E. Glassgold, P. and J. Huggins E. L. Schucking, 5
blown blown theory was not far terribly off. - But at the usingleast, Saha’s marginal appearance technique,
magnitude magnitude limits she was her employing, assumptions se ly ly interested in analysis, her but knew that she had made many - of - ost provocative analysis, and Russell had to deal with it. with to deal had Russell and analysis, ostprovocative o a assume partial electron pressure, and a temperature provided by
restrial restrial ratios. Another student at Harvard in the spring of 1924, a An Historical Introduction to `The hand'dyer's is is the next big problem in spectroscopy; but even now we may make
205. 205. - Henry Henry Draper's Legacy Scientific 200
Payne, Payne, 1925. data "Astrophysical . . ." 193
of this letter found. is letter of this
Cecilia Cecilia Peggy Aldrich Kidwell, Russell to Payne, 14 January 1925. PUL/HNR. Quoted in DeVorkin and Kenat DeVorkin PUL/HNR. Quoted 14 in January 1925. Russell to Payne, ium on the Orion Nebula to Honor Henry Draper, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 320. -
14 15 16 We know that her initial findings showed that hydrogen and helium were orders of magnitude had he tobeen asked since progress Russell of one Payne’s be aware of m was her well By By the fall of 1924, Payne was hard at work refining and extending Menzel’s work, to
ation" ation" of element. an was the This fraction of the totalthat contributed to available the intensity Sympos DeVorkin (2000), DeVorkin conclusion conclusion in draft, her figured thathe something was with amiss the justtheory, as he whendid his 37.; Gingerich, Owen
-- (1982), 308 (1982), also discussion full a 11 eds., more abundant more in abundant stellar than atmospheres the rest of the elements she examined. this own student, Donald Menzel had found discrepancies in his much assessment of ionization the potentials using same data. discrepancy" Russell felt that Payne had unco approximate allowances approximate for it." This, of course, is what Russell thought originally Payne wanted to do, and he may have been right. But such a theory was number still of well in clues, the future, even presented tho by the colleague John Q. that physicist Stewart, hinted that a full William Meggers and also m with up a come Payne had by however, Russell’s own Princeton that she that she had received it. Russell was deep can 1925, ina "we January letter in lectured herhe before real critical. challenge, some The assumptions, fully utilize principles thermodynamic for abundance calculation . . . is to have at theory concerning the relative number originating of in atoms this in a state." certain probabilities Russell of state quantum jumps, correctly which predicted will that absorb various "this lines question of intensities, that is, of concentrations. concentrations. Given the crude order to hold nicely. So she gathered up all observations her of marginal appearances in the Draper sequence, abundances. relative calculated temperatures with her and her thesis. He was much impressed with the young student, at of Harvard. the Council end At was he delighted year the year already next fellowship to her Research support recommending her for a National assume that assume all elements equally. behaved Payne could interpret the physical situation where a line became visible spectral sequence. Assuming that the intensity of function she of abundance, concluded that any the relative abundance given of an lineelement could be determined by at a given the fractional concentration at temperature marginal appearance. She did have rudimentary ionization and resonance potentials for element, each but had t her own calibration. With these she used Fowler and Milne's theory to calculate fractional distinguish distinguish her thesis from his, and realized that the hydrogen Her expected. Cambridge anomaly teachers, Milne was and Fowler, even had alre greater than he had though Russell and utilized not be her abundances, advised torelative to on determine take the additional work for her thesis, she forged ahead. concentr They called their method the to had she probabilities, of determination transition thedays wasbefore this Since of aof temperature. function as line ofa the "fractional the the Harvard spectral sequence as a temperature sequence, but soon she of in in To stars. added existed sure, that be hints the were serious abundances elements anomalies the there relative determination of the stellar abundances compared to ter Russell student from Princeton att named thatneeded a indeed puzzle was Donald This stars. of giant thespectra in strong anomalously Menzel, had already found that hydrogen lines were Back to the Future Backthe to and R Milne H Cecilia Payne Fowlertowent for work in Harvard Cambridge, and graduate access to the t data to utilizethese was first at Her plan existence. in vault plate spectroscopic stellar greatest PoS(sps5)002
e , , both
DeVorkin 188. 188.
- e e weights of 17 but the striking , 187 ) conclusion conclusion is not 1983 (
22.
,
Harvard Observatory Monograph Observatory Harvard , eriors of the stars using his theory oferiors the stars using his theory ogen created problems for his radiative forhis created problems ogen Stellar Atmospheres Stellar
; 6
advised advised to acquiesce. But if her abundances were right,
indicated indicated by the theory of Fowler and Milne. . .
Oxford: Oxford University Press (1927) Oxford University Oxford: n could not be a major factor influencing how a star looked and looked a star how major influencing a factor be couldnot n ario worked beautifully in his equations, resulting in a mean g g been issue an with Russell and other astronomers. Russell and She said much the said same even in quoting She thesis, her from a portion
a brilliant political tactic, given Russell's power. Russell's given tactic, brilliant political a
Stars and Atoms. Atoms. Stars and luminosity relation, in luminosity announced 1924, gave theoretical support only notfor a - This This colorful scen
Payne, 1925, "Astrophysical Data," 197 Data," "Astrophysical 1925, Payne,
19 18 his his work, as he pondered how stars powered themselves, he seemed amenable to the
Russell to Payne, 14 January 1925. PUL/HNR. Quoted in DeVorkin and Kenat and DeVorkin in PUL/HNR. Quoted 1925. January 14 to Payne, Russell Cecilia S. Eddington, A.
19 17 18 In Eddington's theory, mean molecular weight was a factor influencing a star's behavior; i.e. how star's behavior; a factor wasa influencing weight molecular mean theory, Eddington's In Russell had his reasons for rejecting Payne's hydrogen abundance and they stemmed from his
Cecilia Payne hedged her bets: unable to state clearly findings her as forcibly as she knew how, not discussion formpublished highlights the discordances, ofThe abundance her state state is enormously greater than is forexcitation to both and seems There the for ionization lines, which a be real tendency wouldindicate. theory theelementary than muchstronger to be large, are potentials anomaly had The hydrogen lon It is clearly impossible that is It impossible should clearly a hydrogen be million than times the more abundant metals, and I have no doubt that the number of hydrogen atoms in the two quantum
188. , No. 1 masses, but also suggested that compositio that suggested alsobut masses, behaved. At the high temperatures in the stars, themuch; all elements were meanhighly ionized, and the resulting mix molecular was an weight arithmetic blend of within th stars did not vary the freed electrons and exposed nuclei, with electrons dominating in number. Thus Eddington "Stellar quipped atoms," in as 1927, "are nude savages innocent terrestrial of atoms." the class distinctions of our fully varied. never which 2, arrayed near weight molecular also soon found that the consequences of a significant rolefor hydr of a significant theconsequences that soonfound also models. the physical ofvariables temperature, density and varied withpressure radius in the star. His theoretical ofinterpretation the mass great quantity of empirical evidence suggesting that the luminosities of stars varied regularly with their high regard for Eddington's work. Eddington's ability tothe int ability regard fordescribe work. high Eddington's Eddington's of radiative equilibrium had by Eddington's view the of how early stars work required, 1920s however, that they possess strengthened rather early Russell's little stages hydrogen. of In theory the of stellar evolution. that hydrogen was possibility preferring fusion highly abundant, hydrogen to Butmatter annihilation. he then then she would be ultimately vindicated. This explains why, in and abundances eventual her she thesis, persisted in both displaying her results and heliumfor her hydrogen National Academy paper on in tabular listings and discussion. In her Academy paper, she concluded, citing Russell's and Compton's state argument as a metastable rational: forstellar deduced abundance "The elements is these improbably and not is high, real." almost certainly ofletter. Russell's brief study in 1914. This was 1914. in This study brief she decided to give Russell the credit for old an picture qualitative abundance she figured could well b thoroughly altered in time. She knew that Harry Plaskett had strong in the hottest found sostars, it was wrong was with a the bet present scenario. safe that ionized something theIf helium to be abnormally problem was due to theory, then she was well derives derives from this. Just how Payne felt about Russell's rejection of her most dramatic known, but evidently from the earliest manuscripts extant, which are close necessary. were thought tothechanges he made dutifully what was published, she similarity between celestial abundances and the relative abundances of the elements in the Earth's crust. Indeed, she seemed to belabor this conclusion, heavily drawing upon the arguments Russell made in his his argument states argument, H. to and with tried Compton toa itA. had metastable Payne away explain Back to the Future Backthe to PoS(sps5)002
that that ne's
DeVorkin Astrophysical Journal Astrophysical one one elements. To assume - Roy. Roy. Inst. Library of Science: ysical theory was largely uncontested inwas largely uncontested theory ysical that that led to the still radical conclusion. In n n independent of "practically the chemical
ounced ounced physical theory for the coefficient of r degree, enjoyed a growing solid reputation dington dington was so convinced of this requirement 165.
, in B. Lovell, ed., nn
7 s s and electrons (one proton and one electron). A
ed. Yet, Struve proclaimed that the published version thatthe published Yet,proclaimed Struve ed. (1984),
nce nce that he wished to suppress her findings; rather he
Struve was then Struve probably more than receptive most to Pay 21
was was a modern landmark study in the new field, “full of useful
22 , 204. )
257; Heramundanis 257; - 2000 (
The Interior of a Star (1923)
, 256
) ng ng a low hydrogen abundance. It was a basic fact of his theory, timeexpressed based based astrophysicists. Yet one can easily see in his criticisms that the field had - 257. 257. 1923 luminosity luminosity relation. Again everything worked beautifully, according with - ( -
Stellar Atmospheres, 256
, e herself moved on to other projects. Her work was certainly not forgotten by Russell, t extraordinary claims t required claims extraordinary extraordinary evidence. She accepted Russell’s advice, but e’s e’s thesis was very well received by astronomers. Otto Struve it, reviewed fully aware of
A. A. S. Eddington, Eddington DeVorkin in Quoted (1970) ydrogen ydrogen gives results differing widely from all the other ninety
20
2
22 20 21 In the following four years, as she completed he Payn her are reasons at but Cecilia These Payne the time thesis, why, published a she few of the many toseemed abe work what hisbuilt up stars to arrayed make Eddington arguments interlaced The Eddington had other arguments for low as hydrogen well, since the mean molecular weight and But, as Eddington keenly But,realized, keenly in as hydrogen Eddington its state ionized has a mean molecular ofweight y believed that there was more hydrogen in that any the stars believed other than "`You shot was he more atom," there hydrogen back: don't efficient of absorption of the stellar gasses also appeared in his equations describing steps leading toleading steps equationsdescribing in his appeared also stellar gasses ofthe ofabsorption efficient ted empirically, based upon astrophysical arguments alone. alone. upon based ted empirically, Eddington arguments knew astrophysical was he on thin ice here, laid laid out, in ways ApJ readers would all accept, the arguments those four years, many lines of evidence, including from atomic theory, new and more direct ways to Astronom robust enough to warrant radical conclusions. conclusions. radical to warrant robustenough within the American astronomical community and was indeed retained by member, Payne Shapley watched as as a Harvard Russell staff and others continually faced and anomaly. tried Payn to rationalize the hydrogen the in long paper a and published conclusions accepted her 1929 in finally who of the fact that the entire field was as yet very unsettl very wasas yet field theentire that fact ofthe of her thesis, titled forsuggestions the practical worker…” work among American hardly coalesced to the point where Russell’s a advice was prudent. consensus There is was no possible. evide Given realized, as Struve's Struve criticisms, observed in therefore, his review, that the field was yet young, largely untested, and was not well knew tha well knew made inclear her own writings that she had indeed arrived at these surprising conclusions for hydrogen, acceptance. to determine future itfor left the but laid cognizant on applications ofother theories and and been Saha’s astronomers, criticisms that had it by Jeans, Milne and F.stature and in Eddington's Jeans, Milne Lindemann, astroph A. CeciliaEddington. interiors toin face stellar had a abundance high hydrogen 1920s.pressing the Anyone Payne recalls that when she discussed her original results for I "that hydrogen with Eddington, and admitted thestars.’” on mean in the you stars, mean absorption absorption of gasses by H. A. Kramers, a colleague of Bohr's, differed greatly from one Eddington had crea Rosseland. like people sodid and picture consistent requiri thelikesof in detractors critics and had his though certainly he books. articles and talks, And in his again hydrogen." co the his theoretical mass observation, as long as hydrogen was a minor player. Ed that he ignored for the moment the fact that a recently a significant significant amount of hydrogen would thus Eddington lower passionately the argued mean in molecular February 1923 weight of before physics: the the "H Royal gas, Institution, which, played as havoc with his as the hydrogen wouldmaterial in most the destroy ofcases accordance general theory and observation." expressed satisfaction that Eddington great his models had bee composition of the star" but emphatically added that this condition held "provided it is not made of Back to the Future Backthe to 0.5, since it possesses an equal number of nucleon PoS(sps5)002
--
DeVorkin
23 g g of the nature of
keenly keenly knew this, and envisioned envisioned giant suns
208; Otto Struve and and Otto 208; Struve - 221. - 204
220
onclusions on weak evidence evidence weak on onclusions ,
(1926) n n them, cited Russell saying they 64 hysicist, though hysicist, as a inwoman those ApJ ApJ
.
spectral spectral type; then all that is Unsold, Unsold, Charlotte E. Moore and John Q. Stewart, 8
five five years after Struve wrote his initial review of her ks George Ellery Hale took to ks Ellery George solve the a question: major
- New York: Macmillan (1962) Macmillan York: New
, Stellar Atmospheres] , Stellar is is some means of measuring the apparent th Century. th
C. H. Payne C. H. idence, augmented idence, augmented indirect by observational studies of binaries eclipsing by
then then he was able to tap rudimentary curve of growth techniques, and based his Reviews [ Reviews
in in order to make sure that our theoretical deductions are starting on the right lines, angular diameters of stars. At approximately from present theory, but we there is can no observational calculate check. We them believe we know with brightness fair corresponding to accuracy each the apparent is surface tonecessary divide the total brightness thisby apparent surface the star. by the result and is subtended brightness, area the angular the of greatest Probably need stellar astronomy at the present day, hydrogen, hydrogen, and second, even though Saha's equations were now acceptable in Milne's
alled her work as "the most brilliant Ph.D. thesis ever written in astronomy. writtenin ever thesis Ph.D. brilliant most as"the work her alled
Astronomy of the Twentiethe of Astronomy Otto Struve, Otto Struve,
les les and followed the suggestions of those her. advising Nothing really was at stake other than 23 By By the end of the second decade of the 20th century there was a lot riding on the notion that
In In thesis, her Payne where went her conclusions took her. But knew when she tooff. back She in thisto advise her recent in suggested years, informally some have as "wrong," not was Russell remained aPayne very active and productive highly astrop
oved oved techniques for determining what processes were acting to create the most prominent (i.e. Taking Risks Taking He knew there were powerful reasons not to accept the conclusion at its face value, without an without argument an value, face its at theconclusion tonot accept were there reasons powerfulknew He
Velta Zebergs, Zebergs, Velta
said as much in his presidential address to the British Association in 1920: in British Association to address the presidential in his as much said giant giant stars existed. The contracting to Russell the main theory sequence. But of what proof was there stellar that stars evolution radiated laws energy ofaccording toStephan Wien, and Planck and that the predicted that stars its of huge dimension existed? variants Russell's theory was upon based empirical ev Harlow his Shapley, student, as well as the ofspectroscopic parallaxes Adams and Kohlschűtter. Much in modern stellar astronomy depended upon stars behaving this way. Eddington was prudent not was prudent to reputation, was risk wise yet yet nascent her she to record the fact that she had played by the ru her job and career. In distinction to the risks she took, which were personal, others took risks that were lookexpensive. Let's institutional and at the ris suns. of giant reality argument argument squarely upon the physics remembered for of this work, the and it was atom. a revelation that stimulated stars. a That whole rethinkin was fully acceptable. Today, Payne is 3. that that would be iron clad. The abundance created problems for Eddington's standard model , which built on was very little had to to open were forms, Payne the use assumptions rederived for question. abundances them to exploit She knew this. But she presented her data and conclusions upo based on. Russell moved When the (whichand of it all) was point PhD her received right, be couldnot certainly finally came to agree with astrophysical data. By Payne, in 1929, he only used her work as supporting evidence from days days was severely limited in her freedom of problem choice and, working considerable for direction. Shapley, was subject to Even so, some rec he monograph, thirty c too grandiose for making rejected too career was early he his In manner. - strongest, strongest, widest, most broadened) features in stellar spectra, aided the effort. Russell was not the only one pursuing these paths. Others, including Albrecht worked in parallel to gather the evidence. theobvious. to state They time itwas decided Russell all were coming to the same conclusion, and finally Back to the Future Backthe to relate the intensities of lines in multiplets to the number of atoms involved in producing each line, impr and PoS(sps5)002
foot foot inch inch - inch, inch, - - roven
DeVorkin did did not need
20, on 17. 20, - inch discerning theinch - inch observing time for observing inch - physics," and physics," when Hale - (1920), 14 (1920),
106
ar ar diameters, Hale picked up the inch inch had been completed, or when - o have a mask built forthe 12
them them in a manner they would listen to or
ctice. 24 nique on the double star Capella because they e technique; it as e those in technique; was the principle same
w w practitioners of "astro 9
focus configuration to provide scale.maximum Even
to worry that null readings required separations of over a 100
istance. istance. Thus the estimation of the angular
The Internal Constitution of the Stars, Nature Stars, the of Constitution The Internal to read what Eddington had to say to the British Association about the state toto had about the state Association say Eddington the what British to read
inch inch not possible with any other telescope on earth. So they built the 20 - itial seeing tests and found stable fringe visibility over the entire length of the Nature inch was completed, Hale agreed to try out Michelson's ideas with this stillunp with ideas outto Haleagreed try Michelson's wascompleted, inch - The unknown is distance The notsurface because involved, brightness is independent of d diameter of any star instance, seems the to star with be the greatest a 0.051". diameter Betelgeuse, apparent certainly very diameter is simple almost matter. For
ould be used for measuring extremely small orangles, angular diameters. aAfter test at t was that Hale had decided to build this expensive and device, occupy much of his best important important data on the physical characteristics of the two stars, data he needed to test his - A. S. Eddington, 1920. 1920. S. Eddington, A.
Construction of the beam began in June, began Construction of the thebeam 1920 of and middle by Michelson the summer, and 24 Michelson Michelson advised Hale in 1919, as he had advised Holden in 1896, that one
always Hale, a risk taker and a builder of much mechanically more robustwas more telescopes, The The fac Michelson had wanted to make this sort of measurement since the 1890s as yet another
predictiv in new Eddington's was nothing There
risky risky work. Holden assumed that the wouldatmosphere not allow such precise measurements, and ge ge Ellery Hale had been directing his staff to build a huge device for the just completed 100 Francis Francis Pease made in beam, which negated the fear that seeing would résumé limit on its the effectiveness. stellar interferometer and Then, its pondering dour Michelson's predictions for angul 2 ofSeptember issue complete complete fringe disappearance to be able of toseparation the two but elements. interferometric Hale and his staff, including a extrapolate young and presumably the angular diameter of well an trained Harlow object Shapley, continued from the ofthe beam. thebuilding to urge Halecontinued Yet Michelson. did So feet. Even before the100 before Even technique. His staff objected, especially something W. with the S. 100 Adams, but Hale was beam using the telescope convinced at its broken Cassegrain that he had to as do the beam was nearing completion in should ofbe. stars 1919,diameters no one on Hale's staff had any idea what the angular directly in line with what Holden considered traditional pra traditional considered Holden what linewith in directly than happy to give Michelson's technique a try. Michelson University of was Chicago to partly responsible hire Hale for as one of convincing those the ne plans. onand many projects touchwith Michelson close in remained California, forSouthern Chicago left theory theory at least, c Harvard, and another at Yerkes, which were promising, he wrote to for mask interferometric one of E telescopes. the Lick Holden t agreed S Holden at Lick proposing an even and after it that itdemonstrated could E. match E. Barnard's keen eye on the 36 of reluctant todiameters remained Holden utilize satellites, angular the Jovian 36 such anyway, his telescopes were not robust enough to hold a large interferometer, nor was this a project staff staff with its construction and testing, at a time when neither the 100 acceptable predictions for the sizes of stars were available to accept. application of his interferometric expertise. He approached astronomers knowing that his methods, in astronomer astronomer had Eddington's clout, nor could Eddington's timing have been better. He Geor had known that telescope based upon the designs of the physicist Albert Michelson. Eddington had about been some very excited preliminary tests of the interferometric tech gave him all ofdimensions. measurements woulddirect be important more Even structure. ofstellar theory used used by Ejnar Hertzsprung over a decade earlier, and more recently, but quietly, by Russell. But no Back to the Future Backthe to PoS(sps5)002
-
the
DeVorkin capabilities of capabilities spectroscopy spectroscopy and inch at inch of the turn
- a third mirror akin to thirdmirrorakin a inch as soon as inch - and proven proven and
. style style mounting. Wadsworth - eks, eks, we shall be still
rophysical rophysical quantities. This episode
eminent theorist in American astrophysics. theorist in eminent American - he invited him to be in residence every summer Microfilm Edn. Caltech Edn. Microfilm
-- Hale Papers Microfilm Edn. Caltech. Edn. Papers Microfilm Hale 10 .
apparatus" apparatus" required a test bench far more adaptable and
gle gle angular and he diameters, Paul that Merrill knew it would he he great refractor but did not share the philosophy of those , 3 March 1905 ,March 3 ll l make the trial very soon, and I will report the results to
1890s he met Arthur Couper Ranyard at meetings of the RAS; Ranyard of meetingsthe RAS; at 1890s Ranyard Coupermet he Arthur -
905, trying 905,to attract trying a and toenergetic young physicist Mount he Wilson,
26
which helped him become thepre become whichhim helped ating ating a fixed chamber observing fed by a moving equatorial Ranyard telescope. -- vatories vatories were severely lacking in theoretical expertise and even the best and most
odd odd years
staff. As he reported to Michelson on 4October: on to reported Michelson staff. he As -
greatly greatly strengthened by Hale's patronage 25 Hale to Michelson, 4 October 1920. Hale Papers Hale 1920. October 4 to Michelson, Hale Mendenha E. to Charles Hale
26 25 In the late 19th Century, Coudé telescopes were well known and very exciting, but beyond operation, operation, and when we move into our new building in a few we conditions under that us will If work enable equipped. of better you development, enjoy to build special apparatus, and use it under the finest conditions, to I you. wouldappeal am sure the place Hale's preoccupation with "special shophave a thatWe (laboratory) than much better ofinalready observatory the Yerkes Hale grew up in the age of t But this whole episode demonstrated more to Hale, if he was not aware of it before, thatifwas of and it before, aware towas not he Hale, more demonstrated episode whole Butthis "As "As soon as possible" meant that the beam was not yet equipped with remote controls. The of(Nature, Sept. estimates in his star British Eddington's address diameters Association 2) to that are so we large with are planning the 100 Betelgeuse measure possible. Dr. Anderson wil you. The Astrophysicist's Test Bench Test Astrophysicist's The elescopes focus telescopes to link the physics laboratory to the Sun and stars. and to the Sun laboratory thephysics to link focustelescopes elescopes had similar dreams ofhad cre died in the mid envisioned which design, to 1890s,Ranyard's modification critical a suggested Wadsworth, and his family sent his a broken Cassegrain, but drawings directing the light toto the north tier Hale. of an English Hale's shop foreman, F. L. O. physicist, physicist, and like more than t one Frenchman, Hale sought out means to create fixed focal plane Hale was planning mirrorshuge impracticable. were like the 60 they diameters, certain focusunder fixed controlled witha stable, power theirlight gathering and to sought combine century, the themid conditions. In laboratory stable, stable, both thermally and kinematically, than the moving eye end of a telescope. Thinking more like a photography. photography. Even in Hale's first observatories, the refractor was king. But as he courted worked patrons to and attract tophysicists experiment with his telescopes, he expressed his view of what a was modern all observatory about.1 In follows: as theplace described for the next 20 next forthe 4. traditional termsof the in their programming defined who directors observatory refracting telescopes. Great refractors defined the capabilities of visual micrometry, that that American obser like who Russell'sat was then Mount student staff Shapley were members, Wilson, observational capable unable to apply properly basic photometric data to derive critical ast would help to convince Hale that the presence of observational people like staff Russell were or critical Eddington to as the mentors success to of his position his was observatory. As a result, Russell's professional astronomers astronomers therefore a devised means to have a night hapless assistant perched on the beam during night to manually move the interferometric mirrors, bit by globe. Hale's risk bit. had more than off. paid risk is Sometimes a good Hale,thing. The of course, result had a back made headlines across the up plan. the beam If could not sin measure telescope! his still had Hale event, in any And stars. double for close work Back to the Future Backthe to ofinto Halfway the transcript astronomy. of Hale must his speech, have let out a immediately howl, and his summoned PoS(sps5)002
, - inch inch - mental mental that that is
Spectral - al for the DeVorkin too but were old were but
in in the
eling eling the nature of 392; on 390. on 390. 392; 29 - Journal Journal for the History of , inch inch speculum where the light 1920s. Eddington’s 1920s. theoretical Eddington’s - - dwarf theory theory had dwarf to abandoned, be -
to 379 (1915), xxxviii For example, unrav For example, r time, the versatility of the 60
-
31 30 1939, Journal for the History of Astronomy
- for great reflectors of the latter half of the
In the Grip of the Big Telescope Age, Experi
11
469. mainly mainly photography and spectroscopic radial velocity -
. Chicago: 2007. 2007. Chicago: .
- 429
, of phenomena of or phenomena an application of new can technique, also
tics tics of this era was disciplinary isolation. And as I argue
inch. inch. And designs - 27
28 227. The changing place Theof giant red changingin place theprocess. stars Journ evolutionary -
lower thatlevel can fullybe temperature stabilized. The lower wouldaxis
hoc hoc explanation
- 203
Stellar Stellar structure and evolution, 1924
J. J. S. Plaskett and the modern large reflecting telescope , literature on Eddington, most recently and competently represented in Matthew Stanley, represented Matthew in competently and most recently on Eddington, literature 390 390 (1999); David DeVorkin,
- sole exception, with FritzHoutermanns. with exception, sole 77. - on, making on, sense at making last Hamy ofrelations andHertzsprung, noted by the observed DeVorkin, DeVorkin, inch inch eventually combined this Coudé focus with Cassegrain and Newtonian xxxvii Part 4, No. 129 (2006) No. 4, 129 Part xxxvii -
H. H. collaborative collaborative work, astronomers where and between physicists, becomes a physics guiding
Karl Karl Hufbauer, e Richard Richard Jarrell, David There is a solid a is There Rutherford's Rutherford's comments were made during the discussion following Alfred Fowler,
xxx xxx (1999) 359
25 (2009), 63 (2009), 25
28 29 30 31 27 One of the primary characteris No one paid any attention to this observation, not even when Eddington's theoretical mass In listening to this discussion it toseemed me that astronomers may be proceeding does not That direction. in one proceeds theevolution only that the assumption on much seem to be necessary. I see no reason why we should not have some stars condensing others " diverging. and see I proceed no the evolution why reason always should ofcondensation. direction Tru In 1915, after listening to Fowler Alfred theoriesreview of stellar evolution at a meeting of the
Hale's 60 they they were built to do normative science competent, needed, needed, butcompetent, not revolutionary. revolutionThe galactocentric with was started Hale's
-- luminosity relati luminosity - inch inch and culminated with the 100 - Fruitful Collaborations Collaborations Fruitful xxxvii Part 2, No. 127, (2006) No. 2, 127, Part xxxvii Astronomy Observatory The Evolution, Stellar of Order the Stars and of Classification Eddington S. A. and Religion, Science Mystic: Practical of Astronomy History twenties and twenties thirties; very few if any tried their hand, and fewer still tried to collaborate with physicists. the was Atkinson Robert Astronomy or somehow deeply modified. theoreticalastrophysics. in era" the"Eddington call historians whatturn in established It also established Eddington’s dominance as a theorist, and hence in elsewhere greater detail, one of the reasons it took another three astronomy decades at least to accept the fact that giants are evolved stars was due to this iconoclasm. the stellar energy source was the most significant puzzle to solve for astronomers in the teens and luminosity luminosity relation Russell's demolished giant to dwarf theory in the mid mass other observers, established two very important things: Eddington’s radiative as stars behaved gases, perfect standard and, as a result, model, that Russell’s giant that all British Association, Lord Rutherford mused: Rutherford Lord Association, British light light rather than only a post aid discovery. Here we present a stars notwere red stars young that giants to therealization single led and barriers disciplinary example, down where true synergistic collaborations finally broke stars. evolved because because work 60 foci.Hale's multiple embodied century 5. carry all the drive mechanisms. thedrive all carry configurations, and in essence created 3 telescopes in of work. the a Richard shown, Jarrell became hallmark has As astrophysical most common of one. form large Ove reflector in the first half of the 20th century did not follow the multiple focus 60 inch design Back to the Future Backthe to using apreferred fork form adopted Common by and by Rosse for his 36 goes down the polar toaxis a PoS(sps5)002
36
34
DeVorkin 88. Sources for 1935, 238. 1935, -
v new knowledge, new ff Keller that "if
tic programming. tic programming. -
w, w, however, with an actual
nd. nd. There had been observational 19. Space Astronomy Oral History Project, History Oral 19. Space Astronomy he he importance of Strömgren's His His wish came true in only three years --
32 content content of clusters in one of his
sketched sketched evolutionary diagrams. Unfortunately, - 12
rrespondence rrespondence with Chandrasekhar about the physical
Trans. IAU Stars, the of Constitution on ion the 35
33 dia, dia, S. Chandrasekhar, was also at Yerkes and eagerly read Gamow's e problem, wheree problem, all sides respected each other, began only in the early Report of Commiss of Report
not share Kuiper's hopeful attitude; feeling rather far from a common bond, he his theoretical tracks with observations, he pleaded for data on stellar masses,
reproduced in DeVorkin (2006). DeVorkin in reproduced
ge ge Gamow, brilliant and irascible. On the heels of Bethe and Weizsäcker's dramatic
1940s, to fearing get Gamow andbetween Chandra, as he advised Geo his his Presidential report for Commission 35 report, "for which," Eddington noted -
A. S. Eddington, Eddington, S. A. GPK/UA. Papers, 2. Box Kuiper 1938, October 10 to Gamow, Kuiper draft) 18 (rough 1983 20 April history oral Schwarzschild Cartoon Struve to Struve 21 Kuiper, March 1936, Kuiper Papers, Box of2. University Gerard Arizona Kuiper Papers
32 33 34 35 36 processes processes of the energy generation, I will not touch upon that interest. part ofcommon field ofnew a have found astronomers your and letter, physicists that fortunate only it is that [to] say Gamow did As I understand that you have had co Chandra Chandra discussed the problem of colloquia the at the and Yerkes Observatory, I hydrogen was very much impressed with the brilliant character of his presentation, with obtained in the explaining Trumpler's remarkable diagrams and results with t thesubject. on that work early you [Kuiper] have In 1939, however, Chandra immediately challenged Gamow, saying his shell burning violated A young theorist from In Eddington Eddington felt that the most significant thing physicists could do for astronomy would be to True True collaboration on th
of Modern Astronomy (SHMA), American Institute ofInstitute Physics. American (SHMA), Astronomy of Modern
as as annoyed with Gamow's approximations and tomfoolery. Even so, Chandra's closest patron at History (GPK/UA). National Air and Space See Museum. also oral Schwarzschild history #III, 16 December 1977, 87 1950s when Martin Schwarzschild and Walter Baade teamed up. Schwarzschild was a first; bit in the reluctant mid at giants like Chandrasekhar and Gamow fight, then dwarfs like you Still, and with me Baade's don't encouragement, go and into Baade's their boys, field.“ including William Baum, Allan Sandage and B. replied replied with a sarcastic cartoon to make data. astrophysical trumped his both and theory, point, that physical theory always trumped astrophysical numerous formal conditions derived from stellar structure theory. A strict mathematical theorist, Chandra mathematical strict structure theory. stellar fromA derived conditions formal numerous w Yerkes, Gerard Kuiper, was obviously interested in this issue, and so was withdelighted the interaction, to Gamow: writing first papers. He had been forsynergis combination brought possible the best provided lair observationalist's the toin theorists Yerkes by Otto Struve, who was convinced Chandra had already that been keenly interested in placing hydrogen abundances and stellar good evolution as interpreted that: to Kuiper reported Struve colloquium, early 1936, an diagrams. after cluster In by work in 1938, Gamow began work applying the theoryin 1938, Gamow to began a adopted stellar concept evolution, and new of shell burning to argue that stars with hydrogen exhausted cores would expa evidence to this effect, starting with B. G. by cluster Strömgren's but Kuiper by diagrams interpreted it Strömgren, the was firstGamow who created models. work earlier in the decade, and Hoping continuing with to compare luminosities and radii in 1939, unimpressed. were sending Adams Walter like lovely astronomers hand he he claimed in in prophetically 1935, "astronomers have long been waiting," with the contributions of Bethe physicists and von Weizsäcker in 1938. No process nuclear at hand that provided energy, there was stimulusgreat to star and builders, the field also attracted more physicists. One of the first theoretical nuclear problem was physicists Geor to become intrigued with the Back to the Future Backthe to energy itliberated and how elements transmutationof the ofthe understanding improve PoS(sps5)002
- ray The The - that enry enry H o only DeVorkin astronomy,
38
DeVorkin, ed. DeVorkin,
lets us now revisitthe usnow lets oyle, the already well the already oyle, , here
. Washington, D.C.: Joseph
sciplinary boundaries: boundaries: sciplinary
eal eal new universes. He also identified trends known means of promoting discovery, one that discovery, meansof promoting known few general observations and suggestions -
ause ause of the efforts Hale took to provide very high 13
Glimpsing an invisible universe: the emergence of X
Astronomy transformed : the emergence of radio astronomy in astronomy radio of emergence the : transformed Astronomy energy energy physicists, how did the discipline of rticle physics, rticle etc., physics, buttools created new fields that have
-
. New York, N.Y. Published : for Society the American Astronomical fertilization fertilization and collaboration, not only in the migration of, or -
ailed cluster diagrams with photoelectrically calibrated photometry calibrated with photoelectrically diagrams cluster ailed 164. 164. - ng ng all sorts of questions, like who developed and applied those new
162 ray universe ray
ons ons grew from this exciting atmosphere at Caltech and Princeton and -
Conflict Conflict in the Fred cosmos: Hoyle's life in science see esp. see
8; 8;
–
worthy worthy of discussion and debate during this special session and in the future, between n the abstract to this paper, making a Further Further collaborati Simon Mitton, Simon David O. Edge, and Michael J. Mulkay, J. Mulkay, Michael and O. Edge, David
. the detection of the radio universe of the detection the . 37 . Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; . New [Cambridgeshire]; Cambridge York: Press,University Cambridge David 1983;
37 38 cited literature thelarger studies,and case these on reflecting sum, In But Martin's basic point remains, new tools rev 4. the detection of the ofthe x detection the 4. universe ray ofthe gamma detection the 5. Historians of course, would towant this flesh out the considerably, adding infrared in 1800 and universe physical ofthe and the detection telescope the 1. rays ofcosmic detection the 2. 3 The last example raises what is probably the most important factor leading to accelerating the re re issues one stillto needs address. astronomersSome define and narrowly discovery, even argue . New York: Wiley, 1976; Richard F. Hirsh, gathering gathering power and new levels of versatility, Hubble's techniques were afforded new powers of - maitre maitre saw their fullest at expression Mount Wilson, even if Hubble at first was reluctant to interpret Turning Points Turning ate ate of discovery in astronomy. Cross 6 chapters Press (2005), Britain astronomy first American Society's Astronomical century D.C.], 1999. [Washington, of Physics, Institute the American through questions questions posed i hopefully will be twodi acrossthe hopefully, and, historians, between astronomers, there a there that the expanding universe was not at discovered Mount Wilson. is It true andthat techniques Hubble's instruments were not revolutionary. But in fact, bec light efficiency and discrimination. Thus the hints provided by Slipher and the Le powerful context created by shiftsas velocities. red his and and its institutions change? One only needs to look briefly at how important. are the questions these why to appreciate 50 American Astronomical the past Society over structureyears in changed common to many discoveries in astronomy, only the concerned that first Martin's views being oversimplify history, technological. making it seem too Historians linear and have causal, and been certainly the the ultraviolet in the 1850s, and aski techniques, and what were their motivations? especially people like radio engineers and high And as each new cohort migrated into astronomy, Martin Martin Harwit has effectively presented in his landmark 1981 cursory needs comment here. book Harwit identified five turning points "Cosmic in Discovery" all and of the s history of all astronomy, technologies. ofnew application the upon based 6. r accretion of, theoretical or methodological disciplinary specialties to and nuclear pa theory, atomic quantum structure, address problems in astronomy: well themost possibly is theuniverse. This forperceiving beyond the turnoff were not reconciled until Schwarzschild teamed up the with Fred turnoffbeyond H until reconciled not were Schwarzschild known physicist from St. John's College, Cambridge who, invited by Baade and was Schwarzschild, on an extended research and lecturing tour in the United States Princeton. focused on collaborations at Caltech and astrophysics. nuclear wholespecialty, ofnew a the tocenter mark came Back to the Future Backthe to det remarkably to starting produce Oke diagrams cluster Observed looked the way clear. ofclusters, range ofa turnoff points below the reaching PoS(sps5)002
. 1 , off - based e e may -
DeVorkin Problems Problems in disciplinary disciplinary der der unusual 45. - - ysics ysics
38
, , in 515. Those who wish to who wish to Those -
s status as as status progenitor s ended and ended hands 41 National National Observatories: - Exploring Exploring the Sun: Solar Aug. 1988) Aug. (
letters. letters. 41
e they been most effective when
we we need also gaps between consider 42
(23 October 2009), 512 2009), October (23
326
ce
this this point in Part 1 of his
14
Cosmic Cosmic Discovery, The Contentious Role Physics Today aRole The of NationalContentious Observatory, 14. - also makes based based meritocratic reward structures or egalitarian social, - The New Planet Pluto, Astronomical Society ofThe Pacificthe NewLeaflets Planet Pluto, Astronomical e ed by ed Pickering by Hale and were open pretty or a new class of object, and its collective comprehension by
(1991) (1991)
(2004), 13 (2004), 43
e e United States to build the next generation of monster ground 57
Race for the Heavens, Scien Heavens, the Race for
Quantum Quantum Mechanics at the Harvard Observatory in the 1930s Atomic spectroscopy and astrophysics, Physics Today Physics astrophysics, and spectroscopy Atomic oriented style experienced today. style experienced oriented - As As with all questions of this type, what "optimum " really means is elusive. A
22. 22. Karl Hufbauer
. -- 39 Goldberg, Goldberg, 21 e e of one discovery, sees more than one voice ifasking indeed Pluto is the first of a new
, eo sometimes those gaps can be considerable. Often they are periods of reorientation. Is there ofIs reorientation. they Often are periods considerable. can those be gaps sometimes In In a retrospective essay in 1989, Leo Goldberg reflected on this question, hinting at its )
L 58; and William E. Howard, Cameron Reed, and Patrick McCray, See See F. for C. Leonard, instance, Leo Goldberg, Goldberg, Leo See for McCray, W. Patrick instance,
- - Yudhijit Bhattacharjee. Bhattacharjee. Yudhijit
iacconi have chosen to become affiliated with astronomy. with affiliated to become chosen have iacconi 129.
- 1989
42 43 39 40 41 And finally, it is always valuable to revisit the perennial question of what produces a better G Fourth: Does the ofdegree correlation the between motives and goals of ofpatrons astronomy The The growth of experimental and theoretical astronomy physics. In has most cases, however, always discoveries in have ph been been applied inseparable to astronomy from Ginzburg, Bengt by Edlén, Bruno physicists, developments Rossi some and Hans of Bethe, in have retained whom, their while others,physicists, for example identity S. E. like Chandrasekhar, E. as Salpeter, M. Ryle and R. Prof. [V. L.] Third: Have astronomers been most effective as tool builders or as cross Next, once again reflecting Next, on Harwit's
First, is there an optimum balance between risk and innovation, such as building upon proven (
121
40 (2003) (2003) 55
Theoretical Theoretical Physics and A Astrophysics: Collection of Essays dedicated to Moscow V. L. Ginzburg on his 70th Birthday Since Galileo Science 56 Today Physics Continues, Contention someday come to someday a better ofappreciation if how social and and influence standards the practices cultural as astronomy. we know phenomenon (1930) the corporate philanthropic modes the enjoycorporate philanthropic to the mission compared product or more robust institutional discipline: and elit national reward structures? questions, looking at succeeding generations Patrick of astronomers, McCray and it and is hoped that others in doing continue so, w to explore such and the and goals of and nature the ofquality production?astronomers influence knowledge subsequent My sciences, thespace in important highly is of correlation thatthe degree to argue led me has work historical but notthe one factor considers the ofonly when scale operations attainable. The old and evenpersonal complexity: breed. entrepreneurs, acquiring expertise in emerging areas of physics, or hav ofto from manage disciplines they physics? the new attract expertise this talent and whyreasons and make, scientists choices personal oftothe aware be need however, this question, explore they do so. first detection of a new phenomena, astronomers wouldit and time" its "before Plutodiscovered for? really toWas optimum strive an if liketoor body easier zone, another accept in system, ofthesolarclasshave been object new major ofa itsoon been discovered had after? ofone If returns aboutto Pluto popular in the significance musing the press at the tim recently recently in competing efforts in th optical telescopes. robust science must employ proven technologies conditions where the forinstrument tohas faithful. be routine But alsoscience innovation, needs and innovation work, is or data risky. gathering un Back to the Future Backthe to or technologies experimenting with unprovennew technologies? seesOne this choice continually, most PoS(sps5)002
,
.
DeVorkin ecollections (October (October
R xiv ther y O . Cambridge: MIT MIT Cambridge: . Johns Hopkins, 1991 Hopkins, Johns Baltimore: Baltimore: . utobiography and utobiography A
15
Gaposchkin an an Gaposchkin - : Dean of American Astronomers. Princeton, 2000. Princeton, Astronomers. Deanof: American Quantum Physics and the Stars II: The Abundances of the of the Abundances Stars The II: Quantumand the Physics
CeciliaPayne . Henry Norris Russell Norris Henry . Exploring the Sun: Solar Science SinceGalileo Science Solar theSun: Exploring
Cosmic Discovery. The search, scope, and heritage ofand astronomy scope, Thesearch, heritage Discovery. Cosmic ,
,
DeVorkin and Ralph Kenat, Kenat, Ralph and DeVorkin 222. 222.
.
-- H.
David H. DeVorkin H. David Martin Harwit Martin Hufbauer, Karl David ed., Heramundanis, Katherine lements in the Atmospheres of the Sun and Stars, Journal for the History of Astronom theHistory Journal for Stars, Sunand of the Atmospheres in the lements [5] Cambridge: Cambridge U.(1984). Pr. Cambridge Cambridge: [3] 1984 Press, [4] [1] E 180 1983), [2] Back to the Future Backthe to References