RTH ATLANTIC E ATV ORGAN I Z ATI □ N S3 So 0 0 *

NAT O HANDBOOK

1985

NATO INFORMATION SERVIC E BRUSSELS ISBN 92-845-0018-4 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO) The North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington on 4 April 1949, created an Alliance for collective defence as defined in Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. The Alliance links fourteen European countries with the United States and Canada.

MEMBER COUNTRIES Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom and United States.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page The North Atlantic Council: Permanent Representatives 1 The Military Committee and Major NATO Commanders 9 Principal Officials o f the NATO International Staff 10

PART I (i) The North Atlantic Treaty 13 00 Analysis of the Treaty 17 (in) How the Alliance works: 21 Political Consultation, East/West Contacts and Negotiations 22 Defence Policy 27 The n a t o Defence Planning Cycle 28 International Cooperation in Science and Technology 29 Challenges of Today’s Society 30 (iv) The Civil and Military Structure of the Alliance: 32 The North Atlantic Council, the Defence Planning Committee and the Nuclear Planning Group 33 The Permanent Representatives and National Delegations 34 The Secretary General and the International Staff 34 The Military Committee 35 The International Military Staff 35 The n a t o Commands 36

5 PART II (0 Structure and Organisatio n of the International Staff 43 (n) Civil and Military Agencies and Organisations 51 (in) The n a t o Command Structure 57 (iv) The Eurogroup 59 (v) The North Atlantic Assembly 61 (vi) The Atlantic Treaty Association 63 (v ii) The Interallied Confederation of Reserve 65 Officers Appendix 1 : Chronology 69 Appendix 2: Abbreviations in common use 101

6 THE NORTH ATLANTIC COUNCIL

President*: Mr. Hans-Dietrich Genscher (Federal Republic of Germany)

Chairman: Lord Carrington (United Kingdom) Secretary General of NATO

Deputy Chairman: Mr. Eric da Rin (Italy) Deputy Secretary General

Permanent Representatives on the North Atlantic Council:

Belgium Mr. Juan Cassiers Canada Mr. James Hutchings Taylor Denmark Mr. Otto Rose Borch France Mr. Gilles Curien Federal Republic of Germany Mr. Hans-Georg Wieck Greece Mr. Stylianos Vassilicos Iceland Mr. Tomas Tomasson Italy Mr. Sergio Romano Luxembourg Mr. Jean Wagner Netherlands Mr. J. G. N. de Hoop Scheffer Norway Mr. Eivinn Berg Portugal Mr. Antonio Vaz Pereira Spain Mr. Jaime de Ojeda Turkey Mr. Osman Olcay United Kingdom Sir . iohn Graham United States Mr. David M. Abshire

* An honora ry position held each year by a Foreign minister of one of the member countries.

7

THE MILITARY COMMITTEE

President 1984/85: General N. Urug (Turkey) (Army) Chairman: General Comelis de Jager (Netherlands) (Army) Deputy Chairman: Lt. General Paul S. Williams, Jr. (United States) (Army)

Military Representatives to the NATO Military Committee in Permanent Session: Belgium Amiral de Division E. Poullet (Navy) Canada Ll. General F. Richard (Army) Denmark Maj. General N. Holst-Serensen (Air Force) Federal Republic of Germany Lt. General P. Tandecki (Air Force) Greece Lt. General E. Papaefstathiou (Air Force) Italy Lt. General M . Sicoli (Air Force) Luxembourg Lt. Col. J.P. Heck (Army) Netherlands Lt. General B. Mus (Air Force) Norway Maj. General R. Eios (Army) Portugal Vice Admiral A. G. Ramos (Navy) Spain Vice Admiral J. M. Sobrino (Navy) Turkey Lt. General A. Ozozer (Army) United Kingdom General Sir Thomas Morony (Army) United States General R . Robinson, Jr (Army)* Chief, French Military Mission General de Division H. Navereau (Army)

International Military Staff: Director: Ll. General A. Moriau (Belgium) (Air Force)

THE MAJOR NATO COMMANDERS

Supreme Allied Commander Europe, SACEUR: General Bernard W. Rogers (United States) Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic, SACLANT: Admiral Wesley L. McDonald (United States) Allied Commander-in-Chief, CINCHAN: Admiral Sir Nicholas Hunt (United Kingdom)

* General J.N. Merritt appointed as from October 1985.

9 PR INCIPAL OFFICIALS OF THE NATO INTERNATIONAL STAFF

Secretary General: Lord Carrington (United Kingdom)

Deputy Secretary General: Ambassador Eric da Rin (Italy)

Assistant Secretary General for Political AfTairs: Ambassador Fredo Dannenbring (Federal Republic of Germany)

Assistant Secretary General for Defence Planning and Policy: Mr. James Moray Stewart (United Kingdom)

Assistant Secretary General for Defence Support: Mr. Robin L . Beard (United States)

Assistant Secretary General for Infrastructure, Logistics and Council Operations: Mr. C. M. E. De Laat de Kanter (Netherlands)

Assistant Secretary General for Scientific and Environmental AfTairs: Mr. Henry Durand (France)

Office of the Secretary General: Director of the Private Office: Mr. B. J. P. Fall (United Kingdom)

10 PART I

(I) The North Atlantic Treaty

Washington D.C., 4 April 1949*

The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and princi­ ples of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all Governments. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilisation of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, indi­ vidual liberty and the rule of law. They seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area. They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defence and for the preservation of peace and security. They therefore agree to this North Atlantic Treaty:

a r t ic l e 1 The Parties undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to settle any international dispute in which they may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security and justice are not endangered, and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.

ARTICLE 2 The Parlies will contribute toward the further development of peaceful and friendly international relations by strengthening their free institutions, by bringing about a better understanding of the principles upon which these institutions are founded, and by promoting conditions of stability and well-being. They will seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and will encourage economic collaboration between any or all of them.

ARTICLE 3 In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Par­ ties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack.

* The Treaty came into force on 24 August, 1949, after the deposition of the ratifications of all signatory states.

13 ARTICLE 4 The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened.

ARTICLE 5 The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all, and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recog­ nised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parlies so attacked by taking forthwith, individually, and in con­ cert with the other Parties, such action as il deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.

ARTICLE 6* For the purpose of Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack — on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France t, on the territory of Turkey or on the islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer; — on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any area in Europe in which occupation forces of any of the Parlies were stationed on the date when the Treaty entered into force or the Mediterranean Sea or the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer.

a r t ic l e 7 The Treaty does not effect, and shall not be interpreted as affecting, in any way the rights and obligations under the Charter of the Parties which are members of the United Nations, or the primary responsibility of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security.

* As amended by Article 2 of the Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of Greece and Turkey. t On 16 January, 1963, the French Representative made a statement to the North Atlantic Council on the efTects of the independence of Algeria on certain aspects of the North Atlantic Treaty. The Council noted that insofar as the former Algerian Departments of France were concerned the relevant clauses of this Treaty had become inapplicable as from 3 July, 1962.

14 ARTICLE 8 Each Parly declares that none of the international engagements now in force between it and any other of the Parties or any third State is in con­ flict with the provisions of this Treaty, and undertakes not to enter into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty.

ARTICLE 9 The Parties hereby establish a Council, on which each of them shall be represented to consider matters concerning the implementation of this Treaty. The Council shall be so organised as to be able to meet promptly at any time. The Council shall set up such subsidiary bodies as may be necessary; in particular it shall establish immediately a defence committee which shall recommend measures for the implementation of Articles 3 and 5.

ARTICLE 10 The Parlies may, by unanimous agreement, invite any other European Stale in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area to accede to this Treaty. Any Slate so invited may become a party to the Treaty by depositing its instru­ ment of accession with the Government of the United States of America. The Government of the United Stales of America will inform each of the Parties of the deposit of each such instrument of accession.

ARTICLE 11 This Treaty shall be ratified and its provisions carried out by the Parties in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited as soon as possible with the Government of the United States of America, which will notify all the other signatories of each deposit. The Treaty shall enter into force between the States which have ratified it as soon as the ratification of the majority of the signatories, including the ratifications of Belgium, Canada, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States, have been depo­ sited and shall come into effect with respect to other States on the date of the deposit of their ratifications.

ARTICLE 12 After the Treaty has been in force for ten years, or at any lime thereafter, the Parties shall, if any of them so requests, consult together for the pur­ pose of reviewing the Treaty, having regard for the factors then afTecting peace and security in the North Atlantic area including the development of universal as well as regional arrangements under the Charier of the United Nations for the maintenance of international peace and security.

15 ARTICLE 13 After Ihe Treaty has been in force for twenty years, any Party may cease to be a Party one year after its notice of denunciation has been given to the Government of the United Slates of America, which will inform the Gov­ ernments of the other Parties of the deposit of each notice of denunica- tion.

ARTICLE 14 This Treaty, of which the English and French texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America. Duly certified copies will be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the other signatories.

16 (II) Analysis of the Treaty

The North Atlantic Treaty is the framework for a defensive alliance designed to prevent aggression or to repel it, should it occur. It also provides for continuous cooperation and con­ sultation in political, economic and other non-military fields. It is of indefinite duration. The signatory countries state their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments. R eaffirming their faith in the principles of the United Nations, they undertake in particular to preserve peace and international security and to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area. To achieve these goals, they sign their names to a number of undertakings in different fields. They agree, for example, to settle international disputes by peaceful means, in order to avoid endangering international peace, security and justice. They also agree to refrain from the threat or use of force in any way which would not be consistent with the purposes of the United Nations. They undertake to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and to encourage eco­ nomic collaboration between their countries. Under this Treaty, the member countries therefore adopt a policy of security based on the inherent right to individual and collective self-defence accorded by Article 51 of the Uni­ ted Nations Charter, while, at the same time, affirming the importance of cooperation between them in other spheres. The Treaty consists of fourteen Articles and is preceded by a Preamble which emphasises that the Alliance has been created within the framework of the United Nations Charter and outlines its main purposes. Article 1 defines the basic principles to be followed by member countries in conducting their international relations, in order to avoid endangering peace and world security.

17 Article 2 defines the aims which the member countries will pursue in their international relationships, and their resulting obligations. In Article 3 signatories state that they will maintain and develop their ability, both individually and collectively, to resist attack. Article 4 envisages a threat to the territorial integrity, pol­ itical independence or security of one of the member coun­ tries of the Alliance and provides for joint consultation whenever one of them believes that such a threat exists. In practice, this consultation takes place in the North Atlantic Council and its subordinate committees. Article 5 is the core of the Treaty whereby member coun­ tries agree to treat an armed attack on any one of them, on either side of the Atlantic, as an attack against all of them. It commits them to taking the necessary steps to help each oth­ er in the event of an armed attack. Although it leaves each signatory free to take whatever action it considers appropriate, the Article states that indi­ vidually and collectively the member nations must take steps to restore and maintain security. Joint action is justified by the inherent, individual and collective right of self-defence embodied in Article 51 of the United Nations Charter; but it is agreed that measures taken under the terms of the Article shall be terminated when the Security Council has acted as necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security. Article 6 defines the area in which the provisions of Article 5 apply. However, it does not imply that events occurring outside that area cannot be the subject of consultation within the Alliance or of concerted action by individual member countries in that area. The overall international situation is liable to affect the preservation of peace and security in the Treaty area and the North Atlantic Council must therefore devote its attention to consideration of this situation as a matter of course. In Articles 7 and 8 member nations stipulate that none of their existing international commitments conflict with the

18 terms of the Treaty and that they will not enter into any commitments in the future which do so. In particular they state that rights and obligations pertaining to membership of the United Nations are unaffected by the Treaty, as is the primary role of the United Nations Security Council in the sphere of international peace and security. Under Article 9, the parties to the Treaty estab lish a Coun­ cil, on which each of them shall be represented, which shall be able to meet promptly at any time. The Council in turn is charged with the creation of such subsidiary bodies as may be necessary to implement the provisions of the Treaty. This is the basis on which the North At lantic Treaty Organisation has been gradually built up. Article 10 provides for the possibility of accession to the Treaty by any other European State in a position to further the principles of the Treaty. In 1952 Greece and Turkey, in 1955 the Federal Republic of Germany, and in 1982 Spain acceded to the Treaty under the terms of this Article. Article 11 describes the process of ratification of the Treaty in accordance with the constitutional processes of the signa­ tories, and the manner in which the Treaty is to enter into force. Articles 12 and 13 deal with the possibility of revision of the Treaty after a period of ten years and denunciation of the Treaty by any party to it, after twenty years. They have never been invoked. Article 14 gives equal authority to the English and French texts of the Treaty and arranges for their safe deposit in Washington D.C. English and French remain the two official languages of n a t o

19

(Ill) How the Alliance Works

The North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949 brought into being an alliance of independent countries militarily prepared to maintain peace, defend freedom and foster stable international relations. The Alliance is an association of free states joined together to preserve their security through mutual gua­ rantees and collective self-defence as recognised by the Uni­ ted Nations Charter, n a t o is an inter-governmental, not a supranational organisation, in which member states retain their full sovereignty and independence. The organisation provides the forum in which they consult and reach decisions on political and military subjects. On the political side they coordinate their security policies in accordance with the goals of the North Atlantic Treaty. On the military side they formu­ late joint defence plans, establish the infrastructure needed to enable their forces to operate, and arrange for joint training programmes and exercises. The forces of n a t o countries remain, as a rule, under national authority. Exceptions to this rule are the integrated staffs at the various n a t o military headquarters, certain air defence units on constant alert, and the Standing Naval Forces mentioned on pages 38 and 39. The Alliance seeks to guarantee the security of its members through a policy based on the twin principles of defence and genuine détente : it does not seek to base its security on mil­ itary strength alone. The member countries maintain ade­ quate defence and political solidarity in order to ensure cre­ dible deterrence, and at the same time seek a constructive East-West relationship through dialogue and mutually advan­ tageous cooperation, including efforts to reach agreement on military significant, equitable and verifiable arms reductions. These elements are complementary: dialogue can only be fruitful if each party is confident of its security and is pre­ pared to respect the legitimate interests of others.

21 Political Consultation, East/West Conta cts and Arms Control and Disarmament Negotiations

The member countries of the Alliance regularly exchange information and views, not only on issues involving the Alliance as a whole and on matters touching on the interests of the individual member countries, but also on develop­ ments in other areas of the world. Political consultation, an important feature of the Alliance from its earliest days, was given new impetus with the adoption in 1956 of the Report on Non-Military Cooperation calling for consultation on all matters of interest to the Alliance during the formative stages of government decision-making. The machinery which has developed over the years to allow for constant multilateral consultation is no longer unique but n a t o was a forerunner in this field. The forum primarily used for consultation within n a t o is the Council, but regular exchanges of information and views also take place in other n a t o committees and working groups. All decisions are taken by consensus. The continued importance of political consultation within the Alliance has been emphasised repeatedly, notably in the Ottawa Declara­ tion signed by Heads of Government in 1974, and in subse­ quent communiqués issued after important meetings of the Council at Heads of Government or Ministerial level. Consultation takes place on a wide range of topics, many of which are directly related to the search for better relations between East and West. In 1967 the Council’s report on the Future Tasks of the Alliance underlined the need to achieve a more stable relationship with the Soviet Union and the coun­ tries of Eastern Europe through a policy of détente aimed at lessening tensions between East and West and progressively increasing areas of cooperation. By the late 1960s and early 1970s an intensification of East-West contacts was taking place in a number of spheres. In that period, the Federal Republic of Germany, implementing its “ Ostpolitik”, con­ cluded treaties with the USSR, Poland, the German Demo­ cratic Republic and Czechoslovakia; the Four-Power Agree­

2 2 ment on Ber lin was signed; and Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the United States and the u ss r were initiated, leading to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and to a first s a l t agreement, signed in May 1972. Extensive bilateral and multilateral contacts between East and West continued throughout the 1970s. A second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1972, culminating in the signing of a s a l t ii Agreement in June 1979. This agreement was not ratified by the United States. This was in part because the climate of East-West relations had deteriorated as a direct result of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan but also because it was not considered an ade­ quate agreement either in terms of nuclear force reductions or in terms of enhancing security. Both parties, however, have indicated that they will respect its provisions on a reciprocal basis. Efforts to achieve realistic and verifiable arms control agreements have nevertheless continued. In November 1981 President Reagan announced a series of initiatives designed to bring about greater security through significant reductions in the levels of both nuclear and conventional arms. These included new United States/Soviet talks aimed at making sig­ nificant reductions in levels of strategic weapons ( s t a r t ) ; and talks on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces ( i n f ). In the in f talks, the United States proposed the complete dismant­ ling of Soviet intermediate-range nuclear forces in return for the cancellation of all n a t o ’s planned deployments of nuclear forces of a similar range. On 23 November 1983 the Soviet Union unilaterally discontinued the i n f negotiations in Gen­ eva. On 8 December 1983 it also left the Genevas t a r t nego­ tiations without setting a date for their resumption. In Janua­ ry 1985 the United States and the u s s r agreed to resume nuclear arms control negotiations, and on 12 March new talks began in Geneva addressing strategic and intermediate­ range nuclear forces, and space-based strategic defence pro­ grammes. The m b f r negotiations (Mutual and Balanced Force Re­ ductions), which began in Vienna on 30 October 1973, were an Alliance initiative. The concept of balanced force

23 red uctions first appeared in the 1967 Report on the F uture Tasks of the Alliance. The goal of mutual and balanced red uctions has been actively pursued by n a t o ever since June 1968, when countries participating in the n a t o Defence Pro­ gramme adopted at Reykjavik a Declaration calling upon the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries to join in an East-West effort to achieve progress in this area. In 1973 these countries agreed to begin talks on m b f r . All members of the Warsaw Pact and all members of n a t o , except France, Iceland, Portugal and Spain, are participants. In the case of m b f r , the North Atlantic Council has taken a step which goes beyond providing a forum for cons ultation and has for the first time assumed a management role in the development of the negotiating position of the Western par­ ticipants. Common positions on all questions of policy and strategy are elaborated in Brussels, on the basis of national instructions, by the Council in permanent session assisted by the Senior Political Committee. They are then transmitted to the Ad Hoc Group of Allied negotiators in Vienna. This pro­ cedure is indicative of the closeness of Alliance consultations on major questions and of the increasingly active role of n a t o in recent years in the field of arms control and disar­ mament negotiations, progress in which is a basic objective of the Alliance. The Western objective in the Vienna negotiations is to contribute to stability and security by reducing ground forces and establishing parity in the agreed area of reductions in Central Europe. Difficulties in reaching prior agreement on the starting levels for reductions (the ‘data problem’), on associated measures (primarily verification of reductions) and the phasing of reductions continue to be the main obsta­ cles to a satisfactory outcome to the negotiations. From July 1973 until August 1975 the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( c s c e ) took place in Hel­ sinki and Geneva, with 35 states participating (i.e., all Euro­ pean states with the exception of Albania; and the United States and Canada). The proposal for such a conference was an Eastern one. In concurring with it, Western participants

24 tried to make sure that the final agreement resulting from the Conference contained concrete measures as well as declara­ tions of principle and that attention was paid not only to relations between governments but to contacts between peo­ ple and to the rights of the individual. These ideas found expression in some of the principles agreed upon, in confidence-building measures based on exchanges of infor­ mation about military activities, in sections of the agreement dealing with economic cooperation, and in the chapter con­ cerning humanitarian issues and freedom of information. Agreement was reached in July 1975 and the document known as the Final Act was signed by the Heads of State and Government of all the participating countries in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. Western participants stress that the real im­ portance of the Final Act lies in the extent to which its prin­ ciples and provisions are implemented and they have accord­ ingly taken steps unilaterally, bilaterally and multilaterally to achieve this aim. A c s c e Follow-Up Meeting took place in Belgrade between 4 October 1977 and 9 March 1978. The Belgrade meeting provided an opportunity for a thorough review of progress achieved in implementing the Final Act, and although no agreement was reached on proposals to further its objectives, a decision was taken to continue the c s c e process and to hold a second follow-up meeting in Madrid in 1980. The Madrid meeting began in November 1980 and was devoted first to reviewing the record of implementation of all provisions of the Helsinki Final Act and then to considering new proposals for strengthening the c s c e process, including a n a t o initia­ tive for a Conference on Disarmament in Europe (c d e ). Events in Poland after the declaration of martial law in December 1981 focused attention on new violations of the Helsinki Agreement in Eastern Europe and inhibited business as usual in Madrid. Nonetheless agreement was finally reached on 9 September 1983 on a balanced concluding document including a mandate for the Conference on Secur­ ity and Conf idence-Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (c d e ) which opened in Stockholm on 17 January

25 1984. The concluding document reflects progress in impor­ tant areas such as trade union rights, religious freedoms, the dissemination of information and the problem of terrorism, and provides both for a series of additional meetings to be held on the peaceful settlement of disputes, Mediterranean cooperation, human rights and human contacts and, finally, for a further follow-up meeting to be held in Vienna in Nov­ ember 1986. Close consultation and coordination among the members of the Alliance throughout the three years of negotiations in Madrid contributed decisively to a common Western ap­ proach often shared by the neutral and non-aligned partici­ pants. The provisions for further negotiations agreed upon at Madrid under line the continuing importance of the c s c e pro­ cess and the firm resolve of Western participants to stand by their commitment to defend the principles of the Helsinki Final Act. The Conference on Security and Confidence Building Mea­ sures and Disarmament in Europe (c d e ) marks a new stage in the c sc e process. The purpose of the Conference is to reduce the risks of miscalculation or misinterpretation and surprise attack throughout Europe through concrete, politically bind­ ing, militarily significant and verifiable agreements. Close consu ltations within the Alliance have enabled a comprehensive series of proposals to be put forward by the Western participants designed to build on the confidence and security-building measures foreseen in the Helsinki Final Act. The c d e is seen as an opportunity for creating the increased openness and mutual trust which could lead to progress in disarmament. One of the main tasks of the 1986 c s c e Fol­ low-up meeting in Vienna will be to assess the achievements of the first stage of this Stockholm Conference.

Defence Po licy

The primary ro le of the Alliance is to safeguard the security of member nations by deterring aggression. This means that a potential aggressor should have no doubt that if he initiates

26 an attack he will be taking a risk out of all proportion to any advantage he may hope to gain. In the event of aggression, the role of the Alliance is to re-establish the territorial integ­ rity of the North Atlantic area, n a t o must therefore maintain sufficient forces to preserve a military balance with the War­ saw Pact and to provide a credible deterrent, n a t o ’s strategy of flexible response adopted in 1967 means that the Alliance must have sufficient forces to respond to any level of aggres­ sion and must possess a full spectrum of forces so that it can counter any act of aggression with an appropriate response.

n a t o forces are made up of three interlocking elements known as the n a t o Triad. They are: — conventional forces strong enough to resist and repel a conventional attack on a limited scale, and to sustain a conventional defence in the forward areas against large- scale conventional aggression; — intermediate- and short-range nuclear forces to enhance the deterrent and, if necessary, the defensive effort of n a t o ’s conventional forces against a conventional attack; to deter and defend against an attack with nuclear forces of the same kind; and to provide a linkage to the strategic nuclear forces of the Alliance with the aim of convincing an aggressor that any form of attack on n a t o could result in very serious damage to his interests, and of emphasis­ ing the dangers implicit in continuing a conflict; — United States and United Kingdom strategic nuclear forces which provide the ultimate deterrent.

n a t o ’s task of maintaining credible deterrence is made increasingly difficult by continuing improvements, both in quality and quantity, to Warsaw Pact forces, far exceeding any conceivable defence requirements. The Soviet Union and its allies continue to enhance their conventional and nuclear forces, their offensive capabilities and their operational readi­ ness in every field, including a large-scale expansion of the Soviet Navy. The defence policy of the Alliance cannot be considered

27 simply in terms of maintaining an adequate defence posture for deterrence. Disarmament and arms control are integral parts of n a t o ’s security policy. In the negotiations on nuclear arms reductions and reductions in conventional forces, the main objective of the Western participants is to secure a bal­ ance of forces at much lower levels. The objectives of these negotiations are described in more detail on Pages 23-26.

The n a t o Defence Planning Cy cle

At regular intervals the Alliance conducts a defence review designed to coordinate national defence plans in the light of n a t o ’s common defence requirements. The first step in this review, updated every two years, is the development of poli­ tical directives for national and international defence plan­ ners in a document called “ Ministerial Guidance”, approved by Defence Ministers in the Defence Planning Committee (d p c ). The second step, completed approximately one year after the Ministerial Guidance has been issued and also up­ dated every two years, is the development of specific military planning targets for the armed forces of member nations in the form of “ Force Goals ” covering a six-year period. The third step, carried out annually against the background of the latest versions of the Ministerial Guidance and Force Goals, is a review of national actions during the current year and plans for the next five years leading up to the adoption by Defence Ministers, at a meeting of the d p c at the end of each year, of a common n a t o Force Plan for a five-year period.

International Co-operation in Scien ce and Technology

The report by a Committee of Three Ministers, appointed in 1956 to advise the Council on ways of improving and extend­ ing cooperation in non-military fields, recognised the special importance of science and technology. The n a t o Science Committee was established in December 1957. It first met in March 1958 and in its early years established three pro­ grammes which remain the backbone of n a t o ’s science activ­

28 ities today — The Science Fellowships Programme, the Ad­ vanced Study Institutes Programme and the Co llaborative Research Grants Programme. The Committee reviews its activities regularly, however, and has established additional programmes over the years, so as to keep abreast of scientific advances. Details of current activities are available from the Scientific Affairs Division as follows: a descriptive Guide to the Science Programmes, an annual Yearbook giving particu­ lars of the projects supported, a quarterly newsletter and cata­ logues of publications resulting from scientific meetings. The main goal of the n a t o Science Committee can be summarised as the enhancement of the scientific and techni­ cal capability of the Alliance by supporting cooperation and the exchange of information between scientists of member nations, and by catalysing remedial action to help close gaps in scientific knowledge and research capability. Support has been made available in numerous spheres, including, for example, the development of novel materials for emerging needs, and the furtherence of scientific knowledge of the world’s climatic and marine conditions. Increasing attention is now being given to promoting international exchange ac­ tivities between industry and university research groups. The Science Committee has become deeply concerned about the growing disparity in scientific and technological capabilities within the Alliance. Accordingly, the Committee decided, in 1980, to set up a special programme of approxi­ mately seven years’ duration, designed to help Greece, Portu­ gal and Turkey in the development of their scientific and technological capabilities.

Challenges of Today’s Society

The Science Committee Programmes provided a precedent for the work of the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society ( c c m s ) established in 1969 to promote international action to improve the quality of life. The role the Alliance might play in tackling such questions was recognised by Min­ isters in April 1969 when they issued instructions to their

29 representatives in the Council to examine ways of improving cooperation in this field . This decision has led to successful initiatives in numerous fields including environmental pollu­ tion, urban problems, the rational use of energy, and prob­ lems concerned with dangers affecting health and safety. Two important concepts characterise the work of the c c m s , namely that it should lead to concrete action and that its results should be entirely open and accessible to international organisations or individual countries anywhere in the world. For each project embarked upon, a member nation volun­ teers to assume responsibility for planning the work, coordi­ nating its execution, preparing the necessary reports and for trying to ensure that action follows. This method, which is more and more in use, has proved fruitful and effective. Resolutions and recommendations arising from the studies are noted by the Council.

30

CIVIL AND MI LITARY STRUCTU RE (IV) The Civil and Military Structure of the Alliance

The North Atlantic Council, theD efence Planning Committee and the Nuclear Planning Group n a t o is an organisation of sovereign nations equal in status. Decisions taken m ust therefore be expressions of the collec­ tive will of member governments arrived at by common con­ sent. The highest decision-making body and forum for consulta­ tions within the Alliance is the North Atlantic Council, com­ posed of representatives of the sixteen member countries. At Ministerial Meetings of the Council, member nations are represented by Ministers of Foreign Affairs. These meet­ ings are held twice a year. The Council also meets on occa­ sion at the level of Heads of Stale and Government. In per­ manent session, at the level of Ambassadors (Permanent Representatives), the Council usually meets at least once a week. The Defence Planning Committee is composed of repre­ sentatives of the member countries participating in n a t o ’s integrated military structure. It deals with matters specifically related to defence. Like the Council, it meets both in perma­ nent session at the level of Ambassadors and twice a year at Ministerial level. At Ministerial Meetings, member nations are represented by Defence Ministers. The Council and Defence Planning Committee are chaired by the Secretary General of n a t o at whatever level they meet. Opening Sessions of Ministerial Meetings of the Coun­ cil are also presided over by the President, an honorary posi­ tion held annually by the Foreign Minister of one of the member nations.

33 Nuclear matters are discussed by the Nuclear Planning Group in which fourteen countries now participate. It meets as required at the level of Permanent Representatives and twice a year at the level of Ministers of Defence.

The Permanent Representatives and National Delegations The Permanent Representatives of member countries are supported by national delegations located at n a t o Head­ quarters. The delegations are composed of advisers and offi­ cials who represent their countries on committees created by the Council.

The Secretary General and the International Staff

To assist its work, the Council has established a number of committees whose main areas of responsibility are indicated in the diagram on page 32. These committees are supported by an International Staff, made up of personnel drawn from all member countries, responsible to the Secretary General. The Secretary General himself is responsible for promoting and directing the process of consultation within the Alliance. He may propose items for discussion. He has the authority to use his good ofTices at any time in cases of dispute between member countries, and with their consent, to initiate enqui­ ries or mediation, conciliation or arbitration procedures. The Deputy Secretary General assists the Secretary General in his functions and deputises for him in his absence. The International Staff comprises the Office of the Secretary General, five Divisions, the Office of Management and the Office of the Financial Controller. Each of the Divi­ sions is headed by an Assistant Secretary General, who is normally the Chairman of the main committee dealing with his responsibilities. Through their structure of Directorates and Services, the Divisions support the work of the commit­ tees in numerous fields described in more detail on pages 43 to 50 which deal with the structure of the International Staff and the organisation of its work.

34 The Military Committee The Military Committee is the highest military authority in the Alliance. It is composed of the Chiefs of Staff of all mem­ ber nations, except France and Iceland. France is represented by the Chief of the French Military Mission to the Military Committee. Iceland has no military forces but can be repre­ sented by a civilian. The Chiefs of Staff meet at least twice a year or whenever it is deemed necessary. However, to enable the Military Committee to function on a continuous basis with effective powers of decision, each Chief of Staff appoints a Permanent Military Representative. The Military Committee is responsible for making recom­ mendations to the Council and Defence Planning Committee on those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the n a t o area, and for supplying guidance on mil­ itary matters to the Major n a t o Commanders. It is also responsible for a number of n a t o military agencies and for the n a t o Defense College in Rome*. The Presidency of the Military Committee rotates annually among the nations in the order of the English alphabet. The Chairman of the Military Committee is elected by the Chiefs of Staff normally for a period of three years. He directs the day-to-day business of the Committee and acts as its spokes­ man. The Chairman is assisted by the Deputy Chairman, who is also specifically responsible for the coordination of nuclear matters, arms control and m b f r ** matters, and by the Director of the International Military Staff The Military Committee is represented at meetings of the North Atlantic Council by its Chairman.

The International Military Staff The Military Committee is assisted by an integrated Interna­ tional Military Staff ( im s ) headed by a Director of three star rank selected from one of the member nations. The Director

* Sec pages 52 lo 55. ** Vienna negotiations on Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions in Cen­ tral Europe.

35 is assisted by six Assistant Directors and the Secretary of the IMS, who are of general officer rank. The Assistant Directors head the Divisions for Intelligence; Plans and Policy; Oper­ ations; Logistics and Resources; Command, Control and Communication Systems; and Armaments, Standardisation and Interoperability. As the executive agency of the Military Committee, the im s is charged with ensuring that the policies and decisions of the Military Committee are implemented as directed. In addition, the im s prepares plans, initiates studies and recommends policy on matters of a military nature.

The n a t o Commands The strategic area covered by the North Atlantic Treaty is divided among three Commands: Allied Command Europe; Allied Command Atlantic; and Allied Command Channel. These Commands are under the authority of the three Major n a t o Commanders (m n c s ): the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic and the Allied Commander-in-Chief Channel. Plans for the defence of the North American area are developed by the Canada- United States Regional Planning Group, which makes recom­ mendations to the Military Committee. It meets alternately in the United States and Canada. The authority exercised by the Commands varies in ac­ cordance with geographical and political factors and with peace or wartime conditions. Generally, the forces of member countries remain under national command in peacetime; however, some are placed under operational command or control of n a t o , some are already assigned to n a t o Commands and others are ear­ marked for these Commands. The Major n a t o Commanders are responsible for the de­ velopment of defence plans for their respective areas, for the determination of force requirements and for the deployment and exercise of the forces under their Command. The organisation of the Commands is flexible enough and the liaison between them close enough to allow for mutual

36 support and the rapid movement of the necessary land, sea and air forces to meet any situation likely to confront the Alliance. THE EUROPEAN COMMAND

Allied Command Europe ( a c e ) covers the area extending from the North Cape to the Mediterranean and from the Atlantic to the eastern border of Turkey, excluding Portugal and the United Kingdom, the defence of which does not fall under any one Major n a t o Command, a c e is subdivided into a number of subordinate Commands listed on page 57. a c e comes under the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (s a c e u r ), whose headquarters, near Mons in Belgium, are known as s h a p e (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Eu­ rope). The a c e Mobile Force, also under s a c e u r , is composed of land and air force units supplied by different member coun­ tries. It can be ready for action at very short notice in any threatened area of a c e , particularly on the northern and sou­ thern flanks. In addition, s a c e u r shares with s a c l a n t and c in c h a n operational command over the n a t o Airborne Early Warn­ ing and Control Force. He acts as Executive Agent of the Major n a t o Commanders in promulgating operational com­ mand directives and in the day-to-day exercise of administra­ tive control for this force, s a c e u r ’s main functions are to prepare and finalise defence plans for the area under his com­ mand, and ensure the combat efficiency of forces assigned to him in the event of war. s a c e u r also makes recommenda­ tions to the Military Committee on matters likely to improve the organisation of his command. In wartime s a c e u r would control all land, sea and air operations in his area. Internal defence and defence of coastal waters remain the responsibility of the national authorities concerned, but s a c e u r would have full authority to carry out such operations as he considered necessary for the defence of any part of the area under his Command.

37 Fourteen of the member countries maintain a National Military Representative ( n m r ) at s h a p e , providing military liaison with the Allied Chiefs-of-Staff. France has a military liaison mission at s h a p e . s a c e u r and his two Deputy Supreme Allied Commanders are assisted by political and scientific advisers in addition to their military staffs.

THE ATLANTIC OCEAN COMMAND

The Allied Command Atlantic ( a c l a n t ) covers approximate­ ly 12 million square miles of the Atlantic Ocean. This area extends from the North Pole to the Tropic of Cancer and from the coastal waters of North America to the coasts of Europe and Africa, except for the Channel and the British Isles, a c l a n t is subdivided into a number of subordinate Commands listed on pages 57 and 58. The Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (s a c l a n t ) has peacetime responsibility for preparing defence plans, con­ ducting joint training exercises, establishing training stan­ dards and supplying the n a t o authorities with information on his strategic requirements. s a c l a n t ’s primary task is to provide for the security of the Atlantic area by guarding the sea lanes and denying their use to an enemy in order to safeguard them for the reinforcement and resupply of n a t o Europe with men and material. The Standing Naval Force Atlantic ( stanavforlant ), made up of ships from n a t o navies normally operating in the Atlantic area, is under the direct command of s a c l a n t . This force is the world’s first permanent international naval squadron formed in peacetime and is assigned to s a c l a n t on a continuous basis. In addition, for training purposes and in the event of war, forces earmarked by the nations involved are assigned to s a c l a n t . Although these forces are predomi­ nantly naval, they also include ground forces and land-based air forces.

38 THE CHANNEL COMMAND

The Allied Command Channel (a c c h a n ) covers the English Channel and the southern areas of the North Sea. Its mission is to control and protect merchant shipping in the area, co­ operating with s a c e u r in the air defence of the Channel. The forces earmarked for the Command are predominantly naval but include maritime air forces. The Allied Commander-in- Chief Channel (c in c h a n ) has a Maritime Air Adviser who is also the Commander Allied Maritime Air Force Channe l. For details of c in c h a n ’s subordinate Commands see page 56. c in c h a n also has under his orders the n a t o Standing Naval Force Channel (stanavforchan ) comprising mine counter­ measure vessels of different n a t o countries.

39

PART II

(I) Structure and Organisation of the International Staff

The International Staff comprises the Office o f the Secreta­ ry General, five Divisions(Political Affairs; Defence Planning and Policy; Defence Support; Infrastructure, Logistics and Council Operations; and Scientific Affairs), the Office o f Man­ agement, and the Financial Controller.

The Office o f the Secretary General is composed of the Private Office and the Office of the Legal Adviser; it also inc ludes: The Office o f the Executive Secretary, which provides the Secretariat of the Council and d p c , the Nuclear Planning Group ( n p g ), and all their main committees and working groups; coordinates their tasks; and ensures that Council, d pc and n p g decisions are fol lowed up. The Office o f Security, which is responsible for the overall coordination of security within n a t o , for the security of the Headquarters and for providing advice and guidance on n a t o security matters. The Press Service, the head of which acts as the official spokesman for n a t o in contacts with the press. His office also provides a daily press review and a press cutting ser­ vice.

The Division o f Political Affairs Under the Assistant Secretary General for Political Affairs, who is Chairman of the Political Committee, the Political Division is composed of three separate Directorates - Politi­ cal Affairs, Economic Affairs and Information. The Political Directorate has the following responsibili­ ties:

43 a) Preparation of the political discussions of the Council and of the Political Committee; b) Preparation of notes and reports on political subjects for the Secretary General and the Council; c) Political liaison with the Delegations of member coun­ tries; d) Liaison with other international organisations, both gov­ ernmental and non-governmental.

The Economics Directorate carries out similar functions with regard to all economic questions having political or defence implications of concern to n a t o and maintains con­ tacts with international economic organisations. The Director is Chairman of the Economics Committee. The Information Directorate assists member governments to widen public understanding of n a t o and its policies through the medium of films, video, radio and TV pro­ grammes, a periodical publication (the “ n a t o Review”, which appears in twelve language editions), non-periodical publications and exhibitions. It arranges for group visits to n a t o Headquarters, participates in the organisation of spe­ cial courses and seminars on n a t o matters and sponsors youth activities. The Directorate administers the “NATO Fellowship Programme” and organises an annual Atlantic Award for an outstanding contribution to the Alliance by a personality from one of the member countries. It has exten­ sive book, film, video and photo libraries. The Director of Information is Chairman of the Commit­ tee on Information and Cultural Relations. He also takes the chair at the annual Conference of National Information Offi­ cials and the annual meeting of Ministry of Defence Informa­ tion Officers.

The Division o f Defence Planning and Policy The Assistant Secretary General for Defence Planning and Policy is Chairman of the Defence Review Committee ( d r c ),

44 composed of all member countries participating in the inte­ grated military structure of the Alliance. He is also Vice Chairman of the Executive Working Group (e w g ) of the Defence Planning Committee and supervises the work of the Nuclear Planning Group (n p g ) Staff Group, and the Civil Emergency Planning (c e p ) Committee. The Division is organised into three Directorates, viz: a) Directorate o f Force Planning and - Policyresponsible for the preparation, in collaboration with national delega­ tions, of all papers and business concerned with the n a t o Defence Review including the analysis of national defence programmes; for other matters of a politico-military and military-economic nature considered by the Defence Planning Committee; for the preparation of studies of general or particular aspects of n a t o defence on behalf of the Executive Working Group of the d p c ; for the main­ tenance of a computerised data base of information on n a t o and Warsaw Pact forces; and for the organisation and direction of all statistical studies and in particular those required to assess the n a t o defence effort. b) Directorate of Nuclear Planning responsible - for coordi­ nation of work on the development of n a t o defence pol­ icy in the nuclear field and with the preparation of busi­ ness for the Nuclear Planning Group. c) Directorate o f Civil Emergency Planning responsible - for coordination of plans for the use of civil resources in sup­ port of the Alliance defence effort, and the rapid transi­ tion of peacetime economics to an emergency footing; and for the preparation of business in this field for the North Atlantic Council and other bodies. The Assistant Secretary General for Defence Planning and Policy is responsible for providing advice to the Secretary General on all these matters, for maintaining liaison with national delegations, the Military Authorities and other Divi­ sions of the International Staff, and with other organisations as appropriate.

45 The Division o f Defence Support The Assistant Secretary General for Defence Support has three major responsibilities: a) advising the Secretary General, the North Atlantic Coun­ cil, the Defence Planning Committee and any other n a t o bodies on all matters relating to armaments research, development, production, procurement, air defence sys­ tems, and all aspects of command, control and communi­ cations; b) promoting the most efficient use of the resources of the Alliance for the equipment of its forces; c) developing the necessary communications between the North Atlantic Council,.national capitals and major n a t o commanders. The Division is organised into four Directorates, viz. : Directorate o f Armaments and Defence Research - responsi­ ble for encouraging cooperation amongst nations in harmon­ ising the concepts and requirements for future maritime, land and air equipment and harmonising procurement and re­ placement plans, so as to facilitate greater standardisation and commonality; encouraging coordination of national re­ search, development and production programmes, and of rationalisation of national research, development, production and logistic capabilities so as to improve the efficiency of resource utilisation ; organising systematic exchanges of infor­ mation to support better national decision-making and to facilitate international cooperation in defence equipment and its support. Directorate o f Command, Control and Communications - re­ sponsible for encouraging cooperative programmes in com­ munications and electronics, for the coordination of the over­ all policy aspects of n a t o ’s civil and military communica­ tions, and for providing support to the Management Agency responsible for the establishment of the n a t o Integrated Communications System (n ic s m a ) and to the n a t o Joint Communications-Electronics Committee (also acting as the n ic s Policy Committee).

46 Directorate o f Air Defence- responsible for promoting and coordinating efforts to assure the continuing adequacy, effec­ tiveness and efficiency of n a t o air defence systems; for pro­ viding support to the n a t o Air Defence Committee (n a d c ), whose ro le is to advise on all aspects of air defence pro­ gramme development; and for liaison with the Agency re­ sponsible for the imp lementation of the n a t o Airborne Early Warning Programme (n a p m a ) and the team responsible for the design of the future air command and control system (a ccs ).

Directorate o f Planning and Support responsible - for overall planning activities in support of armaments co-operation, including the development of procedures for the systematis- ing and rationalising of armaments planning; for promoting international cooperation among industries in the defence equipment field and also between government and industry, for liaison with outside bodies, and for providing guidance, coordination and staff support to the activities of all n a t o committees or bodies dealing with Defence Support matters, particularly in the areas of material management and intellec­ tual property. The Assistant Secretary General for Defence Support serves as the Permanent Chairman of the Conference of National Armament Directors. Members of the Division pro­ vide liaison with n a t o Production and Logistics Organisa­ tions concerned with cooperative equipment projects and with n a t o Military Agencies dealing with defence research and connected problems. They participate in the n a t o Defence Planning process on all matters within the responsi­ bility and competence of the Division. The Division o f Infrastructure, Logistics and Council Opera­ tions. The Assistant Secretary General for Infrastructure, Logistics and Council Operations, through three Directorates: the In­ frastructure Directorate, the Logistics Directorate and the Council Operations Directorate, has the following responsi­ bilities:

47 a) advising the Secretary General, the North Atlantic Council, the Defence Planning Committee, and any other n a t o bodies as appropriate on matters related to infrastructure and logistics and Council operations; b) participating in the n a t o Defence Planning process on all matters within the responsibility and competence of the Division; c) preparing proposals on policy issues relating to the future shape and size of n a t o Infrastructure Programmes and their management; d) providing technical and financial supervision of the n a t o Infrastructure Programmes; e) promoting the most efficient use of resources made avail­ able to the Alliance for the support of its forces. This task especially involves: — encouraging cooperation amongst nations to ensure the optimum balance of requirements and resources in the interplay of primary and support expenditures be­ tween force development, equipment acquisition, infra­ structure and consumer logistics; — encouraging improved conventional consumer logis­ tics readiness and support capabilities as well as realistic sustainability planning; — promoting the interchange of information on national logistics support capabilities in order to take advantage of recognised strengths as well as to identify and alleviate shortfalls; f) coordinating the operational aspects of the Council’s ac­ tivities, crisis management procedures and arrangements, and preparing and conducting high-level exercises; g) exercising, on behalf of the Council/Dpc and the Secretary General, responsibility for the overall policy, general or­ ganisation and effective functioning of the n a t o Situation Centre and its Communications Centre, including, in co­ operation with the Director, International Military Staff, policy guidance on the employment of the Headquarters’ a d p * resources; * Automatic Data Processing.

48 h) ensuring liaison with the n a t o Maintenance and Supply Organisation, the Central European Pipeline System and with other n a t o Production and Logistics Organisations and other n a t o bodies where logistics or infrastructure matters arise; i) maintaining regular contacts with other parts of the n a t o Civil and Military Staffs on matters of mutual interest; j) providing guidance, coordination and support to the ac­ tivities of all n a t o committees or bodies active in the fields of consumer logistics and infrastructure and Council operations, including chairing or co-chairing the Senior n a t o Logisticians’ Conference, the Infrastructure Com­ mittee, the Infrastructure Payments and Progress Com­ mittee, the n a t o Pipeline Committee and the Council Operations and Exercise Committee. The Scientific Affairs Division The Assistant Secretary General for Scientific and Environ­ mental Affairs has the following responsibilities: a) advising the Secretary General on scientific and techno­ logical matters of interest to n a t o ; b) chairing the n a t o Science Committee, directing the activ­ ities of the working groups created by it, implementing the decisions of the Committee and developing new ap­ proaches directed towards strengthening the scientific and technological capabilities in Alliance countries; c) serving as Acting Chairman of the Committee on the Challenges of Modem Society (c c m s ), and supervising the development of pilot projects; d) ensuring liaison in the scientific field with the Internation­ al Staff of n a t o , with n a t o Agencies, with agencies in the member countries responsible for implementation of science policies and with international organisations en­ gaged in science, technology and the environment. Office o f Management The Director of Management is responsible for all matters pertaining to the organisation and structure of the Interna­ tional Staff. He advises the Secretary General on civilian staff

49 policy and emoluments throughout the Organisation and is charged with the preparation, presentation and management of the International Staff budget. He supervises the activities of the Management Advisory Unit and of the Pensions Com­ putation Unit. The Deputy Director of Management is responsible for the general administration of the International Staff including personnel services, the maintenance of the headquarters, the provision of conference, interpretation and translation facili­ ties and the production and distribution of documents.

Office of the Financial Controller This independent office is headed by the Financial Control­ ler, who is appointed by the Council and is responsible for the control of expenditures within the framework of the budget.

Board o f Auditors The International Board of Auditors has independent status and is composed of officials, normally from auditing bodies in member countries, appointed by the Council. The Board audits all commonly funded civil and military accounts with­ in n a t o including the infrastructure programme.

50 (II) Civil and Military Agencies and Organisations

CIVILIAN ORGANISATIONS

Central Europe Operating Agency (CEOA) Established in 1957 to act as the central coordinating and controlling body for the Central European Pipelines System. Eight nations participate. Located at Versailles, France.

NATO Maintenance and Supply Organisation (NAMSO) Established in 1958, this Organisation supplies spare parts and logistic support for a number of jointly-used weapon sys­ tems or equipments, especially missiles and electronic sys­ tems. With the exception of Iceland, all member nations par­ ticipate. Located in Luxembourg.

NATO Hawk Production and Logistics Organisation (NHPLO) Established in 1959 to supervise the multinational produc­ tion of the HAWK surface-to-air missile system in Europe and subsequently to supervise the HAWK European Limited Improvement Programme. Seven nations participate. Lo­ cated at Rueil-Malmaison, France.

NATO Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Development and Production Management Organisation (NAMMO) Established in 1969 to supervise the development and production of the m r c a project, n a m m o is an inter-govern­ mental body supported by Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany and the United Kingdom. Located in Munich.

51 NATO Integrated Communications System Organisation (NICSO) Established in 1971 to supervise the planning and implemen­ tation of the n a t o Integrated Communications System — a voice, telegraph and data comunications network designed to improve the Alliance capability for crisis management and for the command and control of n a t o forces. The Organisa­ tion comprises the n ic s Policy Committee ( n jc e c ), and the n ic s Management Agency (n ic s m a ). Located in Brussels.

NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Organisation (NAPMO) Established in 1978 to manage the procurement aspects of the n a t o Airborne Early Warning and Control System. Lo­ cated at Brunssum in the Netherlands.

MILITARY AGENCIES

Allied Communications Security Agency (ACSA) This Agency, created in 1953, advises on all matters relating to communications security. Responsible to the Military Committee. Located in Brussels.

Allied Long Lines Agency (ALLA) Created in 1951, this Agency provides the focal point within n a t o for the formulation of policies and plans to meet the long line communications requirements of n a t o . Responsi­ ble to the Military Committee. Located in Brussels.

Allied Naval Commmunications Agency (ANCA) Established in 1951 to meet requirements of the Major n a t o Commanders for adequate and reliable communications for maritime operations. Responsible to the Military Committee. Located in London.

52 Allied Radio Frequency Agency (ARFA) Formed in 1951 for the establishment of policies concerned with the management of the military use of the radio fre­ quency spectrum. The Agency also provides engineering as­ sistance to all nations and n a t o Commands in the selection of suitable radio frequencies. Responsible to the Military Committee. Located in Brussels.

Allied Tactical Communications Agency (ATCA) Established in 1972, this Agency supports the Military Com­ mittee, the Major n a t o Commanders and nations by formu­ lating policy, requirements and procedures in the field of tac­ tical communications for land and air operations. The Agency effects liaison with the Allied Naval Communications Agency (a n c a ) with regard to joint operations in which naval or maritime air forces are involved. Thea t c a secretariat is located in Brussels and is responsible to the Military Com­ mittee.

Allied Data Systems Interoperability Agency (ADSIA) Inaugurated in 1979, this Agency provides specialist support to nations and n a t o by planning, developing and maintain­ ing common data systems interoperability standards in order to improve interoperability within the n a t o Command, Con­ trol and Information Systems (n c c is ), including systems of the national component as appropriate, a d s ia provides ad­ vice and assistance to the main groups of the Conference of National Armaments Directors (c n a d ) the Military Commit­ tee and its Agencies, and their subsidiary bodies, on data systems interoperability standards. The a d s ia secretariat is located in Brussels and is responsible to the n c c d p c and the Military Committee.

Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) Created in 1952. Brings together aerospace scientists from n a t o nations for exchange of technical information and co­ operation in research and development. Provides scientific

53 and technical advice to the Military Committee, other n a t o bodies and to member nations in the aerospace field. Re­ sponsible to the Military Committee. Located in Neuilly-sur- Seine, France.

Military Agency for Standardisation (MAS) Set up in 1951 to foster military standardisation with the aim of enabling n a t o forces to operate together in the most effec­ tive manner. Consists of representatives of all participating nations and is served by an international staff. The Chair­ man, m a s , is the sole promulgating authority for all standar­ disation agreements and is responsible directly to the Milita­ ry Committee. Located in Brussels.

NATO Defence College (NADEFCOL) Founded in 1951 for the training of officials, civilian or mil­ itary, who will serve in key posts in n a t o organisations, or in national ministries. Responsible to the Military Committee. Located first in Paris, and, since 1968, in Rome.

SACLANT Anti-submarine Warfare Research Centre (SACLANTCEN) Created in 1962 for research into submarine detection and oceanographic problems. Responsible to s a c l a n t . Located in La Spezia, Italy.

SHAPE Technical Centre (STC) Created in 1960, this Centre provides scientific and technical advice to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe. Responsi­ ble to s a c e u r . Located in The Hague.

In addition, the Military Committee has under its authority the following agencies: — The Military Command, Control and Information Sys­ tems Working Group ( m c c is w g ). — The Military Committee Meteorological Group ( m c m g ). — The n a t o Command, Contro l and Information Systems and Automatic Data Processing Committee (n c c d p c ).

54 — The n a t o Communications - Electronics Board (n c e b ). — The n a t o Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee (n e w a c ). — The n a t o Training Group.

55 MAJOR NATO COMMANDERS

SUBORDINATE COMMANDS

WESTERN ATLANTIC NORTHERN EUROPE . _ NORE CHANNEL Norfolk U.S.A. Kolsàs Norway Rosyth U.K.

EASTERN ATLANTIC. CENTRAL EUROPE. PLYMOUTH CHANNEL Northwood U.K. Brunssum Netherlands Plymouth U.K.

SUBMARINES . SOUTHERN EUROPE . BENELUX CHANNEL Norfolk U.S.A. Naples Italy Walcheren Netherlands

IBERIAN ATLANTIC ACE MOBILE FORCE . COMMAIRCHAN Lisbon Portugal ' Heidelberg F.R.G. Northwood U.K.

UNITED KINGDOM STANAVFORCHAN STRIKING FLEET AIR FORCES - Afloat ' Afloat High Wycombe U.K.

STANAVFORLANT NATO AIRBORNE Afloat EARLY WARNING AND CONTROL FORCE ' Geilenkirchen. F.R.G .’ (Ill) The NATO Command Structure

ACE: Allied Command Europe. Headquarters: s h a p e , near Mons, Belgium.

Commands subordinate to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe:

a) Allied Forces Northern Europe: Kolsâs, Norway. This Command comprises: Allied Forces North Norway; Allied Forces South Norway; and Allied Forces Baltic Approaches. b) Allied Forces Central Europe: Brunssum, Netherlands. This Command comprises: Northern Army Group, Central Army Group; Allied Air Forces Central Europe; 2nd Allied Tactical Air Force and 4th Allied Tactical Air Force. c) Allied Forces Southern Europe: Naples, Italy. This command comprises: Allied Land Forces Southern Europe; Al­ lied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe; Allied Air Forces Southern Europe; Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe; Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe. d) The UK Air Forces Command: High Wycombe, UK. e) The Allied Command Europe Mobile Force:Heidelberg, F. R .G. f) The n a t o Airborne Early Warning and Control Force : Geilenkirchen, F.R.G. (The n a e w Force is under the operational command of the three major n a t o Commanders, s a c e u r , s a c l a n t and c in c h a n . s a c e u r is their Executive Agent.)

ACLANT : Allied Command Atlantic. Headquarters : Nor­ folk, Virginia (us).

Commands subordinate to the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic: a) The Western Atlantic Command. This Command comprises: a Submarine Force Western Atlantic Area; an Ocean Sub-Area; a Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area; and the Bermuda, Azores and Greenland Island Commands. b) The Eastern Atlantic Command. This Command comprises: Maritime Air Eastern Atlantic Area; Nor­ thern Sub-Area; Maritime Air Northern Sub-Area; Central Sub-Area; Maritime Air Central Sub-Area; Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic Area; and the Island Commanders of Iceland and the Faeroes.

57 c) The Striking Fleet Atlantic Command. This Command comprises: a Carrier Striking Force, and Ihe Carrie r Striking Groups One and Two. d) The Submarines Allied Command Atlantic. e) The Iberian Atlantic Command. This includes the Island Command of Madeira. 0 The Standing Naval Force Atlantic — afloat.

ACCHAN: Allied Command Channel. Headquarters: North wood (uk).

Commands subordinate to the Allied Commander-in-Chief, Channel Command: a) The Nore Channel Command. b) The Plymouth Channel Command. c) The Benelux Channel Command. d) The Allied Maritime Air Force Channel Command. e) The Standing Naval Force Channel (Mine Counter Measures) — afloat.

58 (IV)

The Eurogroup *

The Eurogroup is an informal association of Defence Minis­ ters of European member governments within the framework o f n a t o . It is open to all European members of the Alliance. Those taking part at present are: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portu­ gal, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The Eurogroup was created as a means of responding to a desire for closer European cooperation within the Alliance, with a view to making the European contribution to the com­ mon defence as strong and cohesive as possible. It seeks to achieve this aim by:

- improving the effectiveness of the European contribution to the Alliance through closer coordination and the best possible use of available resources; - providing an informal forum for an exchange of views by Defence Ministers on major political and strategic ques­ tions affecting the common defence.

Among Eurogroup’s work and achievements since its crea­ tion in 1968 are:

- support for the measures taken by the Alliance to improve its defences. In 1970-75 the Eurogroup carried through the European Defence Improvement Programme amounting to $ 1 billion (at 1970 prices) of improvements supplementary to existing national plans; - a programmatic approach to achieving a more efficient use of resources in practical fields of activity. Multilateral col­ laboration has been achieved in fields such as battlefield communications, logistic support, training projects, har­

* The work of ihe Eurogroup is described in detail in a separate booklet available from the n a t o Information Service, B 1110 Brussels.

59 monisation of long-term concepts and medical services. This work is carried out through six specialist sub­ groups; - the creation of the Independent European Programme Group, in which Eurogroup played a major part. The ie p g , which includes France, is now recognised as the principal forum for promoting equipment cooperation among Euroj pean allies; - efforts to promote a better understanding, particularly in North America, of the role of the European members of the Alliance and their contribution to the collective de­ fence. To this end Eurogroup countries distribute informa­ tion about the European contribution to n a t o and have produced a film entitled “The War which Never Hap­ pened”, and a recent booklet called “Western Defense: The European role in n a t o ”.

60 (V) The North Atlantic Assembly The North Atlantic Assembly is the inter-parliamentary organis­ ation of member countries of the Alliance, and as such it pr o­ vides the forum where North American and European parlia­ mentarians meet to discuss problems of common concern. The Assembly was founded in 1955, and, until 1966, was known as the “ n a t o Parliamentarians Conference Its aims are lo strengthen cooperation and understanding among the coun­ tries of the Alliance; to encourage governments to take the Alliance viewpoint into account when framing legislation; and to encourage a common feeling of Atlantic solidarity in national parliaments. Although the Assembly is completely independent of n a t o , it constitutes a link between parliamentarians and the Alliance. The highest military and civilian authorities of the Alliance address the Assembly at their annual sessions and at meetings of the Assembly’s committees during the year, when the range of Al­ liance policies and activities are examined and discussed in detail. The Secretary General of n a t o usually attends the Assem­ bly’s annual session and answers questions from members. The North Atlantic Assembly has 184 members and as many alternate members nominated by their respective parliaments according to national procedures. No minister or member of a government in office can be a member of the Assembly. Each country’s representation is determined according to the size of its population. The Assembly has five committees whose activities cover a wide range of subjects. They are: the Economic Committee; the Civilian Affairs Committee; the Military Committee; the Politi­ cal Committee; and the Scientific and Technical Committee. Following the 26th Annual Session of the Assembly in Novem­ ber 1980, a Special Committee was created to study nuclear wea­ pons in Europe and the future of arms control negotiations between East and West. The Committees meet twice a year in spring and autumn, prior to the plenary session, to consider current problems affecting the Alliance. When the committees wish to analyse in depth specific

61 subjects ide ntified i n the course of their work, they form sub­ committees. At the time of writing, the following subjects are being studied: economic cooperation; free flow of inf ormation and people; the successor generation and the Alliance; defence cooperation; conventional defence in Europe; the situation in the Southern Region; out-of-area security challenges to the Alliance; advanced technology and techn ology transfer. These sub-com­ mittees, which meet frequently during the year, give a continuous element to the work of the Assembly. The North Atlantic Assembly meets in plenary session twice a year. It debates those issues which it feels are of immediate con­ cern and interest to the Alliance. Discussion of detailed reports on these issues takes place and recommendations and resolutions are voted. The former are directed to the North Atlantic Council, the latter to member governments and/or parliaments and rele­ vant international organisations. These documents are forwarded to the Secretary General of n a t o , who comments on them on his own responsibility, after consultation with the North Atlantic Council. The Assembly organises study tours in Europe and North America for the benefit of its parliamentarians. The purpose of these lours, which are mainly of military installations, is to give parliamentarians a first-hand view of the problems associated with Atlantic defence. The contribution of the North Atlantic Assembly to the effec­ tive functioning of the North Atlantic Alliance was acknowledged in the Declaration on Atlantic Relations signed by the Heads of n a t o Governments in Brussels, in June 1974. Paragraph 13 said: “ They (the members of the North Atlantic Alliance) recognise that the cohesion of the Alliance has found expression not only in cooperation among their governments, but also in the free ex­ change of views among the elected representatives of the peoples of the Alliance. Accordingly, they declare their support for the strengthening of links among parliamentarians.” The budget of the Assembly is drawn from contributions from member governments or parliaments. A grant is allocated by n a t o towards the costs of the plenary sessions. Further information on the North Atlantic Assembly may be obtained from the International Secretariat - Place du Petit Sa- blon 3 - 1000 Brussels. Tel.: (02) 513.28.65.

62 (VI) The Atlantic Treaty Association

Private societies in alln a t o countries, particularly the na­ tional voluntary associations affiliated to the Atlantic Treaty Association( a t a ) , support the activities engaged in by the Organisation and by governments to promote the objectives of the Treaty.

The Atlantic Treaty Association was created at a confer­ ence held in The Hague on 18 June 1954. Its objectives are: a) to educate and inform the public concerning the aims and goals of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation; b) to conduct research in the various purposes and activities related to that Organisation; c) to promote the solidarity of the peoples of the North Atlantic area; d) to develop permanent relations and cooperation between its national member committees or associations.

An Atlantic Education Committee(a e c ) and an Atlantic Association of Young Political Leaders( a a y p l ) (formed in 1963) are active in their respective fields. The following national voluntary organisations are mem­ bers o f the a t a :

BELGIUM: DENMARK: The Belgian Atlantic Association Danish Atlantic Association 12 rue des Taxandres Frederiksborggade 113 1040 Brussels 1360 Copenhagen K

CANADA: FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY: The Atlantic Council of Canada The German Atlantic Society 15 King’s College Circle Thomas-Mann-Strasse 62 Toronto, Ontario M5S 2V9 5300 Bonn 1

63 FRANCE: NORWAY: French Association for the Norwegian Atlantic Committee Atlantic Community Fridtjof Nansens Plass 6 185 rue de la Pompe Oslo 1 F 75116 Paris PORTUGAL: GREECE: Portuguese Atlantic Committee Hellenic Atlantic Association Av. Infante Santo 42,6 18 Sina Street 1300 Lisbon Athens 135 SPAIN: ICELAND: Spanish Atlantic Association Association of Western Cooperation Joaquim Costa 61-1° Box 28 28002 Madrid Reykjavik TURKEY: ITALY: Tiirk Atlantik Italian Atlantic Committee Antlasmasi Demegi Piazza di Firenze 27 Cinnah Cad. No. 35/6 00186 Rome Çankaya/Ankara

LUXEMBOURG: UNITED KINGDOM: Luxembourg Atlantic Association The British Atlantic Committee 23 rue du Fort Elisabeth 30A St. James’s Square 1917 Luxembourg London SW1Y4JH

NETHERLANDS: UNITED STATES: Netherlands Atlantic Committee The Atlantic Counci l of the Alexanderstraal 2 United Slates 2514 JL The Hague 1616 H. Street N.W. Washington D.C. 20006

Further information concerning the Atlantic Treaty Asso­ ciation may be obtained from the Secretary General of the a t a at 185 rue de la Pompe, 75116 Paris, Tel: 01/5532880.

64 (VII) The Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers

The reserve forces ofn a t o countries are an important ele­ ment in the deterrent and defence posture ofn a t o . The high cost ton a t o member countries of maintaining large standing forces makes it imperative to develop to the maximum the reinforcement capability of their reserve forces. Cooperation between national reserve forces is an essential part of this process. The Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers is a non­ political, non-governmenlal, non-profit making organisation which seeks to promote cooperation between national reserve officers’ associations nof a t o countries and to strengthen the solidarity and the deterrent and defence capabilities of the Atlantic Alliance. Known by its French acronymc i o r , the Confederation was formed in 1948 by the reserve officers’ associations of Bel­ gium, France and the Netherlands. Since then all existing national associations n of a t o members have joined the CIOR. The Confederation, which now represents more than 800,000 reserve officers, aims to inculcate and maintain an inter-allied spirit among its members and to provide them with information aboutn a t o developments and activities. It also aims to contribute, through its knowledge of reserve mailers, to the organisation, administration and training of reserve forces in member countries and to improve their motivation, capabilities, interoperability and mutual confi­ dence through common and exchange training programmes. The c i o r maintains close liaison with appropriate national defence organisations and withn a t o military authorities and develops international contacts between reserve officers. Its members are active in professional, business, industrial, aca-

6 5 demic and political circles in their respective countries and contribute individually to the improvement of public under­ standing of n ato and the strengthening of public support fo r its policies. The chief executive ofc i o r is an elected President who serves in that office for a period of two years. He is assisted by a Secretary General and an Executive Committee com­ posed of delegates from all member national associations. The head of each national delegation is also a Vice-President o f c io r . The Interallied Confederation of Medical Reserve Officers ( c io m r) is affiliated to thec i o r . The following national voluntary Reserve Officers Associa- toins are members oc f i o r : BELGIUM: GREECE: Union Nationale des Officiers The Supreme Pan-Hellenic Feder­ de Réserve de Belgique (UNOR/BE) ation of Reserve Officers Rue des Petits Carmes 24 (SPFRO) B 1000 Brussels 100 Solonos Street Athens 144

CANADA: ITALY : The Conference of Defence Unione Nazionale Ufficiali Associations of Canada (CDA) in Conged o d’Italia (UNUCI) P.O. Box 893 Via Nomentana 313 Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5P9 100162 Rome

DENMARK: LUXEMBURG: Reserve Officers Foreningen i Amicale des Anciens Officiers de Danmark (ROID) Réserve Luxembourgeois Svanestok (ANORL) Kastelle! 68 124 A Kiem DK 2100 Copenhagen L 8030 Strassen

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY: THE NETHERLANDS: Verband der Reservisten der Koninklijke Vereniging van Deutschen Bundeswehr (VdRBw) Neder landse Reserve Officieren Pfarrer-Byns-Strasse 1 (KVNRO) D 5300 Bonn-Endenich Poslbus 96820 NL 2509 JE The Hague

FRANCE: NORWAY: Union Nationale des Officiers Norske Reservcolïiserers de Réserve de France (UNOR/FR) Forbund (NROF) 17 avenue de l’Opéra Oslo Mil, Akershus F 75001 Paris Oslo 1 66 UNITED KINGDOM: UNITED STATES: The Reserve Forces Association The Reserve Officers Association of the United Kingdom (RFA) of the United Stales (ROA) Centre Block 1 Constitution Avenue, N.E. Duke of York’s Headquarters Washington, D.C. 20002 Chelsea London SW3 4SG

Further information concerningc i o r may be obtained from the c i o r Liaison Office, NATO/IMS/P & P/CIOR , B 1110 Brussels.

67

Appendix 1

CHRONOLOGY

1945 26 June The United Nations Charter is signed at San Francisco. 6 August Explosion of the Hiroshima atom bomb. 29 November Yugoslavia is declared a Federated People’s Republic. 1946 11 January Albania is declared a People’s Democracy. 16 March Winston Churchill’s “ Iron Curtain” speech at Ful­ ton, Missouri. 4 December Bulgaria is declared a People's Republic. 19 December War breaks out in Vietnam. 1947 19 January Elections in Poland. The Soviet-sponsored Commu­ nist “ Lublin-Committee” monopolises power. 4 March France and the United Kingdom sign a fifty-year Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance at Dun­ kirk. 12 March President Truman delivers his message to Congress urging the United States of America “ to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure” (Truman Doctrine), and requesting the appropriation of direct financial aid to Greece and Turkey. 21 March Opposition parties in Hungary are formally dis­ solved, making the country a one-party Communist slate. 5 June General of the Army, George C . Marshall, United States Secretary of Slate, speaking at Harvard, an­ nounces a plan for the economic rehabilitation of Europe. This speech initiated the action which led to the European Recovery Programme and the forma­ tion of the o e e c *

* The o e e c (Organisation for European Economic Cooperation) was set up in 1948 to administer Marshall Aid and to organise European eco­ nomic recovery. It was replaced by the o e c d (Organisation for Econom­ ic Cooperation and Development) on 30 September 1961.

69 5 October Establishment of Cominform (Communist Informa­ tion Bureau) to coordinate the activities of the com­ munist parlies of the Soviet Union, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Roman­ ia and Yugoslavia. 30 December Romania becomes a People's Republic following the abdication of King Michael. 1948 22 January Mr. Ernest Bevin, United Kingdom Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, speaking in the House of Commons, proposes a form of Western Union. 22 February The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia gains con­ trol of the government in Prague through a coup d’Etat. 17 March The Brussels Treaty - a 50-year Treaty of economic, social and cultural collaboration and collective self defence - is signed by the Foreign Ministers of Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. 16 April The Convention for European Cooperation is signed by the Foreign Ministers of sixteen European coun­ tries and by the Commanders-in-Chicf of the West­ ern Zones of Occupation in Germany. The o e f .c w a s set up under Article I of the Convention. 11 June The United States Senate adopts Resolution 239, known as the “ Vandenberg Resolution”, paving the way for United Stales participation in an Atlantic treaty of collective defence, in accordance with Arti­ cle 51 of the United Nations Charter. 24 June Beginning of the Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union. 28 June Formal expulsion of Yugoslavia from Cominform. 6 July Talks on North Atlantic defence begin in Washington between the United States, Canada and the Brussels Treaty Powers. I September West German Constituent Assembly convened. 12 September North Korea is proclaimed a People’s Democratic Republic. 27-28 September The Defence Ministers of the Brussels Treaty Powers decide to create a Western Union Defence Organi­ sation. 25-26 October The Consultative Council of the Brussels Treaty Powers announces “complete agreement on the principle of a defensive pact for the North Atlantic and on the next steps to be taken in this direction” . 10 December Negotiations on the drafting of the North Atlantic Treaty open in Washington between the representa­ tives of the Brussels Treaty Powers, Canada and the United States. 70 1949 25 January Establishment of c o m e c o n , Council for Mutual Eco­ nomic Assistance among communist states (c m e a ). 15 March The negotiating powers invite Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway and Portugal to adhere to the North Atlantic Treaty. 18 March The text of the North Atlantic Treaty is published. 31 March The Soviet Government presents a memorandum to the twelve prospective signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty claiming that the Treaty is contrary to the United Nations Charter and to the decisions of the Four Power Council of Foreign Ministers. 2 April The twelve governments repudiate Soviet assertions regarding the North Atlantic Treaty in a common note. 4 April The North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Por­ tugal, the U nited Kingdom and the United States. 8 April Texts published of requests by the Brussels Treaty Powers, and by Denmark, Italy and Norway for United States military and financial assistance. 5 May The London 10-Power Agreement sets up the Coun­ cil of Europe. 9 May The Berlin blockade is lifted. 10 August Inaugural session of the Council of Europe at Strasbourg. 24 August The North Atlantic Treaty enters into force. 17 September First session of the North Atlantic Council in Wash­ ington. 20 September Constitution of the German Federal Republic. 22 September Anglo-American-Canadian announcement that an atomic explosion has taken place in the u s s r . 1 October Mainland China becomes a Communist People’s Re­ public. 6 O ctober Mutual Defence Assistance Act of 1949 is signed by President Truman.

1950 27 January President Truman approves the plan for the inte­ grated defence of the North Atlantic area, releasing $900,000,000 of military aid funds. 9 May The French Government proposes the creation of a single authority to control the production of steel and coal in France and Germany, open for member­ ship to other countries (Schuman Plan). 25 June North Korean Forces attack the Republic of South Korea. 71 25 J uly First meeting of Council Deputies in Lond on; Ambassador Charles M. Spofford, United States Deputy Representative to the North Atlantic Coun­ cil, is elected Permanent Chairman. 1 August Announcement of decision by Turkish Government to make formal application for Turkey’s adhesion to the North Atlantic Treaty. 2 October Turkey accepts Council invitation to be associated with the military agencies of n a t o in Mediterranean defence planning. 5 October Greece accepts Council invitation to be associated with Mediterranean defence planning. 24 October French Prime Minister, M. René Pleven, outlines his plan for a European unified army, including German contingents, within the framework of n a t o . 28-31 October The n a t o Defence Committee discusses the methods by which Germany might participate in the defence of Western Eu rope, and refers the political and military aspects of the problem to the Council Deputies and Military C ommittee respectively for further study. 19 December The North Atlantic Council appoints General Dwight D . Eisenhower (United States) to be Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( s a c e u r ) . 19 December Opening of discussions with the Federal Republic on a possible German contribution to the defence of Western Europe (Petersberg negotiations). 20 December The Consultative Council of the Brussels Treaty Powers decides to merge the military organisation of the Western Union into the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

1951 15 Februa ry Conference convened by French Government on the setting up of a European Army opens in Paris. 2 April Allied Command E urope becomes operational with Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( s h a p e ) located at Rocquenco urt, near Paris. 18 April Setting up of the European Coal and Steel Com­ munity by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Federal Republic of Germany. 19 June The Parties to the North Atlantic Treaty sign an agreement on the status of their forces. 8 July Suspension of the Petersberg negotiations on the role of the Federal Republic of Oermany in the defence of Western Europe. 24 July The Paris Conference approves an interim report to governments, recommending the creation of a Euro­ pean Army. 72 1 September Australia, New Zealand and the United States sign the Pacific Defence ( a n z u s ) Pact. 20 September The member countries sign an agreement in Ottawa on the Status of n a to , National Representatives and International Staff (Civilian Status Agreement). 9 -11 O ctober The Temporary Council Committee (t c c ) holds its first session in Paris. (The t c c was set up by the Council to reconcile the requirements of collective security with the political and economic capabilities of the member countries. It set the pattern for a continuing process of appraising defence pro­ grammes.) 17-22 October Signature in London of the protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of Greece and Turkey. 19 November Inauguration of the n a t o Defense College, Paris (transferred to Rome on 10 October 1966).

1952 30 January Appointment of Vice-Admiral Lynde D. McC ormick (United States) to be the first Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic ( s a c l a n t ). 18 February Greece and Turkey accede to the North Atlantic Treaty. 20-25 February The North Atlantic Council meeting in Lisbon reorganises the structure of the Alliance and n a t o becomes a permanent organisation with its head­ quarters in Paris. 21 February The Council establishes a Channel Command, and appoints Admiral Sir A rthur John Power as the first Commander-in-Chief ( c i n c h a n ). 12 March Lord Ismay (United Kingdom) is appointed Vice­ Chairman of the North Atlantic Council and Secre­ tary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organi­ sation. 4 April Third anniversary of the signing of the Treaty . Lord Ismay takes office, and the North Atlantic Council assumes responsibility for the tasks hitherto per­ formed by the Council Deputies, the Defence Pro­ duction Board, and the Financial and Economic Board. The international staffs serving those agen­ cies are amalgamated into one organisation, with headquarters in Paris. 10 April Supreme Allied Command Atlantic ( s a c l a n t ) becomes operational, with headquarters at Norfolk, Virginia. 16 April n a t o opens its provisional headquarters at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. 73 28 April First meeting of the North Atlantic Council in permanent session in Paris. 26 May Signing in Bonn of the Convention on Relations between the Three Powers and the Federal Republic of Germany and the appended Conventions. 27 May Signature in Paris of the Treaty setting up the European Defence Community by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Representatives of the North Atlantic Treaty governments sign a Protocol to the Treaty giving guarantees to the members of the European Defence Community. 28 August Signature in Paris by member nations of the Alliance of a Protocol on the Status of International Military Headquarters. 4 November General Eisenhower is elected President of the United States.

1953 28 February A Treaty of friendship and collaboration is signed in Ankara between Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia. 5 March The death of Stalin. 28 May The uss* recognises the German Democratic Republic. 17 June Uprising in the Soviet sector of Berlin and in East Germany. 23 July Korean Armistice signed at Panmunjom. Cessation of hostilities between United Nations and Commu­ nist forces. 8 August u s s r announces its possession of the hydrogen bomb. 5 December Heads of Government and Foreign Ministers of France, the United Kingdom and the United S lates, meeting in Bermuda, recognise the North Atlantic Treaty as the foundation of their common security policy and discuss means of developing the defence capacity of the Alliance. Lord Ismay attends as an observer for n a t o .

1954 25 January-18 Abortive Four-Power Conference in Berlin on Ger­ February man re-unification. 26 April Opening of Geneva Conference convened by France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States, for the purpose of reaching a settle­ ment of the Korean problem and promoting peace in Indo-China. ' 7 May In their reply to a Soviet note of 31 March, France, the United Kingdom and the United States reject the u s s r ’s bid to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. 74 17-18 June Meeting at The Hague of the Constituent Confer­ ence of the Atlantic Treaty Association sponsored by the International Atlantic Committee. 21 July Geneva Armistice Agreements and Declarations on Indo-China leading to the division of Vietnam into a southern and a northern part, the latter under com­ munist control. 29 August The French National Assembly decides against rati­ fication of the Treaty setting up the European Defence Community ( e d c ) . 6 September Opening of Manila Conference which culminates in the signing of the treaties setting up s e a t o (South­ East Asia Treaty Organisation).* 28 September-3 Meeting in London of the Conference of Nine to October seek an alternative to the e d c . (Participating coun­ tries: Belgium, Canada, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom and United States.) 5 October Signature by Italy, Yugoslavia, the United States and the United Kingdom of a Memorandum of Understanding embodying the settlement of the Trieste dispute. 20-22 October Four-Power Conference in Paris attended by France, Federal Republic of Germany, United Kingdom and United States. The decisions of the Conference of Nine are endorsed and a protocol adopted terminat­ ing the occupation regime in the Federal Republic. 23 October The Paris Agreements are signed. The Federal Republic of Germany is invited to join n a t o and Italy and the Federal Republic of Germany also accede to the Western European Union ( w e u ) .

1955 26 January The u s s r ends the state of war with Germany. 24 February Signing of Baghdad Pact between Iraq and Turkey: Iran, Pakistan and the United Kingdom joined the Pact later in the year. 5 March President Eisenhower undertakes to maintain United Stales forces in Europe for as long as is necessary. 17 April Opening at Bandoeng of the first conference of the "uncommitted" countries of Asia and Africa. 5 Mav The Federal Repub lic of Germany becomes a mem­ ber of NATO.

‘ Member countries: Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philip­ pines, Thailand, U nited Kingdom and U nited States. 75 7 May Abrogation by the Soviet Union of the Anglo-S oviet and Franco-Soviet Treaties of mutual assistance signed on 26 May 1942 and 10 December 1944 re­ spectively. The abrogation followed the ratification by France and the United Kingdom of the London and Paris Agreements o f 1954 leading to the estab­ lishment of the Western European Union and the accession of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Treaty. 14 M;iy The u s s r concludes the Warsaw Pact with Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Rumania. 15 May Signing of Austrian State Treaty ending the Four- Power occupation. 26 May Marshal Bulganin and Mr. Khrushchev, on a state visit to President Tito in Belgrade, express regret for Soviet-Yugoslav tensions since 1948 and their Gov­ ernment’s determination “to sweep away all the bitterness of that period". 7 June The Governments of France, the United Kingdom and the United States invite the u s s r to take p a r t in a Four-Power Conference in Geneva from 18 to 21 July. 16 July Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council to enable the Allies to exchange views before the Geneva Conference. 18-23 July First Conference of n a t o Parliam entarians (since November 1966, the North A tlantic Assembly) in Paris. 8 August Opening in Geneva of the first conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy. 8 September Chancellor Adenauer visits Moscow. 25 October Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. The Foreign Ministers of France, the United King­ dom and the United States submit to their colleagues proposals they intend to make at the Foreign Min­ ister’s Conference in Geneva on 27 October. 27 O cto b er-11 Abortive Four-Power Meeting of Foreign Ministers November in Geneva. 15-16 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. The Council decides to equip the forces of the Alliance with atomic weapons, and adopts the prin­ ciple of strengthening air defence by achieving closer cooperation between the European n a t o countries in this field. 30 December The u s s r signs a treaty with the Pankow régime o( the Soviet occupied zone of Germany, granting it the prerogatives of a State. 76 1956 14 February Opening of the Twentieth Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: beginning of “de-Stalinisation". 18 April Pravda announces the dissolution of Cominform. 4-5 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. Mr. Gaetano Martino (Italy), Mr. Halvard Lange (Norway), and Mr. Lester B. Pearson (Canada) are instructed to submit recommendations to the Council on how to improve and extend cooperation between the n a t o countries in non-military fields and to develop greater unity within the Atlantic Community. 28 June Riots against the communist régime in Poland erupt at Poznan. 26 July Egypt nationalises the Suez Canal. 17 August The Communist Party is banned in the Federal Republic of Germany. 29 September Franco-German Agreements on the Saar. 21 O ctober Wladyslaw Gomulka is appointed First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ (Communist) Party. 23 October People's rebellion in Hungary starts. 29 October Beginning of the Israeli Sinai campaign. 29 October Soviet Marshal Rokossovsky ceases to be Defence Minister of Poland. 31 October Franco-British intervention in the Suez Canal area. 4 November Soviet suppression of Hungarian insurrection. 13 December The North Atlantic Council approves the recom­ mendations contained in the Report of the Commit­ tee of Three and adopts a resolution on the peaceful settlement of disputes and differences between mem­ ber countries and a resolution on non-military co­ operation in NATO.

1957 1 January Political integration of the Saar with the Federal Republic of Germany. 23 March The United States accedes to the Baghdad Pact as an associate member. 25 March Signature of the Rome Treaties setting up Euratom and the European Economic Communities. 8 April Re-opening of the Suez Canal. 2-3 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Bonn. The Council decides to intensify its efforts in favour of German reunification by means of free elections. 16 May Mr. Paul-Henri Spaak (Belgium) succeeds Lord Ismay as Secretary General of n a t o . 77 29 July Signing in Berlin of a declaration by the governments of France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United Kingdom and the U nited States, affirming the identity of their policies with regard to the reunification of Germany and to European security. 2 August The Air Defence Commands of the U nited States and Canada are integrated in a North American Air Defence System ( n o r a d ) , with headquarters at Col­ orado Springs. 29 August Proposals approved by all the n a t o countries are submitted to the London talks on disarmament. 14 September The General Assembly of the United Nations con­ demns the Soviet intervention in Hungary. 4 October The first Soviet Sputnik is launched. 7 October Creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency with headquarters in Vienna. 23-25 October President Eisenhower and Mr. Harold Macmillan, joined later by Mr. Paul-Henri Spaak, meet in Washington. A declaration of common purpose is issued by the President of the United States and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, underlining the interdependence of the countries of the free world. 16-19 December Meeting of Heads of Government in Paris. A solemn declaration reaffirms the principles and purposes of the Atlantic Alliance. The Council decides to pro­ mote closer cooperation in the political and economic fields and to increase scientific and non-military co­ operation.

1958 1 January Entry into force of the Treaty of Rome setting up the European Economic Community. 31 January The first United States satellite "Explorer I" is launched. 19 March First meeting in Strasbourg of the European Parlia­ mentary Assembly. 26-29 March First meeting of n a t o Science Committee. 27 March Mr. Khrushchev replaces Marshal Bulganin at the head of the Soviet Government. 1 5 - 17 April In compliance with decisions taken by the Heads of Government in December 1957, the Defence Min­ isters of the n a t o countries meet in Paris. They reaffirm the defensive character of n a t o strategy. 5 -7 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Copenhagen. The Council declares that it is in favour of negotiations with the Eastern bloc provided they are properly prepared and offer prospects of a settlement of outstanding questions. 78 13 May The Algerian French rebel against the Metropolitan Government and form a “Committee of Public Safety". 1 June General de Gaulle is invited to head the French Government. 7 August The United States atomic submarine Nautilus estab­ lishes the first link between the Atlantic and the Pacific, passing beneath the North Pole. 10 November Mr. Khrushchev announces that the u s s r wishes to terminate the Four-Power Agreement on the Status of Berlin. (The plan was rejected by the Western Powers on 31 December.) 16-19 Decem ber Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. The Council associates itself with the views expressed by the governments of France, the United Kingdom and the United States on Berlin and on the right of the Western Powers to remain there. 21 December General de Gaulle is elected President of the French Republic.

1959 19 February An Anglo-Greek-Turkish Conference decides that Cyprus shall become independent. 24 March Iraq withdraws from the Baghdad Pact. 2-4 April Ministerial Meeting in Washington marks the Tenth Anniversary of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. 4-10 June An Atlantic Congress is held in London organised by the Conference of n a t o Parliamentarians. In particular, it recommends the creation of the Atlan­ tic Institute. 11-19 June Four-Power Meeting of Foreign Ministers (France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the u s s r ) on the German question (Geneva Conference). 13 July Resumption of the Geneva Conference. 3 August Second adjournment of the Geneva Conference; the four Foreign Ministers issue a statement on disarma­ ment. 19 August The Baghdad Pact becomes the Central Treaty Organisation ( c e n t o ) - full members: Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom; associate mem­ ber: United States. Its headquarters is set up in A nkara. 15-23 September Mr. Khrushchev visits the United States and meets President Eisenhower at Camp David. 79 20 November Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom initial the Stockholm Convention establishing the European Free Trade Association ( e f t a ) . * 15-22 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. The meeting marked the inauguration of the new n a t o Headquarters at the Porte D auphine in Paris: it was largely devoted to discussing East-W est neg o­ tiations, in preparation for a new summit meeting. 1960 15 March The United Nations Ten-Power Disarmament Com­ mittee starts negotiations in Geneva. 23 March Visit to France by Mr. Khrushchev. 1 May American U2 aircraft is shot down over Soviet territory. 2-4 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Istanbul. The member countries review the situa­ tion prior to the forthcoming summit meeting. 7 May In connection with the shooting down of the U2 air­ plane, Mr. Khrushchev announces the establishment of a Soviet Rocket Force Command. 16 May Abortive summit meeting in Paris (France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the u s s r ). 19 May French, United Kingdom and United States Foreign Ministers report to the North Atlantic Council on the breakdown of the summit meeting. 27 May Military coup d’Etat in Turkey. 27 June The Communist states withdraw from the Uniled Nations Ten-Power negotiations on disarmament in Geneva. 16 August Cyprus becomes an independent republic. 23 September Mr. Khrushchev attends the General Assembly of the United Nations in New York. 10 November Summit Meeting in Moscow of the Communist leaders of 81 countries. Approval of Mr. Khrush­ chev's concept of peaceful coexistence. 14 December Convention for the Establishment of the Organisa­ tion for Economic Cooperation and Development ( o e c d ) in place of the o e e c signed by eighteen European countries and the United States and Canada. 16-18 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council. The Council confirms its declaration of 16 December 1958 on Berlin.

* - Finland became an associate member of e f t a in 1961. - Iceland joined in 1970. ^ - Denmark and the United Kingdom withdrew from ' e f t a on joining the e e c on 1 January 1973.

8 0 19«! 1 January Inception of the Atlantic Institute with provisional headquarters set up in Milan. 5 March Mr. Spaak leaves his post of Secretary General of n a t o to resume active participation in national politics. Mr. Alberico Casardi, Deputy Secretary General, replaces him provisionally. 12 April ■ Soviet Major YCiri Gagarin becomes the first man orbited in extra-terrestrial space. 14-15 April The abortive landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs. 21 April Mr. Dirk U. Stikker (Netherlands) succeeds Mr. Paul-Henri Spaak as Secretary General of n a t o . 8-10 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Oslo. The Council once more confirms its position on Germany, as expressed in its declaration of Decem ber 1958. 2-3 June Meeting of President Kennedy and Mr. Khrushchev in Vienna. 7 July Mongolia is admitted to c o m e c o n . 13 August Erection of the Berlin Wall. 30 September The Convention establishing the o e c d comes into force.* 17 October Opening of the Twenty-Second Congress of the Soviet Communist Party. Mr. Khrushchev waives the end-of-year limit for settlement of the Berlin ques­ tion. De-Stalinisation is intensified. 8 November Mr. Cabot Lodge is appointed Director General of the Atlantic Institute. The permanent headquarters of the Institute is set up in Paris. 2 December Cuba is declared a socialist Republic based on Marxism-Leninism. 13-15 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Paris. The Council reaffirms its position on Berlin, strongly condemning the building of the Wall, and approves the renewal of diplomatic contacts with the Soviet Union to determine whether a basis for negotiation can be found. It also announces the establishment of a mobile task force.

1962 8-20 January The "Atlantic Convention” of citizens of n a t o countries meets and endorses the “Declaration of Paris” in favour of strengthening the Alliance and the Atlantic Community.

* The oe c d Convention was signed by twenty countries. There are now twenty-four full members: nineteen European, two North American, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Yugoslavia has special status. 81 20 February Lt.-Col. John Glenn launched as first American astronaut carries out three orbits around the earth in his "Friendship" capsule. 14 March The seventeen-nation Disarmament Conference opens in Geneva. 18 March The Evian Agreements establish the basis for an in­ dependent Algeria. 29 March Signing of the Convention for the Establishment of a European Organisation for the Development and Construction of Space Vehicle Launchers ( e l d o ) - member countries: Australia, Belgium, Federal Republic of Germanv, France, Italy, Netherlands and United Kingdom.* 10 April In a joint statement Mr. Macmillan and President Kennedy appeal to Mr. Khrushchev for agreement on a test ban treaty. 18 April Referendum in France approving Algerian inde­ pendence. 4-6 May The Foieign Ministers and Defence Ministers of the North Atlantic Council meeting in A thens review the circumstances in which the Alliance might be compelled to have recourse to nuclear weapons (Athens Guidelines). 14 June Signing of the Convention for the establishment of a European Space Research Organisation ( e s r o ) - member countries: Belgium, Denmark, France, Fed­ eral Republic of Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.’ 3 July Algeria becomes independent. Clauses in the North Atlantic Treaty relating to the former Algerian De­ partments of France become inapplicable. 22 0ctober-20 Partial blockade of Cuba by the United States November following revelation of Soviet construction of missile bases on the island; lifted following Soviet agreement to dismantle the bases and withdraw Soviet bombers. 11 December United States Defence Secretary MacNamara announces in London the cancelling of the "Skybolt" air-to-ground nuclear missile. 13-15 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Paris examines the implications of the Cuban affair and approves the action taken by the United States. It also reaffirms its position on Berlin and disarmament. 18-20 December President Kennedy and Prime Minister Macmillan confer at Nassau, Bahamas. They agree to contribute part of their strategic nuclear forces to n a t o .

* e l d o and e s r o merged to become the European Space Agency ( e s a ) on 31 May 1975. 82 1963 14 January President de Gaulle opposes United Kingdom entry into the European Economic Community. 21-22 January Signature of Franco-German Treaty of Cooperation. 28 January The negotiations in Brussels for United Kingdom entry into the European Economic Community are broken off. 22-24 May The Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Ottawa is devoted largely to defence problems. The British V-bomber force and three American Polaris submarines are assigned to s a c e u r who is to appoint a Deputy responsible to him for nuclear affairs. 10 June President Kennedy announces that representatives of the United States, United Kingdom and the u s s r will meet in Moscow in July to discuss a nuclear test ban treaty. 20 June An agreement on a "hot line” between Washington and Moscow is signed in Geneva by the United States and the Soviet Union. 25 June On a visit to Europe, President Kennedy solemnly reaffirms America's guarantee to defend Europe and the principle of equal partnership within the Alli­ ance. 15-25 July Talks in Moscow between the United States, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union lead to the initialling of an agreement banning nuclear tests in the atmos­ phere, in outer space and under water, coming into force on 10 October, 1963. 29 July President de Gaulle announces that France will not sign the Moscow Treaty on a partial nuclear test ban. 21 September The Soviet Union criticises China’s intention to possess atomic weapons and announces that there have been more than 5,000 violations of the Soviet border by the Chinese. 10 O ctober The Moscow Treaty on the partial nuclear test ban comes into force. 11 O ctober Dr. Konrad Adenauer resigns from the Office of Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Professor Ludwig Erhard succeeds him on 17 Octo­ ber. 22-23 October Operation “Big Lift": 14,500 American soldiers are flown from the United States to Germany in record time to demonstrate that the United States is able to reinforce n a t o forces in Europe in an emergency. 22 November President Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Vice-President Lyndon Johnson becomes President of the United States. 83 25 November Extraordinary meeting of the North Atlantic Coun­ cil to pay tribute to the memory of President John F . Kennedy. 16-17 December Ministerial M eeting of the North A tlantic Council in Paris. In a message to the Council, President Johnson renews United States' pledges of “steadfast resolve" with regard to n a t o . 1964 7 January France recognises the Peking Government. 4 March Creation of a United Nations Peace Keeping Force in Cyprus, following the outbreak of inter-communal fighting at the end of 1963. 12-14 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Counci l at The Hague in the Netherlands. The Ministers reaffirm their full support for the United Nations in its action to restore law and order in Cyprus. 1 August Mr. Manlio Brosio (Italy) succeeds Mr. Stikker as Secretary General of n a t o . 8-9 October First meeting of the Defence Research Direct ors Committee, created to advise the Alliance on the applications of science in strengthening its defences, especially those aspects which call for international scientific cooperati on. 15 October Mr. Khrushchev is removed from office. He is replaced by Mr. Alexei Kosygin as Prime Minister, and by Mr. Leonid Brezhnev as Party Leader. 16 October Communist China explodes its first atomic bomb. 15-17 December Ministerial Meeting in Paris of the North Atlantic Council. The Ministers review the international situation, taking into consideration recent develop­ ments in the Soviet Union and China. 1965 6 April World’s first commercial satellite, “Early Bird", launched by the United States. Successfully tested as first global communications system for telephone, t v ,and telegraphic communications. 7 April Soviet and East German authorities block land access to Berlin at intervals for one week when West German Parliament holds plenary session in West Berlin's Congress Hall. 23 April Soviet Union launches its first communications sat­ ellite. 11-12 May The Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in London associates itself with the Dec­ laration issued by France, the United Kingdom and the U nited States on May 12, 1965, that in the absence of a real solution of the German problem, based on the exercise in the two pjrts of Germany of the right of self-determination, the situation in Europe as a whole would remain unsettled. 84 31 May -1 June M eeting of the n a t o Defence Ministers in Paris pays special attention to the defence problems of Greece and Turkey, and agrees to c onsider a proposal for improving consultation and extending participation in the planning of nuclear forces. 1 July France breaks off discussions in Brussels on the Agricultural Fund of the European Economic Com­ munity; a six-month French boycott of the Com­ munities begins. 9 September At a Press Conference President de Gaulle announces that French military integration within n a t o would end at the latest by 1969. 20 October The North Atlantic Council approves the revised missions of the Major n a t o Commanders and the Canada-United States Regional Planning Group. 27 November Special Committee of n a t o Defence Ministers initi­ ates year-long study to explore ways of improving Allied participation in nuclear planning. 14-16 December The North Atlantic Council meeting in Ministerial session in Paris accepts in principle new procedures designed to improve the annual process of reviewing the defence efforts of member countries and agreeing upon their force contributions.

1966 10 March President de Gaulle announces France's intention of withdrawing from the integrated military structure of the Alliance and the consequent need for the removal from France of Allied military forces and military headquarters. 29 March The French Government announces that French force assignments will end on 1 July 1966, and declares that the withdrawal of French elements entails the transfer of Allied facilities out of France by 1 April 1967. 7-8 June Ministerial Session of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels. Ministers agree to examine the problems raised by the French decision. 16 June The North Atlantic Council calls for proposals from the Military Committee for the organisation of a new common-funded, integrated International Mili­ tary Staff. 21 June The Belgian Chamber of Representatives approves the transfer of s h a p e to Belgium. 25 July Defence Ministers meet in Paris. They adopt a n a t o force plan for the period up to and including 1970, and lay down guidelines for further improvement in the years following 1970. Ministers underline the importance of the defence of the flank regions. 85 13 September The decision is made to transfer s h a p e to Casteau near Mons, Belgium. The North Atlantic Council decides that the Channel Committee should be reorganised as an advisory and consultative body and that henceforth c i n c h a n would be responsible directly to the Military Com­ mittee. 26 October The North Atlantic C ouncil decides to move the n a t o Headquarters to Brussels. 27 October China announces its first guided missile nuclear weapon test (its fourth atomic experiment). 10 November The n a t o Defence Planning Committee ( d p c ) decides to transfer the Military Committee from Washington to Brussels. 14 November Mr. Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announces his Government's determina­ tion to take Britain into the European Economic Community. 1 December After Professor Erhard's resignation, a “grand coal­ ition” Government of the German Federal Republic is formed with Dr. Kurt-Georg Kiesinger as Chan­ cellor (Christian Democrat), and Herr Willy Brandt (Social Democrat), as Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister. 5 December The Defence Planning Committee approves the activation of the i b e r l a n t Command as the first n a t o Command in Portugal. 8 December Agreement reached at United Nations on the first international treaty governing space exploration. 14 December The Defence Planning Committee establishes the Nuclear Defence Affairs Committee and the Nuclear Planning Group. 20 December The Defence Planning Committee notes the organ­ isation of the integrated International Military Staff as the executive agency of the Military Committee.

1967 18 January n a t o Defense College officially opened in Rome. 31 March Official opening ceremony of s h a p e at Casteau near Mons, Belgium. 6 -7 April First meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group held in Washington. 21 April Military régime takes over power in Greece. 1 June a f c e n t officially opened at Brunssum, the Nether­ lands. 5 June a f m e d is dis-established and n a v s o u t h is established at Malta as a principal subordinate command under the Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces, Southern Europe. 86 5-10 June Six-Day War in the Middle East. C losure of the Suez Canal. (The Suez Canal remained closed until June 1975.) 14 June The North Atlantic Council meeting in Ministerial session in Luxembourg reviews the Middle East situation following the hostilities between Israel and its Arab neighbours. A resolution adopted by the Ministers invites the Council in permanent session to pursue its studies of the role which the Alliance could play in the field of technology. 8 August Formation of a s e a n (Association of South-East Asian Nations). Members: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand; Brunei joined the Association in 1984. 16 October Official opening of new n a t o Headquarters in Brus­ sels. 20-25 November The North Atlantic Assembly, formerly n a t o Parlia­ mentarians Conference, holds its first conference in Brussels. 30 November Proclamation of the People’s Republic of South Yemen. 12 December The Nuclear Defence Affairs Committee holds a meeting in Brussels to examine the Report of the Nuclear Planning Group on the year’s work con­ cerning strategic nuclear forces, anti-ballistic mis­ siles, the tactical use of nuclear weapons, and national participation in nuclear planning. 13-14 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council approves the Harmel Report on the Future Tasks of the Alliance. The Defence Planning Committee adopts n a t o 's new strategic concept of flexible response and approves the establishment of a Stand­ ing Naval Force Atlantic (stanavforlant). 1968 13 January stanavforlant is commissioned at Portland, Eng­ land. Ships from the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States participate in the activation ceremonies. 19 January The United States and the Soviet Union agree on a draft of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty and table this at the Geneva Disarmament Conference. 10 May The Ministerial Session of the Defence Planning Committee held in Brussels reaffirms the need for the Alliance to assure a balance of forces between n a t o and the Warsaw Pact. Ministers adopt a series of force goals for the period 1969-1973, and endorse the view put forward by the Nuclear Defence Affairs Committee that present circumstances do n ot justify the development of an antiballistic missile system in Europe. 87 24-25 June Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Reykjavik, Iceland. Current measures affecting access routes to Berlin are reviewed, and a Declara­ tion on Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions is issued. 20-21 August Soviet, Polish, East German, Bulgarian and Hun­ garian troops invade Czechoslovakia. 21 August The North Atlantic Council meets to discuss the crisis created by the invasion of Czechoslovakia. 22 August An open-ended working group is created under the authority of the North Atlantic Council to proceed with consultations and discussions concerning rela­ tions with Malta. 26 August Soviet-Czechoslovak talks in Moscow end with a joint communiqué announcing agreement on the terms of the withdrawal of the Warsaw Pact troops from Czechoslovakian territory “as the situation in Czechoslovakia normalises". 12 September Albania renounces its membership of the Warsaw Pact. 17 October Signature in Prague of agreement authorising tem­ porary stationing of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. 5 November Mr. Richard Nixon is elected President of the United States. 13-14 November Formation of the Eurogroup. 15-16 November The North Atlantic Council denounces Soviet actions in Czechoslovakia as contrary to the basic principles of the United Nations Charter and gives a warning to the u s s r . 21 November Activation ofm a r a i r m e d at Naples to improve n a t o surveillance of the Mediterranean area.

1969 1 0 -U April Commemorative session of the Council in Minister­ ial session in Washington to celebrate the 20th Anniversary of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. 28 May Ministerial Meeting of the Defence Planning Com­ mittee approves creation of naval on-call force in the Mediterranean (navocformed). 6 November The Council approves the setting up of a Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society to study the problems of the human environment on the basis of a proposal by President Nixon. 3-5 December Ministerial Meeting in Brussels. The Council issues a Declaration on East-West Relations. 8-10 December First meeting of the Committee on the Challenges of Modem Society (c c m s ). 88 1970 5 March Non-Proliferation Treaty on Nuclea r Weapons comes into force. 20 March First n a t o communications satellite launched from Cape Kennedy. 16 April Opening in Vienna of u s - u s s r negotiations on stra­ tegic arms limitations ( s a l t ) . 26-27 May Ministerial Meeting in Rome. Ministers issue a Declaration on Mutual and Balanced Force Reduc­ tions. 11 June The Defence Planning Committee in Ministerial session discusses the continuing expansion of the Soviet presence in the Mediterranean and welcomes the activation of the naval on-call force Mediterra­ nean. 12 August Signing in Moscow of a Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the USSR (renunciation of the use o f force). 2 November Second session of us-ussr salt negotiations at Helsinki. 2-4 December Ministerial Meetings of the Council and Defence Planning Committee ( d p c ) in Brussels. President Nixon pledges that, given a similar approach by other Allies, the United States will maintain and improve its forces in Europe and not reduce them except in the context of reciprocal East-West action. The d p c adopts the study on “Alliance Defence in the ’70s”. Ten European countries adopt a special European Defence Improvement Programme. 7 December Signing in Warsaw of a Treaty on normalisation of relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Poland.

1>71 2 February Second ' n a t o communications satellite launched from Cape Kennedy. 3-4 June Ministerial Meeting of the Council in Lisbon. Min­ isters renew study of the Berlin problem, and note first Soviet reactions regarding mutual and balanced force reductions. 20 August The Defence Planning Committee directs that n a v - s o u t h be transferred from Malta to Naples. 3 September Signing of first stage of Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin. 1 O ctobe r Mr. Joseph Luns (Netherlands) succeeds Mr. Manlio Brosio as Secretary General of n a t o . 5-6 October At a meeting of the Council, attended by Deputy Foreign Ministers, Mr. Brosio is appointed to con­ duct exploratory talks on m b f r with the Soviet and other interested governments. 89 8-10 December Ministerial Meetings of the Council and the Defence Planning Committee in Brussels. Ministers reaffirm readiness to begin multilateral exploration of Euro­ pean security and cooperation as soon as Berlin neg o­ tiation are successfully concluded.

1972 21 February Visit of President Nixon to Peking, leading to normalisation of relations between the United States and the People’s Republic of China. 26 May Signature in Moscow of the Treaty between the Uni­ ted States and the Soviet Union on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Systems and an inter­ mediate agreement on strategic arms limitations (SALT). 30-31 May At its Ministerial Meeting in Bonn, the North Atlantic Council agrees to start multinational prep­ aratory talks for a Conference on Security and Co­ operation in Europe ( c s c e ) . The Fourteen propose multilateral explorations on mutual and balanced force reductions (m b f r ) . 3 June Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin signed by For­ eign Ministers of France, United Kingdom, United States and the u s s r . 21 November Opening of sa lt ii in Geneva. 22 November Opening in Helsinki of multilateral preparatory talks on a c s c e . 7-8 December Ministerial Meeting in Brussels. Ministers review Western objectives at Helsinki and express resolve to maintain Alliance defences in face of increased Warsaw Pact forces. 21 December Signature in East Berlin of the "Basic Treaty" between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

1973 I January Denmark, Eire and the United Kingdom join the European Economic Community ( e e c ) . 31 January-29 June Mu ltilateral preparatory talks on m b f r in Vienna. II May Inauguration of Standing Naval Force Channel ( stanavforchan ). 14-15 June Ministerial Council Meeting in Copenhagen. Min­ isters consider outcome of c s c e preparatory talks and express willingness to enter first phase at Hel­ sinki on July 3. The Fourteen reaffirm importance they attach to m b f r talks due to start in October in Vienna. 90 22 June Talks between President Nixon and Mr. Brezhnev in Washington lead to announcement of u s - u s s r agree­ ment on the prevention of nuclear war. 3-7 July First phase o f cscein Helsinki. 18 September Start of second phase of csce in Geneva. 6 October Yom Kippur war begins in the Middle East. 30 O ctober Conference on mutual reduction of forces and arma­ ments ( m b f r ) opens in Vienna. 7 December In the Defence Planning Committee in Brussels, Defence Ministers consider budgetary and balance of payments problems arising from the stationing of United States troops in Europe and the United States share in n a t o civil and military programmes. 10-11 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels. Ministers review world developments and current negotiations. Members of the integrated military structure of the Alliance recognise that a common Alliance effort is required lo maintain United States forces in Europe at present level. 23 December o p e c (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Coun­ tries) announces doubling of the price of crude oil sold by the six Persian Gulf members.

1974 11-13 February Energy conference in Washington (Canada, Norway, Japan, United States and the nine e e c countries). 25 April Military coup d’Etat in Portugal. 14 June Ministers of the Defence Planning Committee meet­ ing in Brussels note continued expansion of Warsaw Pact forces, review progress of the European Defence Improvement Programme ( e d ip ) , and reaffirm importance of standardisation and speci­ alisation of defence tasks. 18-19 June Ministerial Meeting of the Council in Ottawa observes the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Year of the Alliance. Ministers adopt and publish a Declaration on Atlantic Relations. 26 June Meeting of Heads of Government in Brussels. Sig­ nature of the Declaration on Atlantic Relations. 15 July ' Military coup d’Etat in Cyprus followed by landing of Turkish troops. 23 July Resignation of the military régime in Athens: Mr. Karamanlis, returning from exile, is named Greek Prime Minister. All restrictions on civil liberties are removed. 8 August R esignation of President Nixon. Mr. Gera ld Ford becomes 38th President of the United States. 91 14 August Withdrawal of Greek forces from the integrated military structure of n a t o (Greek forces were re­ integrated on 20 October, 1980). 23-24 November President Ford and Mr. Brezhnev, meeting in Vla­ divostok, agree on steps towards limitation of us- u s s r strategic nuclear arms. 10-11 December Ministerial Meeting in Brussels of Defence Planning Committee. Ministers note strengthening of Warsaw Pact forces, review improvements ton a to conven­ tional forces in 1974, and discuss impact of inflation on defence costs. 12-13 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels. Ministers review East-West relations and progress of csce and m b fr, discuss economic developments, and reaffirm importance of maintain­ ing peace in the Middle East.

1975 17 April End of civil war in Cambodia. Expulsion of the entire population of Phnom Penh. 10 May End of war in Vietnam following the surrender of Saigon to North Vietnamese forces. 23 May Ministerial Meeting in Brussels of Defence Planning Committee. Ministers review the strategic situation in the Mediterranean, the activities of the Eurogroup, and issue “guidelines” for future defence planning. 29-30 May Meeting of the North Atlantic Council with Heads of State and Government in Brussels. 31 May The European Organisation for the Development and Construction of Space Vehicle Launchers ( e l d o) and the European Space Research Organisation ( e s r o) merge and become the European Space Agency (e s a ) — member countries: Belgium, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Ireland, Nether­ lands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. 10 June Laotian National Assembly is dissolved as part of purge of non-communist elements. 24-27 June First civil defence seminar sponsored by n a t o held in Battle Creek, Michigan. Attended by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany, Iceland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, United King­ dom, and United States. 25 June Mozambique becomes independent as a People's Re­ public. 21 July Ending of second phase of CSCE in Geneva. 31 July-1 August Final phase of CSCE in Helsinki. The Heads of Stale and Government sign the Final Act of the Confer­ ence. 92 14 November Tripartite Agreement among Spain, Morocco and Mauritania concerning hand-over of Spanish Sahara to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian administration. 24 November Cuban armed intervention in Angola and other parts of Africa condemned by the United States. 9-10 December Defence Planning Committee Ministerial Meeting in Brussels. Ministers note continued increase in War­ saw Pact strength and capabilities, reaflirm impor­ tance of maintaining and st rengthening n a t o forces, and review current efforts to improve standardisation and compatibility of military equipment within the Alliance. 1976 21-22 January At the meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group ( n p g ) in Hamburg, Ministers discuss continuing increase in Soviet strategic nuclear capabilities and review prospects for stabilisation through s a l t . 25 April General Elections take place in Portugal leading to the appointment of M. Mario Soares as Prime Min­ ister. 2 0 -2 1 May Ministerial session of Council in Oslo. Ministers review East-West relations and progress towards implementation of Final Act of c s c e . Ministers of countries taking part in m b fr negotiations reaffirm their continuing resolve to press for achievement of Western objectives. 10-11 June Defence Planning Committee Ministerial Meeting in Brussels. Ministers reaffirm support for Eurogroup activities, express concern at continuing increase of Warsaw Pact military strength and endorse n a t o Force Goals for 1977-1982. 14-15 June At a meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group in Brussels, Ministers resume discussions on improving the effectiveness of n a t o 's theatre nuclear force posture.

1977 24 January Visit of Vice-President Mondale to North Atlantic Council following inauguration of Mr. Jimmy Carter as 39th President of the United States. 25 March „ Defence Planning Committee meets in Ministerial session in Brussels to discuss a n a t o airborne early warning ( a e w ) capability. 10-11 May Council meeting in London with participation of Heads of State and Government. The Allies call for fresh studies of long-term trends in East-West rela­ tions and leaders of slates participating in n a t o 's integrated defence system agree to initiate and develop a long-term defence programme. 93 17-18 May Ministerial Meeting of Defence Planning Committee in Brussels. Ministers review results of Heads of State and Government Council Meeting, and agree setting up of long-term defence programme ( l t d p ) . 8 -9 June Meeting of Nuclear Planning Group in Ottawa. Ministers note continuing improvements in Soviet nuclear forces, including mobile intermediate range systems, and discuss current and potential improve­ ments in n a t o nuclear weaponry. 15 June General Elections lake place in Spain following the death of General Franco and the re-establishment of the Monarchy. 4 October c s c e Follow-up Meeting in Belgrade (4 October 1977-9 March 1978). 11-12 October Ministerial session of Nuclear Planning Group in Bari (Italy). Establishment of n p g high-level group on theatre nuclear force modernisation within the context of the long-term defence programme.

1978 11-13 April 20th Anniversary Commemoration Conference of the n a t o Science Committee. 18-19 April Meeting of Nuclear Planning Group in Frederik- shavn, Denmark. Ministers note with concern increased Soviet capability in longer range theatre nuclear weapons, including the SS-20 mobile missile with multiple warheads, and endorse the importance of modernising n a t o ’s theatre nuclear forces. 27 April Overthrow of President Daud of Afghanistan by Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. 18-19 May Meeting of Defence Planning Committee in Brus­ sels. Ministers approve a wide-range of measures designed to enhance n a t o ’s defence posture in selected priority areas and endorse submission of the long-term defence programme to Heads of State and Government. 23 May-1 Ju ly United Nations Special Session on Disarmament 30-31 May Meeting of the North Atlantic Council with partici­ pation of Heads of State and Government in Wash­ ington. The Allies note repeated instances of exploitation by the Soviet Union and some of its allies of situations of instability and regional conflict in the developing world. Leaders of states taking part in n a t o 's integrated defence system express support for the long-term defence programme. 18 November Third n a t o communications satellite launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. 5-6 December Approval of Airborne Early Warning and Control System programme ( a w a c s ) . 94 1979 17 February Chinese troops invade V ietnam, withdrawing on 16 March. 26 March President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin sign Egyp- tian-Israeli peace treaty in Washington (Camp David Agreements). 31 March British Forces relinquish facilities on Malta assigned to NATO upon expiry of seven-year agreement with Valetta. 4 April 30th Anniversary Commemorative Session of the North Atlantic Council. 11 April Establishment of Special Group to study arms con­ trol aspects of theatre nuclear systems. 7-10 June First direct elections to European Parliament. 18 June s a l t m agreement signed in Vienna by President Carter and Mr. Brezhnev (the s a l t ii Agreement was not ratified by the United States). 29 June Announcement of Vietnam's admission to COME­ CON. 26 Septem ber Dissolution of the Central Treaty Organisation ( c e n t o ) following withdrawal of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey. 23-24 October 10th Anniversary M eeting of the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society held in Washington. 4 November Seizure of the United States Embassy in Tehran and 53 hostages by Islamic revolutionaries. (Negotiations led to the release of the hostages on January 20, 1981). 11-14 December Ministerial Meetings of Defence Planning Commit­ tee and North Atlantic Council in Brussels, followed by Special Meeting (December 12) of Foreign and Defence Ministers. Decisions taken on theatre nuclear force modernisation and arms control.* 25 December Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. 27 December Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan. 29 December Special session of North Atlantic Council to discuss Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan.

1980 24 January Members of the Alliance participating in the 12 De­ cember 1979 Special Meeting, establish the Special Consultative Group on arms control involving theatre nuclear forces. (The Special Group establish­ ed in April 1979, to study arms control aspects of theatre nuclear systems, concluded its work on 11 December 1979). 4 May Death of President Tito of Yugoslavia.

' France did not participate in the Special Meeting of Foreign and Defence Ministers. 95 31 August Gdansk Agreement, leading to establishment and official recognition of Polish independent trade union, “Solidarity” . 12 September Turkish military leadership takes over the adminis­ tration of the country. 22 September War breaks out between Iraq and Iran. 20 O ctober Re-integration of Greek forces into the integrated military structure of the Alliance. 11 November Opening of c s c e Follow-up Meeting in Madrid. 9-12 December Ministerial Meetings of the Council and Defence Planning Committee reflect concern over the situa­ tion with regard to Poland and the continuing Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.

1981 1 January Greece becomes the 10th member of the European Economic Community. 20 January Ronald Reagan becomes the 40th President of the United States. 23 January Abortive attempt by rebel civil guards to overthrow Spanish caretaker government. 30 March Attempted assassination of President Reagan. 7 -8 April n a t o Nuclear Planning Group Meeting in Bonn. 4 -5 May Ministerial Meeting of North Atlantic Council in Rome. 10 May Francois Mitterand is elected as the first Socialist President of the Fifth French Republic 13 May Attempted assassination or Pope John Paul. 25 May Gulf Cooperation Council established by Bahrein, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. 6 O ctober Assassination of Egyptian President Sadat. 18 October Mr. Andreas Papandreou becomes first Socialist Prime Minister of Greece. 19 October General Jaruzelski replaces Mr. Kania as leader of the Polish United Workers Party. 27 October Soviet submarine said to be carrying nuclear weapons grounded in Swedish territorial waters. 18 November President Reagan announces major new initiatives in the field of arms control, including intermediate­ range nuclear force negotiations ( i n f ) and strategic arms reductions talks start. 20 November Permanent Representatives of Allies participating in the Special Consultative Group issue a statement welcoming the 18 November speech by President Reagan on new arms control initiatives and support­ ing the United States negotiating position. 30 November The United States and the Soviet Union open Geneva negotiations on intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF). 96 2 December Spain formally applies to join NATO. 10-11 December The North Atlantic Council, meeting in Ministerial Session, signs the Protocol of Accession of Spain to the North Atlantic Treaty. 10 December Foreign Ministers and Representatives of member countries of the Alliance issue a Declaration con­ demning all acts of terrorism. 11 December Ministerial Declaration on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Modernisation and Arms Control. 13 December Imposition of martial law in Poland.

1982 11 January Special Ministerial Session of the North Atlantic Council issues a Declaration on Events in Poland. 18 February 30th Anniversary of the Accession of Greece and Turkey to the North Altantic Treaty. 2 April-14 June The Falklands Conflict. 30 May Spain becomes the sixteenth member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. 6 June Israel invades the Lebanon. 10 June Summit Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Bonn. Heads of State and Government issue the Bonn Declaration setting out the Alliance Pro­ gramme for Peace in Freedom and publish docu­ ments on Arms Control and Disarmament and on Integrated n a t o Defence. 30 June Opening of Strategic Arms Reductions Talks ( s t a r t ) in Geneva. 2-3 October Informal meeting of n a t o Foreign Ministers at La Sapinière, Val David, Canada. 10 November Death of President Leonid Brezhnev-Mr. Yuri Andropov subsequently becomes General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 2 December Felipe Gonzales becomes Prime Minister of Spain. 15 December Frontier between Spain and Gibraltar opened for pedestrians for first time since 1969.

1983 23 March President Reagan announces a comprehensive re­ search programme aimed at eliminating the threat posed by strategic nuclear missiles (Strategic Defense Initiative). 30 March i n f negotiations: the United States announces its rea­ diness to agree to an equal level of warheads substan­ tially below the number planned for deployment in the December 1979 double-track decision provided the Soviet Union would reduce its wareheads on land-based l r i n f missiles on launchers to the same level. 97 31 March The North Atlantic Council issues a statement sup­ porting the United States proposal for an interme­ diate agreement at the us-Soviet i n f negotiations in Geneva. 22 July Lifting of martial law in Poland. New laws reinforce Government controls. I September A South Korean airliner with 269 people on board is shot d own by the Soviet Union near Sakhalin Island. 9 September Conclusion of c s c e Follow-up Meeting in Madrid. 25 October- Preparatory meeting in Helsinki for Stockholm Con­ II November ference on Security and Confidence-Building Mea­ sures and Disarmament in Europe (c d e ) . 25 October Military intervention in Grenada by United States and East Caribbean forces. 27 October The Montebello Decision. Defence Ministers meeting in the n a t o Nuclear Planning Group in Montebello, Canada, announce their decision to withdraw a further 1400 warheads from Europe, bringing the total of such withdrawals since 1979 to 2400. 23 November Decision by the Soviet Union to discontinue the current round of negotiations in Geneva on inter­ mediate-range nuclear forces ( in f ) . 8 December Conclusion of the current round of US-Soviet Geneva negotiations on Strategic Arms Reductions ( s t a r t ) without a date being set by the Soviet side for their resumption. 8-9 December Foreign Ministers meeting in the Ministerial Session of the No rth Atlantic Council issue the Declaration of Brussels expressing their determination to seek a balanced and constructive relationship with the East and calling on the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries to respond. December Beginning of intermediate-range nuclear force de­ ployments ( in f ) in the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy.

1984 17 January Opening of the Stockholm Conference on Security and Confidence-Building Measures and Disarma­ ment in Europe ( c d e ) in the presence of Foreign Min­ isters. 9 February Death of President Yuri Andropov — Mr. Konstan­ tin Chemenko subsequently becomes General Secre­ tary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and President of the Soviet Union. 4 April Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels commemorating the 35th Anniversary of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. 98 29-31 May Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Washington D.C. Foreign Ministers issue the Washington Statement on East-West Relations. 7-9 June Summit meeting in London. Heads of State and Gov­ ernment of the seven major industrialised countries issue a declaration on East-West Relations and Arms Control. 12 June Foreign Ministers of the seven countries of the West­ ern European Union meeting in Paris, decide to reac­ tivate thew e u . 25 June Lord Carrington (United Kingdom) succeeds Mr. Joseph Luns as Secretary General of n a t o. 26 September United Kingdom and People’s Republic of China agree on transfer of Hong Kong to Chinese control on 1 July 1997. 26-27 October Foreign and Defence Ministers of the member coun­ tries of the Western European Union meeting in Rome publish the “ Rome Declaration” announcing their decision to increase cooperation within the WEU. 31 October Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi is assassinated and is succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi. 6 November President Reagan is elected for a second term. 13-14 December Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels. Foreign Ministers consult on meeting of Secretary of State Schultz and Foreign Minister Gro­ myko on 7-8 January in Geneva regarding possible resumption of arms control talks.

1985 11 March Death of President Konstantin Chemenko. Mr. Mik­ hail Gorbachov subsequently becomes General Secre­ tary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 12 March The United States and the u s s r begin new arms con­ trol negotiations in Geneva, encompassing defence and space systems, strategic nuclear forces and inter­ mediate-range nuclear forces. 22 May Ministerial Meeting of the Defence Plaaning Com­ mittee in Brussels. Defence Ministers focus their at­ tention on measures necessary to improve n a t o'S conventional forces. 6-7 June Ministerial meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Estoril, Portugal. Foreign Ministers welcome the US- Soviet negotiations in Geneva on stategic nuclear weapons, intermediate-range nuclear weapons and defence and space systems. 99 28 June Visit of Vice-President Bush to the North Atlantic Council. 30 June Thirty-nine American hostages are released after be­ ing held for seventeen days by Lebanese Shiite Mos­ lems in Beirut, following the hijacking of a TWA air­ liner.

100 Appendix 2

ABBREVIATIONS IN COMMON USE

ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile ACCHAN Allied Command Channel ACE Allied Command Europe ACLANT Allied Command Atlantic ACSA Allied Communications Security Agency ADM Atomic Demolition Munition ADP Automatic Data Processing ADSIA Allied Data System Interoperability Agency AEW Airborne Early Warning AFCENT Allied Forces Central Europe AFNORTH Allied Forces Northern Europe AFSOUTH Allied Forces Southern Europe ACARD Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development ALCM Air-Launched Cruise Missile ALLA Allied Long Lines Agency AMF a c e Mobile Force ANCA Allied Naval Communications Agency AP Allied Publication APAG Atlantic Policy Advisory Group AQAP Allied Quality Assurance Publication ARFA Allied Radio Frequency Agency ASAT Anti-Satellite Systems ASW Anti-Submarine Warfare ATA Atlantic Treaty Association ATCA Allied Tactical Communications Agency ATDS1A Allied Tactical Data Systems Interoperability Agency AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System BMD Ballistic Missile Defence BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early Warning System CBM Confidence Building Measure cccs Command, Control and Communications Systems CCIS Command, Control and Information Systems cc m s Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society c c p c . Civil Communications Planning Committee CDE Conference on Confidence and Security Building Mea­ sures and Disarmament in Europe CEAC Committee for European Airspace Co-ordination CENTAC Central Army Group, Central Europe CENTO Central Treaty Organisation CEOA Central Europe Operating Agency CEP Civil Emergency Planning CEPS Central Europe Pipeline System

101 c h a n c o m Channel Committee cinceastlant Commander-in-Chief Eastern Atlantic Area c i n c e n t Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Central Europe c i n c h a n Commander-in-Chief Channel and Southern North Sea cinciberlant Commander-in-Chief Iberian Atlantic Area c i n c n o r t h Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Northern Europe c i n c s o u t h Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Southern Europe cincw estlant Commander-in-Chief Western Atlantic Area c i or Interallied Confederation of Reserve Officers c n a d Conference of National Armaments Directors cpx Command Post Exercise c sb m Confidence and Security-Building Measures c s c e Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe c u s r p g Canada-us Regional Planning Group d p c Defence Planning Committee d r c Defence Review Committee e c c m Electronic Counter Counter Measures ecm Electronic Counter Measures e c s c European Coal and Steel Community e d c European Defence Community e d ip European Defence Improvement Programme e e c European Economic Community e l d o European Launcher Development Organisation entg euro/nato Training Group e s a European Space Agency e s r o European Space Research Organisation e t Emerging Technologies e u r o g r o u p Acronym used for Informal Group of n a t o European Defence Ministers e w Electronic Warfare e w g Executive Working Group f o f a Follow-on Forces Attack g l c m Ground Launched Cruise Missile i a t a International Air Transport Association i c a o International Civil Aviation Organisation ic b International Competitive Bidding icb m Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ie g Information Exchange Group ie p g Independent European Programme Group nss International Institute for Strategic Studies im s International Military Staff i n f Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces ir b m Intermediale-Range Ballistic Missile j c e w g Joint Communications-Electronics'Working Group l c c Logistics Co-ordination Centre l r i n f Longer-Range INF l t d p Long Term Defence Programme m a r a i r m e d Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean m a s Military Agency for Standardisation m b f r Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions

102 MC M ilitary Committee MCCISWG Military Command, Control and Information Systems Working Group m c e w g Military Communication Electronics Working Group m cm Mine Counter Measures m cm g Military Committee Meteorological Group m i l r e p Military Representative (to the m c) m l f Multilateral Force m n c M ajor n a t o Commander m o d Ministry of Defence NAA North Atlantic Assembly n a a g n a t o Army Armaments Group n a c North Atlantic Council n a d c n a t o Air Defence Committee nadeec nato Air Defence Electronic Environment Committee nadefcol nato Defense College nadge nato Air Defence Ground Environment n a e w n a t o Airborne Early Warning nafag nato Air Force Armaments Group namfi nato Missile Firing Installation namma nato Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Development and Production Management Agency nammo nato Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Development and Production Management Organisation namsa nato Maintenance and Supply Agency namso nato Maintenance and Supply Organisation napatmo nato patriot Management Office napma nato Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Agency napmo nato Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Organisation n a p r n a t o Armaments Planning Review nasmo nato Starfighter Management Office naspo nato Starfighter Production Organisation n a t o North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (nato) foracs (nato) Fleet Operational Readiness Accuracy Check Sites navocformed Naval On-Call Force, Mediterranean nccdpc nato Command, Cont rol and Information Systems and Automatic Data Processing Committee nccis nato Command, Control and Information System nceb . nato Communications Electronics Board n d a c Nuclear Defence Affairs Committee newac nato Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee nhmo nato hawk Management Office nhplo nato Hawk Production and Logistics Organisation n i a g n a t o Industrial Advisory Group n i c s n a t o Integrated Communications System nicsma nics Management Agency nicso nics Organisation 103 NISSPO n a t o Identification System Special Project Office NJCEC n a t o Joint Communications-Electronics Committee NMR National Military Representative (to s h a p e ) NNAG n a t o Naval Armaments Group NORAD North American Air Defence System n o r t h a g Northern Army Group, Central Europe NPG Nuclear Planning Group n p l o n a t o Production and Logistics Organisation NSC n a t o Supply Centre NSWP Non-Soviet Warsaw Pact OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries OTAN Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord PAPS Periodic Armaments Planning System PBEIST Planning Board for European Inland Surface Transport PBOS Planning Board for Ocean Shipping PERM REP Permanent Representative (to the n a c ) PG Project Group RDF Rapid Deployment Force R & D Research and Development SAC Strategic Air Command SACEUR Supreme Allied Commander Europe SACLANT Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic SACl.ANTCEN s a c l a n t (Anti-Submarine Warfare Research) Centre SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SATCOM SatelliteCommunicatipns SCG Special Consultative Group SCEPC Senior Civil Emergency Planning Committee SCWG Satellite Communications Working Group SDI Strategic Defence Initiative SG Sub G roup SHAPE Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe SLBM Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile SNLC Senior n a t o Logistician Conference STANAG Standardisation Agreement STANAVFORCHAN Standing Naval Force Channel STANAVFORLANT Standing Naval Force Atlantic START Strategic Anns Reduction Talks STC s h a p e Technical Centre STG Study Group TCC Temporary Council Committee TNF Theatre Nuclear Forces TSG Tri-Service Group TSGCEE Tri-Service Group on Communications and Electronic Equipment UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 1 04 U n e s c o United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation w e u Western European Union wc Working Group

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