The Will to Conserve? Environmentality, Translation, and Politics of Conservation in Southern Belize by James Stinson A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Anthropology University of Toronto © Copyright by James Stinson 2017 The Will to Conserve? Environmentality, Translation, and Politics of Conservation in Southern Belize James Stinson Doctor of Philosophy Anthropology University of Toronto 2017 Abstract Over the last 20 years, community-based conservation (CBC) emerged as a dominant global regime of natural resource management, promoted as a means of reconciling diverse interests around a shared goal of biodiversity conservation. In recent years, however, there has been a backlash against CBC, with some calling for a return to more exclusionary and protectionist forms of conservation. This dissertation explores the rise and fall of community-based conservation. It does this through a detailed analysis of the co-management of the Sarstoon-Temash National Park (STNP) in southern Belize. Despite being unilaterally imposed on surrounding indigenous communities in 1994, the STNP was later recognized as one of the most participatory, innovative and effectively managed protected areas in Belize and promoted internationally as a model for balancing the goals of biodiversity conservation with the interests of indigenous peoples. Nevertheless, in 2008 the Government of Belize terminated the management regime governing the park amidst growing conflict with surrounding communities over oil ii exploration and indigenous land rights. The key question addressed by this dissertation is not whether community-based conservation succeeds or fails, but how the success and failure of CBC is produced. In doing this, this dissertation examines how diverse actors and groups are enrolled in the project of CBC; how the rationality of CBC (the will to conserve) is translated into specific projects and technologies of government; and how variously positioned social actors and organizations experience, interpret and respond to CBC’s effects. The central argument of this dissertation is the following: Community- based conservation does not work by reconciling the interests of diverse actors around a shared “will to conserve”; nor does it operate as by simply displacing or concealing politics through the promotion of technical and bureaucratic interventions. Rather, community-based conservation is assembled through political acts of translation, processes of representation and interpretation through which actors construct meaningful linkages between their own individual or collective interests and the rationality of particular projects. As a result, projects do not fail when they do not meet their stated objectives, but when practices of translation fail to produce interpretations that engender political support. iii Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the invaluable contributions of a myriad of individuals and groups. At the University of Toronto, I would like to recognize the work and dedication of my PhD committee, and especially my supervisor, Sandra Bamford, to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for her unwavering support and constant encouragement. I cannot adequately express how much it has meant. I would also like to sincerely thank the other members of my dissertation committee, including Tania Li and Lena Mortensen, for their insightful comments on, and critiques of, my writing throughout this process. In her role as facilitator of the Department of Anthropology’s dissertation writing workshop, Tania Li was particularly influential in directing and guiding me through the early stages of writing this thesis. I would also like to make special mention of the late Krystyna Sieciechowicz, who served as my co- supervisor and was a valued and influential mentor. Krystyna played a particularly key role in preparing me for fieldwork, and helping me organize my thoughts after I returned from Belize. Finally, the thoughtful review and comments provided by Laurie Medina, who graciously served as the external examiner, were very appreciated. In addition to my committee, the administrative staff of the Department of Anthropology has played an important role in helping me complete this project. I would particularly like to thank Dr. David Begun and Natalia Krencil for their invaluable support and assistance, particularly in helping me navigate the intricacies of university bureaucracy over the years. This project would not have been completed without their assistance. Finally, I would like to thank the wonderful group of colleagues and friends I have been privileged to work with iv at U of T, including Kori Allen, Kirsten Brown, Lauren Classen, Saul Cohen, Mieke DeGelder, Sheri Gibbings, Aaron Kappeler, Janet McLaughlin, Hollis Moore, Shaylih Muehlmann, Laura Sikstrom, Alyson Stone, Jessica Taylor and Zoe Wool. Recognition and thanks are also owed to everyone in Belize who provided support and friendship while I was conducting the fieldwork for this project. First and foremost, I would like to thank the staff of the Sarstoon-Temash Institute for Indigenous Management in Punta Gorda, including Greg Ch’oc, Lynette Gomez, Saleem Chan, Peter Shol, David Itch and Acela Cho, for providing logistical support. I am also deeply indebted to the Q’eqchi’ and Garifuna villagers of Barranco, Conejo, Crique Sarco, Midway and Sunday Wood, who graciously shared their time and knowledge with me. I would particularly like to recognize Anasario Cal, Lydia Keh, Juan Pop, Santa Pop, Jose Coy, Andres Bo, Josiah Bo, Juan Choc, Enrique Makin, Thomas Ishim, Luis Ishim, and Egbert Valencio. Special mention must also go to Cristina Coc of the Julian Cho Society, for her friendship and willingness to share her knowledge and experience. Her dedication to the cause of Indigenous Rights is truly an inspiration. Josh Lichenstein and Alicia Ybarra, and their sons, Isaac and Che, welcomed us into their home and became close friends. Other members of the Punta Gorda community who provided assistance and friendship included Marchilio Ack, Bartolo Teul, Victor Cal, Nicolas Wicks, Larry and Carol Smith, Will Maheia, Rick and Darla Mallory, Bruno Kuppinger, and the Peace Corps crew (Patty, Sean, Evan, Dwight, Judy, Emily and Alyssa). I was also fortunate to meet a number of fellow academics in the field who I am now happy to call my friends, including Dave and Ellie Buck, Sean and Heather Downey, Liza Grandia, Rick Wilk, Becky Zarger, Maia Campbell, James Anaya, and Shoshi Parks. I must also acknowledge v the sources of financial support that made this work possible, including a Doctoral Fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada, a Doctoral Research Award from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and the Ontario Graduate Scholarship. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to express my deepest and most heartfelt thanks and gratitude to my friends and family for their love, support, and most of all, patience, throughout this long journey. While academic research is incredibly fulfilling and rewarding, writing a PhD dissertation can also be an isolating and lonely experience. I would therefore like to thank my friends and family, both for giving me the time and space to pursue such a self-indulgent project, and for being there to offer love, support and encouragement when it was needed most. There are truly too many people to mention, but I would be remiss not to recognize Tiiu and Tyler, Karine and Doug, Jenny and Iain, Steve Sloot, Andrea Padvaiskas, Iain Duncan, and Tommy Mo for their friendship, and good times over the years. Special mention must go to my mom, Dianne Collins, for her unconditional love and support, despite my decision to pursue my interest in the strange field of anthropology, and all the members of the Stinson-Collins-Dieleman clan. I must also thank the Bennett family, especially Linda, Trevor, Kelsey, and Louise De La Gorgendiere, for welcoming me into their family and supporting me as I travelled down this path. Most of all, my wife Megan, has given and sacrificed more than anyone to help me complete this project. Thank you. Your patience, encouragement, prodding, and love has been astonishing, and can never be repaid. Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my girls, Eden and Elora, who came into the world in the middle of this process. Thank you for your laughter and joy and for inspiring me to get this done! vi Table of Contents Abstract.......................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements................................................................................................................iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ix List of Figures............................................................................................................................ x Chapter 1: Introduction.........................................................................................................1 Governmentalities and The Will to Conserve..........................................................................5 Reviewing the Literature............................................................................................................. 14 Assembling A Framework: Environmentalities and the Politics