0 -0 I LC AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH '8z EXTENSION NETWORK? di Network Paper No.59c January 1996

FARMER-LED APPROACHES TO EXTENSION Papers presented at a Workshop in the Philippines, July 1995

Edited by Vanessa Scarborough GiANi\:; — OF Editorial Introduction r'r”ri it r7C )Nnt,PACS The majority of poor people in developing countries acted as the principal agents of change. These live in rural areas, rely on agriculture for their experiments appear to have had quite a high degree of employment and spend a high proportion of their success in terms of discovering or identifying income on food. Population densities continue to productivity enhancing technologies, which are then increase and land available for the expansion of widely adopted. They have also been able to do so at agriculture is becoming increasingly scarce. Moreover, relatively low cost. labour constraints, particularly in households headed However, not only are such programmes still rare by women, often limitfarmers' ability to expand the islands in a sea ofconventional programmes, but they area they cultivate. Thus, sustainable increases in also face many problems of their own creation. In land and labour productivity in agriculture, through recognition of this, a one-week workshop was technological and managerial innovation, continue organised by the Overseas Development Institute to be crucial means through which both poverty (ODI), the International Institute for Rural reduction and economic growth are sought. Reconstruction (IIRR) and World Neighbors (WN) in In the past, public sector agricultural services in July 1995 with the aim of (1) encouraging a sharing developing countries played a vital role in promoting of experiences between those working in farmer-led technological innovation in agriculture. However, extension programmes and (ii) creating an changes in the structure ofthe public sector, as well as opportunityfor learning on the part of those who are in the context in which it operates and in the likely engaged in conventional extension services, but are nature of future technological innovation, raise interested in more responsive approaches. questions about whether the institutions that supported The workshop's 75 participants came from a wide the green revolution will be able to meet the challenges range of professional backgrounds. They included: of the continued need for increases in agricultural farmers and farmer extensionists; community productivity.' It is likely that future gains in representatives/workers; NGO representatives involved agricultural productivity through technological in supporting farmer-led extension and/or research; innovation will have to be more incremental, locally public sector representatives some of whom were specific and directly geared towards specific farmer involved in reorienting extension and research constraints. This is particularly truefor resource-poor services towards more responsive modes of operation farmers operating in environments which cannot be and others who were interested to learn more about unified through irrigation and purchased inputs, the farmer-led approaches being supported by other which are remote from markets and political and organisations; donor representatives and academics. urban centres, and in which the natural resource The formal objectives of the workshop were: W to base is fragile. The need for locally-specific draw out guidelines and lessons from experiences to technological innovation means that, if agricultural date; (ii) to examine the constraints and potentialfor research and extension organisations are to be scaling-up responsive methods of agricultural service effective, their agendas and outputs will have to be provision; OW to identify the policy and institutional more demand-led than they were in the past. changes which could facilitate public sector adoption In response to this situation, a number of ofsuch methods, thereby spreading them more widely; organisations have, over the last two decades, and (iv) to identify how those already successfully attempted to support the establishment ofpoor -farmer engaged in supporting the provision of services responsive agricultural servicess. In many of these responsive to resource-poor farmers' needs might experimental projects or programmes,farmers, rather facilitate the re-orientation of systems that are not than professional extensionists or researchers, have currently responsive.

The Agricultural Research and Extension Network is sponsored by the UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA). The opinions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect those of ODA. We are happy for this material to be reproduced on a not-for-profit basis. The Network Coordinator would appreciate receiving details of any use of this material in training, research or programme design, implementation or evaluation.

Network Coordinator: Diana Carney Assistant Coordinator: John Farrington Secretary: Alison Saxby ISSN 0952-2468 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

Fifty-one papers were submitted to the workshop. and outsiders facilitate their work. The second set of These, together with the discussions held during the papers describes various farmer research activities, workshop, will be reflected in a book to be published supported by specialist researchers and other this year. Here, a selection of the papers are presented professionals. The third group describes a collection of in their entirety. These have been chosen to illustrate other methods and mechanisms which are currently the various methods currently being used in different being used to increase the responsiveness ofpreviously parts of the world to help ensure that research and conventional services. extension agendas and activities are determined by 1. See, for example, Antholt, C. (1994:4) 'Getting Ready for the poor farmers. We have grouped them into three Twenty-First Century: Technical Change and Institutional categories, although there is considerable overlap Modernisation in Agriculture.' World Bank Technical Paper No. 217, between these. The first two groups ofpapers describe World Bank, Washington, DC. He suggests that the impossibility of projects or activities which are based on common a repeat of the widespread effects of the green revolution is due to constraints on the role that biotechnology can play in this process, methods. The first groupfocuses on farmer-to-farmer as well as physical limits on the further expansion of land under extension, in which farmers are the extension agents cultivation and irrigation.

GROUP 3- OTHER FARMER-RESPONSIVE METHODS OF EXTENSION AND/OR RESEARCH

Aside from farmer-to-farmer extension and facilitating extension system to maximise its coverage. The farmer research, the workshop papers also included project works with women from 1,400 of the poorest descriptions of a number of less well-known means of families to improve their nutritional status by attempting to ensure that agricultural services are providing local goats on credit to 'goat groups', responsive to farmers' needs. A selection of these has together with training in improved goat husbandry. been included in this final set of papers to illustrate Government extension staff are also provided with their diversity. training, both on the job and at six monthly sessions. One increasingly common way in which public They are trained to use a simple, participatory, sector service providers are attempting to become constantly-adjusted extension package and also to be more responsive is through collaboration with NGOs. sensitive to the possibility of different needs in Three of the papers here describe such attempts at working with women. The author describes the collaboration from an NGO perspective. Ishii-Eiteman successful aspects of the project but, like Kamp (see and Kaophong describe a Save the Children Fund Network Paper 59b), she poses the question of (SCF) project aimed at establishing institutional whether such intensive efforts can be implemented on partnering between GOs and NGOs in integrated pest a larger scale. She suggests not, but hints at the management(IPM) strategies in the Greater Mekhong potential of farmer-to-farmer extension in this and sub-region of Thailand. An Inter-Agency IPM Working stresses the need for NGOs to work with marginal Group was established which designed and communities, which she sees as the most threatened implemented a season-long field-based training by the rationalisation of public sector extension programme for farmers and NGOs in ecological pest programmes. management. The training initially emphasised farmer Nguyen Kim Hai describes an example of an NGO leadership in curriculum development, thus ensuring facilitating a public sector extension system in Vietnam relevance and active participation. However, the to become more responsive to poor farmers' needs. content quickly expanded to address farmers' wider International Cooperation for Development and concerns. The authors argue that 'organised flexibility' Solidarity(CIDSE) has been assisting the re-orientation was critical to enable the training to tespond to of public extension services in Bac Thai province farmers' current concerns. Following a participatory since 1991. Its support began as a one-year project in evaluation, the second phase of the project entails which over 100 district and provincial public sector closer monitoring of institutional interactions; refining staff from the agricultural, forestry and irrigation the methodology of participatory learning and sectors were 'guided' in: identifying farmers' technical developing institutional strategies for extending and needs through working with villagers; planning with sustaining the process of inter-agency collaboration. farmers and setting up farmer interest groups; setting Christie Peacock describes a dairy goat project that up demonstration plots with farmers; providing FARM Africa has been supporting in the highlands of technical guidance based around demonstration plots Ethiopia for the last seven years. Although NGO/GO and group meetings, and evaluating plot results and collaboration is not the main thrust of this project, project activities with the farmers. In 1992, a follow-up FARM Africa decided to work with the government two-year extension programme was initiated as a ii Other Farmer-Responsive Methods of Extension and/or Research collaborative undertaking between the NGO and the paper describes in detail the steps through which government agriculture and forestry departments. This CARE agricultural extension officers and farmers go in effectively led to an expansion and institutionalisation order to: identify the farmers' needs; select farmer of the participatory practices developed in the pilot group representatives and forge meetings between project. It aimed to develop a farmer-based extension these representatives and agricultural researchers or system through using farmer representation on the other experts to review technology options. Following programme steering committee, further training and such meetings, farmer representatives select one or the adoption of a nine step participatory work plan for more technologies to test. They may then promote extension officers. The author describes how the such technologies among other farmers in their approach evolved during implementation and how the communities. CARE facilitates the linking, testing and big switch in practice came through requiring that promotion processes. After five years, the project has plans for demonstration plots had to come from facilitated direct access to new technologies for 1,570 farmer interest groups. This shift highlighted the farmers (each of whom has, on average, passed inability of extension staff to respond to such plans information on to three other farmers), covering 24 and hence work on how they could become more crops and involving 554 sources of information. The responsive. authors argue that the success of this project stems Two of the papers in this group describe how from farmers being facilitated to identify their own participatory problem census/problem solving needs and from demonstrating that the information techniques are being used to facilitate the that farmers need is available. However, once again, reorientation of public sector agricultural extension the problem of scaling-up such efforts is raised by the systems. Bimoli and Manandhar describe a pilot authors. project in Nepal which has used these techniques. Nar Bikram Thapa describes Action Aid's support of Perceived inadequacies of the Training and Visit the development of a cadre of Community Agriculture (T&V) extension system led to the development of an Workers (CAWs) who provide extension services to approach based around groups of farmers and farmers in return for payment in Sindhupalchowk involving 'farmer-centred' problem census and district in Nepal. This project is based on similar problem-solving (PCPS) techniques. The authors principles to some of those through which attempts describe in detail how the PCPS techniques are are being made to develop private extension actually implemented by public sector extension elsewhere. Thapa describes the CAW programme's officers and argue that the approach: allows the activities and presents the results of a study of its training needs of both farmers and extension staff to impact, which includes an analysis of farmers' be identified clearly; stimulates closer cooperation opinions of the CAWs' services. He concludes by between government departments in response to arguing that the extension system is cost-effective, farmers' demands, and provides a focus for savings by sustainable, easily accessible to farmers and, since it farmer groups. They also describe some of the originates in and is managed by the community, is problems that the approach continues to face, responsive and accountable. He also suggests that the including the need to: train more extension officers in approach could be replicated, with some the techniques; find means of tackling the problems modifications, in other parts of Nepal. Some of the that farmers identify which are beyond the mandate of problems these self-employed extensionists face in the extension department; prevent other programmes developing their enterprises are also described. from undermining the self-help approach,and develop a system for monitoring group activities. Bhuiyan and Walker describe a similar project in which PCPS techniques are being piloted in Jessore district in the south west of Bangladesh. The Department of Agricultural Extension implemented this pilot as part of its search for tools with which to increase the farmer responsiveness and local planning of its activities. The authors argue that 'coupled with an immediate input to local decision-making with the Department, the system has so far proven positive'. They also highlight some of the weaknesses of the pilot and draw out some lessons from the experience. Farouk and Worsley describe a horticultural extension project which CARE has been supporting in Upper Egypt since 1990. The Farmlink project aims to connect small-scale farmers with the wide range of agricultural information resources in the country. The

ill CONTENTS

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Editorial Introduction i

Acronyms vii

FACILITATING FARMER-NGO-GO COLLABORATION IN ECOLOGICAL PEST MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA: Field-testing a model for inter-agency partnering — Marcia Ishii-Eitemann

Background 1 An Institutional Response 1 A Strategy for Sustainability: Institutional Partnering and SA/NRM 1 Focusing Inter-Agency Working Groups 2 Areafocus 2 Funding Sources 3 Facilitating Farmer-NGO-GO Collaboration: The Path Taken 3 Needs assessment and networking 3 Emergence of topicalfocus: Integrated pest management 4 Lessons Learned 4 Forging Ahead: Ongoing Activities 5 Thailand 6 Laos 6 Regional linkages 6 SC-FAO Collaboration 6 Future Plans 6 Action plan in Thailand 6 Action plan in Laos 6 Action plan in the Greater Mekhong Sub-Region (GMS) 7 Expected Outputs 7

SOME EXPERIENCES OF WOMEN-LED EXTENSION IN ETHIOPIA — Christie Peacock

Background 8 The Project Approach 8 Method of implementation — collaboration 8 Credit 8 Training 8 Women paravets 9 Breeding programme 9 Savings associations 9 Project impact 10 Lessons Learned 10 Woman-to-woman contact , 10 Woman-led training methods 10 Women-adapted technology 10 Scaling-up: Is it possible? 10

CIDSE'S WORKING EXPERIENCES IN FARMER-BASED EXTENSION APPROACHES IN VIETNAM — Nguyen Hai

General Introduction to CIDSE 12 Background and Context 12 Developing Farmer-Based Approaches to Agricultural Extension 12 Changing the working methodology of extensionists 12 Initiating and Supporting the Bac Thai Extension Programme 13 iv Other Farmer-Responsive Methods of Extension and/or Research

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Programme Activities 13 Establishing the organisation of the extension system 13 Strengthening the Working Methodology of Extension Workers 13 Farmer interest groups 14 Setting up demonstration plots 14 Increasingfarmer participation in extension work 14 Establishing a planning, monitoring and reporting system 14 Carrying out the Programme in the Highlands 15 Theforestry extension system 15 Supporting the forest land allocation programme of the province 15 Starting an extension programme in the highland area 15 Developing low-external input technology 16 Strengthening the extension information system 16 Study tours 16 Impact and Evaluation 17 Internal evaluation 17 Provincial extension policy 17 Effectiveness in achieving programme goals 17 The continuation of the programme 18 Relations with external agents 18 Guidelines and Lessons 18

Box 1: Bac Thai Province — The Seven Study Districts 12

A FARMER-CENTRED EXTENSION APPROACH IN NEPAL — B P Bimoli and D N Manandhar

Introduction 20 Background: From the T&V System to the Problem Census/Problem Solving Approach 20 Morang District 20 The Rangeli Pilot VDC 20 The PC/PS Process 21 A Meeting of the Rangeli Pilot VDC 21 Strengths of FC — PC/PS 22 Problems and Recommendations 22 Endnote 23 References 23

THE PROBLEM CENSUS: PARTICIPATORY PUBLIC SECTOR EXTENSION IN BANGLADESH — N Bhuiyan and M Walker

Introduction 24 Public Sector Agricultural Extension in Bangladesh 24 Institutional Strengthening 24 The Problem Census 26 Jessore District Pilot Programme 26 Lessons 28 Endnote 28 References 28

Table 1: Problem Census Results 26 Table 2: Weaknesses and Possible Improvements 27

Figure 1: Jessore District, Bangladesh 25

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ME CARE-EGYPT FARMLINK PROJECT — Ahmad Farouk and Stuart Worsley

Introduction — A Project Overview 29 Description of the Project Methodology 31 The Origins and Evolution of the Approach 32 Background and Context 32 Relations with External Agents 32 Impact and Evaluation 33 Questions for the Future 33

Figure 1: Schematic of the Farmlink Approach 29

ACTION AID NEPAL'S EXPERIENCE WITH COMMUNITY-BASED AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORKERS — Nar Bikram Thapa

Background 34 Study Methodology 34 The Study Area and the Initial Extension Approach 34 How Farmer-Led Agricultural Extension Started 35 Why this Approach? 35 Case Study Results 35 Distribution of CAWs by age and sex 35 Educational status 35 Distribution of CAWs by agro-climatic zone 36 Training received by CAWs 36 The use and distribution of basic equipment by the CAWs 36 Activities preference ranking 36 Area covered by CAWs 36 Links with government offices and NGOs 36 Income earnedfrom extension activities by the CAWs 37 Job satisfaction 37 Institutional development 37 Future plans 38 Distribution of CAWs by landholding 38 Activeness of CAWs 38 Farmers'perceptions of the role of CAWs 38 The Agriculture Service Centre's perceptions of the role of CAWs 39 Impact on agricultural productivity 39 Problemsfaced by CAWs 39 Lessons Learned 39 Recommendations 39 Acknowledgement 40 References 40

Table 1: Distribution of CAWs by age and sex 35 Table 2: Educational status of CAWs 35 Table 3: CAWs' preference ranking of different services 36 Table 4: CAWs' links with Government and NGOs 37 Table 5: CAWs' annual cash income from extension services 37 Table 6: Distribution of CAWs by job satisfaction 37 Table 7: CAWs and institutional development 38 Table 8: Forward planning by CAWs 38

vi ACRONYMS

AAs Agricultural Assistants (Nepal AAN Action Aid Nepal AEO Agricultural extension officer AIDBANK Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank ASC Agricultural Service Centre (Nepal) ASSP Agricultural Services Support Project (Bangladesh) CALRC Community Agriculture and Livestock Resource Centre (Nepal) CAWs Community Agriculture Workers CDAs Community Development Associations CIDSE International Cooperation for Development and Solidarity (Vietnam) DA Development Area (Nepal) DAE Department of Agricultural Extension (Bangladesh) DOA Department of Agriculture (Egypt) DOAE Department of Agricultural Extension (Thailand) DP Demonstration Plot EC Extension Centre EW Extension Worker FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FC Farmer-centred FIG Farmer Interest Group GDP Gross Domestic Product GMS Greater Mekhong Sub-Region (Thailand) GO Government organisation ICC Inter-Communal Centre IF Innovative farmer IIRR International Institute for Rural Reconstruction IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International non-governmental organisation IPM Integrated pest management NGO Non-governmental organisation NRM Natural resources management ODA Overseas Development Administration (UK) ODI Overseas Development Institute PCPS Problem Census/Problem Solving POs People's organisations PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RBF Rockefeller Brothers' Fund RISA Regional Initiative in Sustainable Agriculture RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal SA Sustainable agriculture SC Save the Children SIDA Swedish International Development Authority T&V Training and Visit VDC Village Development Committee WN World Neighbors

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viii FACILITATING FARMER-NGO-GO COLLABORATION IN ECOLOGICAL PEST MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA: Field-testing a model for inter-agency partnering

by Marcia Ishii-Eitemann

Background Throughout Asia the conflicting demands to increase government institutes. agricultural production for food security while While the value of inter-agency partnerships is conserving a dwindling natural resource base have increasingly recognised in some quarters, the number placed poor farmers in seemingly no-win situations. of successful collaborations which have been studied, Local people's organisations and grassroots non- documented and shared amongst implementing governmental organisations (NG0s) have responded agencies remains few. In practice, most development by working at the family, community and village level initiatives are still based upon a single or specific type to find ecologically and economically sustainable of implementing organisation and fall short of solutions. The extent to which these organisations can reaching their goals precisely because they work in defuse the agro-environmental crisis at the national isolation from each other and/or distrust the motives level, however, is severely limited due to minimal of dissimilar development institutions. The potential extension of their own experiences to other for creating viable rural development strategies, communities and a chronic lack of resources to grounded in the reality of farmers' lives, adaptable to influence policy (e.g. funding, technical knowledge, diverse local conditions, enriched by ongoing research management capabilities, advocacy skills). Meanwhile, and extended throughout the country and/or region is larger development institutions with financial, therefore not fully realised. technical and extension resources (such as governments) and those with skills in research, A Strategy for Sustainability: analysis and documentation (such as academic and Institutional Partnering and SA/NRM research institutes), conduct their own projects in rural In many countries in Asia, much development work to and agricultural development. Frequently, however, meet the needs of women, children and the poor is the outcome of these large-scale research and addressed by increasingly capable local organisations - extension projects do not effectively meet the daily people's organisations, local NG0s, and government needs of the rural poor. agencies. Whereas Save the Children has traditionally Development analysts increasingly point to the worked directly with individuals, families and gaping chasm separating these diverse development communities, in recent years and under certain institutions and argue that collaboration between these national and cultural conditions, it has shifted its groups is the only way forward. Yet models of approach to that of supporting the activities of existing successful partnerships between rural associations, local organisations through partnering, capacity- NG0s, research institutes and the state are few, while building, and institutional development. While the those that do exist are rarely known to the individuals ultimate goal of these efforts remains improving the leading development initiatives in their respective livelihood of the poor and marginalised members of organisations. society, the proximate goal becomes strengthening local and national institutions, so that the process of An Institutional Response development becomes self-sustaining, created, directed The Regional Initiative in Sustainable Agriculture and enacted by members of local society. (RISA) was created from discussions between Save the RISA is an example of SC's work at the institutional Children/US (SC) and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund level, in the sector of sustainable agriculture and (RBF) on how an international NGO could respond to natural resource management (SA/NRM). The extent the persistent institutional barriers encountered in rural to which blocal capacity-building in SA/NRM is development efforts. successful has enormous implications for the welfare The underlying premise of the RISA project is that of rural communities, and in particular the well-being while local and international non-governmtntal of women in these communities. As men seek off-farm organisations (NG0s) have accumulated vast employment to increase cash incomes, women are experiences in family and community organising at the frequently left with ever-increasing responsibility for grassroots level, government affiliated development the management of agricultural activities and support institutions and academic/research-based groups have of remaining family members, typically children and often overlooked their unique skills. Moreover, local elders. Rural women now more than ever need the NGOs and people's organisations(POs) are frequently skills to develop economically and ecologically unable or unwilling to seek and utilise the technical sustainable food production systems. expertise and resources of universities, research and To ensure that the actual concerns of rural women

1 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c and men are addressed at the field level, the RISA NGOs find it difficult to commit staff time and effort to project engages members of local community additional collaborative activities unless project organisations and national institutions in a dynamic outputs are specific, unique and not readily obtainable collaborative field-based activity. This serves not only through other simpler means. Highly structured and to nurture trust and familiarity between the compartmentalised government agencies also respond participating individuals, thereby strengthening the more positively to proposals for collaboration with institutional partnerships themselves, but it also NGOs when the project clearly identifies the technical focuses the group's efforts on developing new division whose participation is sought (e.g. disease learning processes which encourage villagers to management, weed control, soil improvement, etc.) understand the ecology of their agricultural systems. and the precise nature of government inputs required The emphasis on analyzing ecological processes in the (weekly trainings conducted by extensionists, monthly field through non-formal education helps participants consultation by researchers/specialists, etc.). At this to develop the critical thinking skills which enable point, a realistic assessment of workplans and them to identify their own agricultural problems, timetables became possible, and inter-agency experimentally test alternative solutions, and develop collaboration could proceed from general discussion locally appropriate answers. Unlike simplistic transfers to the planning of activities and commitment of staff of technology, the cultivation of analytical skills time. promotes local analysis and local solutions, and The RISA focus on ecological pest management is therefore has greater potential to affect longer-lasting based upon the argument that agricultural systems can behavioural changes. Education, as a process of be neither ecologically nor economically sustainable empowerment, rather than a recitation of facts, is when dependent upon synthetic chemical inputs. In central to strengthening the ability of local Southeast Asia, as in many developing countries, the communities to manage and conserve their overuse of costly and toxic chemical pesticides and environments in an ecologically and economically fertilisers has had devastating effects on human health, sustainable manner. environmental quality, the integrity of local and While the knowledge of individuals is important, regional watersheds, biodiversity, and farm and group efforts are critical to the long-term survival of household economies. By facilitating inter-agency such knowledge and to the dynamic process of collaboration in developing ecological approaches to learning and exchange. Furthermore, the farm and pest management, RISA seeks to reduce the institutionalisation of group learning is central to devastating effects of these chemicals and, as sustaining the development process itself and to importantly, to empower the rural poor through widening the impact throughout a country and region. increased understanding of the agro-ecosystem of The skills and resources required to address these which they are a part. needs do exist, but are dispersed across different types The project's objectives are to: of organisations and even different countries in a 1. Facilitate inter-agency collaboration and sharing of region. The challenge is now to bring these diverse resources between local people's organisations, local, national and regional resources together to NGOs,academic and research institutions, and local develop more effective, far-ranging and sustainable and national government agencies engaged in the solutions, in which the rural poor are the central practice, research and/or extension of integrated actors. pest management (IPM); 2. Develop the capacity of local partner organisations Focusing Inter-Agency Working Groups to test, adapt, and extend ecological approaches to The hypothesis which RISA tests is that a project pest management, especially those which promoting collaboration between diverse institutions emphasise developing farmers' critical thinking and agencies can evoke a synergy amongst partnering skills and understanding of the ecosystem, through members, establishing the grounds for, a sustainable non-formal education, participatory action research, sharing of knowledge and resources. Broadly, the goal and participatory technology development; of RISA is to identify and promote effective means for 3. Document the analysis and evaluation of similarities developing the institutional capacity of local and and differences in partnering processes undertaken national organisations within Southeast Asia in in project countries throughout Southeast Asia, and promoting farmer-centred sustainable agriculture. disseminate learnings. However, initial efforts in forging inter-agency collaboration towards this end revealed that broad, Area focus abstract goals such as `sustainability' are less effective The geographic focus for direct field-based in attracting participation than concrete ones. While institutional and organisational collaboration in the enthusiastic about general principles of partnering and next two years includes Thailand and Laos. These sustainable development, in practice many partner countries, along with Vietnam, Burma and Cambodia,

2 Facilitating Farmer-NGO-GO Collaboration in Ecological Pest Management in SE Asia form an integral part of the Greater Mekhong Sub- family and community level, as well as considerable Region (GMS), a region sharing important agro- familiarity with local development institutions ecological and cultural characteristics. At the same including NGOs, universities and research institutes, time, RISA develops supporting linkages with Vietnam, and the Royal Thai Government's Ministries of Indonesia and the Philippines, particularly through Agriculture and Forestry. networking, information exchange and resource An informal survey was taken of the rural sharing. development community in Thailand to ascertain the While complex partnerships and successful inter- needs, approaches, policies and perspectives of local agency consortia have been growing for many years development organisations working in sustainable in the Philippines and Indonesia, few of these agriculture (SA). Staff visited field sites, observed experiences have been shared and explored in the agricultural activities, and spoke with numerous GMS. Rather than re-inventing the wheel in the former farmers, NGO staff, national and provincial countries, RISA draws on the insights of their existing government representatives, and researchers at programmes. Analysis of Indonesian and Philippine national universities and institutes. National and experiences and their management of resources can regional SA workshops and seminars were attended, offer invaluable lessons to early efforts at partnering including the global IPM workshop in Bangkok in and institutional development in the Greater Mekhong August 1993, sponsored by the FAO Inter-Country Sub-Region, both for SC and other development Programme for Integrated Pest Control, a workshop organisations working in the region. on Sustainable Agriculture in Southeast Asia, organised by local NGOs (November 1993), and a Save the Funding Sources Children Workshop on Partnering and Institutional In 1991, the Rockefeller Brothers Fund provided a Development in Asia (September 1994). planning grant to SC to analyze the institutional Regionally, initial linkages have been established constraints to promoting sustainable agriculture at the with development institutions in the Philippines, national and regional level in Southeast Asia. SC particularly with the FAO Inter-Country Programme, designed the 'Regional Initiative for Sustainable the Philippines National IPM Programme in rice and Agriculture' for which RBF awarded a second grant in vegetables, local NGOs and the university 1993 in partial support of the first three years of RISA programmes. In Indonesia, RISA staff visited World project implementation. Subsequently, in 1994, the Education's excellent programme in farmer-based Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Inter- ecological pest management, and brought back to Country Programme for Integrated Pest Control Thailand examples of innovative 'learning-by- provided a small grant in support of the farmer discovery' field exercises developed by World training component of RISA activities in Thailand, Education and by the International Institute of followed by a second grant in 1995 to implement Biological Control's Regional Field Station in Malaysia. farmer field schools in Thailand and explore the Field trips in Vietnam and Laos provided additional potential for capacity-building activities in Laos. views of the unique needs and concerns of the rural The development of sustainable processes in populations and development institutions in those institutional partnering requires several years in one countries. country while even more are required to build stable These ongoing studies provide important linkages at the regional level. SC is seeking additional perspectives on the status of SA development efforts funding to continue RISA's work in promoting in the region, the readiness of potential partners in sustainable agricultural practices through inter-agency Thailand and Laos to collaborate in inter-agency partnering in Southeast Asia, while gradually over the activities, and the degree of familiarity which local and next five years handing over its role as a catalyzing national Thai institutions have regarding relevant agent to local and regional institutions. Pilot regional programmes. A critical conclusion from the partnerships formed now should lead to more needs assessment in Thailand and the analysis of formalised inter-agency collaborations in SA/NRM and successful programmes in the region — one often strengthen resource-sharing and information-exchange remarked upon by those involved in promoting inter- throughout the region. agency partnerships and which cannot be overemphasised is as follows: the development of Facilitating Farmer-NGO-GO effective and sustainable field projects led and Collaboration: The Path Taken managed by local players is a long-term process. An emphasis on understanding ecological principles in agriculture itself requires the patience of many crop Needs assessment and networking seasons. Shedding individual and organisational First year activities were initiated in Thailand, a assumptions about appropriate learning methodologies country where Save the Children had eight years' and the demystification of the scientific approach can experience working in sustainable agriculture at the take many months or even years. If diverse types of

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institutions are added into the equation, most with the working group proved successful approaches to limited prior experience in working together, the time fulfilling the educational goals of the training. Farmers required to achieve a vigorous and healthy balance of themselves shaped the evolution of the training's roles and responsibilities quickly lengthens by several structure and direction, and were central decision- more years. Yet precisely such a timeframe is required makers regarding the content of the curriculum and to build effective and sustainable processes — the ecological questions posed in field studies they ecologically, agriculturally, and institutionally designed, with the technical assistance of training speaking. support staff. While the initial outline was based upon the successful Farmer Field School IPM programme Emergence of topicalfocus: Integrated pest developed by FAO in the Philippines and Indonesia, management and partially-tested in some parts of Thailand, the actual curriculum continually evolved to meet the Potential partners for collaboration in Thailand were needs, interests and field problems encountered by identified on the basis of their own interest in topics farmers in their own villages. While ecological pest in sustainable agriculture and willingness to work with management provided the framework for posing diverse groups. Ecological and non-traditional ecological questions, subsequent discussions and field approaches to pest management emerged as a critical embraced wider issues of soil concern of many NGOs and farmers' organisations, exercises agricultural fertility, organic nutrient inputs, rice growth and which sought to reduce and ultimately eliminate costly development, natural farming, weed management, and toxic chemical pesticides and fertilisers from their mulching and intercropping. In group evaluations, farming systems. As described earlier, this focus on a farmers emphasised that the enquiry-based learning specific (if central) aspect of SA/NRM was critical to approach enabled them to better understand the securing organisational commitment in the early stages ecological interactions taking place in their fields, and of the project. therefore increased their confidence in experimenting In March 1994, SC organised an inter-agency and resolving problems on their own. meeting of representatives from interested The Department of Extension provided organisations, which resulted in the establishment of Agricultural a dedicated and enthusiastic trainer, who was a working group focusing on integrated pest invaluable to the success of the training. The DOAE management (IPM) and based in the upper Central trainer easily established a close rapport with both Plain of Thailand. The IPM Working Group (IPM WG) farmers and NGO staff alike, disproving the common organised and implemented its first Field-based assumption among NGOs that governments are Season-Long IPM Training for Farmers and NGOs in necessarily part of the problem. NGOs learnt that the Upper Central Plain/Lower North of Thailand from government officers can be strong allies in promoting June to November 1994. Participants included farmer ecological agriculture, and may be very willing to representatives from three district-wide village share their technical expertise in a meaningful way. At associations, individual farmers from an additional six the same time, the extensionist learnt that the 'NGO districts in four provinces, and staff of six local and community' is not an homogenous one, always in international NGOs. Technical specialists from the conflict with government, but is rich in diversity and Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE), four contains potential supporters and partners. Much work provincial plant protection service units, two rice remains, however, for those individuals who took part research experiment stations, one international NGO in the exercise to convince their own institutions of and one farmers' organisation guided the training the merits of such collaborative efforts. process and field experiments. To supplement the While the participating farmers demonstrated a clear knowledge of working group members, additional ability to weigh the diverse and complex agro- researchers formed an informal pool of advisors who ecological ideas exchanged throughout the training, engaged in dialogue regarding technical developments facilitating the collaboration between local and in the field. The FAO Inter-Country Programme for international NG0s, government trainers and Integrated Pest Control provided both technical and researchers proved, ironically, to be the most financial support from the earliest stages. challenging aspect of the entire exercise. Among the none had worked this intensively Lessons Learned participating NG0s, over an extended period of time together and, The five-month exercise in 1994 in inter-agency naturally, differences in working styles, personal and collaboration yielded a rich set of experiences organisational values, commitment and approaches to regarding both the enormous benefits of working inter-agency collaboration emerged, often pulling the challenges and difficulties in together and the training in multiple directions. Communication creatively across traditional communicating between the more ideologically-oriented non- institutional barriers. governmental groups, the more practical-minded of The field-orientation and 'organised flexibility' of the development workers and extensionists, and

4 Facilitating Farmer-NGO-GO Collaboration in Ecological Pest Management in SE Asia specialists from the more conventional 'research and government extensionist who had participated in development' institutions was not always successful RISA's 1994 training, brining the enquiry-based 'Farmer either. Some NGOs indicated that they had joined the Field School' methodology to primary school agro- Working Group in order to acquire specific technical environmental education in 1995. Word of the success skills, but were far less interested in building long- of the IPM Training has spread through the local term relationships with the participating government NGOs' network, encouraging another group of NGOs agencies. Responsibilities in facilitating the progress of in the Northeast of Thailand to request that the DOAE the training over five months and in holding the send the same now-popular extensionist to lead the disparate group of strong-minded individuals together IPM sessions of their 'alternative agriculture' trainings. were not equally shared, with the result that some One local training NGO, which had the previous year organisers felt overly tired at the training's end, while eschewed cooperation with the government and others explained that in their initial commitment to heaped scorn upon the DOAE's IPM training organising an IPM training they had not realised that capacities, now actively seeks the DOAE's support and the process of partnering would itself need so much participation in its NGO trainings. A district-wide patience and conscious nurturing. farmers' association which had sent representatives to SC's own internal evaluation of the process the 1994 IPM Training requested RISA to assist them concluded that the exercise in inter-agency in 1995 in obtaining further technical support from collaboration was an important first step. Participants local government to implement additional ecological in the IPM Training learned an enormous amount field trainings in their villages. RISA staff knew that the about ecological approaches to pest management DOAE was organising a new series of farmer through the 'learning-by-doing' non-formal education participatory research activities, with an emphasis on methods. When evaluating the condition of their fields ecological weed management in rice. After discussion and their management options, farmers based their with RISA, the DOAE chose to locate one of its pilot decisions on a more comprehensive assessment of sites in the district of this farmers' organisation, and interrelated ecological factors then they did prior to designated the lead extensionist to work directly with the training. Thus, for example, farmers were more 30 farmers from several villages in the district. likely to observe the life cycle of the insect or weed This anecdotal evidence of new farmer-NGO-GO pest, recognise the presence or absence of life stages partnerships evolving in the aftermath of the IPM which could threaten crop yield, and compare the Training suggests that even a loosely-organised effect of chemical versus non-chemical interventions collaboration between diverse institutions may bear on both pests and their natural enemies. fruit late in the season. This may be particularly At the institutional level, the participating NGOs important to recognise when working in a culture expresed satisfaction with their increased technical such as Thailand's, where institutional independence knowledge, but did not initially appear interested in is highly valued and formalised partnerships between continuing the inter-agency collaboration beyond the local NGOs and the State are extremely scarce. An duration of the IPM Training itself. While the alternative to the large and loose collaboration of participating NGOs, researchers and government diverse groups, which might or might not yield extensionists had significantly deepened their subsequent partnerships, does exist. This alternate understanding of and respect for each other as model dictates starting small, with only two or three individuals, the longer-term goal of establishing self- like-minded groups, who have first laid a firm sustaining NGO-GO partnerships appeared far from groundwork of understanding, fortified by common realisation. One lesson learned was the need for vision and interest in nurturing the partnership itself. gerater clarity in the initial stages of organising intensive inter-agency collaborations. This should Forging Ahead: Ongoing Activities include frank group discussion by participating Drawing upon lessons learned during the previous organisations about the degree of commitment and year, RISA is now exploring a revised model for inter- explicit roles and responsibilities which they expect of agency collaboration. Rather than working with a themselves, of their partners, and of the collaborative multitude of NGO and GO partners, drawn together, process itself. While loose interactions such as those perhaps, only by pragmatic interest in short-term commonly found in information networks do not interaction, this time RISA has initiated pilot project always require closely shared vision and goals for the activities with only one NGO,one government agency, network to function, the more intensive, even and one research institute, carefully selected on the intimate, nature of long-term collaboration often does. basis of shared institutional commitment to the long- Nevertheless, six months after the completion of the term goals of farmer empowerment and a willingness IPM Training, SC has observed subtle progress in to develop sustainable inter-institutional support cooperation between the former participants of the mechanisms. Traning. At least two of the international NGOs have entered into an extended partnership with the same

5 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

Thailand also participate in more formal national and regional Ongoing activities with the IPM Working Group of the meetings, workshops and conferences to strengthen Upper Central Plain/Lower North include production the development of a regional resource pool of of an IPM training guide, as well as facilitation of individuals and agencies collaborating in SA/NRM. interaction between NG0s, farmers groups and local and national agricultural extensionists. The latter SC-FAO Collaboration represents a second phase in the partnering process, SC and the FAO Inter-Country Programme for in which RISA staff are no longer directly involved in Integrated Pest Control have formalised an agency the day-to-day field activities, but promote ongoing collaboration in support of current RISA activities in discussion between the respective groups. In Northern ecological pest management. SC brings much Thailand, RISA staff have initiated preliminary experience in locally-adapted community-based ecological field studies on highland vegetable development work in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, production by Hmong communities. Participating in and the Philippines, while FAO brings years of the studies are members of a Hmong Youth Farmers' technical expertise in developing national government Group, staff of the non-governmental Royal Project IPM programmes through an experiential farmer- Foundation, extensionists from the government's centred approach (the Farmer Field School), which Office of Agricultural Research and Development, and emphasises developing farmers' skills in analyzing and a specialist from the Northern Regional Biological experimenting with the ecology of their agricultural Control Institute. The group is working together to systems. While SC and FAO have worked together in develop an 'organic curriculum' which again individual countries in the past, the formalised emphasises the use of enquiry-based learning SC/FAO collaboration at a regional level strengthens processes to develop farmers' critical thinking skills the partnership, improves the effectiveness with which and an agro-ecosystems approach in managing their each reaches its goals, and enables the two agencies vegetable crops. The small size of the Working Group to learn from each other's unique strengths. appears to facilitate strategic planning and communication between the farmers and the three Future Plans development institutions. SC's strategies for future work with local governmental In Northern Thailand, RISA staff are organising and non-governmental organisations in the preliminary ecological field studies in highland development of IPM programmes include the vegetable systems with Hmong communities, local following RISA project activities: NG0s,Chiang Mai university researchers and graduate students, and government partners. The NGO, Royal Action plan in Thailand Project Foundation, has expressed interest in working 1. Work with local farmers, NG0s, government and with SC to develop an ecologically-oriented and other local and national partners in northern community-based framework for its highland Thailand in the design, implementation and vegetable production programme. adaptation of ecological pest management in highland vegetable systems, drawing on the past Laos year's experiences with the Farmer Field School Current work in Laos includes exploring the approach. perspectives, needs, concerns and policies of local 2. Provide technical and organisational support to institutions as they relate to SA/NRM and in particular, members of the Lower North IPM Working Group; IPM. Several cross-visits have taken place between facilitate and promote the direct exchange of field staff in Laos and RISA project staff. At the same knowledge and resources between local farmers, time, the possibility of and need, for increased NGOs and GO support institutions. collaboration between local and regional institutional 3. Convene fora to promote exchange and learning partners is being assessed. Actual strategies to among Government and non-Government promote inter-agency partnering and sharing of programme partners in farmer-centred approaches regional resources in Laos will be shaped by the to IPM and to develop a coordinated strategy for results of these preliminary surveys and analyses. policy advocacy.

Regional linkages Action plan in Laos RISA staff continue to visit relevant programmes in 1. Assess the potential for developing an IPM Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, the Philippines and programme built upon collaboration between Indonesia, both to learn about the experiences of Government and non-Government partners. development work and inter-agency collaboration in 2. Collaborate with current NGO partners, government a variety of national and cultural contexts, and to and the FAO Inter-Country Programme in the disseminate these learnings through the region. Staff introduction and adaptation of an appropriate IPM

6 Facilitating Farmer-NGO-GO Collaboration in Ecological Pest Management in SE Asia

programme for vegetables and/or the integration of aspects of the partnering processes, and the IPM Farmer Field School concepts into existing analysis of similarities and differences observed agricultural projects. between countries in the region. 3. Develop institutional linkages between IPM RISA aims to contribute to significant rehabilitation of programme partners in Laos and Thailand, and local environments where farmers adopt ecologically promote tri-lateral sharing of experiences, sound agricultural practices as a result. Because the knowledge and resources related to IPM throughout project emphasises the development of farmers' own the Thai-Lao-Vietnamese sub-region. critical thinking skills and active role as stewards and managers of their agro-ecosystems, these farmers are Action plan in the Greater Mekhong Sub- better able to respond to local ecological variation and Region (GMS) the unique requirements of their communities. By local 1. Develop collaborative linkages between sustainable emphasising partnering processes with existing agriculture agencies in the Greater Mekhong Sub- and regional organisations, the project should increase institutions, Region focusing on IPM. The proposed activities for the capacity of concerned development sustainable sharing Thailand and Laos will be enriched by field visits to and facilitate a more efficient and Region. Finally, the Vietnam, which has been developing its own and exchange of resources in the national IPM programme in cooperation with the project explores effective and replicable models of collaboration, for FAO, and by materials and training support institutional strengthening and the Region, to provided by the national IPM programmes and FAO adaptation on a wider scale within activities. in Indonesia and the Philippines, and by the other regions, and to other sectoral International Institute of Biological Control in Malaysia. 2. Support development of a regional resource pool of individuals and agencies willing to share expertise Marcia J. Ishii-Eitemann is the Project Director for the Regional in ecological education, IPM learning Initiative for Sustainable Agriculture, Save the Children/US, Asia methodologies, and strategies in reducing pesticide Region. use/abuse. Members will be sought from IPM She can be contacted at: working groups in the GMS, as well as existing organisations and networks in both mainland and RISA/Save the Children (US) insular Southeast Asia. PO Box 278 3. Convene and/or participate in existing fora for Chiang Mai University Chiang Mai 50202 regional exchange of knowledge and experiences THAILAND between diverse partners relating to a) institutional Tel: +66 (53) 400301 capacity-building, b) multi-agency, multi-lateral Fax: +66 (53) 212417 collaboration in SA/IPM programme development and c) locally adaptable farmer-centred IPM learning methods.

Expected Outputs The expected outputs from RISA are as follows: 1. Field-based experiences in the development and local adaptation of farmer-centred non-formal education approaches to IPM in rice and vegetable cropping systems 2. Increased capacity of local groups and national institutions to work together and to achieve wider impact through the exchange of knowledge and experiences. 3. Knowledge about how to initiate and maintain complex but synergistic inter-agency collaborations between diverse individuals and their organisations in a variety of national and cultural contexts. 4. Documentation of the partnering process, experiences, and lessons learned, for use by concerned individuals and institutions at the local, national, regional and international level. The documentation includes evaluation of the qualitative

7 SOME EXPERIENCES OF WOMEN-LED EXTENSION IN ETHIOPIA

by Christie Peacock

Background The highlands of Ethiopia are under immense pressure extension programme through farmers voluntarily from an expanding human population trying to live on forming themselves into groups. The Dergue regime rapidly degrading resources. Soil erosion is severe as had operated in a dictatorial manner. Participation was cultivation expands into increasingly marginal areas. more often coerced, rather than invited, and genuine Farms are small (0.3-0.5 ha) and getting smaller with participation in development activities rare. New each generation. The cycle of drought, famine and attitudes had to be instilled in the minds of extension distress is widely known. The opportunities for staff, not only to work with women, but to work with farmers to improve the lives of their families are them in an open and voluntary way. In addition the extremely limited. legal framework within which groups were allowed to Goats are kept on small farms in the highlands of operate was not clear and is only now evolving after the south, east and arid north of the country, and are the change in government in 1991. often kept by the poorest members of Ethiopian society who milk them and sell them for cash. Goats The Project Approach can be a vital buffer against the vagaries of the environment and may be sold in times of hardship. Method of implementation - collaboration There are estimated to be about 20 million goats in FARM Africa decided that it was most cost-effective Ethiopia and yet virtually no effort had been made to and more sustainable to implement a national project, develop this valuable resources until the British NGO, such as the Dairy Goat Project, through collaboration FARM Africa, started the Dairy Goat Development with existing organisations. The collaborators are the Programme in 1988, with funding from the Overseas Ministry of Agriculture, Alemaya University of Development Administration (ODA). The aim of the Agriculture, Awassa College of Agriculture and NGO's project was to increase the incomes and nutrition of with field programmes such as CARE, SOS Sahel, families in the highlands by improving the productivity Action Aid and Redd Barna. The project now works of goats managed by women. It was thought that a with 1400 families in Eastern Hararge Oromia Region more intensive goat production system would fit well and Konso, Welayta, and Gurage zones of the into farms too small to support cattle. Women were Southern Region. chosen as the focus of the programme, because they, with their children, look after goats and traditionally Credit milk livestock. The poorest women, often widows, are identified by The Dairy Goat Project began under the Dergue the community and receive two goats on credit. The communist regime and found that it was having to credit may be repaid in cash or in kind, the latter by break new ground in several areas. First, goats had a passing on a weaned kid to a new family. The women very bad reputation among government officers who form a group of 15-30 members who elect a appeared to blame them for the environmental committee and draw-up bye-laws. The group itself destruction caused by man and his activities. manages the credit repayment and selects new Ignorance, misconceptions and cultural prejudices families who they think need to receive goats. Women abounded at the start of the project necessitating a involved with the project have shown themselves to public awareness campaign. Efforts were therefore be responsible in disbursing credit to appropriate made to inform government staff of the value of goats families and accurate in maintaining records and to some of the poorest members of their society, and receiving repayments. the potential role goats could play in improving their Based on the success of its own women's credit lives. programme the project has played a major role in The second new area was involving Women in a lobbying the Agricultural and Industrial Development serious agricultural extension programme. Most Bank (AIDBANK) to supply credit funds to women, activities previously directed at women activities, who were not previously allowed to obtain loans. It is whether under government or NGO programmes, had now possible for a women's group to receive funds involved stove-making, sewing or possibly vegetable directly from the bank, with the approval of the local growing and were carried out under the auspices of a Ministry of Agriculture extension staff. 'Home Economics' programme, which is not part of mainstream agricultural extension. There was little understanding of the particular problems of women, Training which was necessary in order to design appropriate The women involved in the project follow a basic extension strategies suited to their needs. training course in improved goat husbandry which Finally there was little experience of operating an covers forage development, health care and general

8 Some Experiences of Women-Led Extension in Ethiopia management. Extension staff are trained to use a assistants to open drug shops in project areas, to simple extension package consisting of a set of flip ensure continuity in the supply of drugs after the charts and guidelines in their use. The package is project ends in 1997. designed to be used in a very interactive, participatory way, encouraging dialogue and discussion of issues Breeding programme while learning new ideas. The package can be divided The project aims to gradually intensify the production up into meetings of different lengths according to the from local goats through improving their management, wishes of the group. The package itself is continually but there comes a point beyond which local goats can revised in the light of the experience of the groups. not be further improved and should be upgraded. Once a woman has achieved a reasonable level of Women paravets management and has repaid her debt she receives a Ethiopia, like most African countries, suffers from a crossbred goat on credit. At the start of the project chronic shortage of trained, mobile and equipped crossbreds were bred on an experimental basis at a veterinary staff. Most farmers have limited or no access local agricultural university and at a college. However to veterinary services. However perhaps as much as as the groups became more established and the 80-90% of livestock diseases could be controlled demand for crossbreds outstripped the supply, local through the simple vaccinations, and the use of level crossbreeding was encouraged through anthelmintics and acaricides. These drugs do not have community buck stations. One buck is allocated to a to be administered by highly trained professionals, but group which selects a family to look after it and to can be properly administered by trained farmers, which members take their local goats for including women farmers. crossbreeding. Group members agree to take feed to It was considered vital to the success of the the buck or help the buck keeper in other ways. In programme to have a more effective goat health order to ensure the sustainability of the breed programme than the existing veterinary service improvement, local farmers with superior management allowed. It took time to persuade the authorities that skills and larger farms have been selected to be illiterate women could correctly use basic veterinary breeders of pure stock and supply them to local drugs and could learn simple veterinary techniques, groups. The Ethiopian Goat Improvement Association but eventually the project was allowed to train women has been registered as a national organisation to as barefoot or paravets. promote improved goat farming throughout the Each goat group selects two women to be trained country. as paravets. They attend a five to seven day initial training course which is organised in their own or a Savings associations nearby village, and are invited to bring local goats to During the course of project activities, staff and the training course so that trainees see a variety of collaborators learned of a traditional method women cases. The training is very practical and participatory in Welayta had to save money and help eachother. in nature, allowing practical skills to be taught and Known locally as eddir, small amounts of money are practised in a familiar environment. The paravets are saved regularly by a small, informal, group of women. trained to examine a sick goat, use anthelmintics and The money can be allocated to women in the group acaricides, dress wounds, trim feet and castrate. The in turn, or given or lent to those in need. Members of women are also trained to keep simple pictorial goat groups in Areka, Welayta spontaneously records, allowing the project to monitor their activities. organised themselves into a Women's Self-Help Goat At the end of the course there is a small graduation Society' with each member contributing a small sum ceremony where the trainees receive a basic veterinary during each of their weekly meetings. Some groups kit and a certificate of attendance, and where they decided to set aside a portion of their savings to publicly commit themselves to serving the members of purchase goats for other needy women. Project staff the goat group. The paravets charge a small mark-up were so impressed with the efforts of these women on the price of drugs and a small fee for their work. and were eager to suggest it to groups in other areas. The paravet programme is supervised jointly by the The idea was shared with other extension staff during local Ministry of Agriculture veterinary officer and the the regular project training courses and quickly spread goat group committee. Follow-up training is organised to all project sites where it was enthusiastically to allow feed-back and the discussion and solving adopted. Groups leaders are now being helped with problems. So far the paravets have performed very leadership, as well as trained in basic book-keeping well. A few have dropped out due to family problems skills. or pregnancy, but most return after some time. Recent changes in legislation have allowed private Project impact veterinary drug shops to be established in rural areas. Most families have managed to increase their flock of The project will help five paravets or animal health goats to a size which they are able to manage with the

9 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c labour and feed available. As the flock increases The predominantly male extension cadre have to be excess males are sold for cash. sensitised to these issues. The crossbred goats have so far performed very Extension staff training takes place both 'on-the-job' well and yield 1-2 litres of milk per day while rearing and in the more formal setting of the project's six- a kid, compared to an average yield of 300-500 ml per monthly training course. The main purpose of the day from local breeds. Several women have started to course is to train extension agents in the proper use of sell milk and earn the equivalent of the daily wage the goat extension package. However the course has rate by doing so. In addition male crossbreds become much more than that. It has become a unique command a premium price. Taken together the forum for extension staff from all over Ethiopia to crossbred goats are making a considerable impact on come together and share their experiences. Since the child nutrition and family incomes. end of the Dergue regime extension staff appreciate The project was sorely tested during the drought in the chance to openly express their ideas and perhaps 1994 in southern Ethiopia. There was widespread most importantly, admit their failures, in an open and famine in the Welayta area of the southern region, but friendly environment. Frankness is encouraged and the there has been clear evidence that families owning opportunity for honest discussion is much appreciated. goats were able to sell them and earn sufficient funds Apart from learning specific information about goats, from doing so to feed their families until the next the predominantly male extension staff learned about harvest. As the families selected were considered to be the problems of rural women and the opportunities the poorest in their community, the project has for successful extension work through women. To obviously had a major impact on some of the most most extension staff, trained in a classical approach to vulnerable groups. agriculture, this was a revelation. At the end-of-the- The increase in self-esteem and personal confidence course evaluations, issues of women's development among women involved in the project is not and the involvement of women in agricultural something that can be easily measured, yet is plain to extension are always cited as the aspects of the course see. One group in Konso, the poorest of all the that were new to them and most appreciated by them. project sites, have constructed a tiny meeting hut for themselves which is turning into a small social centre Women-adapted technology for the community. Individual women tell countless The technology promoted under the project did not stories of how their goats, or membership of their originate from the women themselves. Much of the group, has helped them. A widowed grandmother in technology was very new to the farmers and to the Hararge, struggling to bring up her orphaned country in general. The growing of forage crops on grandson, now has milk for the child and enough left farms, the use of crossbred goats and training women over to sell and enable her to buy grain. Other women to be paravets were all very new technologies. have managed to start petty trading activities through However, once these had been offered to women, borrowing money from their group. they quickly adapted the technologies to their own circumstances. Women now plant their own tree Lessons Learned nurseries, arrange their own credit repayments, are able to treat each other's goats and organise the Woman-to-woman contact crossbreeding of their own goats. The Dairy Goat Project's group-based extension system created the means by which women could Scaling-up: is it possible? have both direct and indirect contact with eachother. Questions must be asked about whether the intensive Direct contact could be made by individuals at regular group-based extension system used so successfully by group meetings and during occasional 'exchange visits the project can, realistically, be scaled up and used by organised by the project. However the national nature government, or other NGO programmes. A group of of the project meant that innovations made by women farmers offers extension staff a valuable forum for the in one region could be passed-on quickly to women exchange of ideas and a channel for offering new in another part of the country through extension staff. technology. However when the level of farmers' skills is low, in relation to the technology offered, a great Women-led training methods deal of extension staff time will be needed to help The successful training of women farmers needs groups become firmly established. It may be hard for sensitivity to their situation and needs. The time, place governments to justify allocating resources towards and format of training must suit their circumstances, such endeavours. Governments must strike a balance not the convenience of the extension staff. For between allocating many resources to a few farmers or example, group meetings may have to take place at a few resources to many farmers, which may be night and training might have to be during many short politically expedient. The FARM Africa project's sessions, rather than over fewer but longer meetings. experience has shown how powerful groups of

10 Some Experiences of Women-Led Extension in Ethiopia farmers, whose members share a common interest, can be in sustaining new technology once introduced. For effective farmer-to-farmer exchange to take place, facilitating structures must be in place. Ethiopia is currently regionalising its political and administrative structures to encourage greater regional autonomy. This offers the potential for the relatively easy exchange of ideas within a region, but may limit exchange between regions. The decline in resources allocated to rural services by governments throughout Africa is leading many agricultural ministries to reconsider their role in extending agricultural technology to their populations. Rural communities in marginal farming areas are likely to suffer most through their inability to pay high charges for private services. New ways through which the public and private sectors can collaborate and deliver services must urgently be sought. Marginal farming communities will become increasingly marginalised unless they happen to be lucky and benefit from the attentions of an NGO.

Christie Peacock can be contacted at:

FARM Africa 9-10 Southampton Place Bloomsbury LONDON WC1A 2EA Tel: +44 (0)171 430 0440 Fax: +44 (0)171 430 0460

11 CIDSE'S WORKING EXPERIENCES IN FARMER-BASED EXTENSION APPROACHES IN VIETNAM

by Nguyen Hai

General Introduction to CIDSE The Cooperation International pour le Development et Box 1: Bac Thai Province — The Seven Study la Solidarite (CIDSE) is an international group of Districts Catholic development agencies which has programmes in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. CIDSE's programmes The project area: Seven northern districts of Bac Thai are focused on the poorest members of society province, consisting of 158 communes, regardless of race, religion or political belief. CIDSE divided into 38 inter-communal centres began its work in Vietnam in 1978 with humanitarian (ICCs) assistance and emergency aid. In 1988 it opened a field office in Hanoi and has tried to develop a Land area: 5,300 km' focused programme, in terms both of sectoral and Population: 450,000 (Approx. 90,000 household) geographic coverage. It has concentrated on agriculture and rural development, health care and Ethnic group: Tay (66 %), Kinh (16%), Nung (11%) and credit activities, while continuing to provide 15 other groups (8%) emergency aid to areas which are seasonally affected Extension officers: At province level: 6 Supporting by typhoons, floods or crop failures. At district level: 14 (2 per district) agricultural extension work, especially extension for At commune level: 146 (working in 38 the poor, is one of the biggest programmes in CIDSE's ICCs) agricultural portfolio and Bac Thai province is the focus of this programme. CIDSE has supported Bac Cooperatives and other agricultural service systems Thai province in building up its extension system in Bac Thai were having difficulty in reaching since 1991 and there has been a major shift towards individual farmers due to a lack of appropriate using farmer-based approaches in this. Bac Thai extension methods and technology to meet the province is categorised as mountainous (up to 1,200 farmers' new situation. CIDSE agreed to provide m). It is located in the north of Vietnam where many support to the province to fill up some of these gaps. areas are difficult to access. The province comprises Seven mountainous districts in the northern part of 13 administrative units and has a population of around Bac Thai, which is regarded as the poorest part of the one million composed of 18 different ethnic groups. province, were chosen to participate in the extension programme. Background and Context Economic reforms in Vietnam in recent years have Developing Farmer-Based Approaches created substantial changes in the relationship to Agricultural Extension between the state organisations and farmers, as well as within the local cooperatives. The framework for Changing the working methodology of the provision of agricultural support services has extensionists changed drastically, but public service institutions In 1991 CIDSE began supporting the development of have been slow to adjust to the requirements of the the government's extension programme in Bac Thai new situation. Following the economic reforms, the province. Initially a one year pilot project was average size of production units dropped from several embarked upon, focused on working methodologies hundred ha in an average cooperative production unit, and entitled 'Training and Demonstration Plots'. More to much smaller family production units of only a few than 100 district and provincial staff from the hectares. Therefore the number of extension 'clients' agricultural, forestry and irrigation sectors, involved in increased tremendously. However, the'number of staff the implementation of the project, were given employed by state agricultural services has been guidance in: reduced due to re-organisation and budgetary • identifying farmers' technical needs through constraints. Many thousands of agricultural technicians working with villagers; have lost their jobs, particularly at district and • planning with farmers, based on their needs and commune levels. This has reduced its capacity setting up farmer interest groups; considerably. Moreover, farmers now have to make • setting up demonstration plots to illustrate their own decisions about what farming practices to technological solutions to farmers' problems; use and they face many difficulties in managing their • providing technical assistance by working with own farms. Previously they were accustomed to work farmers on demonstration plots and group according to the decisions of the cooperatives. meetings;

12 CIDSE's Working Experiences in Fanner-Based Extension Approaches in Vietnam

• evaluating project results with farmers; Women's Union. The vice-chairman of Bac Thai • evaluating the project's achievements and people's committee is chairman of the programme constraints and implications for the orientation of steering committee. the Bac Thai agricultural service system. The programme is directly implemented by the Bac The most important effects of the pilot project were to Thai Extension Centre, under the supervision and shift the working methodology of the technical and guidance of the programme steering committee. This extension staff towards a farmer-based approach, and provincial extension centre employs six full-time to strengthen the commitment of the provincial members of staff who are in charge of training, people's committee to build an extension service that planning, information development, monitoring, was responsive to the needs of farmers. evaluation and financing. The extension system has an Extension Board at Initiating and Supporting the Bac Thai district level with four part-time staff, representatives Extension Programme of the programme steering committee and different district, and one full-time Extension Early in 1992, based on the results of the pilot project sectors of the The next level of the extension system is and an exposure trip to Thailand, a new Extension Coordinator. Inter-Communal Centres (ICCs), of Programme for Bac Thai province was initiated and occupied by the and six per district (38 designed through collaboration between CIDSE and which there are between four extension representatives of the Bac Thai Agricultural and in total), each staffed by three to four technical backgrounds. Forestry Departments. The programme was called The workers with complementary Bac Thai Extension Programme for Mountainous Region Development and was implemented between Strengthening the Working 1992 and 1994. Methodology of Extension Workers The programme's aims wefe: Prior to the spring-winter crop season in 1992, an • to increase the living standard of the population in initial round of five-day workshops was held in every terms of total food staples production and income; district, through which the new farmer-based • to improve the type and timing of staple food approach was presented to the extension workers, production; together with training in how to plan, conduct and • to reduce pressure on remaining forests and forest guide farmers in setting up demonstration plots. This land. was followed during April-June 1992 by a second The programme objectives were: round of workshops in all districts on Rapid Rural • to improve the capacity of district and provincial Appraisal(RRA) techniques. The basic course on RRA extension agents to introduce innovations to was given by a team of three experienced trainers farmers and to monitor the implementation of such from Khon Kaen University in Thailand. Based on the technical measures; first two rounds, a third series of workshops was held, • to increase and broaden the technical knowledge of incorporating the 'nine-step approach'of farmer -based provincial and district officers and farmers in extension methodology. This approach sets out a relation to new cropping practices and improved logical working pattern for extension workers as chicken and pig production; follows: • to promote the production of seedlings for valuable 1. Collecting basic data on farmers' farming systems. tree crops and improve the design, usage and 2. Farm visits using RRA methods, resulting in maintenance of small-scale irrigation schemes; 3. Village meetings in which problems and solutions • to create a network of village and farmer groups at household level are discussed. engaged in managing village funds, land use 4. Identification of voluntary farmer groups, called agreements and demonstrations; Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs), with whom • to improve district and provincial extension agents' demonstration plots are planned and established. understanding of family farming practices. 5-7.Further steps include group strengthening and planning of an integrated ICC approach to tackle Programme Activities farmers', shared problems, using exchange visits, field discussions, etc. Establishing the organisation of the 8. Evaluation of the extension activities, and technical feedback from the farmers to extension system and methodological the extension workers (EWs). The organisation of the extension system was 9. Starting the same process with other groups, established, with a programme steering committee beginning at step 3. made up of representatives of different government Several follow-up workshops concerned with the sectors and mass organisations, such as the Bac Thai reform of the top-down extension system to a more Agricultural Department, Forestry Department, farmer-based bottom-up approach, and adaptation of Irrigation Department, Farmers' Association and

13 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

the methods for implementing farmer-based extension discussion as involving a simple farming practice, were conducted in 1993. Following a workshop at which is new to the FIG members, requires limited which the results of a mid-term project survey were external inputs, and fits in with the present farming discussed, an important decision was made to system as a solution to a specified problem that is intensify monitoring and training by limiting them to identified by the farmers. two districts — Bach Thong and Dong Hy. This Rotating loan funds were set up in each FIG for the workshop was immediately followed by further establishment of demonstration plots. The repayment assessments of training needs in these two districts. and rotation of the loan funds among FIG members In late spring 1993 an effort was made to intensify caused no major difficulties. However, it was often the the output of the demonstration plots by organising case that the FIGs were not very flexible in using the one-day 'farmer field days', or field workshops, loan fund and in recruiting new FIG members to around demonstration plots. Fifty-eight 'farmer field participate in the loan system. Between 1992 and days' were held in total. About 1,800 farmers, not 1993, a total of 2,052 DPs were established. During previously reached by project activities, attended the 1994, only experimental plots and a very few DPs technical exposures by demonstration plot holders and were funded from central project funds, the rest being extension workers. funded by the FIGs themselves. The revolving fund One important way of strengthening the approach principle has enabled the continuation of the learning was to further involve the farmers — normally groups process from DPs for about 1,400 farmers' groups. In of farmers — in the planning of the extension activities. later cases more than one loan was provided to the All EWs were therefore trained for four to six days in larger FIGs in order to satisfy the need for more visual Participatory Rural Appraisal methods (PRA). Part of extension activities. this training involved practising needs assessments The loans (always less than $10/DP) should be with farmer groups. Evaluation of the training was regarded only as an incentive, rather than capital done immediately after these training sessions, as well support. In cases of failure of the DP, a project fund as by observing the daily working practices of EWs. is available to compensate for any losses. However, The evaluation showed that the training helped to get up to now, no claims for such compensation have the farmers involved in the planning process and also been made, indicating that the DPs have had helped the EWs to become facilitators, rather than satisfactory results for the farmers. providers of immediate solutions. The PRA training helped most of the EWs to work, talk and discuss Increasingfarmer participation in things with farmers more easily, while the farmers extension work became more active in the discussions. Planning by During 1993 and 1994 around 190 'field workshops' EWs and FIGs gradually developed from simple 'fund among farmers were organised with support from the applications', to include FIG activities in which almost project, reaching an estimated 5,800 households. no EW input was needed, such as farmer-to-farmer These topical discussion meetings were often centred extension (see farmer field workshops below). on certain DPs or FIG activities. During the field meetings the farmers explained the new techniques Farmer interest groups they were trying; this is an important achievement Through intensified discussions about the role and compared to the past, when only extension function of FIGs more emphasis was laid on the technicians gave demonstrations of the new selection of group members, group size and group techniques. Field workshops, if they are well- activities. Moreover the EW role as group facilitator prepared, offer opportunities for discussion on the was more precisely defined and realised. Group size specific problems identified by FIGs and possible in general was raised from 3-5 members per FIG to solutions. Farmers at the field workshops typically 8-15 in late Spring 1993. In 1993, 559 FIGs were discuss the various social implications of these established compared to 828 in 1992, as a result of a solutions, as well as the technical aspects. more careful approach, but by the end of 1993 around 5,300 households in total were participating in FIGs. Establishing a planning, monitoring and Through monitoring and internal surveys it was reporting system found that the performance of 30% of FIGs was still In 1992-93, the Extension Centre (EC) established weak. This was mainly due to lack of a clear agenda a provincial monitoring plan based on quarterly visits when meeting or too much discussion about the to all seven districts. Each district was visited rotating loan fund system, instead of new every six technologies. months for the purpose of regular monitoring. During these visits, meetings were held with the Extension Board including Setting up demonstration plots all the EWs working in the district. The Inter-Communal Centres (ICCs) were also visited, Demonstration plots (DPs) were defined through and so were their activities with some FIGs. So far a

14 CIDSE's Working Experiences in Farmer-Based Extension Approaches in Vietnam total of 84 monitoring visits have been made by and province levels in responding to the farmers' provincial extension staff to each one of the 38 Inter- requests. This problem has recently led to the Communal Centres in the seven districts. Discussions formulation of criteria for procedures on planning and with the EWs form the central activity. Their the acceptance of farmer's plans to be supported by performance and the functioning of the extension the extension service. This coincided with a wider system at every stage, from the initial needs discussion on what the extension policy for the assessment to the field workshops, are evaluated. province should be and which groups of farmers Much attention is also paid to establishing the should be targeted. It must therefore be regarded as communication lines from ICC up to the district and an ongoing debate in an ongoing process of province. Monitoring has thus become an important consolidating and strengthening the extension system. opportunity for discussion and fine-tuning, as well as trouble-shooting. Carrying out the Programme In the This system of visits runs parallel with the 'paper Highlands line' of reporting, planning and monitoring. This direct line is often very formal, and suffers from poor Theforestry extension system reporting capacity. The monitoring visits therefore act The Forestry Department established its own Forestry as an important 'personalisation' of the system, as EC parallel to the existing EC of the Agricultural individuals from all levels of the extension system sit Department, to deal with the specific problems of together and observe, discuss and plan activities, with extension in upland areas and the specialised sloping a major focus on problems. This helps to make people land technologies needed in these areas. There are at every level feel that they are part of the system, and currently about 40 Forestry EWs who have been given gives them a sense of ownership of it. training in PRA techniques. Once better communication links had been At the end of the project's term the question of established between all levels in the system, a round divergence or integration of the agriculture and of inter-district extension exchange visits (a total of 14 forestry sectors in extension was put to the entire staff in Bac Thai) was organised. Each district extension of the extension system, including policy makers. The board both hosted and visited one other. The EWs and result of this opened up possibilities for forestry and the district extension staff visited their counterparts in agricultural EWs to work together with farmers, both another district where the extension programme was in the lowlands and the uplands. active. The purpose of these visits was to facilitate an exchange of experience between districts. In this way, forest land allocation the district extension staff, especially the EWs, were Supporting the encouraged to learn and to share their specific programme of the province experiences and methods of working with farmers and The 'Forest Land Allocation Programme' was initially farmer groups. set up to alleviate pressure on the forest and to assure The major follow-up activity resulting from the new land use rights for families who rely heavily on the farmer-based extension methodology was the planning upland resources. As a second step, the 'Highland process for the farmer support activities. Especially in Programme' was designed to start up extension the beginning EWs tended to fall back into the habit activities in the uplands involving the families who of offering the technologies they were already familiar had been allocated land. CIDSE co-funded the with to farmers, either by taking over the planning of allocation of 60,989 ha of forest land, of which 25,395 activities from the farmers, or by waiting for top-down ha were still under forest, 30,782 ha was wasteland, package programmes from district level. The five and 4,262 ha was covered with forest plantation. technical framework programmes initially offered Official land use certificates were provided to 16,403 under the extension programme were 'abused' in this households, with an average land allocation of 3.7 ha way. They were misinterpreted as package per household. programmes, e.g.'peanut on sloping land' or'maize as An evaluation of both the Forest Land Allocation a second season crop', or 'special breed chicken and the Highlands programmes in autumn 1993 raising'. Some EWs who had specialist knowledge of showed that the process of land allocation planning particular technologies or 'packages' anticipated the and decision-making appeared to have been well farmers' needs with their solutions. However, this adapted and conformed to local authority procedures phenomenon was easily traced through monitoring, and local community agreement standards. The actual and tackled in discussions. allocation of land had been carried out satisfactorily. The first step in avoiding these problems was to require all plans for DPs and other activities to come Starting an extension programme in the directly from the FIG members. Once this rule had highland area been established, a new problem appeared. This was This programme was carried out by staff of the the lack of flexibility and ability of the EWs, district

15

I Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c provincial sedentary and settlement section, who gave strengthening of media development activities in the technical demonstrations to farmers in the uplands. extension programmes. Following up on this activity, Around 511 demonstration plots were established in in middle of 1994 three provincial information officers these remote upland areas, which had previously were sent to Studio Driya Media in Indonesia to lacked upland farming models. The demonstrations upgrade their skills. This led to some developments. were also intended to stimulate interest among the The information officers produced a series (total ethnic groups living in the most remote areas, who are about 56,000 copies) of simple and informative among the poorest subsistence farmers and usually technical leaflets for most of the technical lack food for several months in the year. programmes. Technical booklets on various training subjects for extension workers were also produced, as Developing low-external input technology well as four issues of the new 'Extension Newsletter' In order to establish clear and direct flows of new (8,000 copies each). Five hundred copies of an technologies from researchers to farmer groups, some 'Extension Worker Handbook' were produced to be researchers were invited to support farmers in testing used as direct field guides for extension workers in their low-cost,low external input technologies through extension methodology, explaining and illustrating the on-farm experimental trials. EWs facilitated discussion 'nine—step approach'. All printing was done outside among the FIGs and made sure farmers would the Extension Centre. In the first half of 1994 a video compare new technologies properly with their existing film was made for the external promotion of the Bac practices. Thai Extension programme. One technology tested in this way was the introduction of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in rice fields, Study tours reducing considerably the need for expensive Study tours to see agro-forestry extension models in chemical fertilisers. Another example was the other provinces were arranged, in order to get new technique of quick rice seedling production, helpful to ideas and inspiration. Visits to potential learning sites farmers living at higher altitudes, where there is a were carefully prepared, planned and implemented. critically short period for growing two crops a year. The types of places visited were model forest farms These trials provided greater feedback to research and an agroforestry project supported by SIDA than the DPs. At the same time the capacity of farmers (Swedish International Development Authority) in Yen to do experiments by themselves was highlighted, as Bai province. In Thanh Hoa province agro-forestry well as the high level of interest they showed in models in Dong Son district were visited, all with the participating in trials. participation of EWs and staff from provincial and district departments. At the end of 1993 a study tour Strengthening the extension information was prepared to examine the results and effectiveness system of various extension attempts in North East Thailand. In the first year of the project equipment was bought After a preparatory visit by programme staff in for a print shop and installed in a special December, 11 provincial and district extension staff air-conditioned printing room to enable extension took part in the study tour, with staff from Khon Kaen literature to be produced. Initially two Information university and CIDSE facilitating the visit. In Chiang Officers at the Extension Centre received some Mai area, North West Thailand, three organisations technical training in computer use and basic printing involved in implementing the Highland Programme skills. Unfortunately, up to the present the equipment were visited. This programme is aimed at alleviating remains almost unused, for three main reasons: the poverty of ethnic groups forced to change to a equipment defects; lack of technical skills and settled system of highland agriculture. experience in working with printing and, most On all study tours it was primarily farmers who importantly, lack of ideas and creativity in printed were visited, after which the local extension agents media production among the Information Officers. were interviewed and questioned on the approach, To attempt to remedy this, a three-week media methodology, effectiveness and results of the development workshop was organised, conducted by extension. Both government and non-government two media specialists from Indonesia. The workshop extension services were closely studied. Critical focused mainly on developing media designed to questions for the study tour participants to consider assist extension workers in their work with farmer were indicated, such as: whether a particular project groups. Practical technical sessions working with the was serving the real needs of farmers; the extent of above mentioned equipment were also arranged, but, farmers' participation in the process; funding; the as time was limited and the group of trainees too large planning process and report flows. and diverse (three Information Officers and nine The major lessons learned, as expressed by the Extension Workers) these were not very successful. participants, were: The workshop clearly revealed the need for more • do not do the work farmers can do themselves

16 CIDSE's Working Experiences in Farmer-Based Extension Approaches in Vietnam

(such as planning); be referred, which would at the same time provide • do not just bring money to farmers; options for a clearer direction. • do not put pressure on them to follow a particular course of action. Provincial extension policy The visits helped to underline that the purpose of As a result of the internal evaluation workshop and extension work is to support farmers, to help them to the following rounds of discussion, various issues organise activities among themselves, to utilise their were prepared to be included in a provincial own capital as much as possible, and whenever extension policy, to be formulated by the provincial necessary provide loans in order to increase People's Committee. In August 1994, when these production both for their home consumption and for policy preparations were completed, a further two-day the sale of any surplus. In general, the study tours workshop was organised for all staff concerned, to provided the participants with a clear insight into the refine and discuss the newly formulated direction of development path, as well as showing them the results the extension system. which extension could provide to farmers in the long- With this extension policy formulation — unique for term. a province in Vietnam — the farmer-based methodology is much better anchored and better Impact and Evaluation focused on poor farmers and ethnic minorities. At the same time as the policy was decreed, the provincial Internal evaluation extension working group formally became the acting After two years of the programme of cooperation body for extension, and recently the EC has become between CIDSE and Bac Thai province in extension a more independent sub-department under the work, the extension staff at all levels raised the need Agricultural Department. This implies that the daily for further support. However, it was felt that some decision-making, planning and implementation in the issues needed to be clarified prior to continued extension system will now be done by more staff programme planning. Based on its experience in involved at district and provincial level. Thailand, CIDSE staff generated a discussion of these issues by raising the following questions at a two day Effectiveness in achieving programme goals internal evaluation workshop: The Project Goals were defined as: • What direction should the extension system in Bac • to increase the living standard of the population in Thai take? This question relates to the fact that the terms of total staple food production and income; recently established national extension service, • to diversify the type and timing of staple crop together with more and more incoming commercial production; firms would like to use the extension system for • to reduce pressure on remaining forest and forest their top-down package programmes. Is this land. desirable? With regard to (a) and (b), although it is difficult to • Who are or should be the beneficiaries/clients of measure, a definite increment in the standard of living the extension system. If the poor, how to make of the population has been achieved in Bac Thai, as time, funds and staff available? And if the poor, well as in other parts of Vietnam over the project what extension methodology should be followed? period. The contribution that the project has made • How will the extension programme function if towards this has derived from the work of the EWs Forestry and Agricultural EWs work separately with with farmer groups, which helped to centre discussion the farmers? How can 40 Forestry EWs work on the farmers' own ideas for improving their efficiently when they have to cover 38 ICCs (=158 production system. communes)? Prioritising the problems through PRA is a basic tool • If PRA forms the basis of the farmer-based for discovering farmers' felt needs. Also, bringing approach and the appraisals are carried out in farmers together for discussions and offering technical teams, should the ICC be the smallest unit from guidance helped to find appropriate solutions to their which teams of EWs operate? pressing need to produce more food for their own • What are the roles and duties of the different levels consumption. More than 7,000 households were in the extension system, from individual EWs (job reached through structured FIGs, besides numerous descriptions?) to the provincial extension informal farmer groups. programme steering committee? Land allocation has emphasised the importance of Through regular discussions with policy makers of utilising 'waste lands' and forest land to a large the province, who consulted on various occasions proportion of households (more than 16,000). The with extension staff at district level and with EWs, a technologies promoted in demonstration plots helped consensus was reached, ie. to establish a provincial to increase food production by adding an extra crop extension policy to which those major questions could cycle per year; paying special attention to cultivation

17 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

of alternative food crops (e.g. cassava and other tuber a stronger focus on poor communities and hamlets, it crops, maize, peanuts, soybean); demonstrating is hoped that the more remote areas can be better techniques for improved and sustainable production serviced. This will also mean a more flexible extension on sloping land; improved animal tending in order to approach, rather than one which is limited simply to avoid crop damage of roaming animals; improved use the setting up of demonstration plots and FIGs. of organic fertiliser, and agro-forestry systems on allocated forest land. Relations with external agents There is no doubt that together with other initiatives Linkages with between the extension network and in Vietnam, the land allocation programme has proved several external organisations and universities in the one of the most effective ways to 're-green' waste region were set up to provide additional support to lands and protect land which is already under 'cover'. Bac Thai extension programme. As mentioned earlier, Although farmer group discussions have had an researchers were invited to work with farmers to test important effect, the facilitation of the EWs has been low-cost technologies through on-farm trials. In 1993 very effective in creating awareness among the farmer another form of direct cooperation between the EWs population on the importance of protecting the forest and Bac Thai Agricultural University was tried by land resource. Observers say Bac Thai mountains have creating the opportunity for nine students of the become visibly greener over the past few years. University to do their practical thesis work by working It should be stressed that for the sake of together with EWs. sustainability the extension programme had several times to be slowed down and made less ambitious, Guidelines and Lessons because of its aim to build involvement in extension 1. For any intervention to be successfully at grassroot level, rather than to work by directly institutionalised, there must be a certain level of relieving the sufferings of the target poor. This also commitment to the programme from local extension means that the results should not only be measured authorities and in particular from the Province. This during the life of the project itself, but from the commitment must result in the provision of longer-term results as well. sufficient and skilled staff for the programme to be realistic. The continuation of the programme 2. Cooperation must be based on mutual Discussions were held on the future support needs of understanding of the problems and mutual social the extension programme. Key focal points were laid commitment, ie. support for resource poor farmer down in a proposal which was then transformed into families. a project proposal to CIDSE. This was submitted and 3. Extension staff and outsiders can only assist, but the accepted as a project extension programme with more local people need to do the work. CIDSE considers specific targets: that there are no CIDSE extension programmes or In brief, continued support is required for: projects in Vietnam. There are only programmes • Continued improvement of the capacity of the EWs and projects supported by CIDSE. (in agriculture and forestry), especially in working 4. Maximising involvement of existing (suitable) with selected farmers' communities on solving their institutions in extension work rather than creating problems in agricultural production. Emphasis will a new system from scratch. be placed on village-based planning and 5. Investment in human resources and institution- management approaches. building is important. It takes time and requires • The introduction of managed loan fund systems, high investment, but it is an important and decisive both by the extension system and the farmer factor for the sustainability of a programme or communities/farmer groups. project. • Extension programmes which explore local farmers' 6. Bottom-up methods and approaches used in traditional agro-forestry practices. Identification of extension work should be developed to provide those practices and of experienced farmers in the better tools for targeting farmers and for monitoring uplands. the effectiveness of such targeting as well as • Integration of various related farmer based activities assessing the impact of the extension programme within the extension system: e.g. IPM (integrated on the livelihoods of the target group. pest management) training and IPM club activities; 7. An extension system should encourage farmers to set up of farmer-managed irrigation systems; communicate among themselves in order to identify identification of specific training needs for farmers and analyse their problems, prioritise them and find in remote areas and planning. solutions. The project activities should be mainly The highland programme as such will in future fall implemented by farmers' interest groups. under the responsibility of the EWs and therefore be 8. The role of the extension worker is very important. more in the control of the extension programme. With Time is needed to develop this role and change old

18 CIDSE's Working Experiences in Farmer-Based Extension Approaches in Vietnam

ways of thinking. It is important to pay continued attention to their incentives. If these are too low they cannot be expected to work effectively. However, types of incentives should be many, varying from "feeling welcome at farmers' houses", to the size of their salary. 9. Start on a small-scale then, if successful, expand later.

Nguyen Kim Hai can be contacted at:

CIDSE-Vietnam GPO Box 110 38 Au Trieve Street Hanoi VIETNAM Tel: +844-254834 / 250 265 Fax: +844-250266 Email: [email protected]

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19

... A FARMER-CENTRED EXTENSION APPROACH IN NEPAL

By B P Bimoli and D N Manandhar

Introduction Nepal is a land-locked country located in the for increased remuneration and related benefits made Himalayan Mountains of South Asia between 26°N and the government and the World Bank think about 30°N latitudes. Its northern border abuts the Tibetan alternative ways of providing agricultural extension Region of the People's Republic of China, while the services to farmers. After the restoration of democracy remaining borders are with India. The country is in Nepal in 1990-91, the government formulated a roughly rectangular in shape, with an average east- policy to provide agricultural extension services west length of 885 km and an average north-south through the farmers' group. Thus the 'Group width of 193 km. The total area of the country is Approach Based Extension System', as an alternative 147,181 sq. km. It has 75 administrative districts (20 to the T&V System of extension, came into effect. The Terai, 39 mid-hill and 16 high hill) and in 1990 its system used Farmer Centred Problem Census and population was 19.4 million. Problem Solving (PC/PS) techniques and relied on the Nepal is pre-dominantly an agricultural country. The principle of 'self-help' in which volunteer group agricultural sector contributes 42.2% of the GDP and leaders were expected to facilitate group activities. approximately 80% of the country's population The PC/PS approach was tested in six VDCs, two in depends upon the agricultural sector for its livelihood. each of three districts, namely Tanahun (mid-hills), Hence the government has given priority to the Morang (Terai) and Chitwan (Inner Terai), in order to agricultural sector in national development plans. develop practical operational procedures appropriate According to the latest (1991) estimate of land use, to Nepalese conditions. This paper presents a case 17.96% of the total area is cultivated, while forests study, based upon activities in one of the pilot VDCs. account for 37.4%. Land ownership in Nepal is highly skewed, with the majority of farmers having less than Morang District one hectare. Land fragmentation is one of the serious Morang district, adjoining the Indian Border and with constraints to agricultural development, especially in a tropical to sub-tropical climate, is one of the sixteen the hills. districts of the Eastern Development Region of the country. Its gross area is 0.3799 million hectares, out Background: From the T&V System to of which 0.2067 million are cultivable, 0.105 million the Problem Census/Problem Solving are cultivated and 0.172 million are under forest, Approach pasture and wasteland etc. Out of the total cultivated area, around 40% is irrigated, either seasonally or In Nepal, various agricultural extension approaches perennially. The district has a population of 676,417. have been tried in the past, including the conventional are 129,136 households, of which 11,700 are extension system, Tuki system, integrated rural There exclusively engaged in agriculture. development, training and visit (T&V) system, block Morang District has sixty-five VDCs and one town production programmes and cropping systems, etc. development committee. Two of these were selected Out of 75 districts, 23 (19 terai and four hill districts) to participate in the pilot for testing the farmer-centred were under the T&V system between 1981 and 1991. approach to extension. Rangeli and Indrapur are, Under that system, Agricultural Assistants (AAs) were respectively, 25 km east and 40 km north from the main players in extending knowledge to farmers. Biratnagar (district headquarters). They were selected from Village Development Committees (VDC)(formerly Village Panchayat), and were trained and contracted to provide services to The Range13. Pilot VDC fellow farmers of their respective VDCs. However, the The Rangeli pilot VDC has 2,461 households with a system turned out to be top-down and did not offer total population of 12,190. The cultivated area of the need-based technologies to the farmers. In addition, VDC is 1,069 hectares. In 1992/93, following the there were several operational inadequacies and implementation of the PC/PS approach, previously system deficiencies and operational costs were high. formed farmer reference groups were restructured. Moreover, the impact of the system was not Out of the nine reference groups restructured, five encouraging. Specific shortcomings observed in the groups are now made up of small farmers, three of T&V system were: (a) contact farmers were not medium-scale farmers and one of large-scale farmers. representative of the group; (b) extension agents' The farmers' groups range in size from 9 to 17 tended to visit the same contact farmers over several members and the total number of member farmers is years; and (c) contact farmers' were reluctant to 120. demonstrate new technologies to other farmers. On Prior to the introduction of the FCEA-PC/PS the top of these deficiencies, the AAs' demand in 1990-91 concepts of and philosophy behind the Farmer

20 A Farmer-Centred Extension Approach in Nepal

Centred Problem Census and Problem Solving process which the PC/PS process results in. The meeting of serving the farming community was not well described was held in January 1994. It was attended understood by extension workers and hence farmers by 17 farmers and lasted about four hours. It was were not aware of them either. In addition, established arranged by the group leader with the help of the farmers' groups had not been self-initiated or extension agent concerned, and was held at one of organised voluntarily on the principles of 'self help'; the places where people from the village regularly rather, they were formed to meet group formation meet to discuss issues related to the village. The targets set by the Department of Agricultural following were problems identified by farmers during Development. Likewise the selection of the group this meeting: leaders was either decided upon by extension agents • Lack of quality improved seeds. or by one or two influential group members, resulting • Lack of fertiliser available in time and high cost of in weak cohesiveness among members. fertiliser. • Lack of market facilities and poor market prices for The PC/PS Process farm products. The FC-PC/PS technique was applied in the Rangeli • Lack of capital for purchasing draught animals and Pilot VDC during the winter season to help farmers farm implements. identify the needs and problems specific to production • High levels of interest on agricultural loans. activities during this season and find solutions to • Lack of irrigation facilities. them. Farmers were provided with large sheets of • Unavailability of electricity for irrigation and high papers and pens to enable them to record the cost of electricity. outcomes of their group discussions. The discussions • Lack of on-the-spot training for farmers. and the recording of the outcomes were facilitated by • Unavailability of insecticides and fungicides in the extension workers. The whole process was conducted village. informally and in the local language. Using the • Lack of cold storage facilities, especially for potato farmers' own language ensured that communication and onion. between them was efficient and effective and it placed • Lack of a proper subsidy on sprayers. them at ease. The extension workers assisting the • Insufficient numbers of demonstrations of winter farmers were from the same locality and spoke the vegetable crops. same dialects as them. • Lack of agricultural loans for winter crops. The process began with a meeting at which its Agricultural loans amounting to Rs 10,000/- per purpose was described by the group leader, and farmer should be provided in cash. farmers were requested to discuss their problems in • Lack of field inspections and visits by Junior cultivating winter vegetable crops, solutions to solve Technicians and Technical Assistants. them and other important issues affecting their crop • Lack of soil testing facilities. production and productivity. Once members of the • Lack of crop and livestock insurance. group were clear as to what was being requested of • Lack of communication materials such as leaflets, them, they were divided into small sub-groups of 4-6 booklets, posters, etc. members based on individuals' specific interests. Each After further discussions, the problems were prioritised sub-group was asked to select a coordinator for the by the farmers as follows: discussion and a recorder to list the final set of 1. Lack of quality improved seeds. problems identified during the discussion. 2. Lack of fertilisers. After each sub-group identified its members' needs, 3. Agricultural loans amounting Rs. 10,000/- should be priorities and problems, the extension worker helped provided in cash. the recorders to present the sub-groups' findings. 4. Lack of irrigation facilities. These were then discussed by the group as a whole. 5. Inadequate subsidy on sprayers. Once problems from all the sub-groups had been In order to address these problems, the following presented and discussed, the problems common to all actions were agreed upon. were identified. The same sub-groups were then requested to discuss all the problems recorded, to Lack of quality improved seeds identify the major ones and prioritise them. Prioritised The limited availability of quality improved seed is problems were recorded on a sheet of paper and one of the crucial problems for farmers. Farmers are solutions to them were discussed. After a long used to purchasing improved seed from the discussion, a consensus was built on an action plan. Agriculture Input Corporation, a semi-government institution or from private dealers, and very few of A Meeting of the Rangeli Pilot VDC them saved seed from their own crop for the next A meeting between members of the pilot Rangeli VDC season. However, reliance on the suppliers led to is described below to illustrate the types of outcomes problems of untimeliness, unavailability and poor

21 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c quality of seed, so the members of the group decided researchers have lessened. to start multiplying the required seeds in their own 2. The presence of extension staff in the farming locality. community has become regular. 3. Strong linkages among involved institutions have Lack offertilisers developed. Information and advice from extension Insufficient supply of fertiliser is a major problem in has diffused quickly and farmers' feedback is Nepal. Fertilisers are procured by the Agricultural equally rapidly obtained. Input Corporation which also distributes them 4. The approach has become a means of creating an throughout the country. Since this was a nationwide appropriate a technology diffusion environment, problem which the farmers were unable to solve where individuals share ideas and exchange skills locally, they relayed their concerns through the and knowledge. A platform has been created on extension office to the relevant agency. In the which farmers discuss common problems and meantime, they decided to establish demonstrations of issues. compost-making and green manuring. 5. An environment has been created in which joint efforts are applied to solving individual as well as Agricultural loans amounting to Rs. common problems. 6. The approach has built up farmers' confidence and be provided in cash 10,000/- should trust in extension staff and other agencies related to lengthy paperwork to get a loan A farmer has to fill in their activities. Development Bank, particularly from the Agricultural 7. The approach has encouraged poor and small It is more common for to receive a loan in cash. farmers to participate meaningfully in agricultural with which to purchase farmers to receive coupons development activities. related inputs from nearby fertilisers and other 8. Regular meetings with the farmers' group has to raise this matter in the cooperatives. They decided facilitated the assessment of farmers' and extension Committee meeting, District Agricultural Coordination staff training needs. Bank is also in which the Agricultural Development 9. It has created awareness among the rural represented. communities of the benefits of organising themselves in a group to serve their mutual Lack of irrigation facilities interests. Winter crops, especially vegetables, require a 10. Group and participatory needs assessments have substantial amount of water for which artificial, as well helped in developing realistic plans and as natural sources, are necessary. Farmers decided to programmes. maintain their old canals through their own efforts and 11. Coordination amongst agriculturally related line also to approach the funding agency for money with agencies has improved. Pressure exerted by which to construct deep and shallow tube wells. farmers' groups is also bringing these agencies on joint visits and is encouraging them to jointly Inadequate subsidy on sprayers cater for the needs of the groups. Spraying equipment is costly, because it has to be 12. Substantial amounts of funds have been raised imported from other countries. A 25% subsidy is from among the members of the Rankeli group provided by the government at present. Despite this, and put into the 'Group Welfare Fund', which if an individual wants to procure such equipment, it is has been utilised for common needs and costly. In addition, equipment owned by a single interests. individual is under-utilised. The farmers' groups therefore decided to procure spraying equipment Problems and Recommendations through the group welfare fund and rent it out to 1. Extension agents, farmer group leaders and group members, as well as to other farmers. members, as well as the other top facilitators, have This particular farmers' group is picking up things little understanding of the objectives and gradually and showing great interest in and procedures of the FC-PC/PS process and need to be enthusiasm for incorporating their felt needs into the oriented and trained in this process regularly. planning process and coming up with their own ways 2. Some of the problems identified by farmers require of meeting those needs. The extension agents working multi-agency cooperation in order for solutions to with the group are also gradually getting acquainted be found, and extension staff lack the knowledge with the approach through engaging in the FC-PC/PS and skills to foster the necessary cooperation. process. Regular meetings and interaction among agricultural related agencies is necessary to foster the group Strengths of FC — PC/PS problems and needs and to avoid confusion and 1. Group meetings have become regular and duplication during of implementation. communication gaps farmers, extension staff and

22 A Farmer-Centred Extension Approach in Nepal

3. During the prioritisation processes, problems which References are not within the mandate of extension agents are APROSC. (1994) Nepal Agriculture Perspective Plan identified. Either the group can solve these (Draft), 7 August 1994. themselves or the extension agent can suggest Basnyat, B.B.(1995) Nepal's Agriculture Sustainability immediate solutions, such as, a big irrigation and Intervention: Looking for New Direction. scheme, motorable road connecting the village, Bimoli, B.P. Extension Project (AEP-II) in Relation to electric lines to run water pumps, etc. Prioritisation Problem Census/Problem Solving (PC/PS).. of action plans should be done using three Chaurasiya, P.C.P. (Local Consultant AEP-II) Group temporal categories of possibility: short-, medium- Approach to Agriculture Extension: A Participatory and long-term. It is also useful to identify which Development Using Farmer-Centred, Problem agents are needed for each activity. Farmers can Census Problem Solving Technique. start with short-term action plans which they can Crouch, B.R. The Problem Census: Farmer - Centred carry out themselves, and simultaneously approach Problem Identification. the relevant agencies for other activities while ISNAR Nepal Organisation and Management of On- further planning medium- and long-term action Farm Research in the National Agricultural plans. Research System. OFCOR Case Study No. 4. 4. The establishment and maintenance of inter-agency Mishra, R.C. Some Experiences on Problem coordination at the district and operational levels Census/Problem Solving Technique in Agriculture have always been a critical issue. Poor linkages Extension in Pilot Districts within Agriculture among research, extension and farmers is another Extension - II Project Areas. serious problem. Another problem concerns the functioning of national and international NG0s, some of which work in isolation from other parties and provide free or highly-subsidised agricultural inputs to farmer groups. This has created confusion and presented obstacles to the successful B P Bimoli is the Project Coordinator, AEP II. implementation of FC-PC/PS. An inter-agency Memorandum of Understanding is needed to ensure D N Manandhar is the Agricultural Development Officer, AEPII. all assistance to farmers, from whatever source, is They can be contacted at: provided through a single channel and coordinated by the district agricultural development office. Ministry of Agriculture/Dept of Agriculture 5. Monitoring and evaluation of group activities are Agricultural Extension Project II Harihar Bhawan, either weak or non-existent. A system should be Lalitpur Pulchock developed to monitor group activities regularly so NEPAL that all project participants can know whether it is Tel: +977 (1) 523318 / 522082 moving along the right track and get feedback on Fax: +977 (1) 522439 their on-going and planned activities. It is very early to give definite conclusions about the FC-PC/PS approach. There are many areas which still need improvement. It is always difficult to give up one system and abruptly adopt another, and requires great determination and mental preparation to discard ideas of longstanding or an acquired working culture and switch to another, quite new style of approach. Despite these difficulties the approach appears to be appropriate, less costly and more useful and effective in serving a large number of farmers. 4 Endnote 1. The following crops are cultivated during the winter season: wheat, potato, pulses, oilseed and vegetables.

23 THE PROBLEM CENSUS: PARTICIPATORY PUBLIC SECTOR EXTENSION IN BANGLADESH

By N Bhuiyan and M Walker

Introduction Bangladesh, with a geographical area of 55,598 square disseminate them to Follower Farmers. miles has an estimated population of 117 million. Its Although the T&V system made progress in population density of over 2,000 people per square coordinating extension programmes, weaknesses mile is one of the highest in the world, although the remained in staff training, administrative discipline and annual population growth rate is now below 2%. management and supervision. There was: Agriculture dominates the economy, generating about • ineffective communication with,farmers, especially 40% of the gross domestic product(GDP), employing female ones; some 75% of the labour force and accounting for • central generation of messages which did not about 60% of export earnings. Food grains address local issues of concern; predominate, with rice comprising over 80% of the 9.6 • inappropriate technological outputs from the million hectare cropped area. Crops contribute about research system; 75% to agricultural GDP, the balance coming mainly • concentration on individual contact farmers, to the from fishing, forestry and livestock production. detriment of group and mass approaches to extension; Public Sector Agricultural Extension in A change in direction was required, and a project Bangladesh to strengthen the Department of Agricultural Extension and its activities, rather than introduce a new system, Public sector agricultural extension dates back to 1914 was designed. when the Directorate of Agriculture was formed under the Ministry of Agriculture. Essentially, the Directorate was responsible for getting modern technologies Institutional Strengthening adopted by farmers. Activities were organised on the The Agricultural Support Services Project (ASSP), basis of crop production programmes developed at funded by the Government of Bangladesh, UK the national level, and advisory services delivered to Overseas Development Administration(ODA) and the the field level through a chain of extension personnel World Bank, aims to strengthen extension services. (Kibria, 1988). The project is supporting an institutional reform Gradually, a Department of Agricultural Extension process that emphasises: (DAE) emerged, and by the 1970s, the inherent • decentralisation; weaknesses of public sector extension were becoming • wider extension coverage, targeted at particular recognised. These were: groups; • inefficient communication with farmers; • improving the quality of outreach activities; • ineffective linkages between extension and • strengthening research linkages; research; • farmer responsive extension planning; • inadequate in-service training for extension • the development of staff skills; personnel; • partnership with non-governmental organisations • an absence of well-defined job descriptions for (NG0s) and other private agencies. extension staff. As a part of the reform process, the Department has National To try to overcome these weaknesses, the Training prepared a new extension manual. A preparation. and Visit(T&V) system was introduced. This began on Agricultural Extension Policy is also under extension an pilot scale in the north west of Bangladesh in 1978, One of the key strands of the new under the World Bank supported Extension and strategy is a re-orientation of planning, moving away Research Project. By 1985, the system; had expanded from the top-down systems of the past, towards a across the whole country and 560 female extension bottom-up farmer responsive approach. Previously,for agents had been recruited in an effort better to reach the purpose of national planning, the Department female farmers. prepared crop production targets with no farmer The basis of T&V was a systematic programme of involvement. There were no systematic extension training grassroots extension staff, combined with plans. Agricultural research topics and extension regular fortnightly visits to farmers fields. The messages were decided upon at the national level and grassroots staff, called Block Supervisors, were trained farmers were never systematically involved in problem in specific recommendations — 'impact points' — which identification and problem oriented agricultural directly related to farm operations during a given extension. fortnight. Block Supervisors were to disseminate these To develop an effective bottom-up system, a pilot impact points to Contact Farmers, who were to programme was designed. The objectives of the pilot

24 The Problem Census: Participatory Public Sector Extension in Bangladesh

Figure 1: The Location of Jessore District in Bangladesh

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25 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

Table 1: Problem Census Results

Problem Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Total

Poverty 9 9 9 5 32

High interest rates on NGO loans 6 6 8 3 23

No capital to invest in income generation 8 5 5 2 20

Shortage of seeds 7 4 3 7 21

No women's organisations 5 7 6 8 26

No treatment facilities for poultry 3 3 4 4 14

High birth rates due to illiteracy 4 2 2 9 17

Shortage of land 6 9

High prices of grain but low labour rates 2 8 7 9 18

programme were to: 4. Bringing the working groups together to share and • identify perceived agricultural problems of male collate their problem lists and compile them. and female farmers of all farm sizes; 5. Enabling farmers to select the ten most important • develop and execute local agricultural extension problems from the compiled list. plans; 6. Re-forming the working groups with each group • improve the quality of interaction between the ranking the ten key problems. Department and farmers through participatory 7. Bringing the working groups together to share their approaches; rankings. The rankings of each smaller group are • encourage links between the Department, NG0s, added up to give an indication of importance to the research and other organisations. group as a whole. In order to achieve these objectives, it was decided 8. Enabling farmers to propose and discuss solutions. that a technique known as the Problem Census would 9. Explaining the kinds of assistance the Department be piloted to assess farmer needs and problems. may be able to provide and debating this is carried out before ending the census. The Problem Census It was recognised from the outset that these steps The problem census is a participatory group based should remain flexible and open to change. The extension method which enables farmers to identify process was pre-tested and a pilot programme their needs and problems, and recommend developed in Jessore District, one of the 64 districts in appropriate solutions and actions.' It builds on the Bangladesh. knowledge and experience of the farmers involved. The problem census method could be considered to Jessore District Pilot Programme be one of the techniques in the participatory rural Jessore is in the south west of Bangladesh, as shown appraisal(PRA) menu, towards which the Department in Figure 1. Agroecologically, the area is characterised of Agricultural Extension in Bangladesh is hoping to by a sub-tropical climate, with an average annual move in the long run. The procedure that the rainfall of over 1,500 mm. The soils are dominated by Department has adopted consists of a number of those of the Ganges River flood plain. The population iterative activities as follows: of the district is around two million, the vast majority 1. Defining a topic for investigation and arranging a being farmers. Of these, 13% are landless, 19% meeting with a group of 20 to 30 male or female marginal, 31% small and the remainder medium and farmers from the same socio-economic category to large scale farmers. The main crops grown are rice, discuss these. Examples of such topics include soil wheat and jute, with some oil seeds, pulses and fertility, access to information and rice cultivation. vegetables. 2. Splitting the farmers into small working groups of The Department of Agricultural Extension has 263 five or six, seated in a circle with paper and pens. Block Supervisors in Jessore District. Only 15 of these 3. Each working group discussing problems in relation are female. In October 1994, all Block Supervisors and to the same topic, and recording the outcome of their senior staff were trained in the problem census their discussions. technique. Within one month, they facilitated 450

26 The Problem Census: Participatory Public Sector Extension in Bangladesh

Table 2: Weaknesses and Possible Improvements

Weakness Possible Improvement

There was no survey of agroecological conditions. A participatory survey of local resources should be completed as part of the input to extension programme planning. Additional participatory methodologies, such as resource mapping, could be applied. The Department is currently conducting field visits to NGOs using these techniques with a view to piloting them in the future. It proved difficult for Block Supervisors to gather A system of wealth ranking may be introduced. homogenous groups of farmers together. The problem census generated general problems Field staff skills in probing and facilitation need to be improved. The which did not serve well as an input to extension facilitators must attain the skills to clearly define the nature of the planning. Generally formulated problems are open to problems. Questions should be refined and more specific. outside interpretation which may not reflect real farm level constraints. The problems identified by female farmers were Improve the probing and facilitation skills of Block Supervisors and then similar to those of males, even though the nature of train them in working with female farmers. women's problems is different. As it depends to a certain extent on being able to The active participation of illiterate individuals can be encouraged by read and write, the problem census in its present using diagrams and pictures. Staff will need to enhance their facilitation form hinders the participation of illiterate farmers. skills to achieve this. The staff of the Department have poor skills in Improve the problem solving skills of the staff of DAE. Facilitators must determining, or helping farmers to determine the best enable farmers to express root causes of problems in order to find solutions to identified problems. appropriate solutions. Due to the Department's history of input supply, farmers still expect field staff to supply free inputs and find it hard to see their new role as facilitators. Block Supervisors, as facilitators, will not be able to Farmers themselves have the capacity to facilitate self-development. cover all farmers, even with a group approach. Farmers could be identified and trained as 'Farmer Facilitators'. Farmers were not fully involved in the planning Involve farmers in planning by inviting them to planning workshops. process. Train field staff in participatory planning, to enable them to facilitate farmers' own planning.

The extension plan could not cover all the problems Links with other organisations, made during the process, need to be identified. continually strengthened. The extension plan is directed at all farmers, even The plan should target the farmers who were involved in the problem though only a small proportion participated in the census. As each cycle of needs assessment and planning passes, more problem census. and more farmers will receive a better service. problem censuses, meeting with over 15,000 farmers. It should be noted that the problems identified here Some 25% of these farmers were female, and 42% were general in nature, and there was little scope for were landless, marginal or small-scale farmers. The the Department of Agriculture to assist in addressing proportion of the total population of the district them, because they fell outside of its remit. There involved was relatively low, but with time more and remains a need for increased facilitation skills at the more people will gain the opportunity to participate. field level . and enhanced cooperation between Table 1 shows the results from one of the problem agencies involved in agricultural development, as the census meetings. The participants were small scale problems farmers face are not confined to the female farmers from one village. The topic discussed particular function of any one agency. was problems faced in the pre-monsoon cropping Participatory approaches to needs assessments and season. The figures below each working group opportunity analyses must feed directly into viable indicate their rankings of these problems — ten being action plans and implementation. In Jessore District, most important. The total is simply the sum of small for the first time in the Department's history, all the working groups' rankings. The main areas of concern staff came together as a team to consider the results of in this case are pure poverty and the lack of social the problem censuses and to develop an action plan organisation, followed by high loan interest rates and in the form of a logical framework. Within two a shortage of seeds. months, an extension programme had been prepared,

27

.. , Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c in consultation with other organisations — such as learnt from it. The Department of Agricultural NG0s, research and other government departments, Extension is gradually becoming a learning and is now being implemented. organisation, developing its own future, rather than waiting for a new donor blueprint. Lessons In order to assess the suitability of this bottom-up Endnote system, a process evaluation was conducted (ASSP, 1. The problem census method has been described in 1995; Nasiruddin, 1995). The evaluation was primarily detail by Bruce Crouch of the University of concerned with determining the successful and Queensland in Australia (Crouch, 1991). unsuccessful aspects of bottom-up planning and the training required to put it into place. As such, it References concentrated on process, rather than the products or ASSP (1995) Jessore Pilot Programme: Process impact. The elements of the process evaluation were: Evaluation Report. Project Report Number 52. • discussions with farmers who participated in Unpublished, Dhaka. problem census exercises; Crouch, B. (1991) 'The Problem Census: Farmer • discussions with staff of the Department involved; Centred Problem Identification'. In: Haverkort, B. • comparisons of the bottom-up extension plan with Joining Farmer Experiments: Experiences in those implemented in the past. Participatory Technology Development. IT The process evaluation was therefore dominated by Publications, London, x+253. those who were most involved — farmers and field Kibria, A.K.M. (1988) Transfer of Technology (TOT) staff. On the positive side, the evaluation showed that Systems in Bangladesh Agriculture Sector. Country the problem census: Status Paper presented in the regional workshop on • has proven a practical and simple tool for needs Transfer of Technology Systems in SAARC assessment by encouraging farmer participation in Countries, March 28-31, Dhaka. problem identification and problem solving; Nasiruddin, (1995) Report on the Problem Census • has enabled block, thana and district level staff of Process: Evaluation with Farmers. Planning and the Department to gain a better understanding of Evaluation Wing, Department of Agricultural farmers' problems and needs; Extension, Unpublished, Dhaka. • has improved relationships between block Sarkar, A., Ghani, A. and Potter, H. (1994) Farmer- supervisors and farmers; based Participatory Planning and Partnership in • shows potential for accelerating and access to AgriculturalExtension Policyfor Bangladesh. Paper agricultural information; presented at the International Workshop on Farmer- • has increased the spirit of cooperation between led Approaches to Agricultural Extension, farmers, between the Department and farmers, and Philippines, 17-22 July. between the Department and other organisations; • has started to develop farmers' awareness about the process of self-development; • has enabled the Department to prepare a bottom- MD. Nasiruddin Bhuiyan is the Additional Director up extension plan which reflects local farmers' (Agricultural Extension), Department of Agricultural needs. Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Too often, when discussing participatory approaches Bangladesh. He can be contacted at: to agricultural extension, there is a tendency to Department of Agricultural Extension concentrate on strengths. However, it is also important Ministry of Agriculture to recognise weaknesses and learn from mistakes in Khamarbari, Dhaka 1215 order to develop these approaches fully. Table 2 BANGLADESH shows the weaknesses in the process'identified by the Tel: +880 (2) 326114 evaluation, along with suggestions for future Walker is the Extension Management Specialist, improvements. Again, these comments on the process Mark Agricultural Support Services Project. He can be contacted came mainly from farmers and Block Supervisors. at: The pilot programme is on the verge of completion, the process has been evaluated and lessons have been Agricultural Support Services learnt. Now, the approach is to be adopted, gradually British High Commission Bangladesh. Additional United Nations Road and in phases, across Baridhara, Dhaka participatory techniques will also be piloted, and those BANGLADESH which appear successful will be expanded. Tel: +880 (2) 88 325347 A set of modular training programmes is being Fax: +880 (2) 883416 / 883519 (Attn: HTS) developed, drawing from the pilot and the lessons

28 THE CARE-EGYPT FARMLINK PROJECT

Ahmad Farouk and Stuart Worsley

Introduction — A Project Overview Hishem Muhammad Ali is a small farmer from becoming a free market economy. As one of the initial Menshat Demmo village in the Fayoum Governorate stages in this process, agricultural production became of Upper Egypt. With only 1.6 hectares of land, he has increasingly deregulated. The first stage of this to produce enough food and cash to both feed his deregulation was the lifting of all restrictions on fruit family and pay for his children's education. During the and vegetable production in 1986. Since then, the last few years, he has seen significant changes. Until production and marketing of other crops has also 1986, the government of Egypt centrally managed and been deregulated, so that now with a few exceptions, provided a support service for his farm and he did not agriculture operates in a free market environment. have to make any decisions about his land. This was Simultaneously, government support to farmers has all managed by the government-run village been reduced. Agricultural Cooperative. He and all his neighbours Upper Egypt has a large population of small were told what to plant, and would be given farmers who live off the produce of five acres of land, instructions on the methods to be used. At harvest, the or less. As economic changes have affected cooperative would buy all their crops. agriculture, most small farmers have found themselves As a result of discussions with the World Bank, IMF in the position of having to manage their own and the US Government, Egypt started on the road to production. Previously, any farmer who did not

Figure 1: SCHEMATIC OF THE FARMLINK APPROACH

Farmer experiments/adapts

44, Farmer chooses Farmer identifies innovation need

Farmer analyses alternative solutions v V A FarmLink searches for appropriate information

Research Skilled farmers Field days Market traders

29 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c conform to the plans of the agricultural cooperative cantaloupe cultivation and others in cow pea. Farmers was disciplined. As a result, farmers like Hishem could were then divided into groups according to their not afford to make their own decisions. Thirty years of selected crop. Hishem opted to join the cow pea central management left small farmers unable to group, since this was a crop that he grew, but from decide independently and rationally what, where and which he could not get good yields. how to farm. The cow pea group met again with the FarmLink In April 1993, the CARE Egypt FarmLink Project AEO and used a series of flow diagrams to identify started to work in the Abou Taha Hamlet of Menchat where problems were occurring and where Demmo.FarmLink is a farmer participatory agricultural opportunities were available. The group identified extension project that works to increase the economic poor seed quality, lack of knowledge of correct output of 8,000 small farmers' horticultural production. irrigation and fertiliser regimes, and little Through a participatory analysis process held in each understanding of different planting methods. In project village, small farmers can articulate their needs. addition, the cow pea group was,asked to select some Based on these, FarmLink searches for sources of delegates to participate in the project on behalf of the information that can provide answers, and connects group. Using a modified wealth ranking methodology, farmers to these sources. Community selected the farmers identified criteria that described an innovative farmers (IFs) are invited to visit these innovative farmer and a traditional, conservative sources at the expense of the project. Through farmer. Key village members were asked to rank the discussion and demonstration, sources of information names of the farmers in the cow pea group according and farmers can share experiences, information and to the defined criteria. Hishem's name was placed materials. The project refers to these visits as 'links'. close to the 'innovative' end of the scale. He and After a series of links, IFs can select technologies and several other farmers were therefore selected to be ideas that best meet the conditions of their village, part of the linking programme. resource base, experience and needs. On returning During the next two weeks, the AEO worked with home, IFs actively try out new ideas on a small scale. the FarmLink Technical Resource Specialist to identify Successful innovations at the experimental stage are sources of information that could provide the needed rapidly adopted to become normal practice. Since information about cow peas. Through communication technologies adopted in this way are selected on the with the Ministry of Agriculture and other agricultural basis of village needs, they are germane to the needs organisations in Egypt, three sources were found. of neighbouring farmers. Once established in the fields These were the Kanater Research Institute in the of IFs, other farmers rapidly follow suit. southern tip of the Egyptian delta, an experimental In Menshat Demmo, having established permission farm associated with this Institute, and the Vegetable from the village authorities and the agricultural Research Institute in Cairo. Transportation was cooperative, the CARE agricultural extension officer arranged and towards the end of June, a group of 16 (AEO), Muhammad Farid, held a farmer's meeting. farmers was taken to visit these sources of Hishem Muhammad Ali was one of the farmers who information. During their visit, they were exposed to attended. It was made clear at this first meeting that a range of new varieties, fertiliser systems, irrigation FarmLink was not going to give away any inputs. methods and planting regimes. Many farmers consequently lost interest at this stage. On returning to his village, Hishem Muhammad Ali The AEO explained how FarmLink could help farmers decided to purchase enough seed of a variety of cow to see up-to-date horticultural crop technologies and pea called Karim #7 to plant an area of 525m2. He had marketing strategies. seen this in the fields of the Kanater experimental The following week, a workshop for all interested farmer, and had learnt from researchers how to grow farmers was held in the village. Everyone had their it. The yield he obtained from this improved seed was own agenda. The village leader wanted to know about twice that he normally obtained, and twice the yield specific issues that related only to him, but the rest of his neighbours' cowpeas. When it was time to sell had more basic needs. The AEO invited the assembled the crop, Hishem tried to send his cow peas to the farmers to draw different diagrams to explain their market. His neighbours insisted that they be allowed farming systems. Hishem and his colleagues drew a to buy his crop to use as seed for the next season. As map of the agricultural land and time diagrams to a result, the entire crop was retained in the village for show how various things changed with time. This was this purpose. Given his success with new cow pea the first time that anyone outside the village had asked technologies (variety, fertiliser, irrigation and plant farmers about their needs. After everyone was satisfied spacing) the FarmLink project used Hishem as a that they all had a common understanding of the source of information for a link visit by seven IFs from community farming system, the AEO introduced some another village. These farmers, equally impressed by new methodologies. Using different ranking tools, the his results, pressed Hishem for seed. Unable to supply assembled farmers ranked their horticultural needs by any more, he directed them back to the research crop. Some farmers were particularly interested in station at Giza. These farmers proceeded to purchase

30 The CARE-Egypt Farmlink Project seed from this source, and to test Karim #7 in their these farmers are located in the Northern Delta region own fields. of Egypt. It is in this region that the government has In addition to these knock-on effects, Hishem its major research and development centres, where passed on information to another three farmers in his many new technologies have been tested and village who also adopted the new variety and introduced into the surrounding farming communities. associated husbandry technologies. Through one Within Egypt there are many sources of agricultural farmer therefore, many others in the Abou Taha knowledge. Ranging from government and private hamlet have increased their yields and income. When research stations, through traders and skilled farmers, asked how the FarmLink project had benefitted him, these resources remain relatively untapped. In the one IF from Sohag said: north of the country, farmers who have exploited the "Before the project came to my village, I was opportunity created by liberalisation in the blind to the opportunities available in otherparts horticultural sector to establish large farms on new, of the countg. Now, the scales have dropped reclaimed desert lands, have imported technologies from my eyes. IfI need more information, I am from around the world and use them to produce high now able to seek it myself" quality fruit and vegetables. New and improved technologies have been adapted to Egyptian climatic Description of the Project Methodology conditions and are potentially useful to all farmers. The paradigm used by the FarmLink project is However, few smallholder farmers in Upper Egypt popularly known as the 'Farmer First' approach. The have heard of, let alone seen these technologies. schematic diagram, Figure 1, represents how this has FarmLink was initiated to help bridge the gap been incorporated into the project. When farm between 'those who want to know' and 'those who households address problems in their farming systems, know'. Farmers take all the decisions regarding the there is a naturally occurring cycle of events. direction in which they wish to move. The use of Individual farm households identify their own needs farmers as central decision-makers creates a dynamic through a growing awareness of a problem or project. Its life and the changes in its approach over opportunity that faces a household. If this time are now very much governed by the needs of its problem/opportunity is perceived as important participants. enough to warrant attention, the farmer begins to FarmLink is built around five central assumptions: show interest in one or more possibilities that might 1. The on-going liberalisation of the Egyptian answer the need. Once these possibilities have been agricultural economy poses significant new identified, the individual makes a mental evaluation of challenges and offers important new opportunities them and, if there are potential solutions, provisionally for small-scale vegetable farmers. selects one or more to test. Through the testing of an 2. To confront the challenges and successfully exploit innovation, farmers tend to adapt it to meet their the opportunities, small-scale farmers will need to individual needs and resources and if successful, be dynamic and innovative; their ability to respond finally adopt it into the farming system. to new challenges will depend largely on their FarmLink recognises the inherent knowledge and access to relevant information. skills of small farmers, and works to enhance their 3. Much high quality information relating to the decision making ability. Through a process of various aspects of horticulture exists within Egypt. participatory analysis, FarmLink elicits a series of 4. Farmers have limited access to much of this community identified needs in the horticultural sector. information because the channels through which it Information sources that can provide answers to these should pass (the government agricultural extension needs are then sought. Community-selected innovative service and the agricultural cooperatives) are not farmers are taken to visit these sources of information. fully functional. This interaction leads to an exchange of ideas and 5. Small-scale farmers could develop sustainable farmers are able to see new and improved channels to find information through direct technologies for themselves. Having gone through this networking with a variety of information sources. experience, farmers are observed to test one or more FarmLink is now five years old, and is due to innovations before finally adopting them into their complete its activities by November 1995. Over its life, farming systems. FarmLink staff conduct periodic it has been funded by the British Overseas follow-up visits to assess the way in which new ideas Development Administration (ODA), The European are being incorporated into the systems of linked Union (EU), British Gas, CARE-USA and CARE-Britain. farmers and their neighbours. The goal of the project is to improve the economic In a changing economic environment where the performance of the horticultural systems of 8,000 farm farming community has to adapt to survive, there are families in Fayoum and Sohag Governorates in Upper individuals who have independently sought and found Egypt. This is being achieved by facilitating farmers' new ways to manage their farming activities. Most of access to sources of high quality horticultural information.

31 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

The Origins and Evolution of the such, diffusion would occur more quickly. Approach New levels of farmer participation were introduced CARE-Egypt has operated many community assistance at this time. These included the use of village programmes in Upper Egypt since 1954. In latter workshops to help farmers analyse and set priorities years, projects have been run in partnership with based on their needs. The project abandoned the village level community development associations definition of options, and left the selection of (CDAs), a series of quasi-autonomous NGOs whose innovations entirely open to farmers. The reduced role is to provide an interface between the community analytical role of CARE staff has enabled farmers to and government. better state their needs and act on their own One project run with these CDAs involved the initiatives. establishment of community-managed nurseries. After a year, the nurseries did not appear to be meeting the Background and Context needs of the community, and were unable to survive As indicated in the project overview, the FarmLink without continued intervention from CARE. To better target group is smallholder horticultural farmers. Most meet the needs of farmers, and with the advice of Dr of these farmers have access to less than five acres of James Sumberg of the University of East Anglia, a new land. Located in the Nile Valley, their land is of high project was proposed. This was the FarmLink Project. quality and is particularly suitable for horticultural During the first year of FarmLink, CARE staff spent production. The average income of these farmers is much time analysing farmers' needs. Although they estimated to be in the region of $600 per year. Since used RRA techniques, this was a time-consuming 94% of Egypt's land is uninhabitable desert, the areas process since every farmer was visited and selected by bordering the Nile and the Fayoum oasis are densely the project. The identification of needs was therefore populated. Villages are more akin to small towns in determined by project staff. Based on these needs, size, yet many are without basic facilities. However, extension officers identified several focused options most villages have reasonable access (within 5km) to from which selected farmers could choose. The project national infrastructure (paved roads, telephones, would then select sources of information which could electricity). provide expertise in each of the chosen options. At Until 1986, agriculture was centrally managed by this stage, farmers' decision-making was limited to the the government through a network of village level, selection of one option from a list of sources of compulsory membership cooperatives. These served information. The reality of this approach was that as the vehicle for government decisions on farming. farmers rarely exercised even this much choice. Farmers who disobeyed instructions were penalised Follow up visits showed that farmers were testing and farmers continue to distrust the cooperatives. different technologies from those they had originally Since 1986, the agriculture sector has been deregulated identified as being needed. Moreover, many became bit by bit. The horticultural subsector was the first to frustrated with the excessive length of time required to be liberalised. Farmers were allowed to plant do all the analysis before being able to access new horticultural crops on any land not earmarked for the technologies. remaining regulated crops. Under the centrally- In November 1992, a mid-term evaluation of the planned system, agricultural extension and support project was undertaken. Dr James Sumberg led the services were geared to support 'more important' team of evaluators. The study endorsed the project's government crops. As the portfolio of regulated crops change in strategy, but recommended that the lengthy has reduced, so too have the extension and support analysis of needs and options be reduced or even services. As a result, horticultural farmers effectively eliminated. At this stage, the Project Manager and all have no services available to them. FarmLink staff developed new, simpler tools to enable farmers to conduct their own analyses. The focus on Relations with External Agents product (the adoption of appropriate technologies) FarmLink maintains formal relations with the was shifted more onto the process involved in Departments of Agriculture in each of the two achieving that product. It was felt that if farmers could governorates where it works. These relationships work analyse, set priorities and deal with problems during at the level of information sharing and joint action. the life span of the project, then they could continue Information sharing is managed through regular to do this on their own after the completion of the meetings and field trips with DoA members, including project. Moreover, it was thought that if farmers were participation in field trips. Joint action is managed at to analyse their own environment, then their selection the level of access to new villages, establishment of of technologies would be more appropriate than any protocol and use of government sources of options that CARE could offer. This would lead to a information. FarmLink maintains no formal greater degree of coincidence between the selected relationships with sources of information, but pays technologies and wider community needs and, as many of them according to use. For the future, CARE-

32 The CARE-Egypt Farmlink Project

Egypt is planning to expand its activities to work more closely with Departments of Agriculture by introducing an institution-building component. Ahmad Farouk and Stuart Worsley can be contacted at:

CARE-International Impact and Evaluation Talat Harb St. By the end of March 1995, FarmLink had facilitated 18, Hoda Sharawi 1,570 innovative farmers' (IFs) access to new and Cairo improved technologies. The project has involved work EGYPT Tel: +202 (393) 5262 with over 24 farmer-selected crops, ranging from Fax: +202 (393) 5650 annuals to perennial tree crops, and farmers have been linked to 554 sources of information. Of the 1,570 linked IFs, 975 have tested new technologies, 766 have adopted these technologies, and 662 have indicated benefit. The inevitable delay between linking, testing, adoption and benefit means that these figures will rise to approach the total number of IFs linked. The project has targeted 1,920 farmers for linking, 20% over and above the number originally intended. This is in recognition of the fact that not all linked IFs will be successful. Project impact is not only defined by the success of technology transfer to IFs. The diffusion of information and corresponding impact on other farmers is critical. Indications of diffusion are therefore measured regularly. Over the life of the project, 562 IFs have indicated the names of 1,762 other farmers who are applying new technologies as a result of IFs communication with them. This is a ratio of 1 to 3.14. In other words, on average seven IFs are disseminating innovations to 22 other farmers on average. If this ratio was applied to the total number of IFs so far linked, the project could claim to have reached about 6,500 small farm households. More realistically however, this ratio applied to IFs that have at least tested new technologies, suggests that about 4,032 farm households have been reached. A final project evaluation (scheduled for August of this year) will focus on the measurement of actual impact over a sample of farmers, and will seek to discover exactly who has benefited and how.

Questions for the Future As FarmLink approaches the end of its life, some key questions remain to be answered. These will be addressed in a final evaluation document. They include the following: • How deep has the project's participatory methodology reached into the community? • How have the poorest farmers been affected? • Is the methodology appropriate on a larger scale? • What measurable impact has been achieved by linking? How has this affected people's lives?

33 Action Aid-Nepal's Experience with Community-based Agricultural Extension Workers

By Nar Bikram Thapa

Background This paper highlights the findings of a case study Study Methodology which was conducted by Action Aid-Nepal (AAN) to The study was carried out in 11 Village Development assess the impact of Community Agricultural Workers Committees (the lowest administrative unit of (CAWs) in Sindhupalchowk district in Nepal. government) in one part - Development Area 1 (DA- Sindhupalchowk is one of three districts in which AAN 1)- of Sindhupalchowk district. The elevation of the is currently working. AAN is an international non- study area ranges between 760-2285 m., governmental organisation which began working in The study used various means of data collection. A Nepal in 1982. Its mission is to eradicate absolute total of 30 CAWs were interviewed, for which open- poverty by facilitating the process of empowerment. ended questionnaires were used. Direct observation One of the main thrusts of AAN's livelihood during visits to the study area was used. A one-day development programme in Nepal is agricultural workshop was organised with CAWs to discuss their extension through CAWs. CAWs are unpaid local problems and needs. Informal discussions were held agricultural community extension agents and have with other key informants, including neighbouring been operating since 1988. They provide assistance to farmers, VDC chairman and AAN staff, to discover farmers through training, the production and their views on the performance of CAWs. Relevant dissemination of improved seeds and other AAN documents were also reviewed to provide an technologies and veterinary and crop protection understanding of the historical aspects of the services. Assistance is offered in agriculture, forest programme and the concepts behind the development development and livestock production. of CAWs. Mixed farming of crops, livestock and trees is common in Sindhupalchowk and most other parts of The Study Area and the Initial Nepal. The large agro-ecological and socio-economic Extension Approach Nepal make it a highly diversified variations in Sindhupalchowk district which lies to the north-east of This diversity poses immense difficulties for country. Kathmandu and DA-1 (the study area) is in the of extension services which are relevant the provision western part of the district. This study covered 11 farmers, particularly to those living in the remote to Village Development Committees, namely Bhotechaur, areas. The extension service is often acused of hilly Haibung, Thakani, Sindhukot, Bansbari, Melamchi, to adequately transfer technology to all being unable Talamarang, Mahankal, Ichowk, Kiul and Helambu. categories of farmer (Gurung, 1993). AAN's initial The area can be divided into three ecological zones: approach also experienced this problem and so it high hills, mid-hills and river basin. Each VDC extends started a different one, based on the use of unpaid across all three zones. There are 8,191 households in local extension workers called Community Agriculture the area, which has a population of 46,493. Workers (CAWs). AAN trained the CAWs with the aim AAN launched community development increasing agricultural productivity through of programmes in agriculture, education, health and more effective agricultural extension providing community organisation in the project area in 1982. services to rural people. Since the CAWs had been The agricultural extension programme began in 1983. in Sindhupalchowk since 1988, it was felt working The extension approach used then was a top-down review the effectiveness of their work necessary to one, based on the promotion and provision of whether the approach would be and to assess external inputs such as chemical fertilisers, improved after AAN's withdrawal. Hence the study sustainable seeds, insecticides and fruit tree saplings. These inputs paper is based was undertaken. on which this were delivered to the farmers free-of-charge. study was to examine the role and The aim of the Agricultural extension services during the first phase performance of the CAWs as the local agricultural of AAN's programme, 1983-1988, were launched and extension workers in Sindhupalchowk. The objectives run in the absence of a proper analysis of the existing were: farming system and without a proper assessment of 1. To identify the motivations and problems of CAWs farmers' problems, needs and priorities. As a result, and assess their competence and the nature of farmers did not pay much attention to them. In extension services provided by them. addition, the free distribution of agricultural inputs 2. To assess the potential for institutionalising the encouraged farmers to become dependent on AAN approach to make it more sustainable. and discouraged their sense of ownership of the 3. To recommend further actions which could the process of development. Consequently, in 1988 a CAWs more effective. change in approach was tried. This was supported by

34 ActionAid-Nepal's Experience with Community-Based Agricultural Extension Workers a mid-term review of AAN programmes in 1992 which from a serious lack of transportation and argued that the agency should concentrate more on communication facilities. By developing a cadre of empowering communities and less on delivering unpaid, local CAWs, AAN hoped to make the external inputs. extension system more efficient, cost-effective and sustainable. The approach also aimed to develop local How Farmer-Led Agricultural Extension human resources as a means of empowering local Started people. The rest of this paper describes the results of In 1988 local farmers (both male and female) from the study on the CAW approach. each VDC were selected for training to become CAWs. The following criteria, formulated by AAN agricultural Case Study Results staff in consultation with community members, community development committees and local AAN Distribution of CAWs by Age and Sex staff, were used as the basis for selecting these The average age of the 30 CAWs who were surveyed farmers: was 33. Table 1 shows that a majority (83%) of them Age: Between 25 and 45 years were between 21-40 years old, while about 17% were Marital Status: Married between 41-55. Age did not have any effect on the Social class: Poor to middle class having 6-12 months' quality of extension services provided by the CAWs, food sufficiency from their own land but female CAWs (less than 7% of the sample) were Leadership: Cooperative, honest, interested in social less effective than the males due to their lack of work and committed education and lack of time. Ethnic group: Priority was given to Tamang Education: Preferably literate Educational Status Training in agriculture and livestock development CAWs' standard of education varied greatly (Table 2). was organised for CAWs in order to provide them The majority of those surveyed (53%) were literate, with the necessary technical knowledge and skills. but had only had a basic level of education. The more The training was conducted by AAN, in collaboration educated CAWs were more effective than their lesser with leading agricultural research stations and training educated counterparts, because the former could and extension agencies of Nepal. In addition, a series understand the extension posters, pamphlets and of follow-up training courses and observation tours were organised to maintain and upgrade their knowledge and skills and to establish links with Table 1: Distribution of CAWs by age and sex government and non-government agencies. Necessary (n=30) basic equipment and veterinary drugs worth Rs. 3000 (US $60) were provided to CAWs to enable them to No. % establish their extension services and, initially, a Age monthly sum of Rs. 150 (US $3) was paid by AAN to M F M F each CAW as an incentive. However, this payment 21-30 15 - 50 - was discontinued in 1992. Ninety-four percent of the local farmers who were trained and equipped to 31-40 10 - 33.33 - become CAWs have established their own agro-vet 41-50 2 1 6.67 3.33 extension service in their locality. 51-55 1 1 3.33 3.33

Why this Approach? Total 28 2 93.33 6.66 The conventional extension approach adopted by AAN initially, which used outside extension agents (AAN employees), was costly, top-down, Table 2: unsustainable, and locally unmanageable. It was only Educational status of CAWs (n=30) later recognised that outsiders can merely facilitate, and that local people have to do the job if it is to be Educational status No. of CAWs ''/0 of CAWs done effectively. Having realised the pitfalls of the Literate 16 53.33 earlier approach however, AAN developed the concept of CAWs who would replace external 5th - 9th Grade 5 16.67 extension agents in disseminating agricultural 10th Grade 8 26.67 innovations amongst subsistence farmers. It was thought that local agents would be able to provide SLC passed 1 3.33 more timely and appropriate services to their Total 30 100.00 neighbours in the remote hills of Nepal, which suffer

35 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

This indicated that the CAWs had strong incentives to Preference Ranking of Different Table 3: CAWs' use the kit, which largely arose from the sale of Services veterinary drugs to farmers. The sprayers, castrators and secateurs provided by AAN were also widely used Activity Total Score Ranking by the CAWs. As was the case with veterinary services, CAWs were able to charge the farmers for the services distribution 54 D Seed relating to the use of this equipment. Plant protection 20 E

Veterinary service 101 A Activities preference ranking (0-10 score) The different extension activities were scored for Agroforestry 58 C preference on a ranking of 0-10. The majority of the Farmers' 67 B CAWs ranked veterinary services first (Table 3). They training/advice charged Rs.100-300 ($2-6) for treating a case of dystocia or of placenta retention in buffalo and goats. Total 300 They charged Rs.10-15 (US $0.2-0.3) for castrating bucks and Rs.20-40 ($0.4-0.8) for castrating bulls. They also sold veterinary drugs and seeds, charging booklets and manufacturer's instructions on the use of 20-25% more than the wholesalers' prices. The CAWs fertilisers and pesticides better. regularly conducted training for farmers in their constituencies on subjects like animal diseases, kitchen Distribution of CAWs by agro-climatic zone gardening, compost-making, pruning fruit trees and A look at the geographical distribution of CAWs cultivating cereal crops. The motivating factor for them showed that 20% of them came from the high hills in conducting training sessions was a fee of Rs.75 per (above 1800 m),57% from the mid-hills(1250-1800 m) day which they were paid by AAN. CAWs also used and 23% from the foothills (760-1250 m). The CAWs the training sessions as an opportunity to promote were more active in the mid-hills and foothills where their businesses. there was greater potential for higher cropping Some CAWs (33% of those surveyed) have intensities and increased productivity compared with developed nurseries for fodder trees and horticultural the high hills areas. The mid- and foothills also had crops on their farms and earn additional income by better access to markets and farmers were more selling saplings to farmers. A large majority(80%) also informed about improved agricultural technologies. earned money from selling vegetable seeds. These factors may have been responsible for a greater Of the different extension activities in which they demand for the CAWs' services in the mid- and were engaged, the CAWs gave least preference to the foothills. sale of insecticides and pesticides, because of the risks in handling them. Apparently these activities are also Training received by CAWs not very profitable. selling their The training provided to the CAWs included that in: The income that the CAWs earned from one of the • veterinary skills; services and commodities was seen as in their work. • agro-forestry; major motivating factors for engaging • agronomy; • horticulture; Area covered by CAWs • entrepreneurship and leadership skills. Most of the CAWs surveyed (63%) limited their In practice, the CAWs concentrated on the provision activities to their local vicinity(a cluster of three wards of veterinary services, seed multiplication and within the VDC), but the most active ones (10%) distribution, plant protection measures and pruning served the entire VDC and some (27%) even went to fruit trees, because these were the services most in other VDCs. The area they covered by was determined demand from farmers. These services were also the by money-making opportunities, demand from farmers most financially rewarding for both farmers and CAWs. and also by the size, population and accessibility of The training in entrepreneurship and leadership skills the wards and VDCs. and the observation tour were intended to increase CAWs' managerial capacity and it was expected these Links with government offices and NGOs would be important in the running of their businesses. Many of the CAWs had established links with government agriculture service centres in order to The use and distribution of basic obtain mini-kits (small packets of improved seeds, equipment by the CAWs with or without fertiliser), technical advice, and a outbreak of Ninety seven percent of the CAWs surveyed had been supply of vaccines and pesticides during In addition, they using the veterinary kit box supplied to them by AAN. epidemic crop or livestock diseases.

36 ActionAid-Nepars Experience with Community-Based Agricultural Extension Workers frequently visited the government agricultural research Table 4: CAWs' station in Kathmandu to obtain foundation seed, Links with Government and NGOs vaccines and diagnoses of plant and animal diseases. They also maintained links with private agro-vet dealers in Kathmandu, from whom they purchased % of No. of CAWs Organisations surveyed seeds, chemicals and veterinary drugs. They regularly with links utilise the facilities (loans, equipment) provided by the CAWs agricultural development bank and input corporation. Agricultural service 14 46.67 However, 13% of the CAWs surveyed did not have centres any links with outside agencies (Table 4). Government. 9 30.00 agricultural research Income,earned from extension activities by stations

the CAWs Private agri-dealers 14 46.66 The number of clients and type of services provided by the CAWs decided the amount of cash they earned: District Agricultural 5 16.67 Development Offices those serving more clients also earned more money. As mentioned above, the provision of veterinary NGOs 15 50.00 services and drugs, and the sale of seeds and No linkage with any 4 13.33 seedlings were more remunerative than other external organisation activities. The majority of CAWs earned Rs.1000 ($20) or more per year (Table 5). Only very few (less than 7% of those surveyed) earned no income from their services. The CAWs spent some of their income on the Table 5: CAWs' annual cash income from promotion of their agro-vet enterprises. They also extension services used it for buying goods for daily consumption and those who had debts used it to pay these off. Annual Income in No. of CAWs cYc, of CAWs Job satisfaction Rs. The overwhelming majority of the CAWs surveyed 1,000 14 46.67 (90%) were 'very satisfied' or 'satisfied' with their job 1,100-3,000 4 13.33 (Table 6). Reasons given for this satisfaction were that they were self-employed, their own farm productivity 3,100-5,000 3 10.00 had increased and they felt that their social prestige 5,100-10,000 4 13.33 had increased. However, some of them were dissatisfied with the lack of a credit scheme and their 10,100-20,000 3 10.00 lack of knowledge, skills and professional confidence. Received no 2 6.67 income

Institutional development Total 30 100.00 About 77% of CAWs had become members of the Community Agriculture and Livestock Resource Centre (CALRC), an association set up and registered by CAWs themselves in 1993 to help strengthen their positions through institutional support. The objectives Table 6: Distribution of CAWs by job satisfaction of the association were to: • supply agricultural inputs to farmers at a reasonable Level of Satisfaction No. of CAWs % of CAWs price; Very satisfied 5 16.67 • disseminate agricultural innovations among subsistence farmers; Satisfied 22 73.34 • to institutionalise the CAW agriculture extension Dissatisfied 3 10.00 system to make it more sustainable. Most of the CAWs surveyed (67%) were found to Total 30 100.00 understand the objectives of their association and were confident that they could run the association themselves. However, it had been inactive during the donor agency(AAN). In addition, there was no budget months prior to the survey owing to a lack of six for running the association. In May 1995 the CAWs leadership, effective management communication, decided to revitalise the CALRC by reforming the coordination skills and among the CAWs and the existing executive committee, conducting regular

37 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c

be 'very active', because of their self-confidence, Table 7: CAWs and Institutional Development eagerness to learn and links with government and non-governmental organisations. They were also Organisational No. of committed, covered more than one % of CAWs highly VDC and Development CAWs were appreciated by farmers for their good service. Membership of CALRC 23 76.67 These CAWs also had well-established agro-vet shops, held regular meetings in their association and Understands the 20 66.67 managed their own farms well. Sixty percent of those CALRC objectives of surveyed were described as playing an 'active' role, Understands the benefits 21 70.00 due to their willingness to learn, links with agricultural of belonging to an service centres and private agro-vet dealers in organisation Katmandu, and their provision of extension services to Expressed confidence in 19 63.33 farmers on demand. This group covered their own running the organisation VDCs well and had established agro-vet shops. Some (17%) were Lacking confidence in 4 13.33 of the CAWs surveyed described as running the organisation inactive, due to a lack of self-confidence in the job and a lack of interest in the work. They did not have Attended CALRC 13 43.33 links with government or non-government meetings in past 12 months organisations and they also lacked other characteristics of the more active ones. Not attended meetings 7 23.33 in last 12 months Farmers'perceptions of the role of CAWs Farmers' perceptions of the CAWs were encapsulated meetings, making monthly savings (Rs.10 per month in the following statements. per CAW), establishing an office, preparing working "Our community agriculture workers are rules for themselves and forming geographically based cooperative and capable of providing an subcommittees. The CAWs hope to benefit from the agricultural extension service. They provide us CALRC's revitalisation in terms of organisational with an animal health service, vegetable seeds, linkages which could sustain the future growth of their cereal seeds, fruit saplings and fodder trees activities. In addition, the CALRC has the potential to saplings. They also provide agricultural advice act as a means through which the farmer-run, CAW when required. However, they are not able to based agricultural extension system could become handle all the cases regarding the treatment ofill institutionalised. animals," said Balkumari Acharya from Mahankal VDC. Madhu Future plans Sudan Luitel from Bansbari VDC said: The majority of the CAWs had a clear plan for their "They distribute seeds, provide veterinag services, businesses in the future (Table 8). Most of them perform castration of bucks. I very much planned to promote the agro-vet side of their business appreciate their service." and establish horticultural and/or agro-forestry A lot of other farmers shared the views of nurseries, because they received more income from Balkumari and Madhu Sudan. However, some of them these aspects of the business than others. Some CAWs also had plans for increasing the productivity of their Table 8: Forward Planning by CAWs own farms to allow for commercial production so that their socio-economic standing would be improved. No. of ' Future Plan % of CAWs CAWs Distribution of CAWs by landholding The average size of surveyed CAWs' landholding Promotion of agro-vet 24 80 (irrigated and upland) was 0.87 hectares (the quality business of the land being better in the mid- and low hills than Seed distribution 3 10 in the high hills). Only 17% of CAWs had a surplus of Establishment of nursery 6 20 food and income, while 83% of them came from poor families. They had no savings, but their agricultural Fruit farming 5 16.67 extension services provided an important contribution Rearing of livestock 5 16.67 to their livelihoods. Vegetable farming 2 16.67

Activeness of CAWs , Grocery/vet shop 2 6.67 More than 23% of the surveyed CAWs were judged to

38 ActionAid-Nepars Experience with Community-Based Agricultural Extension Workers also complained that the prices charged by the CAWs drugs. They also said they needed more training on for veterinary drugs and seeds were higher than those fruit tree propagation, vegetable seed production charged in Kathmandu market. and record keeping. 2. Lack of credit: Some of the poorer CAWs could not The Agriculture Service Centre's perceptions run their business smoothly, due to cash-flow of the CAWs problems. As noted above, some of the CAWs contacted the 3. Delayed payment by clients: In the villages, farmers Agriculture Service Centres (ASC) to obtain mini-kits, tended to take the agricultural inputs (seeds, fruit saplings and vaccine for cattle diseases. One veterinary medicines) on credit from CAWs. They officer in charge of an ASC said that he had received did not make payments on time and this hindered good cooperation from the CAWs in providing the CAWs' businesses. In addition, CAWs' close veterinary services and distributing seeds to the relatives did not pay for inputs. community. The ASCs could not themselves provide 4. Lack of follow up: Lack of systematic follow-up enough veterinary drugs and crop seeds to farmers mechanism by AAN staff and, as a result, technical because of their limited budgets and thus saw the support became weak. CAWs as complementary to their own work. 5. Lack of equipment: There was a lack of necessary equipment (e.g. castrators, secateurs, sprayers, Impact on Agricultural Productivity veterinary kit-boxes and measuring glasses) and the CAWs felt it was difficult to provide effective Since the initiation of the AAN agricultural extension services because of this. programme in 1983, the overall agricultural productivity of the area has increased, partly due to the introduction of new crop seeds (potato, maize, Lessons Learned barley finger millet, radish and cauliflower) and 1. The CAWs with good literacy and Nepali and improved breeds of livestock (goat, buffalo). English languages were more effective as An study on the impact of the programme (Adhikari agricultural extension agents than others, because and Baniya, 1991) was conducted in 1991 with the they could more easily understand manufacturers' objective of assessing changes in food self-sufficiency instructions, for example on the use of fertilisers and farm productivity in different agroecological and pesticides, as well as extension literature such zones. The findings were as follows. as posters, pamphlets and booklets. • The households participating in AAN's programme 2. The CAWs were found to provide a sustainable in the high hills had an average of 1.68 months agricultural extension service in comparison with more food self-sufficiency than their non-AAN that provided by outsider extensionists, because counterparts; in the mid-hills the figure increased to they could more easily reach remote areas and the 2.32 months and in the low hills about 4.5 months. management costs were low. These differences were due to improvements in the 3. CAWs were more approachable than outsiders and production of crops and livestock. they were reliable in providing services as and • Crop yields of new varieties compared to existing when required by farmers. varieties had increased by an average of 28% as a 4. Agricultural training could not be really effective result of the introduction of summer varieties of without a proper assessment of the CAWs' and maize, paddy and millet (Actionaid Nepal, 1992). farmers' agroclimatic zones; the accessibility of For example, the average productivity of millet markets in their areas and the common problems increased by 49%, of rice by 19%, wheat by 42% related to crops, livestock and agroforestry. and maize by 22%. 5. The working efficiency, quality and excellence of • Sixty-two percent of households in the high hills the CAWs tends to decline if regular follow-up in parts of the programme area and 73% of the mid- the form of meetings and workshops is lacking. hills households had participated in the AAN 6. The CAWs' local institution, the CALRC, did not programme.(The survey concentrated on the mid- function well in the absence of good leadership, a and high hills areas). budget, common understanding and managerial skills among its members. Problemsfaced by CAWs 7. Benefits in terms of fees, social prestige and power were the factors which motivated the CAWs Despite many successes, CAWs also faced some to undertake and continue their problems. The following were reported: non-salaried agricultural extension work. 1. A lack of knowledge and skills: Two months' training in general agriculture was not enough. Many CAWs lacked the technical knowledge and Recommendations skills to handle veterinary cases, like placenta 1. A quarterly, one-day workshop of CAWs should be retention and dystocia, or to assess proper doses of organised in order to enable them to share ideas

39 Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 59c and experiences with each other. Action Aid-Nepal.(1994) Strategy paper ofAction Aid- 2. Needs-based training should be given to the CAWs. Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. The agroclimatic zones, markets, and common Action Aid-Nepal.(1994) Long-term Perspective: Action problems relating to crops, livestock, vegetable Aid Development Area 1, Sindhupalchowk. seed production and agro-forestry should be Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. properly assessed and taken into consideration in Action Aid-Nepal. (1993) Annual progress report. desigining the training for each CAW. Necessary Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. equipment should be provided to CAWs along with Action Aid-Nepal. (1992) Annual progress report. the training. Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. 3. Regular follow-up and coaching in the field needs Action Aid-Nepal. (1992) A report from the Midterm to be improved to increase CAWs' capacities in Review Team of Action Aid-Nepal. Kathmandu, terms of technical and managerial skills and Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. knowledge. Action Aid-Nepal. (1991) Utilisation Survey Report of 4. CAWs, especially those who are not very literate or Action Aid-Nepal, Sindhupalchowk. Kathmandu, numerate, should be encouraged to attend non- Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. formal education classes to increase their capacity Adhiraki, B. and Baniya, B.(1991) A research study on to run their businesses. food self-sufficiency and farm productivity. 5. A revolving fund should be created to ensure the Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. smooth and sustainable runing of the CALRC. Gurung, M.B.(1993) Group Extension Approach in the 6. Coordination and linkages with different Govern- Eastern Hills of Nepal. Some lessons learned by the mental and non-governmental organisations, such Pakhribas Agriculture centre. Kathmandu, Nepal: as the agriculture development offices, service Action Aid-Nepal. centres, the agricultural inputs corporation, seed Johnson, V. and Hill, J. (1995) Listening to smaller companies and private dealers should be voices. Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. strengthened. Paudel, D.J. (1994) Follow-up report of village animal 7. The CAWs' professional ethics should be Health workers in AAN Sindhupalchowk. strengthened to overcome some of the problems Kathmandu, Nepal: Action Aid-Nepal. related to the services they provide to the The Tuki System (1986). A brief introduction to community. integrated hill development project. Kathmandu, Nepal: HMG/SATA. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank the organisers of this seminar, particularly the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), International Institute of Rural Nar Bikram Thapa is the Programme Manager, Nawalparasi, Reconstruction (IIRR) and World Neighbors(WN) for Development Area 2 of Action Aid-Nepal. He can be contacted providing me with the financial support and at: opportunity to present this paper. The author would Action Aid-Nepal like to thank the CAWs and people of Lazimpat, BP() Box No.6257 Sindhupalchowk for their valuable help. My sincere Kathmandu thanks go to Ramesh Khadka and Roger Hodgson for NEPAL / 419 their valuable suggestions and editing of this report. Tel: +977 (1) 410929 115 Fax: +977 (1) 419718 Sincere thanks also go to Ramesh Singh and Bhuvana Email: [email protected] Krishnan, Director and Deputy Director of AAN respectively for their comments and cooperation during the study.

References Action Aid-Nepal.(1995) 'Utilisation survey report of Action Aid-Nepal, Development Area 1, Sindhupalchowk.' Unpublished.

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