Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 www.elsevier.nl/locate/palaeo

Triassic pelagic deposits of Timor: palaeogeographic and sea-level implications

R. Martini a,*, L. Zaninetti a, M. Villeneuve b, J.-J. Corne´e b, L. Krystyn c, S. Cirilli d, P. De Wever e, P. Dumitrica e, A. Harsolumakso f a De´p. de Ge´ologie et Pale´ontologie, Univ. of Geneva, 13 rue des Maraıˆchers, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland b CNRS UPRESA 6019, Univ. de Provence, 13331 Marseille Cedex 03, France c Institute for Paleontology, Univ. of Vienna, 14 Althanstrasse, 1090 Vienna, Austria d Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Univ. of Perugia, 4 piazza Universita`, 06100 Perugia, Italy e Laboratoire de Ge´ologie, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, 43 rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France f Department of Geology, Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB), Jalan Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

Received 10 December 1998; received in revised form 5 August 1999; accepted for publication 13 January 2000

Abstract

In West Timor, Triassic deposits are found in the Parautochthonous Complex, as well as in the Allochthonous series of Sonnebait. A detailed biostratigraphic investigation, integrating field observations and facies analysis, allowed the reconstruction of a synthetic lithostratigraphic succession for the Upper Triassic; a stratigraphic transition from Carnian shales to Upper Norian–Rhaetian limestones is also shown by this study. The fossil content predominantly originates from an open marine environment; lithostratigraphic Units A–E are dated on the basis of radiolaria and palynomorphs, and Unit H, on ammonites and conodonts. The presence of pelagic bioclasts, together with normal grading, horizontal laminations, and current ripples, is indicative of a distal slope to basin environment. The ammonite rich condensed limestone of Unit H was deposited on a ‘pelagic carbonate plateau’ exposed to storms and currents. The organic facies have been used as criteria for biostratigraphy, palaeoenvironmental interpretation, and sequence stratigraphy. The palaeontological analysis of the Triassic succession of West Timor is based on the investigation of radiolaria and palynomorphs, in the marls and limestones of Units A–E, and also on ammonites and conodonts in the condensed limestone of Unit H. Units A and B are Carnian (Cordevolian) in age, based on the occurrence of the palynomorph Camerosporites secatus, associated with ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii, Vallasporites ignacii, Patinosporites densus and Partitisporites novimundanus. Unit C is considered as Norian, on the basis of a relatively high percentage of Gliscopollis meyeriana and Granuloperculatipollis rudis. Unit D contains significant palynomorphs and radiolaria; the organic facies, characterized by marine elements, is dominated by the Norian dinocysts Heibergella salebrosacea and Heibergella aculeata; the radiolaria confirm the Norian age. They range from the lowermost Norian to the lower Upper Norian. Unit E also contains radiolaria, associated in the upper part with the well-known marker of the Upper Norian, Monotis salinaria. For Unit E, the radiolaria attest to a Lower to Upper Norian age based on the occurrence of Capnodoce and abundant Capnuchosphaera; the upper part is Upper Norian to Rhaetian based on the presence of Livarella valida. Finally, the blocks of condensed limestone with ammonites and conodonts of Unit H allowed the reconstruction of a synthetic stratigraphic succession of Upper Carnian to Upper Norian age. Our stratigraphic data

* Corresponding author. Fax: +41-22-320-57-32. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Martini), [email protected] (M. Villeneuve), [email protected] (L. Krystyn), [email protected] (S. Cirilli), [email protected] (P. De Wever)

0031-0182/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S0031-0182(00)00062-6 124 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 lead to the suggestion that the Allochthonous complex, classically interpreted as a tectonic melange of the accretionary prism of the Island Arc of Banda, is a tectonically dismembered part of a Triassic lithostratigraphic succession. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ammonoidea; Conodonta; palynomorphs; radiolaria; sedimentology; Timor; Triassic

1. Introduction cal complex of Banda (Fig. 1). Two major geody- namic events are identified: Timor has been considered by previous authors $ the obduction of ophiolitic, metamorphic, and to be part of the Northern Australian margin sedimentary material, known as the (Northeastern Gondwana), during Palaeozoic and Allochthonous complex, on the Australian Early Mesozoic times, before the Middle Jurassic margin in the Late Oligocene, or Early Miocene fragmentation and Cretaceous drifting to the (Sopaheluwakan, 1990); North of the Gondwana marginal fragments. $ the collision, in the Lower Pliocene, between The Permian and Triassic of Timor have long the Australian margin and the volcanic arc of been known because of the abundance and quality Banda (Harsolumakso, 1993; Charlton and of the macrofauna, mostly ammonites, bivalves, and Wall, 1994); this explains the fore-arc position brachiopods (Rothpletz, 1892; Wanner, 1907, 1913, of Timor with respect to the island arc of Banda 1932; Welter, 1914, 1915, 1922; Haniel, 1915; (Fig. 1). Krumbek, 1921; Diener, 1923; Krumbek, 1924; From a structural point of view, the island of Smith, 1927; Grunau, 1953; Krystyn and Siblik, Timor is classically subdivided into three tectonic 1983; Krystyn and Wiedmann, 1986; Cook et al., complexes (Grunau, 1953; De Ward, 1957; 1987; Archbold and Barkham, 1989). Nevertheless, Gageonnet and Lemoine, 1958; Lemoine, 1959; despite the comparatively high number of outcrops, Audley-Charles, 1968; Barber et al., 1977; Rosidi the Triassic deposits of Timor remain poorly et al., 1979; Charlton, 1987; Bird and Cook, 1991; described, at least as far as sedimentology and Harsolumakso, 1993; Sawyer et al., 1993) (Fig. 2): micropaleontology are concerned. This is mostly due $ The Parautochthonous complex, essentially to the tectonic fragmentation of the series, and also composed of thick sedimentary deposits of to the monotony of the dominant basinal Triassic Permian to Oligo-Miocene age. This complex, carbonate facies with radiolaria and filaments. referred to the Australian passive margin, is Our geological research since 1990 in the Allochthonous and Parautochthonous complexes represented by the Kolbano formation of Timor allowed the identification and dating of (Charlton and Wall, 1994) at the extreme south the different Triassic lithological units, especially of the island, the series of Kekneno to the NW the limestones, and reconstruction of a synthetic (Bird and Cook, 1991), and the formations of stratigraphic succession. The analysis of the the NE part of the island (Gageonnet and Triassic depositional conditions and fossil content Lemoine, 1958). is also fundamental for future comparisons with $ The Allochthonous complex, of unknown the Northeastern Gondwana margin and the origin, represented by exotic nappes made of microcontinents of East Indonesia, such as the Jurassic to Oligocene ophiolitic, metamorphic recently defined Banda and Lucipara blocks and sedimentary rocks. The series of Sonnebait (Martini et al., 1997; Villeneuve et al., 1998). (or Bobonaro Scaly Clay), composed of Permian to Oligo-Miocene sedimentary forma- tions, are also part of the Allochthonous; they 2. Geological setting are classically interpreted as the tectonic melange of the accretionary prism of the island The island of Timor is the result of a collision arc of Banda. between the Australian continent and the geologi- $ The Autochthonous complex, which consists of R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 125

Fig. 1. Location map of the Island of Timor in the Volcanic arc of Banda.

Lower Miocene to Recent detritic and volcano- (Rosidi et al., 1979), or in more detail in smaller sedimentary deposits, accumulated after the localities, or short stratigraphic intervals (Gageonnet Oligocene obduction of the Allochthonous and Lemoine, 1958; Audley-Charles, 1968; Kristan- complex on the Australian margin. The Tollmann et al., 1987; Bird and Cook, 1991). Most Autochthonous is essentially represented in the of the studied series are located in anticlines of the central basin of Timor. Parautochthonous Complex, such as the Cribas Mountain in Eastern Timor (Gageonnet and Lemoine, 1958), or the Kekneno (Cook et al., 1987) 3. Triassic in West Timor and Kolbano Mountains (Charlton, 1987; Charlton and Wall, 1994), to the SW. Triassic deposits are found in the In the so-called tectonic melange of the Parautochthonous complex, as well as in the Allochthonous (Sonnebait series), the geological Allochthonous series of Sonnebait. The facies of data concerning the Triassic are far less abundant. the two series are monotonous: they are of the Rosidi et al. (1979) restudied the Triassic while flysch type in the Parautochthonous complex, and establishing the geological map of West Timor to calcareous in the Allochthonous, pelagic in origin the 1:250 000 scale. Charlton (1987) studied in with radiolaria and filaments. Characteristic detail five small areas close to the south coast of Triassic radiolaritic limestones and nodular lime- the island, while Harsolumakso et al. (1995) stones are very common in tectonic subunits or improved the stratigraphy of the Sonnebait series; scales, as described below. They can be used as the area was also investigated by Sawyer et al. indicator levels for the Allochthonous. (1993) for oil companies. From a lithostrati- In West Timor, the series containing Triassic graphic point of view, Kristan-Tollmann et al. sediments have been studied throughout large areas (1987) noted similarities of the allochthonous 126 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

Fig. 2. Main structural and geological units of Timor (after Audley-Charles, 1968; Harsolumakso, 1993), and location maps of the A–B cross-sections in the studied area (Noe Fatu, Noe Meto, and Noe Bihati).

Upper Triassic series in Central Timor with coeval Nikiniki area, Noe Meto near Soe, and Noe Bihati classic formations of Hallstatt facies in the in the Baun area near Kupang (Fig. 2). Eastern Alps. Nevertheless, a detailed Triassic Lithostratigraphic Units, named A–E, and H, have sequence from the Carnian to the Upper Norian, been identified and dated. Units A–E are repre- as well as the transition from the Carnian shales sented in a complete succession in the localities to the Upper Norian–Rhaetian limestones with Noe Fatu and Noe Meto. They exhibit a similar radiolaria, do not seem to have been recognized lithology, and can be identified only on the basis before this study. of their microfossil content (radiolaria and palyno- morphs). Unit H, only recorded in the Noe Bihati area, looks quite different; it is composed of a 4. Lithostratigraphy and sedimentology highly fossiliferous condensed limestone with ammonites and conodonts (Hallstatt facies). The sedimentological analysis of the Upper Isolated samples, collected in the localities Noe Triassic of West Timor is based on the study of Tobe, Fatununu, and Noe Teknono, are integrated three major geological sections, all located in the in the litho- and biostratigraphic description, on Allochthonous series of Sonnebait (or Bobonaro the basis of facies similarities with the main Triassic Scaly Clay). The sections are Noe Fatu in the fossiliferous lithotypes of West Timor. R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 127 Fig. 3. Detailed geological sections of Noe Meto, Noe Bihati, and Noe Fatu. 128 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

4.1. Noe Fatu section section is subdivided into three superimposed tec- tonic subunits or scales (S1, S2, S3) (Fig. 3). A The most representative Triassic section of West complete lithostratigraphic succession of Units A– Timor is exposed along the Fatu River (Noe Fatu), E is found only in the lowermost scale S1. The East of Nikiniki (Fig. 2.1). Noe Fatu is a medium- middle scale S2, which shows a strongly folded sized river, about 30 m in width, oriented NNW– structure to the North, extends on lithostrati- SSE in the studied area; the river bed is dominantly graphic Units B–E. The upper scale S3 is entirely dry, except during the monsoon period (March– composed of lithostratigraphic Unit A. May). A detailed biostratigraphic analysis of the scales The geological section is located at the shoal of allowed the reconstruction of a synthetic litho- the Nikiniki–Oinlasi road; it covers the interval stratigraphic succession for the Upper Triassic of from the Triassic (upstream) to the Cretaceous West Timor, essentially based on the Noe Fatu (downstream). Several authors (Harsolumakso, section (Fig. 4). Because of the dominant basinal 1993; Sawyer et al., 1993; Harsolumakso et al., Triassic facies with radiolaria and filaments, this 1995) showed that the series of Noe Fatu corre- was possible only by integrating field observations spond to a lithostratigraphic succession, tectoni- and micropaleontological data. cally dismembered, and so they cannot be considered as part of the olistostrome of the accre- 4.1.1. Description of the lithostratigraphic units tionary prism of Timor. Our results tend to confirm Lithostratigraphic Units A–E are made of clay this interpretation, as it was possible to demon- and limestone, characterized by thin shelled strate that the Triassic interval of the Noe Fatu bivalves (filaments) and radiolaria, originating

Fig. 4. Synthetic stratigraphic successions of the Upper Triassic sedimentary rocks in the West Timor (Noe Fatu, Noe Meto, and Noe Bihati), with productive samples and age diagnostic organisms. Noe Bihati: the succession is restarted (1) from continuous outcrops, (2) from isolated blocks. R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 129 from an open marine pelagic environment (Fig. 5). nized. A decimetre-scale level of black peat, rich Rare shallow platform bioclasts (benthic foramini- in pyritic nodules (up to 3 cm), occurs 2 m from fers, remnants of bivalves, ostracods and echino- the base of the unit. Mudstone and wackestone derms) have been observed in a few samples. are the dominant microfacies of the micritic Turbidity currents, evidenced by the bioclasts, as limestone; the nodular limestone is charac- well as by sedimentary structures (e.g. normal terized by a radiolarian packstone, either lami- grading, horizontal lamination, as well as small nated or homogenized due to bioturbation. The current ripples), are indicative of a more or less age, based on radiolaria assemblages and paly- distal slope to basin environment. Nodular lime- nomorphs, is Norian. stone, only observed at the top of Unit D, Noe Unit E. Eighteen metres of centimetre- to decime- Fatu section, is the result of early diagenetic pres- tre-scale levels of white–grey micritic limestone sure dissolution. with radiolaria; grey to red marls form very The lithostratigraphic Units A–E are, from thin interbeds. Remarkable accumulations of bottom to top (Fig. 4): Monotis salinaria (as filaments) characterize this unit, as well as chert nodules, and siliceous Unit A. About 10 m of black well-stratified clays levels, derived from radiolarian tests. The char- and marly clays, with small ferrugineous nod- acteristic texture type is wackestone/packstone, ules and sulphur pseudomorphs; the clays con- in which the micritic groundmass contains tain a significant palynological assemblage, abundant filament coquinas. M. salinaria is a indicative of a Carnian age. well-known marker of the Upper Norian; this Unit B. Four metres of satin-like grey to black interval is confirmed by the radiolaria assem- well-stratified clays and marly clays, alternating blages, which attest to an Upper Norian to with centimetre-scale interbeds of greenish, Rhaetian age. sometimes radiolaritic, limestone with filaments; the dominant microfacies is a bioclastic pack- stone. The lowermost Carnian (Cordevolian) 4.2. Noe Meto Section age of Unit B is based on palynological data. Unit C. Three metres of decimetre scale beds of The Meto river (Noe Meto) flows in a large red variegated bioclastic (radiolaria and fila- alluvial plain, located in the area south of Soe. The studied geological section extends in a NE– ments) limestone, alternating with centimetre- SW portion of the river, upstream from the tribu- scale levels of black to red marls; radiolaria are tary Noe Kele (Fig. 2.2). The same lithostrati- sometimes visible on the bed surfaces. graphic units as identified in the Noe Fatu section Packstone, rarely grainstone, is the most fre- are recognized (Fig. 3): Unit A, with a S–SE low- quent microfacies. Because of the poor preserva- grade regional dip; Units B and C (only small tion, radiolaria could not be used for portions); Units D and E. Because the topography biostratigraphy; the palynological content indi- is practically constant, the outcrops hardly rise cates a Norian age. above the river bed. In addition to this unfavoura- Unit D. Seventeen metres of decimetre-scale beds ble situation, the formations are moreover tectoni- of white micritic limestone, sometimes with red cally repeated. For these reasons, the synthetic sparks, characterized by filaments and rare stratigraphic section for the Triassic of Noe Meto radiolaria; towards the top, the beds become has been mainly reconstructed on the basis of thicker, richer in radiolaria, and alternate with micropaleontological data (Fig. 4). Due to discon- grey marls. The top itself is composed of white tinuous exposure conditions, Units A–E could not nodular limestone with millimetre-scale marly be measured; their thickness is based on that of interbeds. On the bed surfaces, the brachiopod the Noe Fatu section. Halorella pedata Bronn, and the bivalve The lithotypes, cropping out along the Noe Monotis salinaria (SCHLOTHEIM) are recog- Meto, have been preliminarily studied by Kristan- 130 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

Fig. 5. Depositional model of the Upper Triassic series of West Timor.

Tollmann et al. (1987); the authors noticed similar 4.3. Noe Bihati section facies to those from ‘‘formations of the classic Eastalpine Upper Triassic–Liassic stages in The Bihati torrent (Noe Bihati) flows east of Hallstatt facies’’. Baun, 20 km SE of Kupang, the chief town of West Timor. The studied section, located along a W–E por- tion of the river (Fig. 2.3), reflects the geological complexity of the area, with Tertiary series in tectonic contact with Triassic radiolaritic lime- stones. In fact, on the right bank of Noe Bihati, limestones with Nummulites are observed, as well as peridotites blocks, which recall the exotic nappes of Timor (Fig. 2); on the left bank, Triassic depos- its are exposed. Lithostratigraphic Units B–E, already identified in the Noe Fatu and Noe Meto sections, are also recognized in the Noe Bihati area; they can be observed in a Triassic syncline (Fig. 3); Unit A is missing in the studied section. An additional lithostratigraphic unit (Unit H, after Hallstatt) for the Noe Bihati area, not recorded in the Noe Fatu and Noe Meto sections, is represented by white to pink highly fossiliferous (ammonites) condensed limestone of Hallstatt type. The tectonically dismembered unit is reduced to isolated blocks of variable size (maximum 6m3). A synthetic stratigraphic succession, based on Upper Triassic microfossils, and on the ammonites Fig. 6. (A) Sequence stratigraphy interpretation of the Upper Triassic basinal carbonate sequence of West Timor and (B) of the boulders, has been reconstructed for litho- correlation with the cycle chart of Haq et al. (1987). stratigraphic Units B–E, and H (Fig. 4). These R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 131 units are capped, in the area of Noe Bihati, by H2. Condensed pink–red micritic limestone, with black argilites with manganese and sulphur pseu- ammonites (60% matrix; 40% fossils). The lime- domorphs that look similar to those of lithostrati- stone is predominantly composed of complete graphic Unit A, in the Triassic Noe Fatu and Noe specimens of ammonites and characterized by Meto sections. According to Sawyer et al. (1993), a high percentage of stylolites. The ammonites the argilites of Noe Bihati are of Liassic age. are represented only as casts, and they are often eroded. The fossils are arranged parallel to the stylolitic joints. 4.3.1. Lithostratigraphic Unit H Unit H is interpreted as being deposited on a Due to its rich ammonite fauna, the Noe Bihati ‘pelagic carbonate plateau’ (or sea mount), area has been investigated since the 1970s by located below the depth favourable for reef several authors (Tatzreiter, 1978; Krystyn and growth (Fig. 5). The ‘pelagic carbonate pla- Siblik, 1983; Krystyn and Wiedmann, 1986; Baud teaus’ are known to be exposed to storms and and Marcoux, 1991). According to these authors, currents, responsible for a discontinuous deposi- the boulders are part of a large olistostrome, tional sequence, interrupted by intervals of probably younger than Tertiary (Pleistocene), omission due to erosion, or to reduced sedi- today dismembered and scattered in a large part mentation rate (0.1–1 mm/Ma, according to of Timor. Older studies (e.g. von Bemmelen, 1949; Einsele, 1992). Irregular bedding and nodular Gageonnet and Lemoine, 1958) used to classify structures are common, as well as hardgrounds this tectonic block complex (melange) as an alpine with ferromanganese nodules, and spectacular type under the name of Fatu-Klippen; the age of accumulations of cephalopods; also characteris- the blocks is Upper Palaeozoic (reefal limestone) tic is the red colour. Except for the absence of to Eocene (Nummulitic limestone). polymetallic nodules, but in the presence of During our field trip in Timor in 1993, the polymetallic coatings around the megafossils, blocks of lithostratigraphic Unit H were sampled this description is adequate for the fossiliferous in detail, as the Bihati river was free of water at limestone of Unit H. Such deposits of the Rosso that time of the year (September). This was appa- Ammonitico type are common in the geological rently not the case for the previous geological record; they were described from the Triassic missions in the Baun area, reported in the (Hallstatt limestone) and from the Jurassic and literature. Cretaceous of many regions of the Tethyan Two different lithologies are recognized in Realm ( Krystyn, 1973; Bernoulli and Jenkyns, Unit H: 1974; Fu¨rsich, 1979; Krystyn, 1980; Jenkyns, H1. Condensed fossiliferous white–pink limestone 1986). (10% micritic matrix, 90% fossils). The organ- isms are mostly represented by cephalopods (ammonites and nautiloids), sometimes large (60 cm) and often broken; brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, and echinoderms are also 5. Organic facies found. The pelagic hydrozoan Heterastridium is also quite common. In this facies, the shells are Palynological analysis has been carried out in remarkably preserved, and they normally argillaceous and marly intervals from the Noe exhibit a black patina; this colour is due to Fatu, Noe Meto and Noe Bihati Triassic sections; polymetallic coatings, linked to the anoxic con- only lithostratigraphic Units A–D provided pro- ditions of the depositional environment. As a ductive results. The organic compounds have been rule, the blocks are poorly compacted, a situa- grouped according to Whitaker’s classification tion that allows, together with the scarcity of (Whitaker, 1984), and the palynofacies used as the matrix, the easy extraction of the fossils. criteria for palaeoenvironmental interpretations 132 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

(Tyson, 1987, 1993, 1995; Huc, 1988; Steffen and reduced; only a low percentage of vitrinite Gorin, 1993). (PM2+PM3) and of small equidimensional iner- tinite (PM4) is observed. Palynomorphs are absent, as well as AOM. Unit A

Black, well-stratified clays and marly clays Unit C (TM36, Noe Fatu) have been processed to study the organic facies. This is characterized by a large The organic facies has been obtained from black amount of amorphous organic matter (AOM), a to red marls alternating with the dominant bioclas- low percentage of vitrinite (PM1+PM2) and tic limestone of Unit C (TM41, Noe Meto); it is mostly bladed inertinite (PM4T). This organic characterized by a high percentage of unsorted facies appears devoid of heavy ornamented spores. vitrinite (PM1+PM2) and equidimensional iner- The sporomorph content, with a predominance of tinite (PM4); wood remains are common, with saccate specimens, is moderately high, while the fungal remains; AOM is absent. Palynomorphs percentage of marine elements, such as the represent about 30% of the organic facies, mostly Prasinophyte alga Tasmanites and chitinous fora- consisting of ornamented spores and circumpol- miniferal linings, is even more conspicuous. The lens, rather than bisaccates. association of prasinophyte algae and finely lami- nated sediments is typical of many Palaeozoic and Unit D Jurassic black shale facies (Tyson, 1995). The organic facies of the grey marls, alternating Unit B with micritic limestone containing filaments and radiolaria (TM35, Noe Fatu; TM55, Noe The organic facies has been obtained from satin- Teoknono), is dominated by small equidimensional % like grey to black clays and marly clays of the inertinite particles (PM4, about 60 ), which are lower to middle portion of the unit (TM6, Noe medium rounded and well sorted; vitrinite + Fatu; TM51, Fatu Nunu); it is characterized by a (PM1 PM2) is present in minor amounts (less % high percentage of large vitrinite (PM1+PM2), than 5 ). Among palynomorphs, marine elements mostly consisting of wood remains; the percentage are dominant, largely represented by dinocysts. slightly increases from the base up to the middle Less abundant are the sporomorphs, commonly portion, ranging from about 30 to 50%. A lower represented by smooth spores and small bisaccates. percentage of small size equidimensional inertinite A small amount of degraded AOM is present. (PM4) is observed, from 10 to 20% in the middle portion. Palynomorphs represent about 40–50% 5.1. Palaeoenvironmental interpretation of the organic facies, with a great variety in number and species of saccate sporomorphs (monosaccates Marine organic-rich laminated sediments pro- and bisaccates). Large, heavily ornamented spores duced the organic facies of Unit A; because of the are very common, as well as bisaccates; their high ratio of marine/terrestrial elements and relative proportion slightly decreases upwards con- bisaccate/heavy ornamented spores, the abundance comitant with the increase of vitrinite. AOM is of AOM, and the abundance of bladed inertinite absent. The ratio of terrestrial elements vs. marine on other palynomacerals (PM1+PM2), this type elements is high, the latter being represented only of organic facies is considered of distal origin, by few acritarchs. This palynofacies is charac- deposited under dysoxic–anoxic conditions. Being terized by the predominance of land-plant remains the AOM the more labile elements among the (vascular tissue facies, sensu Habib and Miller, organic compounds, its preservation is possible 1989). In the upper portion of the unit (TM20, only in low oxygenated waters. It is also supported Noe Fatu), the total amount of OM is drastically by the dominance of Prasinophyte algae R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 133

(Tasmanites), which are considered as ‘disaster tive of a general initial trend in offshore direction forms’ (Tappan, 1980), capable of surviving under (Tyson, 1993, 1995). Distal conditions are also stressed conditions; their abundance in distal facies suggested by the presence of smooth spores and is also considered as typical of ‘condensed sections’ small bisaccates, which are the most easily trans- within a transgressive system tract or an early ported and most buoyant of all sporomorphs. highstand system tract (Loutit et al., 1988; Leckie Also, large amounts of equidimensional inertinite et al. 1990; Tyson, 1995). in Unit D provide the same indication, as this The organic facies of Unit B revealed a deposi- resistant palynomaceral can be transported far tional environment corresponding to a nearshore away from the source area. shallow shelf within a progradation phase. It is The occurrence of this palynofacies within a indicated by the predominance of land plant micritic limestone containing filaments and remains together with a high percentage of orna- radiolaria suggests the beginning of a highstand, mented sporomorphs and inertinite, together with with a subsequent trapping of most of the terrige- bisaccates and heavily ornamented spores. The nous material on the shallower shelf, and the same indication is given by the large particles of conquest by dinocysts of new ecological niches. vitrinite, with the distribution of the phytoclasts Organic facies of Unit C and D reveal a trans- being strongly affected by the granulometric com- gressive trend, whose Unit C can be related to the position of the sediment and by hydrodynamic beginning of a new phase of relative sea-level rise. selection. Within the regressive trend of Unit B, the inertinite facies that is dominant in the upper part 6. Biostratigraphy appears to be representative of the top of the regression phase. The predominance of inertinite The biostratigraphic evaluation is based on the due not to its absolute increase, but mostly to the investigations of radiolaria and palynomorphs in absence of other organic particles, indicates that the marls and micritic–bioclastic sometimes nodu- the OM was strongly affected by destructive phys- lar limestones of Units A–E, and also of ammonites ico-chemical processes such as oxidation and and conodonts from the condensed limestone of strong bioturbation. In such oxygenated condi- Unit H. tions, inertinite, which is more or less chemically inert, remains the dominant type of OM. In Unit C, the relative abundance of spores, the 6.1. Radiolaria presence of fungal hyphens, and the abundance of total recycled material (palynomacerals plus spor- Lithostratigraphic Units B–E contain radiola- omorphs) are still indicative of the proximity to ria; they are normally present in the greenish the land. The absence of AOM can be explained bioclastic limestone of Unit B, in the red variegated by oxic depositional conditions, unfavourable to bioclastic limestone of Unit C, in the white micritic the preservation of this type of labile OM. The sometimes nodular limestone of Unit D, and in high degree of preservation of particulate OM the white–grey micritic limestone of Unit E. could be related to a relatively high sedimentation Nevertheless, the extraction of radiolaria was pos- rate that reduces the effects of the oxidation on sible only in Units D and E because of their OM. In fact, under such conditions, OM is quickly preserved original siliceous tests (Plates I and II). removed from the water–sediment interface, where it would be easily oxidized. Unit D Unit C overlies dominant marine organic facies of Unit D. This palynofacies is referable to a distal This lithostratigraphic unit is represented by mud-dominated oxic shelf (sensu Tyson, 1993), micritic limestone with filaments and radiolaria, removed from active sporomorph input. alternating towards the top with grey marls; four The high dinocyst/sporomorph ratio is indica- samples, from the Noe Fatu, Noe Meto and Noe 134 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

PLATE I

1, 2. Capnuchosphaera sp., inner cast. Sample TM 77, Noe Bihati. 1. General view. 2. Detail of a spine. The shell being dissolved displays the inner structure of the sphere and, more interestingly, the structure of the spines. It is clear that the proximal part is an hollow tube, while the distal part is divided into three longitudinal parts by lamellae. Upper Carnian?–Lowermost Norian. 3 Capnuchosphaera aff. lea De Wever. Sample TM77, Noe Bihati. Upper Carnian?–Lowermost Norian. 4. Capnuchosphaera theloides De Wever. Sample TM77, Noe Bihati. Upper Carnian?–Lowermost Norian. 5. Capnuchosphaera tricornis De Wever. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 6. Betraccium sp. Sample TM38, Noe Meto. Upper Middle Norian–Lower Upper Norian. 7. Capnuchosphaera triassica De Wever. Sample TM77, Noe Bihati. Upper Carnian?–Lowermost Norian. 8. Capnuchosphaera anapetes De Wever. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 9, 11. Spumellaire gen. sp. indet. Sample TM38, Noe Meto. Upper Middle Norian–Lower Upper Norian. 10. Capnuchosphaera triassica var. a De Wever. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. Scale bar: 50 mm. R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 135

PLATE II

1, 2. Livarella valida Yoshida 1986. Sample TM33, Noe Fatu. Rhaetian or Upper Norian to Rhaetian. 3. Paronaella norica Kozur and Mock. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 4. Gorgansium beaverense Yeh. Sample TM38, Noe Meto. Upper Middle Norian–Lower Upper Norian. 5. Praemesosaturnalis finchi (Pessagno). Sample TM38, Noe Meto. Upper Middle Norian–Lower Upper Norian. 6. Corum regium, Blome. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 7. Syringocapsa batodes De Wever. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 8. Poulpus cf. transitus Kozur and Mostler. Sample TM38, Noe Meto. Upper Middle Norian–Lower Upper Norian. 9. Praeorbiculliformella cf. vulgaris Kozur and Mostler. Sample TM77, Noe Bihati. Upper Carnian?–Lowermost Norian. 10. Gen. sp. indet. Sample TM37, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. Scale bar: 50 mm. 136 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

Biahti sections, and from locality Noe Teknono, De Wever in De Wever et al. (1979), C. triassica provide productive results. De Wever var. A in De Wever et al. (1979), In Noe Fatu, only a few specimens of saturnal- Capnodoce anapetes De Wever in De Wever et al. ids were found in the lower part of Unit D (sample (1979), Betraccium smithi Pessagno in Pessagno TM9, TM10); the species Palaeosaturnalis cf. quad- et al. (1979), Betraccium? sp., Astrocentrus cf. riradiatus ( Kozur and Mostler, 1972) is indicative pulcher Kozur and Mostler (1979), of a Carnian–Norian age. Hungarosaturnalis sp., and other Spumellarians In Noe Meto, a very rich sample comes from gen. sp. indet., Corum parvum Yeh (1989), the middle part of Unit D (TM38); the following Canoptum cf. macoenses Blome (1984), Poulpus species were recognized: Gorgansium beaverense piabyx De Wever in De Wever et al. (1979), Yeh (1989), Betraccium sp., Praemesosaturnalis Poulpus sp., and Nassellarians gen. sp. indet., finchi Pessagno in Pessagno et al. (1979), probably similar to ‘unnamed Nassellaria’ of Spongostylus aff. carnicus Kozur and Mostler Pessagno et al. (1979), (pl. 5, fig. 7). (1981), Kahlerosphaera?aff. aspinosa Kozur and Sample TM54, which contains the genera Mock in Kozur and Mostler (1981), Paronaella? Capnodoce and Capnuchosphaera, is assigned to sp., Poulpus cf. transitus Kozur and Mostler the Capnodoce Zone of Pessagno et al. (1979), (1981), Triassocampe sp., associated with some emend. Blome (1984), which corresponds to the unidentifiable Spumellarians. Upper Carnian?–Middle Norian; nevertheless, Although many species could not be deter- according to the general composition of the assem- mined, the occurrence of the pantanellid blage, the probable age of sample TM54 is Lower Betraccium sp. and Gorgansium beaverense, and Norian to Lower Middle Norian; the absence of the genera Capnuchosphaera, In Noe Bihati, the productive sample (TM77) Capnodoce, and Livarella, allow the stratigraphic comes from the base of Unit D. It contains interval of sample TM38 to be defined with suffi- Kahlerosphaera norica Kozur and Mostler (1981), cient precision: the genus Gorgansium ranges from Capnuchosphaera constricta (Kozur and Mostler, the Upper Carnian?–Norian to the Upper Jurassic, 1981), described under the name of Sulovella con- or even to the Lower Cretaceous; the genus stricta Kozur and Mock in Kozur and Mostler Betraccium is restricted to the Middle Norian to (1981), Capnuchosphaera aff. lea De Wever in De Rhaetian, while Capnuchosphaera and Capnodoce Wever et al. (1979), Capnuchosphaera theloides De range from the Upper Carnian to the Lower Wever, Capnuchosphaera triassica De Wever, Middle Norian, and Livarella makes its first Capnuchosphaera sp., with several very interesting appearance in the Upper Norian. Therefore, it is inner casts, showing the structure of the spines as tentatively proposed that sample TM38 be illustrated in De Wever et al. (1979), assigned to the interval between the last occurrence Praeorbiculiforma cf. vulgaris Kozur and Mostler of Capnuchosphaera and Capnodoce, and the (1978), Annulotriassocampe sp., and Poulpus sp. appearance of Livarella. This interval corresponds The occurrence of Capnuchosphaera in this to the upper part of the Middle Norian or to the assemblage, as well as the absence of Capnodoce lower part of the Upper Norian. and Betraccium, suggest an Upper Carnian?– In the Noe Teknono area, near Noe Fatu, an lowermost Norian age. isolated sample (TM54) has been collected. On the basis of facies similarities with the main fossilif- Unit E erous lithotype (micritic limestone with filaments and radiolaria) of the Triassic series, this sample Only two of the processed samples from grey is assigned to Unit D. The relatively rich and well- to red very thin marly intervals of lithostrati- diversified radiolarian assemblage is composed of graphic unit E yielded radiolaria. Paronaella cf. claviformis Kozur and Mostler Sample TM37 comes from the lower part of (1978), Capnuchosphaera theloides De Wever in Unit E, in the Noe Meto section. The assemblage De Wever et al. (1979), Capnuchosphaera triassica is unusually rich in Capnuchosphaerids, with R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 137

Capnuchosphaera anapetes De Wever in De Wever 6.2. Palynomorphs et al. (1979), Capnuchosphaera lea De Wever, Capnuchosphaera tricornis De Wever in De Wever The aim was to support stratigraphic and sedi- et al. (1979), Capnuchosphaera aff. extenta Blome mentological investigations by the observation of (1984), Capnuchosphaera theloides De Wever, organic facies. A semi-quantitative study on Capnuchosphaera aff. theloides De Wever similar organic matter content has been carried out on form illustrated by Yeh, 1990, from the Busuanga several samples of clays and marly clays of litho- Island, pl. 3 fig. 12), Capnuchosphaera triassica De stratigraphic Units A–E. All the investigated strata Wever, var. A, and Capnuchosphaera sp. resulted rich in organic matter, but only Units A– Spumellarian gen. sp. indet., Capnodoce antiqua D yielded biostratigraphically significant palyno- Blome (1983), Nassellarians gen. sp. indet. (some- logical assemblages (Plate III; Table 1). how similar to the ‘unnamed Nassellaria’ of Pessagno et al. (1979) (pl. 4), Canesium sp., Unit A Syringocapsa batodes De Wever in De Wever et al. (1979), Paronaella norica Kozur and Mock in The most representative and dominant species Kozur and Mostler (1981), Annulotriassocampe? found in black, well-stratified clays and marly clays sp., Corum regium Blome (1984), and Corum sp. are Camerosporites secatus, Patinasporites densus, are also part of the association. Vallasporites ignacii, and Partitisporites novimunda- On the basis of the occurrence of Capnodoce nus morphon. and abundant Capnuchosphaera, sample TM37 is Among bisaccates, Staurosaccites quadrifidus, considered to be Early to Middle Norian in age. Cuneatisporites radialis, Triadispora suspecta, It belongs to the Capnodoce Zone of Pessagno Triadispora sp., and Angustisulcites grandis are et al. (1979), emend. Blome (1984), which corres- recognized, as well as rare specimens of Ovalipollis ponds to the Upper Carnian?–Middle Norian. pseudoalatus. Sample TM33 was collected in the upper part Marine elements are abundantly represented by of Unit E, Noe Fatu section; it contains a relatively prasinophyte algae (Tasmanites sp.), and foramini- rich radiolarian microfauna. General groups fera linings. (Nassellarians, Spumellarians) and some families This palynological assemblage is generically ref- (Pantanellids gen. sp. indet.) have been recognized, erable to the Camerosporites secatus phase. This as well as specific elements: spines of uncertain phase, based by Visscher and Krystyn (1978) on Spongopallium Dumitrica et al. (1980), Schuurman (1977, 1979) Phase I, has generally Paratriassoastrum aff. cordevolicum Kozur and been considered as an event ranging from the Mostler (1981), P.aff. crassum Carter (1993) (= Ladinian to Carnian (Visscher and Brugmann, ‘Spumellarian gen. sp. indet. C’ in Yeh (1989), 1981; Van der Eem, 1983; Fisher and Dunay, Paronaella? sp., Betraccium maclearni Pessagno 1984). For the assemblage of Unit A, an essentially and Blome (1980), Betraccium sp., Pantanellium Carnian trend is supported by the combined occur- cf. fosteri Pessagno and Blome (1980), Latium rences of C. secatus with Vallasporites ignacii, mundum Blome (1984) (=‘Dictyomitra sp. gr.’ in Patinasporites densus, and Partitisporites novimun- De Wever et al., 1979, pl.5, fig. 14), and Livarella danus. The presence of P. densus and V. ignacii valida Yoshida (1986). suggests that this association may be referred to On the basis of the occurrence of Livarella the vigens-densus phase (Cordevolian) of Van der valida, the age of sample TM33, and consequently Eem (1983). of the upper part of Unit E, is Rhaetian or Upper Norian to Rhaetian. Some of the species found in this assemblage were also illustrated by Carter Unit B (1993) from the uppermost Triassic (Rhaetian) radiolarian rich deposits of Queen Charlotte The organic facies of the satin-like grey to black Islands, British Columbia. clays and marly clays of Unit B contains a greater 138 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

PLATE III R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 139 variety of palynomorphs (see Table 1). The most Unit A. The vigens-densus phase is characterized representative species are Enzonalasporites vigens, by the first appearance of P. densus and V. ignacii, Partitisporites novimundanus morphon, common to and by the first appearance of Lagenella martinii, all the productive samples; Vallasporites ignacii which is not present in this assemblage. The species and ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii are abundant in ‘Lueckisporites’ singhii, also characteristic of this level TM6. Other important elements are phase, first appears in the older secatus-vigens Patinasporites densus and Camerosporites secatus, phase of Longobardian age; it disappears towards common at level TM51. Significant accessory paly- the end of the vigens-densus phase; its presence in nomorphs are Calamospora mesozoica, our assemblage strongly supports a lower Carnian Neoraistrikia taylorii, Cycadopites follicularis, (Cordevolian) age for Unit B. Deltoidospora spp., Verrucosisporites morulae, Aratrisporites spp., Gordonispora fossulata, Unit C Duplicisporites granulatus, Uvaesporites gadensis, Osmundacites wellmani, Guttatisporites elegans, The organic facies of the black to red marls of Verrucosisporites applanatus, Ephedripites primus, Unit C contains a relatively high percentage of and rare Concentricisporites insignis. Gliscopollis meyeriana, Calamospora mesozoica, Bisaccates are abundantly represented by vari- Concavisporites toralis, Todisporites spp., and ous elements. Besides the already cited Cycadopites follicularis. More rare, but strati- ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii, the most common are graphically significant, are Granuloperculatipollis Lunatisporites acutus, Falcisporites stabilis, rudis, Patinasporites densus, Microreticulatisporites Alisporites spp., Angustisulcites grandis, fuscus, and Partitisporites novimundanus morphon. Angustisulcites sp., and Triadispora complex. Rare Gliscopollis meyeriana and Granulo- marine elements occur, and they belong to the perculatipollis rudis are commonly considered as Acritarch genera Micrhystridium sp. and representative of phase II and phase III, of Norian Baltisphaeridium sp. to lowermost Rhaetian age (Morbey and Neves, The miospore assemblage is indicative of a 1974; Morbey, 1975, 1978; Schuurmann, 1977, Carnian age. The presence of some index taxa 1979; Visscher et al., 1980; Visscher and Brugman, such as Enzonalasporites vigens and Patinasporites 1981; Warrington, 1996). Phase II is characterized densus, together with Vallasporites ignacii and by the gradual disappearance of the index species ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii, is representative of the of the underlying phase I and by the appearance vigens-densus phase (Van der Eem, 1983), suggest- of characteristic species of the succeeding phases. ing the same Cordevolian age for Unit B as for The association of the Carnian to Norian

PLATE III 1. Camerosporites secatus Leschik 1956. Sample TM36, Noe Fatu. Carnian. 2. Patinasporites densus Leschik 1956. Sample TM36. Noe Fatu. Carnian. 3, 10. Vallasporites ignacii Leschik 1956. Sample TM36, Noe Fatu. Carnian; Sample TM51, Noe Fatu Lowermost Carnian. 4. Ephedripites primus Klaus 1963. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 5. ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii Balme 1970. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 6. Staurosaccites quadrifidus Dolby in Dolby and Balme 1976. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 7. Patinasporites densus Leschik 1956. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 8. Concavisporites crassexinius Nilsson 1958. Sample TM41, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 9. Enzonalasporites vigens Leschik 1956. Sample TM51, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 11. Partitisporites novimundanus morphon Van der Eem 1983. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. 12. Gliscopollis meyeriana ( Klaus) Venkatachala 1966. Sample TM41, Noe Meto. Lower to Middle Norian. 13. Heibergella salebrosacea Bujak and Fisher 1976. Sample TM55, Noe Fatu, Norian. 14. Baltisphaeridium sp. Sample TM6, Noe Fatu. Lowermost Carnian. Graphic scale is 30 microns. 140 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

Table 1 Table 1 (continued) Species list of Upper Triassic palynomorphs from Units A–D Ephedripites primus Klaus 1963 Unit A Falcisporites stabilis Balme 1970 Significant elements Gordonispora fossulata Van der Eem 1983 Camerosporites secatus Leschik 1956 Guttatisporites elegans Visscher 1966 Partitisporites novimundanus morphon Van der Eem 1983 Illinites sp. Patinasporites densus Leschik 1956 Infernopollenites parvus Scheuring 1970 Vallasporites ignacii Leschik 1956 Infernopollenites sulcatus (Pautsch) Scheuring 1970 Tasmanites sp.a Klausipollenites schaubergeri (Potonie´ and Klaus) Jansonius Foraminifera liningsa 1962 Accessory elements Klausipollenites sp. Angustisulcites grandis (Freudenthal ) Visscher 1966 Krauselisporites dentatus Leschik in Kra¨usel and Leschik 1956 Aulisporites astigmosus (Leschik in Kra¨usel and Leschik 1956) Krauselisporites sp. Klaus 1960 Leptolepidites sp. Cuneatisporites radialis Leschik 1956 Lunatisporites acutus Leschik in Kra¨usel and Leschik 1956 Cycadopites follicularis Wilson and Webster 1946 Microreticulatisporites parviretis Balme 1957 Ovalipollis pseudoalatus (Thiergart) Schuurman 1976 Neoraistrikia taylorii Playford and Dettmann 1965 Porcellispora longdonensis (Clarke) Scheuring 1970 Osmundacites wellmani Couper 1953 Reticulatisporites muricatus Kosanke 1950 Pinuspollenites sp. Staurosaccites quadrifidus Dolby in Dolby and Balme 1976 Protodiploxipinus fastidiosus (Jansonius) Warrington 1974 Todisporites marginales Bharadwaj and Singh 1964 Pseudoillinites platysaccus (Ma¨dler) Fisher and Dunay 1984 Triadispora suspecta Scheuring 1970 Retusotriletes hercynicus (Ma¨dler) Schuurman 1977 Triadispora sp. Staurosaccites quadrifidus Dolby in Dolby and Balme 1976 Undetermined bisaccates Striatoabieites aytugii Visscher 1966 Unit B Todisporites cinctus (Malyavkina) Orlowska-Swolinska 1971 Significant elements Triadispora crassa Klaus 1964 Camerosporites secatus Leschik 1956 Triadispora falcata Klaus 1964 Enzonalasporites vigens Leschik 1956 Triadispora sp. ‘Lueckisporites’ cf. singhii Balme 1970 Uvaesporites gadensis Praehauser-Enzenberg 1970 Patinasporites densus Leschik 1956 Verrucosisporites applanatus Ma¨dler 1964a Partitisporites novimundanus morphon Van der Eem 1983 Verrucosisporites morulae Klaus 1960 Vallasporites ignacii Leschik 1956 Undetermined bisaccates Baltisphaeridium sp.a Unit C Micrhystridium sp.a Significant elements Accessory elements Gliscopollis meyeriana ( Klaus) Venkatachala 1966 Alisporites grauvogelii Klaus 1964 Granuloperculatipollis rudis Venkatachala and Go´cza´n 1964 Alisporites sp. Microreticulatisporites fuscus (Nilsson) Morbey 1975 Angustisulcites grandis (Freudenthal ) Visscher 1966 Partitisporites novimundanus morphon Van der Eem 1983 Angustisulcites sp. Patinasporites densus Scheuring 1970 Anapiculatisporites spiniger (Leschik) Reindhardt 1962 Accessory elements Apiculatisporis bulliensis Helby 1973 ex de Jersey 1979 Anapiculatisporites spiniger (Leschik) Reindhardt 1962 Aratrisporites fimbriatus ( Klaus) Playford and Dettmann 1965 Calamospora mesozoica Couper 1958 Aratrisporites tenuispinosus Playford 1965 Concavisporites crassexinius Nilsson 1958 Baculatisporites comaumensis (Cookson) Klaus 1960 Concavisporites toralis (Leschik) Nilsson 1958 Calamospora mesozoica Couper 1958 Cycadopites follicularis Wilson and Webster 1946 Cingulizonates rhaeticus (Reindhardt) Schulz 1967 Deltoidospora sp. Clavatisporites hammenii (Herbst) de Jersey 1971 Duplexisporites sp. Concentricisporites insignis Pautsch 1973 Marattisporites scabratus Couper 1958 Converrucosisporites sp. Osmundacites wellmanii Couper 1953 Cuneatisporites radialis Leschik 1956 Retitriletes sp. Cuneatisporites cerinus Dolby and Balme 1976 Retusotriletes sp. Cycadopites follicularis Wilson and Webster 1946 Spheripollenites psilatus Couper 1958 Cyclogranisporites sp. Todisporites spp. Deltoidospora mesozoicus (Thiergart) Schuurman 1977 Unit D Deltoidospora minor (Couper) Pocock 1970 Significant elements Duplicisporites granulatus Leschik 1956 Araucariacites australis Cookson 1947 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 141

Table 1 (continued) dinocyst assemblage, can be reasonably assigned Chasmatosporites apertus Nilsson 1958 to the Norian. Clavatipollenites hughesii Couper 1958, sensu Schulz 1967 Heibergella aculeata Bujak and Fisher 1976a 6.3. Ammonites Heibergella salebrosacea Bujak and Fisher 1976a a Micrhystridium spp. The fossils have been collected from limestone Accessory elements 3 Cycadopites follicularis Wilson and Webster 1946 blocks (Unit H ) ranging in size from 0.2 to 1 m . Deltoidospora sp. Though many blocks contain different fossil layers, Uvaesporites sp. their faunas have been treated collectively and are Vitreisporites pallidus Reissinger (Nilsson 1958) now mixed. Therefore, several samples contain Undetermined smooth spore ammonites of different age (resp. zones), confirm- a Marine elements. ing stratigraphic condensation. Detailed bed-by- bed collections of fossils otherwise have shown a normal, e.g. uncondensed ammonite zonal succes- sion with, for example, a total Norian rock thick- ness of 3 m (Tatzreiter, 1981; Krystyn and Patinasporites densus and Partitisporites novimun- Wiedmann, 1986). The fossils are generally well danus morphon, together with the post-Carnian G. preserved and often contain a thin FeMn-oxide meyeriana and G. rudis, suggests a Norian age, coating. This preservation points to a highly oxi- possibly Lower to Middle Norian, for Unit C. dizing primary environment with a very low sedi- mentation rate (Halstatt facies). Unit D All faunas from Noe Tobe and Noe Bihati listed below are of Upper Triassic age and, with the The palynological assemblage from the grey exception of TM80 (which is Upper Carnian), of marls of Unit D is characterized by well-preserved Norian age (Table 2). The overrepresentation of marine elements. The dominant dinocysts are Norian samples by both number (90%) and faunal Heibergella salebrosacea and H. aculeata, and quality is remarkable as the area is historically among the Acritarchs, Micrhystridium spp. famous for its almost complete Triassic ammonoid Sporomorphs are represented by Chasmatosporites record (Welter, 1914, 1915, 1922; Diener, 1923; apertus, Araucariacites australis, Clavatipollenites Arthaber, 1927). Blocks of Norian age may there- hughesii, Cycadopites follicularis, Vitreisporites pal- fore be more common than others according to lidus, Uvaesporites sp., Deltoidospora sp., and our record. The historic data, however, are impor- undetermined smooth spores. tant as they demonstrate the onset of the Hallstatt Batten and Koppelhaus (1996) reported facies in the early Triassic and the development of Chasmatosporites apertus as ranging from the ?Late a stable pelagic plateau sedimentation for at least Norian to Bathonian, Clavatipollenites hughesii, 40 Ma from the Lower Triassic until the base of from the ?Rhaetian to the Late Oxfordian, and the Jurassic. Araucariacites australis as starting from the The full range of ages for the samples (resp. ?Rhaetian. The relatively abundant dinocysts in blocks) is shown in Table 2, in relation to the the association yielded additional stratigraphic Norian Tethyan geological time-scale. Norian information. The species Heibergella salebrosacea ammonites have been described from Timor by and Heibergella aculeata were so far recorded only Welter (1914) and Diener (1923), with a recent in marine sediments of Norian age from the revision by Tatzreiter (1981). Most of the collected Sverdrup Basin (Arctic Canada) (Bujak and species (Plate IV; Table 2) are therefore well Fisher, 1976; Helby et al., 1987); West Timor is known from the island, and all have a distinct thus the second known locality for these species. Tethyan or low paleolatitude (LPL) distribution. In spite of the scattered records of H. salebrosacea They are further known from the Himalayas and H. aculeata, the age of Unit D, based on the (Mojsisovics, 1899; Diener, 1908; Krystyn, 1982), 142 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

Table 2 Ammonites and other fossil assemblages from the blocks of Unit H, in relation to the Upper Triassic time-scale

Locality Sample Ammonites and bryozoan Conodonts Age

Noe Tobe TM18 Stenarcestes subumbilicatus Bronn Upper Norian Heterastridium conglobatum Reuss Sevatian Noe Bihati TM74 Rhacophyllites neojurensis (Quenst.) Middle Norian Halorites sp. Alaunian 3 Arcestes sp. TM73 Halorites macer Mojs. Amarassites semiplicatus (Hauer) Thetidites huxleyi Mojs. Paracladiscites multilobatus (Bronn) Pinacoceras metternichi (Hauer) Rhacophyllites neojurensis (Quenst.) Paranautilus sundaicus Welter Heterastridium conglobatum Reuss TM72B Halorites macer Mojs. H. sapphonis Mojs. Amarassites semiplicatus (Hauer) A. parmenidis Diener Brouwerites intermedius (Welter) Steinmannites timorensis Welter Argosirenites dianae Mojs. Cladiscites beyrichi Welter C. neortus (Mojs.) Paracladiscites multilobatus (Bronn) Pinacoceras cf. metternichi (Hauer) Arcestes div. sp. Stenarcestes sp. Rhacophyllites neojurensis (Quenst.) Gonionautilus quenstedti (Hauer) Clydonautilus noricus Mojs. Paranautilus simonyi (Hauer) TM71B Halorites macer Mojs. Norigondolella steinbergensis (Mosher) Amarassites semiplicatus Hauer Epigondolella slovakensis Kozur and Mock Alloclionites cf. aries Mojs. Argosirenites cf. dianae Mojs. Leislingites archibaldi (Mojs.) Helictites geniculatus (Hauer) Episculites subdecrescens (Mojs.) Paracladiscites multilobatus (Bronn) Placites oxyphyllus (Mojs.) Pinacoceras metternichi (Hauer) Arcestes sp. Rhacophyllites neojurensis (Quenst.) Megaphyllites insectus (Hauer) Atractites alveolaris (Quenst.) TM70 Halorites macer Mojs. Norigondolella steinbergensis (Mosher) Amarassites semiplicatus (Hauer) Epigondolella slovakensis Kozur and Mock Alloclionites procerus Tatzreiter TM72A Didymites subglobus Mojs. Middle Norian TM71A Distichites hollandi Diener Alaunian 1 D. cf. falcatus Diener Paradistichites sp. Ectolcites pseudoaries (Hauer) Argosirenites sp. R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 143

Table 2 (continued)

Locality Sample Ammonites and bryozoan Conodonts Age

Parathisbites scaphitiformis Hauer Jellinekites sp. Placites cf. oxyphyllus (Mojs.) Arcestes sp. Noe Tobe TM17 Malayites cf. paulckei Diener Norigondolella hallstattensis (Mosher) Lower Norian M. singularis Welter Epigondolella triangularis Budurov Lacian 2 Waldthausenites sp. Cladiscites angustus Gamsja¨ge Rhacophyllites sp. Arcestes sp. Asteroconites radiolaris Teller Noe Bihati TM69 Griesbachites inflatus Welter Epigondolella quadrata Orchard Lower Norian Cladiscites crassestriatus (Mojs.) Lacian 1 C. angustus Gamsj. Pinacoceras sp. Rhacophyllites zitteli Mojs. Gonionautilus malayicus Welter Asteroconites radiolaris Teller TM80 Indonesites dieneri Welter Upper Carnian Tuvalian 2

Oman (Tozer and Calon, 1990; Blendinger, 1991, and TM71, they confirm the Middle Norian 1995) and from the Western Tethys (Tatzreiter, (ALAUNIAN) age established by the ammonites. 1978; Krystyn 1980).

6.4. Conodonts 7. Sequence stratigraphy

Several ammonoid samples of the condensed In terms of sequence stratigraphy, the Upper limestone (Unit H), or samples from the matrix, Triassic series of the Allochthonous complex of were dissolved in formic acid; they delivered rich West Timor shows two major depositional conodont faunas dominated by the platform sequences (DS1 and DS2), according to facies genera Norigondolella and Epigondolella (Plate V ). analysis and biostratigraphic data (Fig. 6). In the Noe Tobe area, between the Niki Niki The basal part of the Triassic succession (Units and Soe villages, at the mouth of a small tributary A and B) shows a regressive trend. Unit A repre- of the river Bunu (Noe Bunu), one isolated block sents a condensed section (including a maximum (TM17) has yielded, together with the ammonites flooding surface) within either a transgressive sys- (Table 2) dated from the Lower Norian (LACIAN tems tract (TST) or an early highstand systems 2), a conodont association of the same age with tract (HST). The overlaying Unit B is interpreted Norigondolella hallstattensis (Mosher) and as the HST of the DS1 depositional sequence. The Epigondolella triangularis Budurov. age of DS1 is Carnian, based on palynomorphs In the Noe Bihati section (Baun area), three assemblages. The regressive trend of Unit B, as matrix samples (TM69, TM70, TM71; Fig. 4) have indicated by the predominance of land plant been processed for conodonts; TM69 contains the remains, and a high percentage of sporomorphs Lower Norian (LACIAN 1) Epigondolella quad- and inertinite, probably reflects a relative sea-level rata Orchard; Norigondolella steinbergensis fall (Lowstand), or the exposure of a distant (Mosher), and Epigondolella slovakensis Kozur shallow platform (e.g. Australian margin, Ro¨hl and Mock have been recorded from samples TM70 et al., 1991, 1992). 144 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

PLATE IV R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 145

Unit C, which represents the TST of DS2, was (?) pelagic molluscs, then shallow-water reefal car- deposited during a relative sea-level rise. Unit D, ates (Bogal Formation). These limestones suffered particularly the nodular limestone at the top of a major drowning event, as Middle Jurassic deep- the unit, is interpreted as an early HST. Finally, sea shales were then deposited (Yefbie Formation). the uppermost portion of the series, Unit E, repre- South of Timor, from the Arafura sea to the sents a late HST. The age of DS2 is Norian; the Exmouth Plateau, syntheses of Schlu¨ter and top of the depositional sequence is probably upper- Fritsch (1985), Bradshaw et al. (1990), most Norian to lowermost Rhaetian (presence of Struckmeyer et al. (1990, 1993), Stephenson and the radiolaria Livarella valida). Cadman (1994) and McConachic et al. (1996) A correlation of the Triassic series with the indicate that Middle to Late Triassic deposits are cycle chart of Haq et al. (1987) is tentatively mainly siliciclastics, from marginal marine (delta proposed, based on micropaleontological data. In derived dominating sediments) to continental envi- terms of global environmental changes, it is pos- ronments (e.g. Upper Triassic Malita Formation). sible to demonstrate that the major sea-level varia- These deposits suffered a major tensional tectonic tions are also recorded in the Triassic basinal event during Early Jurassic times, and the Jurassic sediments of West Timor (Fig. 6). deposits are often unconformably overlying the oldest rocks. Comparing the sedimentary evolution of the 8. Comparisons with the Australian margin investigated area in West Timor, similarities with the Australian margin do not clearly appear, as Since the island of Timor is classically consid- facies still remain of a deep-sea origin, with a ered to be an external part of the Australian Ladinian to Norian tensional tectonic event, margin, it is reasonable to compare the Triassic of which, out of Timor, is poorly documented. Timor with that of the many regions of the inten- In the NW coast of Australia, for Audley- sively studied Australian margin. Charles (1983) and Sawyer et al. (1993), the In Papua New Guinea, most of the Australian formation of the Mount Goodwin (Bonaparte shelf was emerged during Middle–Late Triassic Basin, SE of Timor) would be the equivalent of times; in the Pacific margin, siliciclastic fluvio- the Lower Triassic silts, black shales, clays and deltaic to shallow marine sediments were depos- marly clays of Timor, and the High Londonderry ited, including local reefal carbonate platform formation the equivalent of the Ladinian to deposits in Misool island (W of Irian Jaya) and Carnian clays and limestones of Timor. The terrig- in the Kubor block (Papuasia) (Pigram et al., enous deposits of the Malita Graben (Rhaetian to 1982; Struckmeyer et al., 1993). In Misool island, Liassic) are much more arenaceous than their the lithostratigraphic succession includes turbiditic supposed equivalents in Timor. fine-grained siliciclastics with Carnian to Ladinian More convincing is the palaeogeographic

PLATE IV 1. Stenarcestes subumbilicatus Bronn. Sample TM18, Noe Tobe; max. diam. 5 cm. Upper Norian (Sevatian). 2. Didymites subglobus Mojsisovics. Sample TM72A, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 5,3 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 1). 3. Parathisbites scaphitiformis Hauer. Sample TM71A, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 3,2 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 1). 4. Distichites hollandi Diener. Sample TM71A, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 6,7 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 1). 5. Amarassites semiplicatus (Hauer). Sample TM72B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 8,5 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 6. Argosirenites cf. A. dianae Mojsisovics. Sample TM71B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 6,7 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 7. Brouwerites intermedius ( Welter). Sample TM72B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 8,3 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 8. Amarassites parmenidis Diener. Sample TM72B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 7,2 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 9. Halorites macer Mojsisovics. Sample TM72B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 9,6 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 10. Steinmannites timorensis Welter. Sample Tm72B, Noe Bihati; max. diam. 11,2 cm. Middle Norian (Alaunian 3). 146 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

PLATE V R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151 147 intertation of Mac Kenzie (1987), which does not platform areas in Australia and Indonesia remain show any notable similitude of Timor with the difficult to correlate with that of Timor. Australian margin: in Australia, the Middle Conclusively, in the current state of knowledge, Triassic appears to be a period of regression, not the initial adherence of the Triassic series of the observed in Timor, and the Upper Triassic shows Allochthonous of Timor to the Australian margin shallow-water deposits, while the characteristic is highly questionable. The studied area in Timor radiolarites of Timor are indicative of the deepen- underwent an original sedimentary evolution, ing of this portion of passive margin. These data rather different from that of the Australian margin, are also supported by the results of Bradshaw and of the microcontinents of the Banda Sea. et al. (1988) and Kraus and Parker (1979). More precise geodynamic reconstructions for On the same continental margin, the Wombat Triassic times are now necessary for an accurate Plateau exhibits a different Middle–Late Triassic interpretation of the pelagic Triassic deposits of succession that was studied during the ODP marine Timor, regarding carbonate platform areas and survey Leg. 122 (sites 761, 764, 759, 760). There, siliciclastic deposits of the Australian margin. A numerous studies (e.g. Dumont and Ro¨hl, 1991; similar problem is the origin of the Triassic turbidi- Ro¨hl et al., 1991; Borella et al., 1992; Dumont, tic series of the Buton Island in the western part 1992) indicate a Carnian–Norian siliciclastic suc- of the Banda Sea (Smith and Silver, 1991). cession (delta dominated sequence), then a Rhaetian shallow-water reefal carbonate succes- sion. The Triassic rocks were then uplifted and eroded, prior to a major drowning event during the Jurassic. These carbonate rocks are shown to Acknowledgements be rather similar to those of some of the microcon- tinents of the Banda Sea (Sulawesi, Sinta Ridge, This work was financially supported by the Buru, Seram), as discussed in Martini et al. (1997). Swiss National Science Foundation (L.Z. Grants Even if it is possible to identify major regressions N° 20-41881.94 and 20-50577.97), and the French at around −224, −215 and −211 Ma in Timor PICS–Indonesia Project. G. Roselle (University of (this work), in Sulawesi (Martini et al., 1997) and Bern), Profs M. Gaetani and M. Sarti are thanked on the Wombat Plateau (Dumont, 1992), the for their helpful reviews and J. Metzger for the general sedimentary evolution of the carbonate graphical assistance.

PLATE V

1–2. Norigondolella hallstattensis (Mosher). Sample TM17, Noe Tobe. Lateral and upper view, 880 mm. Lower Norian (Lacian 2). 3–4, 5–6. Epigondolella triangularis Budurov. Sample TM17, Noe Tobe. Lateral and upper views. 3–4. 710 mm. 5–6. 730 mm. Lower Norian (Lacian 2). 7–8, 9–10. Epigondolella quadrata Orchard. Sample TM69, Noe Bihati. Lateral and upper views. 7–8. 800 mm. 9–10. 580 mm. Lower Norian (Lacian 1). 11–12, 15–16, 19–20. Norigondolella steinbergensis (Mosher). Sample TM70+71, Noe Bihati. Lateral and upper views. 11–12. 810 mm. 13–14. 720 mm. 15–16. 1050 mm. Lower Norian (Lacian 3). 13–14, 17–18, 21–22. Epigondolella slovakensis Kozur and Mock. Sample TM70+71, Noe Bihati. Lateral and upper views. 17–18. 610 mm. 19–20. 540 mm. 21–22. 670 mm. Lower Norian (Lacian 3). 148 R. Martini et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160 (2000) 123–151

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