Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan
May, 28 2015
Jim Cancroft 1417 Orange Avenue Helena, MT 59624 (406) 442-7555 [email protected]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ...... 1 Purpose of Plan ...... 1 Property Location ...... 1 Legal Description of Subject Lands ...... 1 Moonlight Basin Community Area Location Map ...... 2 Property Description ...... 3 Topography ...... 3 Surrounding Land Use ...... 3 Weather ...... 3 Aerial Photograph ...... 4 Topographic Map...... 5 Forest Management Goals ...... 6 Goals Discussion ...... 6 Goals 1 and 2: Improve and Maintain Forest Health and Maintain Forest Diversity...... 6 Goal 3: Promote a Fire-Tolerant Forest and Reduce the Risk of a Catastrophic Wildfire ...... 7 Goals 4 and 5: Improve and Maintain Wildlife Habitat and Provide Secure Wildlife Travel Corridors ...... 7 Goal 6 Reduce abundance of noxious weeds and minimize their spread ...... 8 Goal 7 Increase Recreational opportunities throughout Moonlight Basin ...... 8 Primary Forest Health Issues within Moonlight Basin ...... 8 Risk of Catastrophic Wildfire ...... 8 Western Spruce Budworm/Douglas-fir Bark Beetle ...... 9 Tree Overcrowding ...... 9 Additional Forest Insects and Diseases ...... 9 Soils...... 10 Soils Map...... 11 Forest Types ...... 13 Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Types ...... 14 Young Subalpine Mix Forest Type ...... 15 Description ...... 15 Desired Future Condition ...... 15 Management Recommendation’s ...... 16 Reduce Overcrowding ...... 16 Wildfire Hazard Mitigation...... 16 Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat ...... 17
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -i- Mature Douglas-Fir Mix Forest Type ...... 18 Description ...... 18 Desired Future Condition ...... 19 Management Recommendation’s ...... 19 Control Western Spruce Budworm...... 19 Control Douglas-fir Bark beetle...... 20 Reduce Overstocking ...... 20 Wildfire Hazard Mitigation...... 21 Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat ...... 21 Mature Subalpine Conifer Mix...... 22 Desired Future Condition ...... 22 Management Recommendation’s ...... 23 Reduce Overcrowding ...... 23 Wildfire Hazard Mitigation...... 23 Maintain and Improve Wildlife Habitat ...... 23 Mature High Elevation Mixed Conifer Forest Type ...... 24 Desired Future Condition ...... 25 Management Recommendation’s ...... 25 Forest Health Improvement ...... 25 Wildfire Mitigation...... 25 Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat ...... 25 Silvicultural Approaches to Forest Management ...... 26 Purpose and Scope ...... 26 Understanding Forest Succession ...... 26 Uneven-Aged Management ...... 27 Limitations ...... 27 Even-Aged Forest Management ...... 28 Limitations ...... 29 Description of Recommended Forest Management Practices ...... 29 Tree Thinning ...... 29 Common Thinning Methods ...... 31 Low thinning ...... 31 Crown thinning ...... 31 Selection thinning...... 31 Monitoring ...... 32 Wild Fire Hazard Management ...... 32 Fire Behavior Basics ...... 32 Survivable Space ...... 33 Roadside Fuel Breaks ...... 34 Fire Resistant Landscaping ...... 34 Fire Resistant Plants ...... 35 Hardscapes ...... 35 Maintenance ...... 36
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -ii- Wildlife ...... 36 Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Upland Forests ...... 37 Snags ...... 37 Coarse Woody Debris ...... 38 Understory Vegetation ...... 38 Forest Openings ...... 38 Uneven-aged Forest Management ...... 39 Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Upland Forests ...... 39 Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Riparian Areas and Wetlands ...... 39 Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Riparian Areas ...... 39 Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Intermountain Grasslands ...... 40 Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Intermountain Grasslands ...... 40 Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Aspen...... 41 Conifer Encroachment within Aspen Stand ...... 42 Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Aspen Stands ...... 42 Willow Habitat ...... 42 Small patch of willows in upper Wickiup Creek ...... 43 Edge ...... 43 Wildlife Corridor Management Considerations ...... 43 Elk in the Wickiup Creek Wildlife Corridor ...... 44 Threatened and Endangered Species ...... 44 Species of Concern ...... 44 Priority Treatments ...... 44 Forest Health Treatments ...... 45 Western spruce budworm control in the Douglas-fir Forest Type ...... 45 Document 2015 Douglas-fir bark beetle attacks ...... 45 Aspen Stand Restoration ...... 45 Timber Harvesting ...... 45 Wildfire Hazard Treatments ...... 46 Ulery Lakes HOA Roadside ...... 46 Lower Ulery Lakes Phase 1 and 2 ...... 46 Jack Creek Roadside Interior Road Fuel Breaks ...... 46 Interior Roadside Fuel Breaks ...... 46 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Young Subalpine Forest Mix ...... 46 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix ...... 46 Wickiup Wildlife Corridor Shaded Fuel Break ...... 46 Moonlight Basin Priority Treatments ...... 47 Moonlight Basin Priority Treatments ...... 48 Forest Treatment Schedule with Cost Estimates ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Available Biomass ...... 49 Estimated Biomass Tonnage per Treatment Area by Forest Type ...... 54 Sustainable Biomass Supply ...... 54 Additional Biomass from outside Moonlight Basin ...... 55
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -iii- Small Wood Harvesting and Utilization ...... 55 Chipping vs. Grinding ...... 55 Tub Grinder vs. Horizontal Grinder ...... 56 Upswing vs. Downswing Hammermill ...... 56 Tracked vs. Wheeled ...... 56 Electric vs. Diesel ...... 56 Self-Loading vs. Non Self Loading...... 57 Harvesting and Woody Biomass Transport Systems ...... 57 The Valmet 801 Combi BioEnergy ...... 57 Ponsse BTS-BIO Transport System ...... 57 Fecon Bio-Harvester ...... 58 Cyclcofor RC03 ...... 58 Super Trak WB55 Bio-Bailer ...... 58 Cut to Length Harvesting Method ...... 59 Equipment Used in the Material Collection Phase...... 61 Equipment Used in the Removal of Woody Biomass ...... 63 Forwarder unloading product beside haul road near Eureka, MT ...... 64 Equipment used in the compression into bundle phase: ...... 64 Production Rate of the John Deere Slash Bundler: ...... 65 Cut to Length Harvesting Methods Summary ...... 65 Harvesting on Steep Slopes ...... 66 Excaliner ...... 66 Forest Road Management ...... 67 Noxious Weed Management...... 68 The Gallatin/ Big Sky Noxious Weed Committee ...... 69 Appendix ...... 71 Lower Ulery’s Lakes Phase 1 Wildfire Hazard Mitigation and Forest Improvement Project Plan ...... 72 Fire Resistant Plants ...... 76 Fuels Reduction Standards ...... 77 Overview of Common Forest Insects and Diseases in Moonlight Basin ...... 80 Needle Loss ...... 80 Mountain Pine Beetle Dendroctonus Ponderosae ...... 80 Douglas-Fir Beetle Dendroctonus Psuedotsugae ...... 83 Fir Engraver Beetle Scolytus Ventralis ...... 84 Western Spruce Budworm Choristoneura Occidentalis ...... 85 White Pine Blister Rust Cronartium Ribicola ...... 88 Lodgepole Pine Dwarf Mistletoe Areceuthobium Americanum ...... 89
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -iv- Introduction
Purpose of Plan This forest management plan was prepared to provide guidance for achieving the Forest Management Goals developed for the Moonlight Basin Community Area. This plan has been developed with input from former MTFWP Wildlife Biologist Craig Jourdonnais of Interface Consulting, foresters and land managers and is intended to guide forest management within the Moonlight Basin Community Area in an environmentally sensitive and cost effective manner. The primary management goal for Moonlight Basin is to support healthy diverse forest communities that provide habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Another objective of the plan is to determine an estimate of the amount of woody biomass potentially available for a fuel source to heat planned developments at Moonlight Basin Ski Area. There are also supplemental goals described within the plan. The property was delineated into four forest types and forest inventory data from properties that have similar forest types and are in close proximity to the Moonlight Basin Community Area where used to extrapolate and estimate the amount of tons of woody biomass per acre that could potentially be available. Forest treatments and management recommendations provided for each forest type are designed to improve upon existing conditions and trend the current forest condition towards the stated Desired Future Condition. Forest treatments are scheduled over a 10 year planning horizon. Estimated treatment costs are provided for budgeting and planning purposes.
Property Location Legal Description of Subject Lands The Moonlight Basin Community Area includes portions of Sections 1, 4, 9, 12, 16, 18, 26, 34 and Sections 2, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 22, 23 and 26 in Township 6 South and Range 2 East in Madison County, Montana.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -1- Moonlight Basin Community Area Location Map
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -2- Property Description Topography Moonlight Basin lies in the Madison River drainage. The property starts along the watershed divide between the Madison and Gallatin River drainages. Along this watershed divide there are numerous small wetlands and the headwaters of Moonlight Creek and Lone Creek which are tributaries to Jack Creek. Wickiup Creek and numerous small perennial and intermittent creeks are also tributaries to Jack Creek. Jack Creek flows northwest to west through a pronounced canyon in the lower third of the property. Moonlight Basin is home to Upper and Lower Ulery lakes. Elevations range from 6,400 feet near Wickiup Creek to 11.253 feet on the summit of Lone Mountain. The general aspect of Moonlight Basin is northwest to west. With the exception of the steep upper slopes of Lone Mountain and the side slopes of creek bottoms the topography is moderate with numerous benches, natural open meadows, broad ridges and small plateaus. The project area composes approximately 8,000 acres. The forested portion of the area includes open Douglas-fir stands, young densely stocked lodgepole pine stands and mature mixed conifer stands composed of sub-alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine and lodgepole pine. Surrounding Land Use The Lee Metcalf Wilderness Area is broken into the Spanish Peak unit which is north of Moonlight Basin and the Taylor Hilgard unit which is to the west. The summit of Lone Mountain is the southernmost area of the property. Private lands surround a portion of Moonlights southern, eastern and northern boundaries. Weather Western Regional Climate Center data for Big Sky, MT is shown below. Mean annual precipitation for Moonlight Basin is likely higher than Big Sky due to it’s location and higher elevation. . Monthly Climate Summary for Big Sky, Montana
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Average Max. 31.2 35.2 43.2 51.5 61.8 69.2 77.8 78.0 68.6 55.6 37.9 29.5 53.3 Temperature (F)
Average Min. 7.8 7.2 15.5 22.8 29.6 35.6 40.1 38.2 32.0 23.7 13.6 6.6 22.7 Temperature (F)
Average Total 1.42 1.16 1.23 1.33 2.75 2.82 1.69 1.64 1.57 1.52 1.39 1.40 19.90 Precipitation (in.)
Average Total 31.9 20.7 21.1 8.2 4.9 1.2 0.2 0.0 0.3 5.5 19.0 31.4 144.3 Snowfall (in.)
Average Snow Depth 23 27 26 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 15 8 (in.)
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -3- Aerial Photograph
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -4- Topographic Map
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -5- Forest Management Goals This Forest Stewardship Plan will address forest management goals for the Moonlight Basin Community Area. The primary goals of this plan are listed below. 1. Improve and maintain forest health by reducing outbreaks of forest insects and diseases. 2. Create and maintain diversity of forest structures, tree age classes and native tree species with an emphasis on maintaining old-growth trees. 3. Promote a fire tolerant forest and reduce the risk of a catastrophic wildfire. 4. Improve and maintain summer range for big game species by reducing conifer encroachment on native grass, shrub and aspen communities. 5. Improve and maintain upland and riparian wildlife habitat and provide secure wildlife travel corridors for native wildlife species. 6. Reduce abundance of noxious weeds and minimize their spread. 7. Increase recreational opportunities throughout Moonlight Basin.
Goals Discussion The forest management goals listed above will receive primary consideration during the development of forest management recommendations. Forest management recommendations are provided for each forest type identified on the property. Specific forest type recommendations are designed to be realistic and achievable based upon the physical limitations of the specific site (topography, soils, elevation, access, and aspect), financial considerations, and biological constraints. It may not be possible to achieve every goal on every acre but forest type recommendations will identify where significant potential exists to achieve one or more ownership goals. Goals 1 and 2: Improve and Maintain Forest Health and Maintain Forest Diversity. Forest health can be defined in numerous ways; a proper definition is dependent upon the objectives and management philosophy of the landowner. A landowner seeking maximum timber production might define a healthy forest as fast-growing, disease-free and fully occupied with trees of desirable species. A landowner seeking to maintain forested wildlife habitat for as many wildlife species as possible may wish to have some dead, dying and diseased trees in their forest, as well as older, slow-growing trees. These trees can provide important wildlife habitat and contribute to a more biologically and structurally diverse forest ecosystem.
For purposes of the Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan, a healthy forest is defined as being biologically and structurally diverse, fire-tolerant, and comprised of healthy, vigorously growing trees as well as healthy, slow-growing mature trees with long-term viability. Creating forest stand conditions in a variety of age classes with a healthy mix of native tree species will maintain forest diversity. A healthy forest will have a lower potential for catastrophic damage from wildfire, drought, forest insect infestation and disease.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -6-
Goal 3: Promote a Fire-Tolerant Forest and Reduce the Risk of a Catastrophic Wildfire As a forest becomes overcrowded it becomes less and less capable of withstanding a wildfire. Forest overcrowding leads to excessive fuel loading, ladder fuels and tightly spaced tree crowns. High fuel loads produces conditions which are conducive to high-intensity wildfires. Continuous fuel sources from the forest floor up to tree crown level serve as ladder fuels which ground fires can climb to become more destructive crown fires. The horizontal crown continuity of tightly spaced trees creates the potential for a running crown fire. While ground fires can be manageable for firefighting personnel and cause limited tree mortality, a running crown fire is lethal to trees and extremely difficult to suppress.
Tree thinning and slash disposal are the most practical means of modifying the forest structure to increase its tolerance to wildfire. Tree thinning breaks up crown continuity and removes ladder fuels. Slash disposal decreases the amount of fuel available for a wildfire
A fuel break is a planned area where the vegetation is treated to reduce fuel loading and fuel bed continuity. Strategically placed fuel breaks can be an effective tool to help control the spread of a wildfire into developed areas. Within Moonlight Basin, where wildlife forage is a key consideration, fuel breaks can serve the dual purposes of increasing forage while breaking up dense forest areas that provide a continuous fuel source. Fuel breaks located adjacent to roads help to provide safe ingress and egress during wildfires for residents and wildfire suppression personnel.
Goals 4 and 5: Improve and Maintain Wildlife Habitat and Provide Secure Wildlife Travel Corridors Wildlife habitat concerns are often best addressed by emulating the natural disturbance regimes that have shaped forest habitats over the past several centuries. It is important to understand the habitat requirements of specific wildlife species and manage for conditions that provide the necessary critical habitat components. Forest management treatments can be designed to achieve wildlife related objectives. Especially important forest wildlife habitat components include large diameter trees, dead standing and down trees, riparian and wetland areas, aspen stands, and forest openings vegetated with shrubs and native grasses. Multi-layered forest structures generally provide habitat for the widest array of wildlife species. However, some wildlife species will favor dense single stand structures. Forest landscapes, which provide an assortment of vegetation types, will attract the greatest array of wildlife species. Moonlight Basin links two separate areas of the Lee Metcalf Wilderness, providing a wildlife corridor from the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem to lands to the north and west. Large predators like grizzly bears, black bears, mountain lions, wolverines and wolves are residents and travelers throughout the Moonlight property. The presence of these predators poses some interesting land management decisions and public awareness strategies. The Moonlight Basin community might consider establishing a cell phone and email warning system when the presence of large
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -7- carnivores is detected within the basin. A system that provides some level of warning and information regarding the presence or observation of grizzly or black bear, wolves and mountain lion will assist residents in minimizing food attractants and managing outdoor activities and pets. The warning system will reduce potential human-large carnivore conflicts. As the southern portion of Moonlight Basin Community Area develops it becomes even more important to identify and maintain wildlife corridors that allow secure wildlife movement. Wildlife corridors connect isolated wildlife populations, increasing genetic variation and increase food availability for a variety of wildlife species. Goal 6 Reduce abundance of noxious weeds and minimize their spread Noxious weeds degrade wildlife habitat and threaten native plant communities. By definition, noxious weeds are plant species that are harmful to the environment. Eradication and restoration require that noxious weeds be killed. Noxious weeds are invaders and do not succumb to eradication, prevention, or restoration easily and so controlling noxious weeds is expensive and time consuming. Forest roads, on and off road vehicles, and timber harvesting equipment are vectors of dispersal for weeds. Recently disturbed soils are especially vulnerable to colonization by weeds and should be seeded with a site adapted seed mix at the earliest appropriate time. Weed prevention strategies must be considered in regards to every management action taken. Landowners must make an ongoing effort to monitor weed populations (especially on roads and recently disturbed areas), identify weed species, and stay informed regarding current management strategies. All visitors and workers who enter the property should be informed and made aware of weed management practices. Contract agreements and land use agreements should clearly state weed management policies. Informational signage at property entry points can help inform visitors to the property about weed management policies. Moonlight Basin would benefit from the development and implementation of an integrated weed management plan. Proper implementation of a weed management plan is dependent upon the comprehensive identification and mapping of all noxious weed locations, the use of as many appropriate techniques as possible and frequent monitoring with periodical evaluation. Goal 7 Increase Recreational opportunities throughout Moonlight Basin The potential exists within Moonlight Basin to develop an outstanding recreational trail system that utilizes the topography and natural features of the land. Trails can be specifically designed and constructed for hiking, mountain bike riding, cross country skiing and horseback riding. Trails can be designed so that they could be used by people of all ages and abilities.
Primary Forest Health Issues within Moonlight Basin Risk of Catastrophic Wildfire The primary forest health issue in Moonlight Basin is the threat of catastrophic wildfire. Moonlight Basin has not had a major wildfire for over 100 years. So really the question isn’t if and when a wildfire will occur, it is when and how this area will burn. Fuel treatments that reduce the amount of trees per acre and create fuel breaks that reduce the rate of spread and the intensity of a wildfire are essential
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -8- Dense stands of lodgepole pine regeneration are highly susceptible to a wildfire. Dense lodgepole pine, sub-alpine-fir and Douglas-fir regeneration adjacent to mature trees, leave these larger diameter trees susceptible to a crown fire. Western Spruce Budworm/Douglas-fir Bark Beetle The continued defoliation from western spruce budworm within the mature Douglas-fir stands has led to increased tree mortality and will continue to cause additional tree mortality in the near future if not addressed. The defoliated Douglas-fir trees are stressed and susceptible to attack from Douglas-fir bark beetle. There are a number of pockets of mature red Douglas-fir trees visible from Jack Creek Road (below) that were killed last year from bark beetles. The beetles will emerge this year and will attack more mature Douglas-fir trees.
Recent Douglas-fir bark beetle mortality along Jack Creek Road Tree Overcrowding Trees compete with each other for essential resources and therefore need adequate growing space to be healthy. Dense thickets can provide cover and habitat diversity for wildlife and can be an important component of a healthy forest. However, they are not necessarily conducive to growing healthy trees. Healthy trees grow faster and are more capable of surviving a wildfire and withstanding insect and disease damage. Managing tree density through creating and maintaining proper tree spacing is important for increasing the health and vigor of individual trees. Additional Forest Insects and Diseases Mountain pine beetle and white pine blister rust have killed a significant portion of the mature whitebark pine. Mountain pine beetle has killed a good percentage of the larger diameter lodgepole pine, particularly within the Mature Douglas-fir Mix and High Elevation Conifer Mix forest types. Lodgepole pine mistletoe is prevalent throughout the lodgepole pine overstory. The fir engraver beetle and spruce beetle are present throughout Moonlight Basin and kill isolated individual trees or small groups of subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. A more detailed
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -9- description of the common forest insects and diseases within Moonlight Basin is found in the Appendix of this plan.
Soils Soils are one of the most important components of the forest landscape. Below is a map that shows where the various soil types are found within Moonlight Basin. Each type is identified with a number on the map which corresponds to a soil type.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -10- Soils Map.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -11- A description of each soil type present on the property and its corresponding attributes are described in the table below. Soils descriptions and reports were obtained from on-line from the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service Web Soil Survey website. Soil Type Descriptions:
Data Source: Natural Resources Conservation Service, Web Soil Survey, Madison Countyy Area, Montana
Natural Drainage Frequency of Available Water Soil Type Acres Class Flooding Storage in Profile
30 - Cryaquolls,nearly level 5.2 Poorly drained Rare
47 - Garlet, cool-Rock outcrop Low (about 4.5 974.7 Well drained None complex, 45-70% slopes inches)
73 - MacFarlane stony sandy loam, Low (about 3.8 2,553.6 Well drained None 15 to 45% slopes inches)
80 - Mikesell clay loam, 15 to 45% Moderate (about 8.2 34.1 Well drained None slopes inches)
109- Rock outcrop-Cryoborolls Moderate (about 8.2 367.3 Well drained None Cryochrepts complex, very steep inches)
121- Shallow very channery loam, Somewhat Low (about 3.3 15 to 45% slopes 1,089.3 excessively None inches) drained
122- Shadow very flaggy loam, 45 Somewhat Low (about 3.2 to 70% slopes 132.6 excessively None inches) drained
125- Shadow, warm- Mikesell- Moderate (about 8.2 861.0 Well drained None Worock complex, 45 to 70% slopes inches)
128- Shedhorn-Rock outcrop Moderately well Moderate (about 7.5 159.4 None complex drained inches)
154- Whitore-Mikesell, warm-Rock Low ( about 4.2 134.3 Well drained None oucrop complex, 25 to 60% slopes inches)
159- Worock-Mikesell complex, 15 Low ( about 5.1 2,379.6 Well drained None to 45% slopes inches)
231- Water 12.3 Moderate
A soil profile is the sequence of natural layers, or horizons, in a soil. The profile extends from the surface down into the unconsolidated material in which the soil formed or from the surface
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -12- down to bedrock. The unconsolidated material is devoid of roots and other living organisms and has not been changed by other biological activity. Soils with profiles that are almost alike make up a soil series. Except for differences in texture of the surface layer, all soils of a series have major horizons that are similar in composition, thickness, and arrangement. Some map units are made up of two or more soils; these are called a soil complex. A complex consists of two or more soils in such an intricate pattern or in such small areas that they cannot be shown separately on a map.
Forest Types The Moonlight Basin Community Area includes 8,702 total acres. Approximately 943 acres have been developed, 452 acres are non-forested and 318 acres are within the Streamside Management Zones adjacent to streams and lakes. The remaining 6989 acres are forested. Approximately 1,220 acres are located on slopes greater than 40%. The forested portion of Moonlight Basin can be broken down into 4 major forest types: Young Subalpine Conifer Mix, Mature Subalpine Conifer Mix, High Elevation Conifer Mix, and Mature Douglas-Fir Mix.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -13- Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Types
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -14- Young Subalpine Mix Forest Type
Dense stand of 30 year old lodgepole pine Description The Young Subalpine Mix Forest Type includes young forests that re-established in clearcuts harvested between the mid 1960’s thru the 1990’s. There are approximately 1,773 acres of this forest type located throughout Moonlight Basin Community Area. This forest type is dominated by densely stocked sapling sized lodgepole pine averaging 1,300 to 1,800 trees per acre. Sapling trees average 20-40 years old. Mature trees tend to be non-existent or located within the small creek bottoms or in small clumps which were left behind during past harvesting operations. Subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce seedlings and saplings are present throughout this type but are concentrated more on cooler aspects and the numerous small draws and drainages. Douglas-fir seedling and saplings can be found on the drier aspects and broad ridges. Because of the high density of trees within this type understory vegetation is limited and is primarily composed of grouse whortleberry, pinegrass, elk sedge and native forbs.
Desired Future Condition Reduce tree stocking in portions of this forest type to improve forest health, reduce the wildfire hazard and increase complexity of forest stand structures across the landscape. Create fuel breaks along ridges and on south and west slopes. Maintain dense forest conditions near and within wildlife travel corridors and adjacent to streams and wetlands. Utilize dense thickets as visual screens from private residences.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -15- Promote a mix of native tree species favoring Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine and subalpine fir. Protect mature trees left in small islands and within riparian areas. Over time improve the abundance of large diameter trees and coarse woody debris.
Management Recommendation’s The primary management objectives for the Young Subalpine Mix Forest type are to reduce the amount of trees per acre and to address the wildfire hazard on approximately 1,000 acres within this forest type..
Reduce Overcrowding Stocking rates and species composition within this forest type needs to be managed through pre- commercial thinning treatments. Target spacing for sapling-sized retention trees in lodgepole pine is 9-12 feet, resulting in a stocking rate of approximately 300-500 trees per acre. Douglas- fir, Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine and subalpine fir would be spaced on the high end of the recommended range. Retention trees should have a dominant position in the forest canopy, straight form, and crown ratio of 35% or greater. Spacing between trees in some areas can be clumped and uneven, leaving small forest openings, as well as groups of more tightly spaced trees for wildlife hiding, future thermal cover, and screening from roads and adjacent properties. Identify individual trees or small stands of trees that exhibit disease resistance, superior form and good growth rates. Once these trees and stands are identified thinning treatments can be designed to help encourage their growth and longevity.
Wildfire Hazard Mitigation Incorporate strategically placed shaded fuel breaks throughout this forest type. A shaded fuel break is a strip of land where fuel (trees, downed logs, etc.) has been modified or reduced to limit the fire’s ability to spread rapidly. The width of a shaded fuel break is dependent upon the type of forest, fuel loading and terrain steepness. To improve their effectiveness and to take advantage of a noncombustible road surface, shaded fuel breaks are usually placed above and below existing roads or in other strategic areas, such as adjacent to wet meadows, streams and rocky outcroppings. Reduce tree stocking levels along main roadsides and adjacent to development areas. Thinning of trees will significantly reduce ladder fuels and disrupt the horizontal continuity of tree crowns within these dense young stands. On level ground trees should have a minimum of 10-foot spacing between the edges of tree crowns. Spacing will be increased by 2 feet for each 5% increase in slope. Small isolated groups of trees will be retained for visual diversity. This can be accomplished through pre-commercial thinning. If the goal is to utilize the woody biomass a system will have to be developed to get the woody stems to roadside landings to be chipped into chip vans or a contractor would need to be found who has a slash bundler.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -16-
Young Lodgepole Pine above Wickiup Creek Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat Maintain dense stands along streams, riparian areas and wildlife travel corridors. Wildlife will continue to seek out travel corridors in Moonlight Basin that provide foraging opportunities, thermal cover, and space from human disturbance. Remove conifers that have encroached onto native grasslands, sagebrush habitats and aspen stands. Increase forage opportunities by thinning dense stands of young lodgepole pine and subalpine fir and encouraging the growth of native grass, forb and shrub species. In addition to creating openings for fuel breaks within this forest type, it is also recommended to create small ¼ to ½ acre irregularly shaped openings to increase wildlife forage opportunities. Leave a dense buffer of trees on the edges of fuel breaks particularly in close proximity to roads to act as a visual barrier between vehicle and foot traffic and wildlife attempting to use critical feeding and bedding areas adjacent to fuel breaks.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -17- Mature Douglas-Fir Mix Forest Type
Mature Douglas-fir Mix Forest Type on south slope above Jack Creek Description The Mature Douglas-Fir Mix Forest Type is primarily found on the south and west facing slopes directly above Jack Creek and along south facing ridge tops. There are approximately 1,285 acres of this forest type within the Moonlight Basin Community Area. It is composed primarily of mature Douglas-fir averaging 12-24” in diameter between 100 and 300 years old. The majority of the mature lodgepole pine in this forest type was killed from mountain pine beetle. There are patches of Douglas-fir seedlings and saplings interspersed amongst openings and between what was once widely spaced mature Douglas-fir trees. A good portion of the Douglas- fir overstory and understory is defoliated from western spruce budworm over the past decade. Grasses growing in the understory include bluebunch wheatgrass, pinegrass, elk sedge, and Idaho fescue. Common understory species include; dwarf juniper, sagebrush, wild rose, mountain maple and snowberry. Douglas-fir is the best adapted tree species for this forest type because it can withstand the dry environment and its thick bark helps it to survive low intensity ground fires. Natural regeneration of Douglas-fir can be difficult in this forest type due to lack of soil moisture, competition from grasses and a thick layer of litter on the forest floor, and periodic western spruce budworm infestations. Retaining healthy mature trees will ensure a viable natural seed source is available for natural tree regeneration when environmental conditions are appropriate
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -18- Historically, logging has occurred throughout this forest type on grounds that were accessible, non-rocky and moderately sloped. In logged areas the remaining Douglas-fir trees are often in poor biological condition and Douglas-fir regeneration has been slow to establish. Often subalpine fir and lodgepole regeneration is encroaching on what was once a mature Douglas-fir stand. Along some of the old logging roads and log landings noxious weeds like houndstongue, knapweed, common mullein and thistles are present.
Desired Future Condition Create open, multi-layered Douglas fir stands with a good representation of healthy large diameter trees with naturally established seedlings and saplings in the forest understory. Reduce the impacts from western spruce budworm and Douglas-fir bark beetle. Create a healthy forest understory with a diversity of native, grasses, forbs and shrubs. In a lot of areas within this forest type we have the desired future condition we want; large mature trees, small forest openings with native grasses and small patches of young Douglas-fir seedling and saplings. The primary concern is whether these stands will survive multiple years of defoliation from western spruce budworm and recent outbreaks of Douglas-fir bark beetle.
Management Recommendation’s The objective of this treatment is to improve the health and condition of residual trees to facilitate development of full deep live crowns to improve overall aesthetics and overall wildlife habitat. Development of healthy seedling, sapling and pole-sized trees is desired to provide the “next generation” of mature large diameter trees. The treatment will maintain a multi-layered forest structure and emphasize removal of trees in the forest understory. Primary threats to mature larger diameter Douglas-fir are overcrowding by Douglas-fir and subalpine fir regeneration, western spruce budworm defoliation, Douglas-fir bark beetle and high intensity wildfire
Control Western Spruce Budworm. Western spruce budworm is an insect pest that consumes needles and buds of Douglas-fir trees. This insect has been active in the Moonlight Basin area for the last 5-6 years and defoliation has been most severe within the Douglas-fir forest type on southern slopes. Management options generally include aerial spraying with a non-toxic bacterium product Bacillus Thurigensis (Bt) and altering forest structure towards an open-spaced, single layer arrangement of trees. Thin out overstocked Douglas-fir seedling and saplings that have been damaged and suppressed from spruce budworm attacks. Promote the growth of young lodgepole pine within this forest type.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -19-
Defoliated trees within the Mature Douglas-fir Mix Forest Type The photograph above illustrates the extent of defoliation within this forest type. It is strongly recommended to aerially spray Bt (organic insecticide) to help control western spruce budworm throughout this forest type. Bt is highly effective in killing spruce budworm larvae and subsequently protecting new leaf growth when applied appropriately.
Control Douglas-fir Bark beetle. Recent Douglas-fir bark beetle infestations have killed small pockets of (3-5) mature Douglas-fir trees.. Douglas-fir beetle infestations are fairly localized, so identifying and removing trees that have been recently attacked can help limit the spread. Once a tree has been attacked there is no treatment available to save the tree. Douglas-fir bark beetle repellants (MCH patches) have proven to be fairly successful in preventing Douglas-fir beetle attacks and are applied in a grid pattern throughout a susceptible stand at a rate of 30 patches per acre. Individual large diameter trees can have two MCH patches applied. Douglas-fir trees that have been attacked in the current year should be removed from the stand.
Reduce Overstocking To reduce overcrowding of mature trees, young trees should be cleared for a distance of 25-35 feet from larger trees. For smaller Douglas-fir trees (less than 15 inches in diameter) there should be a minimum of 10 feet of distance between the trees outermost branches and the branches of the closest neighboring tree. This can be accomplished by both pre-commercial and commercial thinning. Thinning will help to maintain adequate soil moisture for each tree and improve tree vigor. Vigorous trees can better withstand drought and insect infestation. Clearing small trees away from older trees will also remove ladder fuels and reduce the potential for a wildfire to spread from small trees into the top of older mature trees.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -20- Wildfire Hazard Mitigation This forest type is at risk from a high intensity wildfire. Creating a buffer of thinned trees around these stands and thinning out suppressed and budworm defoliated seedlings and saplings in close proximity to mature Douglas-fir trees will help minimize the potential for a wildfire to enter theses stands. Trees to be removed will predominately include suppressed sapling and pole sized trees in poor to fair biologic condition. Standing sawlog-sized trees will not be cut unless they have recently been attacked by Douglas-fir bark beetle. Old roads within this forest type should serve as fuel breaks and the vegetation on either side of the roads should be thinned accordingly.
Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat The Douglas-fir forest type provides excellent habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Numerous nesting pairs of dusky grouse were observed within the Douglas-fir forest type. Large diameter Douglas-fir or small groups of Douglas-fir intercept snow and provide areas for bedding and foraging on understory vegetation. Large diameter down logs should be retained for small mammals, upland birds and foraging bears. The forest openings located within this forest type are utilized by mule deer, elk and moose as evident by the abundance of pellets and browse sign on native plants. Sandhill cranes were observed nesting in a forest/sagebrush opening.
Dusky Grouse in Mature Douglas-fir Mix Forest Type
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -21- Mature Subalpine Conifer Mix
Mature Subalpine Conifer Mix above Moonlight Creek. This forest type is most common on the north and east facing slopes above Jack Creek and its small tributaries. It is also the common forest type within the proposed Lower Ulery Lakes subdivisions and the majority of the land between Moonlight Trail Road and Jack Creek Road. There are approximately 1,608 acres of this forest type within the Moonlight Basin Community Area. This forest type typically includes a forest overstory comprised of biologically mature and over mature Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir and lodgepole pine. Standing and downed dead trees are common. The forest understory is mostly composed of shade tolerant Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir seedlings and saplings. There are over 1,200 trees to the acre within this type with the majority of them being subalpine fir seedlings. Average age of the lodgepole pine was 90-120 years old while Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir averaged over 150 years old. Understory vegetation is pre-dominantly grouse whortleberry, gooseberry, meadow- rue and arnica. Within the cooler draws and drainages dogwood, alder and willow species are found. This forest type generally occurs on portions of the landscape that have not burned over the past few centuries and have also not been harvested. Forest stands are typically dense with a multi- layered canopy and abundance of downed dead trees. The fire hazard is high. Due to fuel loading in this forest type fires are difficult to suppress.
Desired Future Condition Create a more fire resilient forest by reducing the number of trees per acre and the amount of standing dead and downed material. In many locations this forest type appears on steep, rocky slopes above Jack Creek where little management is practical. However this forest type is also present near roads and future development areas where access for management is feasible. In
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -22- these locations reducing wildfire hazards, improving the health and condition of forest stands is a management emphasis.
Management Recommendation’s Encourage the development and promote the growth of Engelmann spruce and riparian forests. Create shaded fuel breaks within the Upper Jack Creek drainage by harvesting mature lodgepole pine stands.
Reduce Overcrowding Trees less than 4 inches in diameter are heavily overstocked. Reducing the density of trees less than 4 inches in diameter is necessary to maintain long term forest health. Pre-commercial thinning is required to provide adequate growing space for individual trees. Ideal tree spacing will vary but should be maintained so there is a minimum of 5-10 feet between tree crowns. During thinning operations it is important to retain a good mix of tree species to maintain biological diversity. Subalpine fir is overabundant and should be reduced to approximately half of its current density. Lodgepole pine, whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce should be favored for retention over subalpine fir during pre-commercial thinning and fuel reduction projects. The stocking rate of trees less than 4 inches should be reduced below 400 trees per acre (or 10 foot stem spacing). There is the opportunity for commercial timber harvesting within this forest type. The lodgepole pine suitable for timber harvest have all stopped growing, have tree crowns of less than thirty percent and are susceptible to beetles and windthrow. Continue to monitor for western spruce budworm activity
Wildfire Hazard Mitigation Creating shaded fuel breaks in the Upper Jack Creek Drainage will help protect future developments from wildfire. The Jack Creek Drainage is positioned in the direction of prevailing west to southwest winds and could serve as a funnel for a fast moving wildfire. All roads within this forest type need to be treated as a fuel break. On south and west aspects the forest vegetation needs to be modified 150-200’ feet below the road and 50 to 100’above.
Maintain and Improve Wildlife Habitat The main Jack Creek corridor is a primary wildlife corridor within Moonlight Basin. It provides connectivity through Moonlight Creek to Beehive Basin and through Lone Creek to the upper elevations of Lone Mountain. Jack Creek connects to Upper and Lower Ulery Lakes and their associated wetlands. The establishment of fuel breaks within the Upper Drainage of Jack Creek will benefit wildlife by creating a mosaic of forest stands at different ages. On southern and westerly aspects that were historically more open and had more grassland communities harvesting the larger trees and processing the smaller tree into hog fuel will create additional forest openings. The most effective pathway to maintain quality summer range for elk and mule deer is to commit to a habitat management regime that treats large patches of habitat at a watershed level (Jack Creek) in a 15-20 year rotation. Small wetlands and wallows utilized by wildlife are common throughout this forest type and need to be protected. It is important to provide a minimum 50’ buffer of undisturbed forest around these unique habitat features.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -23- Mature High Elevation Mixed Conifer Forest Type
Mature High Elevation Mixed Conifer Forest Type by Moonlight ski runs This forest type is most common along the ski runs of Moonlight Basin Ski Area and the Upper Ulery Lakes area. There are approximately 1,285 acres of this forest type within the Moonlight Basin Community Area. The dominant tree species are subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine and whitebark pine. The average age of the larger diameter subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce is over 150 years old. The majority of the larger whitebark pine is dead from mountain pine beetles and or white pine blister rust. Lodgepole pine is found in the lower elevations of this forest type. On average there are over 2,000 trees to the acre, with 75% of the trees less than 4 inches in diameter. Subalpine fir and whitebark pine regeneration is prolific. There is a significant amount of standing and downed dead trees throughout this forest type. Understory vegetation is primarily grouse whortleberry, meadow- rue, arnica and Starry Solomon’s seal. Small alpine parks are commonly interspersed amongst forested stands and talus and scree fields. The greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee (GYCC) is an interagency group formed to pursue management strategies for core lands in the Greater Yellowstone area. GYCC’s whitebark pine subcommittee is an excellent source for current information on whitebark subcommittee is an excellent resource for current information on whitebark pine management. Visit www.fegycc.org for more information.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -24- The Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation is a nonprofit organization dedicated to maintain and restoring whitebark pine ecosystems through education, research and providing technical assistance and grants for restoration work. Further resources on whitebark pine management and restoration can be found on their website at www.whitebarkfound.org
Desired Future Condition The overall goal within this forest type is to create a high elevation forest that is diverse and less susceptible to a catastrophic wildfire. Protect remaining mature whitebark pine trees and young whitebark pine stands is a priority within this forest type. Maintain aesthetically pleasing forest environment in high use recreation areas. Protect old growth large diameter Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir trees.
Management Recommendation’s
Forest Health Improvement Identify individual trees and groups of trees in the 14-18’ diameter class that are healthy vigorous, and show promise for longevity, reduce inner tree competition by thinning out suppressed or competing subalpine fir seedlings in these localized groups of trees.. Trees to be cut will predominately include sapling and pole-sized trees in poor biologic condition. These trees generally have live crown ratios of less than 20%. Standing sawlog-sized trees will not be cut unless in poor to fair biologic condition. It is important that whitebark pine seedling and saplings are protected during forest management activities and in building new developments. Healthy groves of young whitebark pine should be identified and protected. Identify and protect individual or groups of whitebark pine that show signs of blister rust resistance and have survived attacks from mountain pine beetle. These trees could be protected with verbenone or appropriate insecticides. Enhance the survivability of whitebark pine seedlings and saplings by thinning competing subalpine fir within twenty feet. Prune whitebark pine branches infected by white pine blister rust.
Wildfire Mitigation The cold moist environment makes fires infrequent. Severe fires are most likely to occur during periods of extreme drought when wind driven fires that originated at lower elevations burn upslope into timberline forests. All roads and ski runs within this forest type need to be treated as a shaded fuel break. Thinning on either side of ski runs and roads will increase the size of fuel breaks and help slow an advancing wildfire and reduce fire intensity. Shaded fuel breaks can be designed and implemented around future developments.
Maintain or Improve Wildlife Habitat Whitebark pine stands provide valuable habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Whitebark pine cone caches created by red squirrels and Clarks nutcrackers are sought after by grizzly and black bears for their highly nutritious seeds. Protect cone producing whitebark pines from white pine blister rust and mountain pine beetles with the purpose of maintain potential seed sources for future nursery production of disease resistant seedlings. Identify healthy stands or groups of trees and use a combination of verbenone or chemical insecticides to prevent mountain pine beetle attack. There are numerous wallows, seeps and springs within this forest type and should be protected from disturbance. Retain a 50’ buffer of undisturbed forest around these sites. Maintain
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -25- undisturbed forest tracts (even with dead trees) that connect to other drainages and high mountain basins to serve as wildlife corridors. Protect riparian vegetation and small meadows and grasslands throughout this forest type.
Silvicultural Approaches to Forest Management
Purpose and Scope The management goals for this property can be achieved by the implementation of recommended silvicultural practices. This section describes the silvicultural approaches to forest management recommended for forest stand types present on the property. Potential limitations associated with various silvicultural approaches are also described. Understanding Forest Succession Succession is the process where one plant community is replaced with another until the plant community is in equilibrium with the soil development. When the plant community is in equilibrium with soil development, the plant community is said to be at climax. A climax plant community may perpetuate itself until a natural or human caused disturbance alters the forest environment creating conditions favorable to the establishment of a different plant community. With or without human influence forests plant communities change over time. Forest managers seek to understand how environmental conditions influence the forest environment in order to encourage the development of forest plant communities that will achieve stated management objectives. Disturbance of the climax plant community may occur due to events such as wildfire, timber harvest, disease, insect infestations, or damaging winds. These disturbances initiate the process of secondary succession. Secondary succession continues until the plant community reaches equilibrium again with the soil development and the vegetation is at climax. Secondary succession begins with the establishment of seral tree species and invader grasses, forbs and shrubs. Over time, the climax species replace the seral species as the forest environment becomes more favorable for the climax species. Shade intolerant trees, shrubs, forbs and grasses will often colonize recently disturbed forest sites. Shade intolerant tree species present within Moonlight Basin include, whitebark pine, lodgepole pine, and aspen. These species will naturally reproduce in forest openings, such as recently harvested areas, where the forest overstory has been removed. Shade tolerant plant species increase in abundance once a forest canopy develops and the forest understory becomes partial shaded. Sunlight loving forbs, shrubs and grasses often decrease in abundance in a shaded forest environment. Shade tolerant tree species such as Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir tend to increase in abundance on cooler aspects and in partially cut areas and undisturbed forest stands. The environmental conditions existing within each stand will drive the process of succession and influence the composition of the forest plant community. Forest management regimes should not necessarily encourage development of climax plant communities. The seral tree species associated with secondary the plant community often have a higher rate of production (growth) than the climax tree species. Climax trees species are generally less tolerant of drought and fire and more vulnerable to stem decay and root disease.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -26- For these reasons, managing for the seral tree species is generally desirable in areas where timber production, fire resistance and drought resistance are a priority. However, the structure and species composition of climax forest plant communities provide unique and valuable habitats for many wildlife species. Development of climax forest communities is encouraged where wildlife habitat goals receive management emphasis. These areas often include riparian corridors, valley bottoms and wetland areas. Uneven-Aged Management Natural plant communities develop through known successional pathways and are often altered through disturbances. Major disturbances, such as catastrophic wildfire or timber harvest (clear cutting) are often severe enough to set a forest plant community back to the beginning of succession. Less severe and more common disturbances, such as insect or disease infestation may affect only a single tree or a small group of trees, altering succession to a lesser degree. This process is often referred to as “Gap Succession”. Gap succession creates small openings in the forest canopy that provide space for a new age class of young trees to develop. This process increases complexity in forest stands by creating conditions that favor multiple tree species and multi-layered forest structures. Ecologically, uneven-aged silviculture reflects a land manager’s effort to imitate naturally occurring patterns of plant succession and natural forest disturbance. The advantages of uneven- aged silviculture are that the stand’s structure, productivity, and cover are maintained over time. Opportunities to simulate stand structures resulting from mountain pine beetle and Douglas-fir beetle attacks exist in the Mature Douglas-fir Mix Forest Type. Group selection harvesting is used to approximate intensive small-scale disturbances that create larger openings within a stand. Natural examples include localized insect infestation, windthrow, or flare-up of a surface fire. Single tree selection harvesting mimics the smallest scale of succession such as when a single tree falls or dies. Causes of mortality may include lightning, disease, insects, and windthrow. In small gaps, the opening in the forest canopy may fill before regeneration can fully develop. This regeneration in the forest understory may stagnate and persist with little growth and will eventually become suppressed and die. Gap size in the forest canopy is a critical link to successful regeneration of desirable tree species. Larger gaps favor species intolerant of shade such as whitebark pine. Harvest unit layout varies opening size, shape, density and orientation to provide more natural landscape patterns in the forest. After treatment, residual basal areas of 40-60 square feet per acre will encourage conifer regeneration and limit vulnerability to insect and disease pests associated with stress. Trees left after harvest must be of sufficient size and maturity to be reliable seed bearers. Marking of leave trees in harvest units is often recommended to ensure multiple age classes, variable tree sizes, and healthy seed trees are well-represented in treated stands.
Limitations Steep slopes (greater than 40%) are a special challenge given the potential for mechanical damage to the residual stand during repeated harvest entries. Stands where canopy layers are stratified with intolerant species in the overstory and tolerant species in the understory require
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -27- intensive management to ensure adequate regeneration of shade intolerant species. Dense, uneven-aged forest structures dominated by a single tree species can be vulnerable to western spruce budworm and dwarf mistletoe. Multiple stand entries in conifer stands where root disease is present can create conditions favorable for the spread of disease. Even-Aged Forest Management Montana’s forest areas are subjected to many different fire regimes as the result of the climate, topography and vegetation. The fire regime is specific to each area in regards to frequency, size and severity. Even-aged management is often recommended for forest types that experience mixed to high severity fires. These regimes are most common at higher elevations where fires are less frequent and fuels build up over time. An even-aged harvest prescription is generally recommended for lodgepole pine stands in order to replicate historical conditions. High elevation lodgepole pine/subalpine fir forests in the Rocky Mountains experience stand replacing fires at intervals of 75–300 years. These fires are less frequent but are often more severe, resulting in complete or nearly complete mortality in the stand. The outcome is the development of even-aged stands spread out in a mosaic pattern across the landscape. Even-aged harvest methods may also be recommended to control insect and disease outbreaks, manage suppressed stands comprised of predominately low vigor trees, create diversity in otherwise homogenous forest landscapes, and treat stands on moderately steep slopes which are prone to damage from multiple harvest entries. The method can also be used to salvage merchantable timber following a wildfire.
An even-aged silvicultural system is a planned sequence of treatments designed to maintain and regenerate a stand with one age class. Once tree regeneration is well established, intermediate treatments like tree thinning may be used to control stand stocking and species composition several times over the length of the rotation. Thinning is intended to stimulate the growth and vigor of trees by reducing the competition for light, water and nutrients. Thinning is most beneficial in young vigorous stands but may be used in areas with trees that have reached merchantable size.
The rotation length is the period of years required to grow a crop of timber to specified condition of economic or biologic maturity. There are three regeneration harvest methods used in even- aged systems: clear-cut, shelterwood and seed tree harvests. These methods vary by the residual stand left after harvesting and the purpose of these residual trees. Each method is designed to regenerate a new stand of shade intolerant tree species.
Clearcuts are a method of regenerating an even-aged stand in which a new age class develops in a fully exposed micro-environment after removal of all trees in the previous stand in a single cutting. Regeneration can be from natural seeding, direct seeding, planted seedlings and/or advance reproduction. For a shelterwood harvest prescription, one or more cuttings are made to begin the development of a new age class before the old stand is completely removed. Partial shade from the residual overstory provides protection to newly developing seedlings. This method is commonly used to encourage regeneration of Douglas-fir on drier sites and south aspects.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -28- A seed-tree harvest is an even-age management system where only a few widely-spaced residual trees are maintained on site as seed sources. The seed-tree method is very similar to the shelterwood method, differing only in the amount of residual stocking left during harvest and the purpose of the residual overstory trees. In the seed-tree method, fewer trees are left on site and these residual trees serve only as a seed source (seed-trees). Foresters normally use the seed-tree method with light-seeded, wind-disseminated, shade-intolerant species such as western larch.
The choice of even-aged regeneration method will depend on both landowner objectives and the forest type under management. Clearcutting is often less costly than other methods due to fewer stand entries and is therefore the most often preferred method for appropriate species, such as lodgepole pine.
Limitations Clearcuts produce the most drastic changes to microclimate, wildlife habitat and aesthetics, and therefore may not be an attractive choice for areas where non-timber forest commodities are emphasized. If not properly planned, clearcuts can increase erosion, landslide and rapid runoff of water. The risk of this type of damage is greatest on steep slopes. Avoiding the use of clearcuts on erosive soils and utilizing appropriate harvest technologies such as cable and mechanical cut-to-length harvesting will protect soils and mitigate potential negative impacts. Historically, foresters have used shelterwood and seed-tree methods to provide alternatives to clearcutting. Most even-aged regeneration systems rely on natural regeneration, but in some cases artificial regeneration (planting or direct seeding) is used as a primary or supplemental source of regeneration.
Description of Recommended Forest Management Practices
Tree Thinning Cutting of trees in a forest stand for the purpose of stimulating the growth and vigor of residual trees is known as tree thinning. Trees cut in a pre-commercial thinning have no commercial value and normally none of the felled trees are harvested. Trees cut in a commercial thinning have commercial value and are harvested for utilization as a wood product. Tree thinning can be used to accomplish management objectives other than production of merchantable timber. Thinning can increase water yield from watersheds, enhance the development of forest understory vegetation for wildlife or livestock, improve aesthetics of forest stands, and reduce fire hazard. A good thinning program will meet one or more of five objectives: 1) To use or sell trees that would otherwise die naturally and eventually decay; 2) To redistribute the total fiber growth of the stand to fewer trees of higher quality, thereby increasing the value of usable fiber; 3) To provide money to pay off investments, such as reforestation, pre-commercial thinning, and other stand improvement activities; 4) To enhance non-timber resources like wildlife, water quality, recreation, aesthetics, grazing and woody shrub understory; 5) To provide more frequent income opportunities;
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -29- 6) Reduce fire hazard.
Thinning is the primary means by which the productivity of overstocked forest stands can be improved. Trees in dense stands struggle for existence and have reduced growth and vigor due to competition for light, water and nutrients. Reducing the number of trees per acre by removal of less desirable trees allocates available light, water and nutrient resources to the most vigorous trees on a site. Vigorous trees tend to occupy superior positions in the forest canopy and have more fully developed crowns. The position of a tree’s crown in the forest canopy is an important criterion when deciding whether it should be cut or retained. Reducing competition for space in the forest canopy is significant since the tree’s foliage produces the energy on which the tree depends. Retention of vigorous dominant and co-dominate trees is generally recommended because these trees have crowns that receive sunlight from above and/or from the side. Species composition is controlled when desirable trees species in good health are retained and less desirable species removed. Desirable tree species will be adapted to the growing conditions on the site and most capable of utilizing available resources. Determination of which tree species are most desirable on given sites will depend on several variables. These variables include insect and disease resistance, fire resistance, drought tolerance, shade tolerance, soils, and local markets for wood products. Where saw-timber production is the primary objective, the focus of tree thinning is to ensure that crop trees develop vigorous crowns and straight stems with smaller braches. The selection of trees to be favored and of those to be cut is based not only on the relative position and condition of the crown, but also on the health of the tree, genetic attributes of the tree, and condition and quality of the tree bole. Removal of genetically inferior trees will improve the genetics in a forest over time. Undesirable tree species can be targeted for removal from stands during thinning operations and the composition of species within a stand can be controlled to meet various forest management objectives. Reductions in stand density accomplished by thinning usually encourage faster tree diameter growth and increase the proportion of stem wood large enough for profitable use over time. It may take a period of several decades following a thinning for the stand to reach full occupancy of the site. The beneficial effects of thinning are especially significant in areas where soil moisture is limited during the growing season. If live crown ratios of potential crop trees within a stand begin to fall below 30-40% thinning is recommended to prevent a reduction in tree growth rate and tree vigor. Pre-commercial thinning is especially important in very dense young stands. These stands are likely to stagnate without early treatment. The ability of trees to release in stagnated stands decreases with age. Every effort should be made to thin dense stands of young trees at an early age. Typically, pre-commercial thinning can occur once differentiation of crown classes has occurred. Basal area targets can be developed for stands that are predominately comprised of merchantable-sized trees. Basal area is a measure of stand density expressed as square feet per acre of tree stem cross sections measured at a point 4.5 feet from the ground. Basal area per acre is easily measured with a timber cruise or field inventory. Once a stand exceeds a recommended upper limit of basal area per acre, a reduction in basal area is likely required to improve or
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -30- maintain growth rates of residual trees. The basal area of the stand can be reduced to a pre- designated lower basal area per acre limit and then allowed to grow back over time to the upper limit or threshold value. Once the upper basal area limit is achieved, the stand can be re- evaluated for harvest or repeated thinning. The range of optimum tree stocking rates and basal area for a stand will vary by site, stand age, tree size class distribution, and tree species composition. Low productivity sites will have a lower optimum tree stocking rate than moderate to high productivity sites. The advantages of tree thinning are less pronounced in stands comprised of mature trees. The sudden exposure of trees in dense stands can make them vulnerable to windthrow. Trees in dense stands may have poorly developed root systems. Shallow rooted species such as lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce are especially vulnerable to windthrow in heavily thinned areas. Several thinning methods can be utilized to accomplish different management objectives. Late summer and fall are generally the best time to implement tree thinning. Trees are less susceptible to bark damage at this time, and slash generated from the thinning has less potential to attract bark beetles. Common Thinning Methods Low thinning – Only trees from lower crown classes (intermediate and overtopped) are cut. Salvage of trees that ultimately will die is possible if some cut trees are in merchantable size classes. Reduction in crown competition between dominant and co-dominant trees is not significant since most of these trees are retained. Root competition for nutrients is reduced. Fire hazard is reduced by removal of ladder fuels from the forest understory.
Crown thinning – Trees from lower crown classes and co-dominate trees in poor to fair condition are cut. Some dominant trees in poor condition may be cut to favor healthy co- dominants. There is increased potential for harvest of merchantable-sized trees. Root competition for nutrients is reduced. Competition for growing space in forest canopy is reduced. Fire hazard is reduced by removal of ladder fuels in the forest understory and increased distance between tree crowns. Tree growth rates, tree health and stand genetics are generally improved. Stand structure may be diminished if tree in smaller size classes are not retained.
Selection thinning - Trees from all size classes are cut to release designated crop trees. The emphasis is on retention of healthy vigorous trees. Stocking rates may vary across the stand depending on age class and distribution of healthy trees. This method is generally suited to stands that have multiple age and size classes and varied species composition. Selection thinning is often recommended as the initial treatment in previously untreated natural stands. It is also recommended to maintain or further develop uneven-age stands. Selection thinning in an unevenly stocked stand might remove scattered undesirable dominant trees and co-dominant trees which are crowded or in poor to fair condition, and include low thinning to salvage or remove overtopped and intermediate sized trees. Clumps of regeneration may be thinned based on spacing guidelines to achieve preferred stocking rates. The development of individual crop trees guides decision-making. Attention is directed at releasing potential crop trees of various size classes.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -31- Monitoring Periodic evaluation of forest condition is important. The goal is to catch problems when they are small and easy to remedy. In addition to the health of the forest, foresters and landowners should evaluate condition of understory vegetation (weed infestations), and capital improvements (roads, bridges, culverts, fences). It is also important to review the management goals for the ownership. Landowner situations change, as does the forest itself.
Wild Fire Hazard Management
Within the fire environment of fuels, weather and topography, the fuel component is the only one that can be modified by Moonlight residents and Managers. Reducing the amount of fuels and effectively breaking up the fuel continuity are the key objectives of hazardous fuels reduction projects. Removal of ground fuels, ladder fuels, and thinning of standing trees will reduce fuel continuity and the amount of fuel available. Once a hazardous fuels reduction project is completed the potential fire intensity, spread rate, and potential for torching, crowning and spotting is reduced. Within the Moonlight Basin Community Area man made fuel breaks include ski runs, powerlines, roads and the golf course. One of the danger zones within this area is the Jack Creek drainage where the drainage serves as a natural funnel in the same direction as prevailing southwest winds. Fire Behavior Basics Topography, fuel and weather are the components that determine fire behavior.
Topography has a considerable influence on fire behavior. The steeper a slope the faster a fire will spread. A fire on a 30% slope can spread four times faster than a fire on level ground. Steep draws and canyons can act as chimneys and accelerate fire spread uphill. South and southwest facing slopes are warmer and drier and sustain a higher number of fire starts. Vegetation is the fuel that feeds a wildfire.
Fuel is any organic material--living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air, that will ignite and burn. Fuels are found in almost infinite combinations of kind, amount, size, shape, position, and arrangement. All vegetation will burn when environmental conditions are correct. The size and shape of vegetation affects how easily it ignites and the rate of fire spread. Smaller fuels (grasses, twigs and pine needles) present the greatest fire hazard. Large dead down logs are less of a hazard because they retain soil moisture, take longer to dry out and are not a flashy fuel. Fuel moisture of dead fuel is influenced by precipitation and relative humidity. The lower the fuel moisture the greater the fire hazard is.
A systematic approach to look at fuels in a forests setting is to divide them into three levels; (1) ground, (2) surface, and (3) aerial fuels. Since most wildfires are carried by the surface fuels, this fuel level receives the most emphasis when planning wildfire hazard reduction projects. Aerial fuels must also be considered because they may be consumed by fire under certain conditions
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -32- and can contribute to extreme fire behavior. Ground fuels will usually be compacted, and fire spread will be slowest, typically smoldering or creeping.
Surface fuels will be less compacted with other characteristics more favorable for faster rates of spread. If no aerial fuels are present, the open environment is subject to stronger winds and more heating and drying by solar radiation. Fires can run through this fuel complex with higher rates of spread than if aerial fuels are present.
Where aerial fuels are present, the concern is with crown or canopy closure. Forest stands with an open canopy will probably have a faster spreading surface fire than closed canopy stands, and torching of individual trees with possible spotting could occur. Unless very strong winds are present, crowning is unlikely without a closed canopy. Closed canopy stands offer the best opportunity for a running crown fire.
The arrangement of fuels (vegetation) is also a very important factor with regards to fire behavior. A continuous vertical arrangement from surface fuels (grasses, shrubs, dead wood, small trees, low branches) on the forest floor and in the forest canopy (mid to large sized trees) enables a ground (surface) fire to be carried into the forest canopy. Fuels which can carry surface fires into tree crowns are known as ladder fuels. Removal of these fuels significantly reduces the potential for a surface fire to move up into the forest canopy and develop into a crown fire. This is often accomplished by tree pruning, mowing grasses, removal and disposal of smaller trees and shrubs from below adjacent trees. Small trees contain a small percentage of total lichen biomass and their removal during fuel reduction treatments should have a small negative effect on epiphytic lichen biomass.
The horizontal continuity describes the distribution of fuels on the same plane such as the ground surface. Contiguous grasses, interwoven tree branches, or dense stand of shrubs have a high degree of continuity and represent an increased wildfire hazard because they provide an uninterrupted fuel source for a wildfire. Disrupting horizontal continuity is an important wildfire hazard mitigation technique. This is often accomplished by tree thinning, timber harvesting, and clearing of vegetation. The establishment of fuel breaks is another method of reducing contiguous fuels. Roads, trails, and timber harvest areas can all function as fuel breaks if vegetation is properly maintained. Fuel breaks can be enhanced by completing wildfire hazard mitigation work in adjoining areas. There are numerous methods by which fuels can be reduced. These include hand clearing, use of mechanical equipment (chippers, masticating equipment, and mowing), grazing, hand and mechanical piling, pruning, thinning, timber harvesting and prescribed burning.
Survivable Space Montana Fire Safe describes survivable space as follows: Survivable space has evolved from the term defensible space. Survivable space is the modification of landscape design, fuels, and building materials that make a home ignition caused by wildfire unlikely, even without direct firefighter intervention. The size of the survivable space area is usually expressed as a distance extending outward from the structure and all attachments, such as a deck. This distance varies by the type of wild land vegetation growing near the house and steepness of the terrain. Typical distances range from 30-200 feet.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -33- A copy of the Montana DNRC Fuel Reduction Standards from form S-701 is in the appendix.
There are several benefits to creating and maintaining a survivable space near home sites: firefighters will be more likely to successfully defend the home or structure and the home is more likely to survive a wild land fire without structure protection. A fire is less likely to spread from the home or structure to surrounding vegetation. Roadside Fuel Breaks Road access should also receive high priority when prioritizing wildfire hazard reduction projects. Creation of fuel breaks adjacent to roadways allows for safe ingress and egress for emergency vehicles and visitors. Fuel accumulations adjacent to roadsides can become an issue during wildfire evacuations and threaten lives of fleeing residents and responding firefighters.
Reducing tree densities (fuel continuity) by completing thinning and slash disposal work in densely forested areas along roadsides will limit flame length, intensity, rate of spread, and the heat produced. This significantly limits the potential for crown fire and flame front development and will assist fire fighters in defending the community, individual neighborhoods, and homes.
In mature forest areas dominated by larger trees commercial thinning can be utilized. Harvested trees are merchandized as sawlogs, post and poles, house logs and various other forest products as market conditions permit. Timber harvesting equipment is typically utilized to cut, delimb and skid trees to roadside locations where forest products can be loaded onto trucks and transported to wood products manufacturers. State, federal and local forestry laws typically apply to commercial thinning operations so working with a professional forester is generally recommended. Foresters can recommend logging contractors and provide assistance with project design and layout, permitting, contracts, marketing of wood products and timber sale administration.
Increasing space between tree crowns to a minimum distance of at least 10 feet in thinning operations on level to moderate slopes will lessen the potential for a crown fire. Keep in mind this is the recommended minimum distance between the outer branches of adjoining trees. The actual distance between tree stems will be greater. Tree spacing distance should be increased on steeper topography.
Retention trees are selected based on species, growth form, health, and position. Fire resistant species such as large diameter Douglas-fir are favored where possible. Maintenance of species diversity is accomplished by leaving representative trees of several species during thinning. Less favorable species include lodgepole and spruce. These trees are easily damaged by low intensity fire and the growth form of spruce tends to include low hanging branches that function as ladder fuels. Retention trees should be wind firm and free of disease and insect infestation. Trees with crown ratio of 35% or better tend to be healthier and respond well to thinning. Crown ratio is the percentage of the total tree height occupied by green branches. For example a 50 foot tall tree which has good branches for a distance of 25 feet down from the top has a 50% live crown ratio. Fire Resistant Landscaping “Firescaping” is landscape design that reduces vulnerability of structures and property to wildfire. The goal is to develop a landscape with a design and choice of plants that offers the best
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -34- fire protection and enhances the property. Through proper plant selection, placement and maintenance, it is possible to diminish the possibility of ignition, lower fire intensity, and reduce how quickly a fire spreads, thereby increasing a home’s survivability. The following factors should be considered when planning, designing and implementing landscaping activities within a home’s defensible space zone: Landscape according to the recommended defensible-space zones. That is, the plants near homes should be more widely spaced and lower growing than those farther away. Do not plant in large masses. Instead, plant in small, irregular clusters or islands. Use decorative rock, gravel and stepping stone pathways to break up the continuity of the vegetation and fuels. This can modify fire behavior and slow the spread of fire across the landscape. Incorporate a diversity of plant types and species in the landscape. Not only will this be visually satisfying, but it should help keep pests and diseases from causing problems within the whole landscape. In the event of drought and water rationing, prioritize plants to be saved. Provide available supplemental water to plants closest to the house. Use mulches to conserve moisture and reduce weed growth. Mulch can be organic or inorganic. Do not use pine bark, thick layers of pine needles or other mulches that readily carry fire. Fire Resistant Plants Residential and common area landscape plantings should be limited to carefully spaced fire resistant tree and shrub species. New plantings of fire resistant trees and shrubs should spaced far enough apart so that once the plants mature the tips of their outer branches will remain at least 10 feet apart. Remove all ladder fuels (shrubs, tall grasses, small trees) from under mature trees. Carefully prune mature trees to a height of at least 10 feet. The characteristics of fire- resistant plants include: 1. Leaves with a high moisture content. 2. Drought tolerant. 3. Little or no seasonal accumulation of dead vegetation. 4. Low volume of total vegetation. 5. Non-resinous woody material. 6. Open and loose branching habit. 7. Slow growing. Hardscapes Hardscapes are the hard structures that surround the outside of a home. Stone, cement or brick patios, walkways, walls and borders can be constructed to increase the outdoor living space of a property. All of these landscape creations have a very low percentage of burning. Hardscapes also help to prevent the spread of fires to other parts of your property and home because they are made of fire blocking material such as natural rock, cement and concrete. See the Appendix for a list of fire-resistant plants that can be use in landscaping.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -35- Maintenance A landscape is a dynamic system that constantly grows and changes. Plants considered fire resistant and which have low fuel volumes can lose these characteristics over time. The landscape, and the plants in it, must be maintained to retain their fire resistant properties. Always keep a watchful eye towards reducing the fuel volumes available to fire. Be aware of the growth habits of the plants within the landscape and of the changes that occur throughout the seasons. Remove annuals and perennials after they have gone to seed or when the stems become overly dry. Rake up leaves and other litter as it builds up through the season. Mow or trim grasses to a low height within the defensible space zone. This is particularly important as grasses cure. Remove plant parts damaged by snow, wind, frost or other agents. Timely pruning is critical. Pruning not only reduces fuel volumes but also maintains healthier plants by producing more vigorous, succulent growth. Landscape maintenance is a critical part of a home’s defense system. Even the best defensible space can be compromised through lack of maintenance.
Wildlife All forest-dependent wildlife require food (including water), shelter from inclement weather (both summer and winter), and cover from predators for breeding, rearing of young, and feeding. The mixture of forest vegetation types and landforms determines suitability of habitat for each particular wildlife species. A diverse mixture of tree and shrub species, sizes, and age classes, as well as dead and dying trees in the form of snags and coarse woody debris (fallen trees and large logging debris) will increase wildlife species diversity and abundance. The presence of water and associated vegetation (riparian and wetland areas) in proximity to diverse forest habitats enhances biological diversity. Each wildlife species has a set of specialized requirements, including food, water and cover. If one of these requirements is in short supply, the overall effectiveness of the habitat is reduced. The requirement that is in short supply is referred to as a limiting factor. To produce high quality wildlife habitat in a forest land setting managers manipulate the type and arrangement of tree cover present on the property. Generally, wildlife habitat management is intended to promote different forest cover types that can provide the necessary food, cover and water requirements for a broad spectrum of wildlife species. A mosaic of forest age classes and types, interspersed with adequate edge habitat, is a feasible way of enhancing the wildlife populations in an area. Protection of riparian and wetland habitats is especially significant as these habitats receive a significantly higher degree of use and provide critical habitat for specific wildlife and plant species. Additionally, proper riparian and wetland area management is necessary to maintain the water quality and fisheries habitat.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -36- Improving and maintaining summer range for elk and mule deer is a primary management goal of Moonlight Basin. Maintain and improving rangeland production of the intermountain grasslands found throughout Moonlight will ensure the persistence of a critical food source for big game. Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Upland Forests
Snags About one-third of forest wildlife species are dependent on snags (standing dead trees) and coarse woody debris (down logs and trees). More than 60 of these species use cavities (holes excavated in trees) created primarily by woodpeckers for denning, nesting, and shelter. Most cavity nesters prefer the harder and larger diameter snags; those that are in the earlier stages of decay. The taller and larger diameter snags benefit more species, for a longer period of time, than the smaller snags. However, small diameter and shorter snags (including stumps at least 3 feet in height) are also utilized for feeding and cover. Snag dependent wildlife also use live trees with substantial amounts of decay. This includes broken tops, large dead and/or broken branches, cracked or damaged boles, and heart rot. Most wildlife species that use snags will use trees with substantial decay. Many of these defective trees will last for long periods of time and although they have little economic value, they have excellent value to snag-dependent wildlife. Maintenance or creation of 5-15 snags per acre (dead, standing trees) will increase the use of the forested portion of the property by a number of wildlife species. Snags are utilized by wildlife for nesting, denning, perching, roosting, resting and feeding. Snags and snag recruits should be identified and marked prior to timber harvests. Trees with low economic value that contain obvious defect should be retained wherever as possible snag recruits. Snags can be created from conifers by girdling at the point of desired breakage, with a chainsaw, or with a mechanical harvester at time of tree harvest. Snag replacements should be as large in diameter and height and possible. A range of diameters is desirable, with a minimum size of ten inches diameter at breast height (DBH). Snags that exceed 20 inches DBH are highly desirable. A mix of species will diversify use and stagger retention time. Retention of recruitment snags (dead or dying trees), will ensure a consistent, long-term supply of snags on the property. Tree species preferred for snag retention or replacement include (most preferred listed first): 1) Quaking aspen 2) Douglas-fir 3) Whitebark pine Moonlight Basin community should consider working with local Audubon and other non-game groups to establish bluebird, bat and other migrant songbirds nesting or roosting boxes.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -37- Coarse Woody Debris Coarse woody debris (down logs) goes through a similar decay cycle and use pattern as snags. The larger diameter and longer length hard logs last longer and are used by more wildlife species than the smaller and softer pieces of coarse woody debris. Ideally, these two components should be scattered throughout forested stands. Management practices that retain dead and dying large diameter trees are encouraged, especially near riparian areas. Large treetops and butt ends that are bucked during harvest can be retained for coarse woody debris. This component can also be created from poor quality trees that are at least 20 feet long and at least 10 inches in diameter at the small end. When small amounts of blowdown occur between harvests, consider leaving a portion of the individual tree or large pieces of trees for wildlife.
Understory Vegetation Forest understory vegetation consists primarily of grasses and forbs in sunnier locations, shrubs increase in abundance where sufficient soil moisture and sunlight are present. Some conifer regeneration is also included this habitat category. Many bird species utilize understory vegetation for nesting, foraging and cover. Maintenance of tall shrubs and grasses in forest stands and near riparian areas will improve bird habitat. Mammals use this habitat feature for food, shelter, and cover. Grasses and forbs provide cover and food for small mammals such as mice and voles. Bunchgrasses, many forb species and several shrub species are preferred forage for elk and deer. Tall shrubs provide valuable wildlife habitat and should be retained where possible by maintaining the forest openings in which they tend to be located. Understory vegetation will tend to decrease in abundance where the forest canopy cover exceeds 40%.
Forest Openings Forest openings provide habitat features not found throughout dense forest stands. Forest tree canopies provide deep shade, catch and divert rainwater, intercept snow and deposit branch and leaf litter on the forest floor, acidifying soils. These and other factors can inhibit grass, forb and shrub production.
Creating and maintaining forest openings reduces competition for sunlight and increases in on- site rainfall, provide growing conditions that favor grasses, forbs and shrubs. In addition, the partial shade found in these openings tends to moderate temperatures and retains soil moisture on site. Seed production is generally increased and insect populations thrive, providing food for small mammals and birds. The edges created by the contrast between the forested area and the opening provide additional habitat for a diverse array of wildlife species.
During thinning operations use of a variable density-thinning pattern can be utilized to mimic natural disturbance patterns. Some patches (at least 50 feet in diameter) can be thinned to a wider spacing to favor development of shrubs and ground cover. Other areas or patches (also at least 50 feet in diameter) can be thinned very lightly or not at all to retain shelter and cover for wildlife. These variable density units can be scattered throughout the landscape. Standing dead trees (snags) that do not pose safety problems should also be retained to the extent possible for the benefit of wildlife.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -38- Uneven-aged Forest Management Uneven-aged forest management is encouraged over the long term to develop and maintain diverse forest structures that include multiple tree age classes and increase the abundance of large diameter trees. Multi-layered forest stand structures are desirable in areas containing old growth large diameter trees. Uneven distribution of the overstory trees will lead to a diversity of understory plant species, providing a wide variety of potential sources of food for wildlife. These stands can be maintained over the long term with selective thinning treatments.
Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Upland Forests Create and maintain forest openings Maintain snags Retain downed logs Maintain or improve native understory vegetation Encourage multi-layered forest structures with uneven-aged management Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Riparian Areas and Wetlands
Wildlife habitat management is especially significant in and near riparian areas and wetlands due to the dependence of many wildlife species on these habitats. Timing of management actions should be considered to reduce impacts to wildlife at critical times of the year such as breeding, nesting and birthing seasons and winter months when animals may be stressed. Riparian and wetland areas typically occupy a small percentage (less than 5%) of the landscape but are important islands of biological diversity and are ecologically significant. Healthy riparian and wetland sites provide critical habitat for many wildlife species.
Riparian vegetation also shades streams and keeps water temperatures cool improving habitat for fish and aquatic invertebrates. Riparian vegetation provides a vast majority of the organic matter necessary to support aquatic communities. Management of riparian/wetland plant communities requires special planning to address all the resource values associated with riparian and wetland plant communities.
Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Riparian Areas Maintain shrubs in riparian areas. Shrubs provide food and cover for numerous wildlife species. Shrubs species provide excellent erosion control along streams. Maintain a healthy buffer strip of riparian vegetation adjacent to streams and wetlands. Buffer strips reduce sedimentation, stabilize streambanks, and slow flood waters. Retain snags and broken top trees for cavity nesting wildlife where they do not present a safety hazard. Avoid locating structures and roads in riparian and wetland areas. Retain streamside trees and shrubs for thermal cover, debris recruitment, and streambank stability. Adhere to Streamside Management Zone Law and implement Forestry Best Management Practices when conducting commercial timber harvest operations.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -39- Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Intermountain Grasslands
There are numerous non-forested, grassy parks throughout Moonlight Basin. These are known as intermountain grasslands. As is well known by elk hunters and enthusiasts in Montana, these areas are hot spots for elk activity. Elk congregate and graze in these areas. During rut, bulls use intermountain grasslands to herd their harems together, and they are often the site of antler- locking confrontations between rival bulls. Intermountain grasslands are ecosystems typically composed of four above-ground layers. The uppermost is the shrub layer. This layer is not always present. Where it is present in Moonlight it is often sage-brush. The next layer is composed of tall bunchgrasses and herbaceous forbs. Common in this layer are native bunchgrasses such as bluebunch wheatgrass, rough fescue and Idaho fescue as well as forbs such as yarrow and lupine. Below this layer is a third layer composed of shorter bunchgrass and an even wider variety of forbs including a multitude of native wildflowers. The lowest and final layer is the mat of lichens, mosses and algae which form a biotic crust over the soil. It is also known as a cryptogamic crust. This layer is perhaps the most sensitive, functional and irreplaceable component of an intermountain grassland. The biotic crust holds soil together between bunchgrass stools, locks in soil moisture, protects against surface erosion and, by virtue of firmly occupying the growing space between plants, provides a barrier against the establishment of invasive weeds. This layer contains a vast assemblage of species and forms over the course of centuries. It is sensitive; trampling by humans, livestock or wildlife can break the barrier created by the biotic crust and greatly diminish its ecological function. Heavier disturbance by vehicles, equipment or road construction can destroy it entirely. Unlike the other layers of intermountain grassland ecosystems which can recover with proper management, once this layer is lost it will not recover on a timescale appreciable to land management activities. Conifer encroachment within Moonlight Basin continues to threaten the long-term viability of these grasslands. Climatic changes and the absence of frequent, low-intensity fire are allowing trees to grow where they historically have not. Unchecked, this could eventually cause grasslands to convert to forest. It is common to see encroaching Douglas-fir growing over sagebrush and native bunch grasses
Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Intermountain Grasslands
Restrict any road building or other construction within intermountain grasslands. Prohibit off-road vehicle use and minimize equipment use within intermountain grasslands. Do not locate logging slash piles within intermountain grasslands. Counteract conifer encroachment with periodic removal of trees infringing in to grasslands.
Prevent unauthorized livestock grazing by periodically checking fence lines abutting private property.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -40- Develop a long-term weed strategy of chemical or biological controls to reduce the abundance and prevent the further spread of noxious weeds.
Wildlife Habitat Management Considerations for Aspen
Aspen is widely dispersed throughout North America. Fire suppression over the past one hundred years has greatly impacted this species because aspen requires disturbance (i.e. fire) to regenerate and to reduce other competing species. Vegetative reproduction of aspens primarily occurs through root suckers that generally require a disturbance that alters the hormonal balance within the system and promotes sucker production. In areas where extensive browse is expected from both domestic and wildlife ungulates, exclusionary tactics may be required to allow ample establishment of aspen recruits. According to Montana Fish Wildlife & Parks, Aspen stands provide important habitat for grizzly bears because of the forbs that occupy the understory. Deer, elk, moose, snowshoe hares, beavers, porcupines, and other wildlife rely on aspen groves for browse, particularly during the winter months. Many bird species also use aspen groves because of the rich understory that is commonly associated with this habitat type. Aspen provide critical browse for many ungulate species as well as nesting and cover for birds and bats. Areas that contain existing stands of aspen should be targeted for expansion and conifer removal. Ex-closures should encompass the target stand of aspen (including all sprouts) and include a fifty to one hundred foot buffer from the perimeter of the grove. Poly fencing offers a durable and cost effective way to erect ex-closures at about $1.05 per linear foot. The targeted areas should be fenced off for 8 to 10 years if heavy browse is anticipated. The root system should be encouraged to generate new sprouts by removing existing conifers and cutting decadent and dead aspen trees. .
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Conifer Encroachment within Aspen Stand Management Recommendations for Wildlife Habitat in Aspen Stands
Remove all conifers within existing aspen stands and from a 100 feet around them Decadent aspen trees should be cut as low to the ground as possible By using mechanical equipment to cut conifers and decadent aspen the ground will be disturbed and the rhizomes will be stimulated to send out new aspen shoots. Consider erecting enclosures with ploy fencing to prevent over grazing by big game. Willow Habitat In and along the small creeks, wetlands, springs and seasonal depressions that retain ground water are willow, alder and dogwood plant communities that provide forage for moose throughout the year. These unique plant communities are often located within wildlife corridors and need to be protected. Moonlight Basin needs to identify these unique habitats as it has done with its wetlands and protect them from development.
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Small patch of willows in upper Wickiup Creek Edge Many wildlife species concentrate feeding and other activities along forest edges, increasing the amount of this “edge effect” or the sharp transition area between forested and grassland/shrub communities should be encouraged. The edge effect is an ecological concept that describes how there is a greater diversity of life in the region where the edges of two adjacent ecosystems overlap, such as land/water, or forest/grassland. At the edge of two overlapping ecosystems, you can find species from both of these ecosystems, as well as unique species that aren’t found in either ecosystem but are specially adapted to the conditions of the transition zone between the two edges. Wildlife Corridor Management Considerations Primary wildlife movement corridors include the Madison/Gallatin Divide, Jack Creek and the South Fork of Jack Creek-Wickiup Creek Complex. Jack Creek is a natural east/west wildlife travel corridor within Moonlight Basin. It provides access to Wickiup Creek, Moonlight Creek, Lone Creek and Upper and Lower Ulery Lakes and their associated wetlands. Wickiup Creek is another natural wildlife corridor that provides connectivity from the South Fork of Jack Creek and the southern Lee Metcalf Wilderness Taylor Hilgard Area to the Northern part of the Lee Metcalf Wilderness Spanish Area. The Madison/Gallatin Divide provides linkage from Beehive Basin into the three channels of Yellowmule Creek and the Taylor Hilgard Wilderness. All forest and habitat management activities should consider the importance of these areas to wildlife movement and provide adequate security cover and minimize barriers to wildlife movement.
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Elk in the Wickiup Creek Wildlife Corridor
One of the priority projects is to create a fuel break between the two upper forks of Wickiup Creek to create more forage opportunities for big game. The plan is to leave thick patches of trees irregularly feathered along the drainage bottoms and to remove trees on the broad ridge that separates the two small drainages. Threatened and Endangered Species
Species of Concern The Montana Natural Heritage Program compiles and maintains existing inventory data for biological diversity in Montana. This inventory includes plant and animal species, unique plant communities or other biological features that are rare and potentially threatened by extinction in Montana. A query of the Montana Natural Resource Information System determined that 4 birds, two mammals and one fish Species of Concern whose ranges occur within the vicinity of the subject property. No plant Species of Concern was reported. Identified animal Species of Concern include the Grizzly bear which is listed as threatened by the United States Forest Service (USFS) and sensitive by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the wolverine which is listed as sensitive by the BLM and USFS. The westslope cutthroat is also listed as sensitive by the BLM and USFS. Bird species of concern include the Clarks nutcracker, Brown creeper, Cassin’s finch and evening grosbeak. In the Appendix is the Species of Concern Report and Map prepared by the Montana Natural Heritage Program
Priority Treatments Several Priority Treatments have been identified to accomplish management goals for the Moonlight Basin Community Area and achieve the Desired Future Condition in portions of each
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -44- forest type. The locations of the proposed treatments are indicated below on the Forest Health and Wildfire Mitigation Priority Treatment Maps. Estimated treatment costs are dependent on a number of independent variables including but not limited to; availability of contractors with slash processing equipment (such as grinders, chippers, and slash bundlers), log market conditions, labor costs and fuel prices. Estimated costs are based on removing woody biomass from project areas and transporting the hogfuel (slash, pulpwood, logs) or chips to a processing facility or biomass heating system. These represent the best professional estimates of Northwest Management, Inc. under current market conditions. Forest Health Treatments
Western spruce budworm control in the Douglas-fir Forest Type The mature Douglas-fir stands are in danger of being killed from the continued defoliation from western spruce budworm. It appears that the budworm population is localized in these stands and is active. The aerial application of Bt is a cost effective measure to try and save and re-invigorate these highly visible stands.
Document 2015 Douglas-fir bark beetle attacks Douglas-fir bark beetle is active within the Mature Douglas-fir Mix Forest Type and has emerged or will emerge and attack additional trees. It is important to identify these trees and monitor the immediate for future attacks. Recently attacked trees should be removed. MCH an anti-aggregation pheromone should be paced within these stands early in the spring of 2016. Aspen Stand Restoration The few aspen stands present are old and decadent and are being encroached by Douglas-fir and subalpine fir encroachment. Removing the conifers in and around these aspen stands will re- invigorate these stands. It will be important to disturb the rhizomes of these stands to promote suckering. Fencing may be required to limit big game browsing on young aspen shoots. Timber Harvesting There are opportunities to harvest merchantable trees within the Mature Douglas-fir Forest Mix, particularly to address the ongoing budworm defoliation and recent bark beetle attacks. The small islands of mature lodgepole pine within the Mature Subalpine Forest Mix can be mechanically harvested and help create additional fuel breaks. Within the High Elevation Conifer Mix traditional timber harvesting equipment can be used to create additional lift lines, ski runs, tree skiing areas and new developments. On a landscape or watershed level converting forested areas back to early successional stages will benefit big game summer range. Identifying areas that can be harvested and scheduling the treatments out on a 15 to 20 year rotation will benefit a variety of wildlife species.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -45- Wildfire Hazard Treatments
Ulery Lakes HOA Roadside This action will promote public and firefighter safety along the main road within the Ulery Lakes Homeowners Association that serves as a primary evacuation route in the event of a wildfire. High fuel concentrations along Ulery Lakes Road and Timber Ridge Road pose a greater risk for fire events with intense fire behavior that could threaten public evacuation along with reducing firefighter access. Mitigation of the wildfire hazard will reduce the potential for extreme fire behavior within the HOA.
Lower Ulery Lakes Phase 1 and 2 Creating a healthier more fire resilient forest within proposed subdivisions is an important component of subdivision planning. Creating shaded fuel breaks adjacent to developments helps protect people and property from the effects of a wildfire. Reducing forest fuels in close proximity to homes helps reduce the spread and intensity of a wildfire.
Jack Creek Roadside Interior Road Fuel Breaks This action will promote public and firefighter safety along the main access routes that will serve as primary evacuation routes in the event of a wildfire. High fuel concentrations along Jack Creek Road pose a greater risk for fire events with intense fire behavior that could threaten public evacuation along with reducing firefighter access. Mitigation of the wildfire hazard will reduce the potential for extreme fire behavior along Jack Creek Road the main evacuation route in the event of a wildfire. Interior Roadside Fuel Breaks The Jack Creek drainage could act as a natural funnel for a wildfire because of its southwest orientation and availability of fuels. Breaking up the continuity of the forest fuels within this area is important. It is important to utilize interior roads within this area as fuel breaks to help reduce the spread and intensity of a potential wildfire. Shaded Fuel Breaks within Young Subalpine Forest Mix These young stands are overstocked with young even aged lodgepole pine. Thinning these stands helps create a healthier more fire resilient forest. Creating a mosaic of stand densities is desired. Leave tree retention can be highly variable and still break up the continuity of forest fuels while also improving wildlife habitat, maintaining forest aesthetics and creating healthier more fire resilient forest. Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix Thinning these stands helps create a healthier more fire resilient forest. Creating a mosaic of stand densities is desired. Leave tree retention can be highly variable and still break up the continuity of forest fuels while also improving wildlife habitat, maintaining forest aesthetics and creating healthier more fire resilient forest. Wickiup Wildlife Corridor Shaded Fuel Break Create a fuel break between the two upper forks of Wickiup Creek to create more forage opportunities for big game. The plan is to leave thick patches of trees irregularly feathered along the drainage bottoms and to remove trees on the broad ridge that separates the drainages.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -46- Moonlight Basin Priority Treatments
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -47- Moonlight Basin Priority Treatments
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -48- Estimated treatment costs are dependent on a number of independent variables including but not limited to; availability of contractors with slash processing equipment (such as grinders, chippers, and slash bundlers), log market conditions, labor costs and fuel prices. Estimated costs are based on removing woody biomass from project areas and transporting the hogfuel (slash, pulpwood, logs) or chips to a processing facility or biomass heating system
Forest Treatment Schedule with Cost Estimates
Forest Treatment Implementation Schedule Cost per Potential Forest Acre Tons of Year Treatment Activity Season Type Acres Total Cost Biomass 2015 Aerial spray of Bt for western spruce budworm control: Determine priority Douglas-fir stands and Douglas- create maps with waypoints for contract fir Forest $65 aerial applicator. Monitor effectiveness. Q2-Q3 Type 682 $44,300 Document and Monitor Douglas-fir Bark Beetle attacks Douglas- GPS locations, map, determine how to fir Forest remove beetle infested trees. Q3-Q4 Type $5,000 Lower Ulery Lakes Phase 1 Wildfire Mitigation: Develop project plan. Mark leave trees. Thin an chip ladder fuels, dead, diseased Mature and suppressed lodgepole pine, subalpine Mixed $4,000 fir and Engelmann spruce Q3 Conifer 12 $48,000 480 Lower Ulery Lakes Phase 2 Wildfire Mitigation: Develop project plan. Mark leave trees. Thin and chip ladder fuels, dead, diseased Mature and suppressed lodgepole pine, subalpine Mixed $2,800.00 fir and Engelmann spruce Q3-Q4 Conifer 12 $33,600 480 Ulery Lakes HOA Roadside Fire Mitigation Mature Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, Mixed $2,300 determine biomass utilization standards Q3-Q4 Conifer 40 $92,000 1000 Statistically Verifiable Biomass Forest Inventory Conduct biomass based forest inventory, include dead and downed logs, $3.00 merchantability standards Q3-Q4 6,000 $18,000 SubTotal 1,960 $234,900 tons
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Forest Treatment Implementation Schedule Cost per Potential Forest Acre Tons of Year Treatment Activity Season Type Acres Total Cost Biomass 2016 Aerial spray of Bt for western spruce budworm control: Aerially re-apply Bt. Monitor Douglas- effectiveness. fir Forest $65 Q2-Q3 Type 682 $44,300 Document and Monitor Douglas- Douglas-fir Bark Beetle attacks fir Forest Install MCH if necessary. Q2- Type TBD $5,000 Jack Creek Roadside Fire Mitigation Set project up, sample mark, 161 obtain bids, and determine Young acres biomass utilization standards. LP & Phase 1 $2,200 Implement treatment on Phase 1. Q2-Q4 SAF 40 acres $84,000 400 Interior Roads Fuel Breaks Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Mature 98 acres biomass utilization standards. Mixed Phase 1 $2,100 Implement treatment on Phase 1. Q3-Q4 Conifer 33 acres $69,300 660 Section 34 and Shaded Fuel Breaks within portion Young Subalpine Forest Mix of Set project up, sample mark, Section obtain bids, and determine 3 biomass utilization standards. Young Implement treatment. LP & 96.6 $2,000 Q2-Q4 SAF acres $193,200 966 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine biomass utilization standards. Mature Implement treatment Mixed 67.7 $500 Q2-Q4 Conifer acres $33,850 2,708 Aspen Stand Restoration Mechanically remove conifer $1,500 encroachment Q2-Q4 Aspen 15 $22,500 150 4,844 Subtotal $452,130 tons
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Forest Treatment Implementation Schedule Cost per Potential Forest Acre Tons of Year Treatment Activity Season Type Acres Total Cost Biomass 2017 Aerial spray of Bt for western spruce budworm control: Douglas-
Aerially re-apply Bt if necessary fir Forest $68 Q2-Q3 Type 682 $46,376 Document Douglas-fir Bark Douglas- Beetle attacks fir Forest Install MCH if necessary Q2- Type TBD $5,000 Jack Creek Roadside Fire Mitigation Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Young biomass utilization standards. LP & Phase 2 $2,200.00 Implement treatment. Q3-Q4 SAF 40 acres $84,000 400 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Young Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine biomass utilization standards. Young Section Implement treatment. LP & 3 $2,000 Q2-Q4 SAF 64 acres $128,000 640 Interior Roads Fuel Breaks Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Mature 98 acres biomass utilization standards. Mixed Phase 2 $2,100 Implement treatment. Q3-Q4 Conifer 33 acres $69,300 660 Wickiup Wildlife Corridor Fuel Break Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Young biomass utilization standards. LP & $2,000 Implement treatment Q3 SAF 36.1 $72,200 361 Aspen Stand Restoration Monitor effectiveness of project determine if an enclosure is needed Q2-Q4 Aspen 15 2,031 Subtotal $404,876 tons
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -51- Forest Treatment Implementation Schedule Cost per Potential Forest Acre Tons of Year Treatment Activity Season Type Acres Total Cost Biomass 2018 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark,
obtain bids, and determine Mature biomass utilization standards. Mixed $500 Implement treatment. Q2-Q4 Conifer 53 acres $26,500 2,120 Jack Creek Roadside Fire Mitigation Set project up, sample mark, 161 obtain bids, and determine Young acres biomass utilization standards. LP & Phase3 $2,200 Implement treatment. Q3-Q4 SAF 40 acres $84,000 400 Interior Roads Fuel Breaks Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Mature 98 acres biomass utilization standards. Mixed Phase 3 $2,100 Implement treatment. Q3-Q4 Conifer 33 acres $69,300 660 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Young Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, Section obtain bids, and determine Young 2 biomass utilization standards. LP & 100 $2,000 Implement treatment. Q2-Q4 SAF acres $200,000 1,000 4,840 Subtotal $379,800 tons
2019 Jack Creek Roadside Fire Mitigation Set project up, sample mark, 161
obtain bids, and determine Young acres biomass utilization standards. LP & Phase 4 $2,200 Implement treatment. Q3-Q4 SAF 40 acres $84,000 400 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Mature biomass utilization standards. Mixed $500 Implement treatment. Q2-Q4 Conifer 54 acres $27,000 2,160 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Young Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, Section obtain bids, and determine Young 1 &2 biomass utilization standards. LP & 130 $1,000 Implement treatment. Q2-Q4 SAF acres $130,000 1,300 3,860 Subtotal $241,000 tons
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -52- Forest Treatment Implementation Schedule Cost per Potential Forest Acre Tons of Year Treatment Activity Season Type Acres Total Cost Biomass 2020-2040 Shaded Fuel Breaks within Mature Subalpine Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark,
obtain bids, and determine Mature biomass utilization standards. Mixed $500 Implement project. Q2-Q3 Conifer 73.9 $36,950 2,956 Fuel Breaks within High Elevation Forest Mix Set project up, sample mark, obtain bids, and determine Young biomass utilization standards. LP $2,000 Implement project. Q3 &SAF 228 $456,000 2,280 Future Forest Improvement Projects within the Mature Douglas-fir Forest Type Future Forest Improvement Projects within the High Elevation Mixed Conifer Forest Type Future Forest Thinning Projects within the Young Subalpine Forest Type Future Forest Improvement Projects within the Mature Subalpine Forest Type Future Development Areas, ski lifts, ski runs within the High Elevation Mixed Conifer Type Future Development Areas within the Mature Subalpine Forest Type Mix Subtotal >5236 $492,950 tons
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -53- Available Biomass To get an accurate estimate of the tons of woody biomass available would require a statistically verifiable forest inventory. Past forest inventories conducted by NMI in the Big Sky area were used to estimate the tons of biomass per acre on the four forest types delineated within the Moonlight Basin Community Area. On a number of these older forest inventories NMI used a specialized complier within the forest projection software to estimate the number of tons of woody biomass per acre by forest type. The Forest Treatment Schedule with Cost Estimates in the table above estimates that in Years 1- 6 completing the proposed projects would create approximately 21,700 tons of woody biomass, or an average 3,625 tons per year. This is based on treating approximately 520 acres within the Mature Subalpine Mix Forest Type and 800 acres within the Young Subalpine Forest Mix.
Estimated Biomass Tonnage per Treatment Area by Forest Type Forest Type Operable Tons of Biomass Acres biomass per available acre Young 1,800 10 18,000 tons Subalpine Mix Mature 1,100 30 33,300 tons Douglas-fir Mature 1,500 40 60,000 tons Subalpine Conifer Mix High 1050 50 52,500 tons Elevation Mixed Conifer Total 163,800 Biomass tons Available
The table above looks at all operable ground (slopes < 40% and not within 100’ of a waterbody) within the four forest types and lists the estimated biomass available. Sustainable Biomass Supply The sustainable biomass supply would require a calculation of annual growth and yield of forests available for biomass harvest. In the short term woody biomass will be generated from additional land clearing for proposed ski lifts, ski runs and development areas within the High Elevation Forest Mix and development areas within the Mature Subalpine Forest Mix. If we assume that it takes 100 years within Moonlight Basin to grow trees big enough to harvest 4,000 board feet ( or 28 tons) of timber per acre ( approximately 1 logging truck) that equates to .28 tons per acre per year. Multiplying the growth rate of .28 tons per acre by the amount of operable acres equates to 1,526 tons per year in a managed forest. So a conservative estimate of the amount of sustainable biomass available on a yearly basis would be approximately 1,500 tons.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -54- Additional Biomass from outside Moonlight Basin Presently the markets for pulpwood, chipped or ground up logging and thinning residues are limited. Willis Enterprises operating in Bonner, Montana does purchase pulpwood. However, due to the length of the hauling distance the cost paid for the product will not cover the cost to process and transport the material from the Gallatin or Madison Valley.. Moonlight Basin could develop a woody biomass procurement strategy to purchase logs or hog fuel and have the material delivered to a holding/processing site. On most timber harvests and forest thinning projects loggers have to cut and transport the non-merchantable wood to landings anyway. Instead of putting into slash piles and burning it this wood could be processed and delivered to Moonlight Basin. Transportation distance would be the primary determinant of the cost to procure biomass from outside sources. Other cost considerations would be storage and processing of roundwood into chips or hog fuel used as the fuel source. The Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP) provides financial assistance to private forest landowners who want to harvest and use their woody biomass for energy production. On the federal level the BCAP program is under review and new rules and regulations are being developed. There might be an opportunity for Moonlight Basin to receive subsidies for the transporting of biomass to its heating system and this program should be monitored.
Small Wood Harvesting and Utilization
With the increase in demand for biomass fuel, new harvesting and processing equipment development is emerging rapidly. Here are some of the technologies that are being used to handle and utilize different biomass materials. Chipping vs. Grinding Chippers produce a specific type of end product for use in applications requiring specific chip size and dimensions. Landscape mulch, paper pulp chips, and some biomass boilers require consistent exact chip sizes. Clean, uncontaminated material is also needed for a chipper to produce the necessary end product; rocks, dirt, and metal can often wreak havoc with a chipper’s knives. Chippers often process material at a slower rate than grinders and typically have a directional chute that blows chips out of the machine; the chute can be moved to spread chip piles around or fill a chip van. Grinding is more effective where end product specifications are not as demanding. Grinders tend to produce a more variable type of end product that can be used in composting operations, hogfuel, and some biofuel applications. Grinders can accommodate a wide variety of materials including stumps, logs, and pallets. Instead of knives which cut material, grinders employ a hammer-like roller which pushes material through a screen and produces product. Grinders also have a conveyor belt discharge instead of chute system. When chip piles become too large, the whole machine must be rotated. Grinders can also fill chip vans directly. The end product that the chipped or grinded material will be used for is important. Some biomass units can use a wide range of woody biomass, while others such as pellets and briquettes require a uniform material to make their products.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -55- Tub Grinder vs. Horizontal Grinder Grinding machines are available in two different styles; either tub or horizontal style. Tub grinders are fed material through the top of the machine and work better with shorter material such as stumps, root wads, and construction debris. They are best suited for more remote areas as small debris is often launched out of the open top tub, thus creating a potential safety concern. Tub grinders are easy to maintain and have less moving parts than a horizontal feed. Since tubs are a top feed, they do require machinery to feed it that have a high reach lifting capacity such as excavators or log loaders. Horizontal grinders do not have such a tendency to propel debris as tub grinders have, therefore they can be used in more urban settings. Horizontal grinders are also more conducive to longer material such as trees and limbs. They are somewhat more limited in the height and width of material they can handle, unlike tub grinders
Upswing vs. Downswing Hammermill The part of the grinder that breaks material down is a horizontal cylinder with multiple cutting teeth called a hammermill. The cylinder spins rapidly, the material is pulverized then pushed through a filtering screen and exits the machine. The type of material being processed will dictate which type of hammermill a customer requires. An up swinging machine will work better with cleaner, homogenous material and has faster throughput. A downswing machine works better for dirtier, mixed material and has slower throughput.
Tracked vs. Wheeled Tracked grinders are self-propelled machines that operate by a remote control. The tracks allow for better mobility and traction in wet, muddy, or snowy environments. Tracked machines travel slower than wheeled machines and must be moved from site to site with a lowboy trailer. Wheeled grinders do not require an additional trailer when moving between sites and they travel overland faster than tracked machines. Some wheeled grinders are self-propelled models operated via remote control; some require another machine to move them. Wheeled models have poorer traction than tracked models.
Electric vs. Diesel The question related to a power source also relates to whether the machinery will be mobile or stationary. Stationary equipment requires the material to be brought to it; this requires trucking to the site and trucking of final product away from the site. Machinery must be present on either end of the trucking to load and unload trucks and move material around. The advantages to a stationary grinder involve an infrastructure that can be built around the machine. In feed and output channels can be built around the grinder to increase efficiency. A permanent concrete pad or building can house the grinder and it can be wired to run off of electricity. A machine this size requires 3-phase high voltage but it will cut diesel fuel costs. A mobile machine can be brought to the material, instead of trucking material to the machine. This can save on trucking costs as the grinder can be brought right to a log landing where the material is already in place. Mobile machines are more versatile because of this; however they must work in conjunction with other machines such as excavators or log loaders to supply it. Chip vans must also be able to drive to the grinder site and chip vans require wider and flatter roads than traditional log trucks. Road improvements may need to be made in order to haul chips
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -56- off site. Mobile machines run on diesel fuel and with fuel tank capacities in excess of 400 gallons, they can burn a lot of diesel fuel in the course of a day.
Self-Loading vs. Non Self Loading Some grinder models are equipped with a self-loading grapple arm that is designed to feed the chipper. The operator cab is situated at the end of the supply conveyor and is able to maintain a continuous supply of material. This is the primary benefit to this configuration. One other machine is needed to bring material to the grinder, or the grinder must be situated near a supply of material. Non self-loading grinders require other equipment to load material onto the in feed conveyor; an excavator with a thumb attachment is commonly used. Non self-loading grinders appear to be more of an industry standard as they are more versatile and mobile. An excavator is also a very versatile machine and has many more applications than just loading a grinder.
General Technical Specifications All information is for industrial size grinders/chippers, no homeowner or arborist models are referenced. Horsepower can range anywhere from 250-1,200hp. Weight ranges can be anywhere from 32,000 lbs. – 106,000 lbs. Throughput: Different companies measure throughput in different ways; some companies’ measure in cubic yards and some measure in tons: 200-583 yd3/hr. and/or 62-200 tons of green waste/hr. Harvesting and Woody Biomass Transport Systems In order to utilize the woody biomass as a heat source it first needs to be harvested, processed and then transported to the heating facility, which often presents a challenge due to access and terrain.. A new harvester developed in Finland especially for the emerging forest-based bioenergy sector, combines these steps in a highly efficient and environmentally friendly way.
The Valmet 801 Combi BioEnergy Was developed by Komatsu Forest and brings the wood chipper to the forest. While felling, the operator can grab a number of trunks at the same time and feed them into a chipper integrated at the front of the machine. The resulting chips are then blown into the onboard 27-m3 hopper, the contents of which can be emptied into a forward-hauled container in only three minutes for transport to a preset pick-up point at the roadside.
Ponsse BTS-BIO Transport System This new Ponsse BTS system allows loads to exceed standard fixed bunks by more than fifty percent when compressing forest residue. By using this new system saplings are saved due to loads not exceeding the outer diameter of the vehicle allowing future growth. Field tests have shown numbers in the 7-8 ton load capacity range allowing a 150 yard semi-trailer to be filled in 4 loads totaling over 30 tons of biomass. The new Ponsse BTS bunks also handle Cut-To-Length loads in a locked position.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -57- Fecon Bio-Harvester This machine simultaneously fells, chips, and collects small diameter woody biomass. The bio- harvester is ideal for non-merchantable timber. It harvests fire-prone ladder fuel material, producing wood chips from previously unutilized biomass source. Wood chips can then be used to produce bio-energy via the generation of electricity or liquid fuel production. The Bio-Harvester can be mounted to the Fecon FTX440, a 440 horsepower, forestry guarded, crawler tractor; or to a large, high horsepower PTO tractor. The FTX440 is also capable of towing and powering an agricultural dump wagon to collect material.
Material is chipped using Fecon Bull Hog chipper knives or carbide tools, then augured to a material processing fan and blown into a collection unit. It can discharge from the rear or the side enabling a variety of collection units. Fecon is currently refining design of the Bio-Harvester to help increase productivity and to help make it viable for other applications such as logging slash.
Cyclcofor RC03 This machine recovers and compacts forest slash using an interchangeable container system without altering the physical property of the resource. The base of the machine is a 22 tonne TimberPro TF 840 forwarder. The distinctive feature of this forwarder is its 360 rotating cabin, much like those seen on an excavator. This machine has the flexibility to operate either in a cut- to-length or in a full tree operation, and in all seasons to recover the forest slash.
The RC03 performs all of the forest slash recovery work on its own, salvaging tree branches, tops, needles, leaves and downed trees, and leaving the full container at roadside ready to be transported by semi-trailer to the sorting and processing plant. There the recovered biomass will be processed and refined according to market needs and prices. The RC03 operator then loads an empty container and continues the slash recovery cycle. The productivity versus GHG emissions ratio in this one-stop solution is very positive, and reflects CYCLOFOR's philosophy and approach.
The sophisticated GPS navigational system and data collection computer that is mounted on the RC03 gives CYCLOFOR a significant advantage in forest operations planning and management. The GPS is a real time navigational tool that shows the operator his position on the cut block, so he can track slash to be recovered and other natural ground features of concern. Other key technology is the MultiDat productivity monitoring system. All of this gathered information is constantly transferred to the sorting and processing plant by satellite modem to allow real-time management of the forest operations, the transportation, and the value-recovery process at the mill, all using a just-in-time inventory approach.
Super Trak WB55 Bio-Bailer This is a versatile and powerful piece of equipment than turns vegetation and wooded biomass areas into compressed and netted round bales ready for industrial applications. It is one of the many new bailer or bundle type units that are being tested for handling varying sizes of biomass and putting it into a product that can be handled and shipped more efficiently.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -58- Cut to Length Harvesting Method The Cut to Length (CTL) harvesting method is an appropriate and cost efficient working solution for timber harvesting with small diameter wood and energy production. This method utilizes harvesters and forwarders for end products such as logs, pulp, post and poles and/or tree stakes. A slash bundler or “in woods” chipper may be added for biofuel end products. The CTL harvesting method is versatile and well suited to the more intensive and complex cutting prescriptions that are used today to meet aesthetic, low impact, and sustainable management objectives. Wood energy production, fire hazard reduction, and wildlife habitat objectives most often require small wood removal. Fiber recovery and cost efficient utilization is more feasible with this method over conventional entire tree harvesting methods The list below briefly summarizes benefits of CTL.
Less road construction and reconstruction costs. Forwarding distances of 2500 feet or more are feasible and reduces dependence on roads Forwarders eliminate the need for landings, as products can be stacked immediately adjacent to road, for self loading trucks or forwarder can off load directly to truck or train car. Huge slash piles at landings are eliminated, as slash is left in the woods. Landings are not needed or very small, keeping more acres productive, as well as aesthetically pleasing. Damage to residual stand or trees is minimal due to harvesting heads enabling operator to guide cut tree between tightly spaced trees or away from improvements, and stacking product within easy reach of the forwarder. Healthy, undamaged leave trees are less likely to be attacked by forest insects or diseases spread by spores. Greater payload of the forwarder over a grapple skidder or dozer allows for cost efficient handling of small or large wood, while reducing the number of required passes over a trail to remove products. Harvesters cut stumps low to the ground, and better maximize utilization of each tree cut. Rot and unmerchantable material easily cut out and left in the woods. Soil disturbance and soil compaction is lower with CTL due to low ground pressure, equipment traction, wheel based rather than track based, and reduced number of trips over trails. Lack of soil disturbance helps minimize weed encroachment within the log site, since little bare mineral soil is exposed. Slash is near or within harvesters travel path and is more readily gathered for slash logs, in woods chipping, or in cases of light slash loads easily distributed over the logging site. Carrying products rather than dragging one end eliminates dirty logs, as well as minimizing soil disturbance, and reducing log breakage. A percentage of slash can be recovered for wood energy products, while leaving an appropriate amount in woods for nutrient recycling and erosion control. o 60 to 75% of slash may be removed. Site is cleaner so tree regeneration operations such as site preparation and planting is less costly.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -59- o Immediately after cutting operation complete, slash loads are light and well suited for a low intensity underburn, if desired for regeneration, or generally require no further clean up. Equipment travels up and down fall line rather than contouring hills, eliminating most excavated or deeply scoured trails. Operator safety is enhanced with mechanized felling and forwarding Loading equipment and landing personnel may not be required with CTL method, reducing daily operational cost. This method easily accommodates wood energy production as the only product or in conjunction with forest stand treatments that provide various wood products. All wheel based equipment provides for quicker mobility and use on all types of road surfaces. Brush and biofuel used for end products are cleaner because product is carried over ground, and very little bare mineral soil is exposed throughout the CTL cutting process.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -60-
Schematic of CTL harvesting for wood products and wood energy to Moonlight Basin Heating System or Storage Site.
Equipment Used in the Material Collection Phase Harvesters allow mechanized “in woods” processing of logs, pulp and biofuels. These maneuverable machines allow one operator to cut the tree for removal. At the same time, the harvesting head removes limbs as the tree is cut to product length and then laid to the side to be forwarded to a storage area or truck site. Many harvesters have tree and log tally capabilities.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -61-
John Deere Harvester cutting and processing logs and pulp near Eureka, MT
John Deere harvester cutting small sawlogs near Eureka, MT Some noteworthy features common to all of John Deere harvesters are:
Rotating and leveling cab providing operator comfort, safety, and visibility Parallel booms with logical motion control Rear axles offer generous ground clearance with high tractive effort Front-balanced bogie axles provide high and wide ground clearance and maximum tractive effort
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -62- Wheeled based with optional eco-tracks for increased traction that offers low disturbance to ground under a wide range of varying soil conditions and terrain types Various options for roller driven harvesting heads One button measuring and control system for automated entire tree processing Total machine control system that enables operator to match application, terrain and capabilities to each logging site.
Equipment Used in the Removal of Woody Biomass The forwarder allows one operator to remove processed woody biomass stacks or bundles from the woods to material storage or truck site without dragging any part of the product over ground. Products are relatively dirt free, whether slated for a sawmill or heating system. Forwarders can unload product at storage site, landing or directly to a truck.
Forwarder removing product from woods Some noteworthy features common to all John Deere forwarders are:
Cab providing operator comfort, safety, and visibility Powerful, easy to control booms Low center of gravity for load space provides forwarder stability on various terrain. Wheeled based with optional eco-tracks for increased traction that offers low disturbance to ground under a wide range of varying soil conditions and terrain types Various options for number of tires and axle configurations enabling equipment to best suit specific needs of general operations. Daily service points easily accessible.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -63-
Forwarder unloading product beside haul road near Eureka, MT Equipment used in the compression into bundle phase: The “slash bundler” is one of John Deere’s newer pieces of equipment furthering wood harvesting technology that allows for the efficient collection of slash for biomass products. This piece allows one operator to follow the harvester collecting slash, compressing it into manageable bundles or “slash logs” that can then be easily forwarded to a landing or storage site. Some noteworthy features are of a John Deere Slash Bundler:
Bundler mounted on forwarder chassis Bundling process and other machine functions controlled by Total Machine Control system Collection and bundling process enables production of clean “slash logs” that can be transported from the forest with normal forwarders. Bundles are standard sizes so the exact amount of fuel being stored is known. This technology already used in Finland, Sweden, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Czech Republic, and the United States. Slash logs easily dried while piled up, and are not spontaneously combustible like wood chips, nor are they prone to rotting.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -64-
John Deere Slash Bundler Production Rate of the John Deere Slash Bundler: According to John Deere the slash bundler is capable of producing 40 bundles per hour from worksites that have been properly prepared (cut with harvesters) and 20 – 30 bundles per hour even on unprepared sites. Depending on tree species, type of cut, and tree density we estimate approximately 40 to 60 bundles of slash per acre. Approximate weight per bundle is 700 to 800 pounds.
Cut to Length Harvesting Methods Summary In summary, the more conventional whole tree method (skidder and feller buncher) is less expensive operationally per volume of wood produced due to lower machine cost and slightly higher production rates. The more advanced technology in the CTL equipment comes with a higher purchase price. The CTL method is often preferred by land managers because:
The CTL method allows increased feasibility of utilizing small diameter wood and fiber over whole tree methods. Greater utilization of all size stems allows more product removal per acre with less clean up, if any is required. Fire hazard is generally sufficiently reduced to low potential as soon as cutting operations are complete. Slash piling and burning is rarely needed as is often the case with whole tree harvesting methods.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -65- The CTL method has lower site impacts to soil and residual tree, shrubs, and forbs potentially limiting interruptions in wildlife use of the cut areas. Cleaner sites (less messy slash and undisturbed soil), enhances ease of ungulate winter foraging as well. CTL method has a longer period of operation and can operate on more sensitive sites with much less soil disturbance or harm to desirable residual vegetation than the whole tree method. Our experience has been longer machine life for CTL equipment, under proper maintenance schedules compared to feller bunchers or skidders. Site recovery of the logged sites with the CTL method is much quicker, often unnoticeable within one growing season.
Harvesting on Steep Slopes
In general as stem diameter decreases, harvesting costs increase. Accessibility and terrain are the key factors limiting operational treatments. Steep terrain reduces economically-viable opportunities for product recovery. Purpose-built small diameter harvesting machinery has been built but need further evaluation. As far as harvesting small diameter stems on steep slopes, the most economical method is to use steep slopes feller-bunchers that can cut and bunch multiple stems at a time. These machines are equipped with self-leveling cabs and can often operate on 55% to 60% slopes. Some can go steeper, depending on soil types, rocks and terrain. Moving the material to a roadside landing can be done using various techniques ranging from grapple yarding of bunches to use of a monocable system. There are numerous types of small cable yarders available for yarding the material. Small standing or live skyline machines like the Koller yarder, Christy yarder and Thunderbird yarder can efficiently yard this size material. There are also mobile yarders or yoders that have become very popular in moving small diameter sawlogs. A monocable or endless line system also has potential for moving small diameter material. These are some of the current systems available for harvesting on steep slopes.
Excaliner An excaliner is basically a cross between an excavator with a small radio tower and a pair of giant fishing reels. On a typical thinning job, crewmembers first run a "skyline," or guide cable, from the excaliner to a leave tree down the hillside. The cable is then pulled taut by a motorized spool until it rises to 10 feet or so above the work area. Next, a "main line," which snakes through the gondola-like carriage, gets wrapped around the bottom of the felled tree. Finally, a second motorized spool reels in the main line, which lifts the tree bottom and then pulls the carriage, which in turn pulls the half-suspended tree up the hill.
A benefit of this is that almost all the tree’s weight is off the ground, avoiding the telltale claw marks of a typical mountainside industrial cut. What's more, the excaliner runs on bulldozer-style tracks, so it can be maneuvered into almost any terrain without having to punch in a road. And its double-cable system allows the machine to pull trees up -or down- slopes as steep as double black diamond ski runs.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -66- Forest Road Management
Forest road systems provide numerous benefits such as providing access for timber harvesting, recreation, fire control, game retrieval, and land management. The harvest of forest products usually depends on road access, and decreased road densities can result in increased timber harvesting costs. Roads provide access that can increase the efficiency of fire suppression and can act as linear firebreaks that reduce fire spread. Potential detrimental effects associated with roads include sedimentation, habitat fragmentation, loss in soil productivity, invasion by noxious and exotic weeds, use conflicts and destructive human actions such as trash dumping, illegal hunting and wildfires. Weed species that disperse along roadsides can spread to adjacent native plant communities. Actively controlling access, when and how people are permitted to use roads is important if detrimental effects are to be mitigated. Increased road access can accelerate rates of wildlife harassment and poaching. Several wildlife species have been shown to be adversely affected by encounters with people on roads. Other road related consequences to wildlife can include removal of snags near roadsides by firewood cutters. Removal of snags eliminates habitat for many cavity–nesting birds and mammals. Surface erosion from road surfaces, cut banks, and ditches can be a significant source of sediment in streams. Rates of sediment delivery are highest in the first five years following road construction and can be closely related to traffic volume on unpaved roads. Surface erosion problems are worse where roads are constructed on highly erodible soils. Lack of road maintenance or poorly timed maintenance can contribute to increases on sediment production on existing roads. Implementing improved road construction standards and actively maintaining roads will reduce road related surface erosion. Road location, design, construction and maintenance are especially critical near streams. Placement of surfacing material, installing proper drainage structures and prompt establishment of vegetation on road surfaces are actions that will reduce sediment production from road surfaces. Active road system management will enhance benefits received from the existence of a road system. Many of the detrimental effects associated with roads can be mitigated through planning, access control, maintenance and restricting how and when roads are utilized by people and vehicles. Roads with chronic sedimentation or erosion problems can be rehabilitated, relocated or decommissioned.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -67- Noxious Weed Management
Noxious weeds are a serious ecological and environmental threat to the natural resources of Montana. Noxious weeds displace native plant communities (including endangered species), alter wildlife habitat, reduce forage for wildlife and livestock and lower biodiversity. In some cases, noxious weeds increase soil surface runoff and sedimentation into streams, a process many scientists believe is the beginning of desertification. Therefore, it is critical that Montanans effectively implement the Montana County Noxious Weed Control Law to ward off these threats. The Montana County Noxious Weed Control Law declares noxious weeds--and noxious weed seeds--to be a common nuisance. It is unlawful for any person to permit any noxious weed to propagate or produce seeds on their land unless the landowner adheres to the noxious weed management program of their county, or has entered into and is in compliance with a written noxious weed management plan for their property. To be valid, this written noxious weed management plan must be approved and signed by the district weed board chairman. Overall noxious weeds are Noxious weeds degrade wildlife habitat, deteriorate streams and waterways, create fire hazards, and poison and injure livestock. By definition, noxious weeds are plant species that are harmful to the environment. Eradication and restoration require that noxious weeds be killed. Noxious weeds are invaders and do not succumb to eradication, prevention, or restoration easily and so controlling noxious weeds is expensive and time consuming. Minimizing the impacts of noxious weeds following logging, road building and even wildfires requires an integrated approach to noxious weed management. No method or combination of methods can achieve eradication for large weed infestations. However, containment (managing infestation perimeters) or control (managing entire populations) is effective in preventing or greatly limiting seed dispersal into adjacent areas. Infestations should be managed toward reestablishing healthy plant communities. This process begins with shifting the competitive balance from the infestation to the desired plants through revegatation after the infestation has been successfully weakened by: Mechanical Controls, such as mowing Chemical controls, such as herbicide treatments Cultural controls, such as grazing and encouraging the growth of desired vegetation: and Biological controls, such as weed damaging insects An active weed control program could include:
Limiting access to motorized vehicles Pressure washing vehicles to insure weed seed free prior to allowing access Aggressive chemical treatment of known populations - Restricted use pesticides must be applied by a licensed applicator. Note that many herbicides will kill conifer trees so extra precautions are necessary in forested areas. Local weed districts and MSU county extension agents are excellent sources for current weed control information.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -68- Grass seeding - important grass characteristics to be considered for long-term control of problem weeds include: adaptation to the soil and climate, ease of establishment, competitiveness with weeds, palatability and nutritional value to wildlife and livestock
The Moonlight Basin Community Area would benefit from the development and implementation of an integrated weed management plan. Proper implementation of a weed management plan is dependent upon the comprehensive identification and mapping of all noxious weed locations, the use of as many appropriate techniques as possible and frequent monitoring with periodical evaluation. With the exception of Houndstongue and spotted knapweed which were observed in old logging units, there is not a lot of noxious weeds within the Moonlight Basin Community Area
Houndstongue in an old logging unit
The Gallatin/ Big Sky Noxious Weed Committee The Gallatin/ Big Sky Noxious Weed Committee is committed to working with local, state and federal government agencies, concerned citizens and local organizations to help solve noxious weed problems in the Gallatin River corridor and beyond. Accurate data on invasive weed infestations is critical to effective control efforts. When armed with maps and inventory information, weed managers can develop strategies focused on removing new and isolated infestations while containing the principal infestation. In addition to enabling weed managers to prioritize which part of an infestation to treat first, the use of invasive weed inventories can increase the efficiency of almost any method of weed management, making the most of limited resources. Weed Mapping Goals:
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -69- Provide a framework for area-wide and site- specific management plans Set strategic goals and priorities Monitor project success over time Increase public awareness Influence public policy Predict areas potentially subject to invasion
Contact Information:
www.bigskyweeds.org
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -70- Appendix
Lower Ulery Lakes Phase 1 Project Plan Fire Resistant Plants Fuel Reduction Standards
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -71- Lower Ulery’s Lakes Phase 1 Wildfire Hazard Mitigation and Forest Improvement Project Plan
Project Description: This project is designed to mitigate the existing wildfire hazard within the proposed Lower Ulery’s Lakes Phase 1 residential development area and to improve the health and condition of forest vegetation present on the site. Once completed the project will reduce the risk of residential structure ignitions in the event of a wildfire and provide a safer working environment for wildland firefighters who may be involved with wildfire suppression and structure protection activities within the subdivision. The project will also improve the health, vigor and appearance of the forest landscape within the subdivision. Forest health, wildlife habitat, soil protection, and aesthetics values have been considered and incorporated in the design of the proposed project. Project Location: The project is located in Madison County, Montana within Section 13 of T.6S., R.2E. The project area is located immediately west of Moonlight Trail Road and just north of the Moonlight Basin Ski Area. . Project Area Site Description:
The Lower Ulery’s Lakes Phase 1 proposed subdivision includes 12 forested acres located on a broad spur ridge radiating down from the Moonlight Divide at 7,800 feet above sea level. The topography is flat to moderately sloped and the aspect is northwest. The forest is a high elevation mixed conifer stand comprised of lodgepole pine, subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce.
Current Condition of Project Area: The dense forest structure is multi-layered consisting of mature trees, pole-sized trees 4-7 inches in diameter and seedlings and saplings less than 4 inches in diameter. Tree stocking levels are high. There is a significant amount of both standing and down dead trees located throughout the project area.
Treatment Objectives: The primary objectives of this treatment are to reduce the existing wildfire hazard and improve overall forest health. This will be accomplished by removal of standing and down dead trees and cutting and disposal of designated green trees with an emphasis on removal of green trees in poor biological condition. As a result, the forest structure will be altered to increase the distance between tree crowns and reduce surface fuels in the forest understory. This will reduce the potential for a high-intensity fire within the project area. Removal of diseased and weakened trees during thinning and tree removal activities will provide additional growing space, sunlight and water to retention trees thereby improving their health and vigor.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -72- The focus of the project will be to remove trees which are either in biologically poor condition or located in such as manner as to increase the wildfire hazard. Trees to be retained in the project areas will be individually selected and marked with blue plastic flagging by a professional forester based upon their physical condition, appearance, species and location. The project area includes two distinct treatment zones. Zone 1: Subdivision and Ski Trail Modified Fuel Break The primary objective is to increase the effectiveness of Moonlight Trail Road as a fuel break and potential escape route by thinning for a distance of approximately 50-75 feet on the west side of the road in an aesthetically pleasing manner. The width of the fuel break will be modified as needed so that adequate tree screening is maintained between the roadway and proposed home sites located on the interior of the subdivision. Along the northern and western boundaries of the subdivision a shaded fuel break will be created for a distance of 50 feet on either side of the ski trail. Along the Zone 2: Residential Lot’s and Common Areas The entire subdivision area will be treated with an equal emphasis on wildfire hazard mitigation, forest health improvement and aesthetics. Micro-sites such as wetlands, seeps, and unique natural features will be protected or buffered as necessary. A visual screen between Moonlight Trail Road and proposed home locations will be maintained to the extent possible. Project Layout: Prior to project implementation the boundaries of the two Treatment Zones will be located and marked with plastic flagging. Typically pink flagging is used to mark the project perimeter. Within the perimeter orange flagging will delineate the boundary between the two treatment zones. A forester will identify and mark all retention trees. All trees not marked with flagging will be cut and disposed of by chipping or be skidded to roadside landings and then removed from the project area. Wetlands and other natural features will be marked and mapped so that they are protected during work activities. Treatment Method: A trained forest improvement crew outfitted with chainsaws, safety gear and other appropriate equipment will cut designated trees and down dead logs. Merchantable-sized trees which can be utilized as firewood, saw-logs or post and pole material will be removed from the project area to roadside locations where it can later be easily removed from the project area. Non-merchantable material such as small tree stems, branches, and tree tops will be chipped on site. The chips will be evenly broadcast onto the ground where they can naturally decompose. A low-ground- pressure, remote-controlled, tracked chipper will be utilized for the project.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -73- Low ground pressure remote controlled chipper
Project Administration: All aspects of the project work will be administered by a professional forester with experience in wildfire hazard mitigation, forest health, environmental protection and wood product utilization.
Project Cost: Estimated total project cost is still being finalized.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -74- Wildfire Hazard Mitigation and Forest Improvement Project Map
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -75- Fire Resistant Plants
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -76- Fuels Reduction Standards As previously stated, manipulating vegetation will help reduce your structure’s chances of igniting. This manipulation, referred to as ‘fuels reduction’ or ‘fuels mitigation,’ is done by changing the arrangement of fuels or removing fuels from the area around structures. The following diagrams demonstrate effective fuels reduction standards. They have been taken from DNRC Form F-701.
Zone A – First 3 feet of Zone B. Remove all flammable materials.
Zone B – Remove all trees and forest debris, such as dead branches Zone D and logs. Keep grass short and well irrigated. Zone C Zone C – Prune tree limbs 15 feet Zone B from the ground. Maintain surface vegetation below 3 inches. This Home removes ladder fuels. Thin out trees so that crowns are 10 feet Zone A apart. See Figure 3. Remove all downed woody debris.
Zone D – Prune and thin as in Zone C. Maintain surface vegetation below 1 foot. Remove woody debris larger than 3 inches in diameter.
Figure 1.
Zone A is always the first three feet from the structure, inside Zone B. Because fire travels faster uphill, the other 3 zones will change distance as the slope from your home becomes steeper. The following table defines what distance each zone should be versus the slope.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -77- SLOPE away ZONE ZONE ZONE ZONE TOTAL from your home A B C D
Uphill or
flat ground 3' 10' 20' 70' 100’
Downhill
10 -20 % 3' 15' 25' 80' 120’
Downhill
20 - 30 % 3' 20' 30' 100' 150
Downhill
30 -45 % 3' 35' 50' 120' + 205’ +
Table 1
Table 1 is shown again for reference with Figure 2.
SLOPE away ZONE ZONE ZONE ZONE TOTAL from your home A B C D
Uphill or
On flat ground 3' 10' 20' 70' 100’
Downhill
10 -20 % 3' 15' 25' 80' 120’
Downhill
20 - 30 % 3' 20' 30' 100' 150
Downhill
30 -45 % 3' 30' 45' 120' + 195’ +
Table 1.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -78- Using Table 1, above, and Figure 2, below, you can determine how far to remove fuels from your home and other structures.
D C B A 3’ 10’ 20’ 70’ Downhill Uphill D + C + B = Total 100’
Figure 2.
Figure 3, below, gives a visual example of what thinning and pruning should look like.
Thinning
10 ft minimum
Pruning Surface fuels 15 Feet
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -79- Overview of Common Forest Insects and Diseases in Moonlight Basin
Needle Loss All conifer trees within Moonlight Basin eventually lose their needles. It’s common for conifers to shed their needles every 3 to 5 years. Under conditions of drought and excessive moisture conifers may have a year where there is a lot of needle drop. De-icing salts used on highways has caused desiccation and needle drop on conifers adjacent to roads.
Mountain Pine Beetle Dendroctonus Ponderosae The following discussion on the life history of mountain pine beetle is summarized from the Forest & Disease Leaflet 2.
Mountain pine beetle attacks all species of pine, including ponderosa, lodgepole, whitebark, limber, and ornamental pines such as Scotch and Australian pine. Mountain pine beetle has attacked over 4,000,000 acres of forest land in Montana, a tenfold increase since 2004. It is responsible for killing the lodgepole pine and whitebark pine within Moonlight Basin.
Life History Adult beetles fly from June through mid-October. Beetles prefer larger diameter trees (except in an epidemic outbreak where it will attack trees as small as 4inches in diameter) with a thick layer of phloem- the nutrient conducting layer underneath the bark. The thicker layer in more mature trees provides plenty of food for larval and pupae phases while protecting against temperature extremes. The larval stage of the beetle has a natural “anti-freeze” that can withstand extreme cold temperatures. The female beetle attacks the tree by boring into the bark and then emits an aggregate pheromone that attracts more beetles. This “mass attack” overcomes the trees natural defenses. After the females have laid their eggs, they hatch into larvae and feed out from the main gallery in perpendicular tunnels. It is not Mountain pine beetle galleries. uncommon to find small, white larvae at the end of the tunnels. Infested trees are killed by the feeding activity of the larvae, which girdles the tree and the associated fungi that are transported to the tree by the beetle. As soon as the beetle enters the tree it inoculates the living tissue of the tree with a collection of associated fungi and yeasts that it has carried from the tree where it is hatched. Adult beetles introduce a spore that develops into blue stain fungus that obstructs the trees ability to conduct water and nutrients.
The larvae spend the winter under the bark of the tree; pupate in mid-summer, and fly from the tree as adults. Pro-longed cold snaps of a week or more with temperatures below minus 20 have been known to cause high mortality of the beetle larvae. There is some evidence that the late October-early November cold snap in Big Sky in 2009 killed beetles in some areas. Numerous beetle hit trees were chopped into with no evidence of feeding galleries. This also could have been the “late flight” of beetles in late September or early October that didn’t have enough time
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -80- to develop before the cold snap. Fresh attacks from mountain pine beetles were observed in mid- September 2010 in numerous locations in the Big Sky area.
Identification Adult beetles are about the size of a piece of brown rice. Except for the time when a fully developed beetle exits a tree and searches for a new host tree they spend their entire life underneath the bark of their host tree. When a mountain pine beetle attacks a tree and begins tunneling thru the bark the tree attempts to pitch the beetle out by sending out copious amounts of resins which result in what is called a pitch tube. Pitch tubes can be white, orange brown or pink. Often with healthy trees the pitch tube will contain a trapped dead beetle. Trees stressed from drought, Mature mountain pine overstocking, disease or injury typically produce fewer resins than beetle healthy trees and are more susceptible to attack. Trees that have been successfully attacked will have brownish reddish boring dust in bark cracks and at the base of the tree. “Blind attacks” on trees are common now in the Big Sky area and the tree shows no visible pitch tubes, often if you look carefully you will notice some boring dust. Often these trees, upon close inspection have a subtle flaking of the bark. Wood peckers will feed on larvae during the winter months and sometimes will completely denude the tree of bark and leave lots of bark flakes at its base.
Pitch tubes and boring dust on mountain pine beetle infested trees near Moonlight Basin Successfully attacked trees needles typically begin to fade from green to yellow than finally red within 6-12 months. Some trees needles show very little visible change after attack until summer temperatures heat up and then a green tree can turn red within a matter of weeks.
Recommendations to Reduce Risk of Additional Mountain Pine Beetle Infestation Generally, the best long-term approaches to reducing beetle caused mortality are to manage forest conditions to provide environments less attractive to mountain pine beetles and reduce susceptibility to attack. Thinning susceptible forest areas prior to insect infestation can reduce insect-caused mortality by creating environmental conditions less favorable to beetles. Beetles tend to avoid open forests that are warmer, brighter and have more wind movement. However, when the threat of infestation is imminent the following short term preventative actions are recommended.
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Removal of Trees Currently Infested with Mountain Pine Beetle (MPB) Infested trees with green or yellowing foliage should be cut and properly disposed of before mid- May. Proper disposal methods would include removal from the property, burning, chipping and burying.
Application of Insecticide to Tree Stems The most effective preventative action to ward of future MPB attack is insecticide application to the individual trees that the landowner wishes to protect. Tree stems can be saturated (sprayed) with the appropriate insecticide during the spring prior to beetle emergence. Carbaryl (Sevin XLR), Permethrin (Astro, Dragnet) and bifenthrin (Onyx) are all registered for use for preventatively spraying for pine beetle. Carbaryl applications, applied correctly, are effective for two seasons after treatment. The others last for approximately one season. Insecticide formulations formulated for MPB control will have additives that bind the active ingredient to the bark. The applicator should spray the tree from ground level to the point recommended on product label directions. A minimum height of 30-35 feet is recommended on tall mature trees. Smaller trees can be sprayed from top to bottom. Spray is generally applied around the entire circumference of the tree or else unsprayed areas will be vulnerable to attack. Application by a licensed commercial applicator with high pressure equipment is recommended. Many labels will recommend that trees should not be sprayed if there is a chance of rain within 2 hours. Large trees are usually more vulnerable to attack. Trees less than 4 inches in diameter are less vulnerable to attack. Sprays should not be sprayed close to surface water and can be toxic to insects and aquatic organisms. Some sprays are moderately toxic to birds. Recent studies with the new insecticide Safari have shown promising results in the Big Sky area on lodgepole pine trees in preventing mountain pine beetle attack (Hunter, 2011). The insecticide is sprayed only onto the lower five feet of the tree trunk and is rapidly absorbed and transported upwards throughout the tree (Valent, 2010).
Deployment of Verbenone Pouches MPB’s communicate using chemical scents called pheromones. At first, beetles are attracted to trees by aggregation pheromones produced by attacking beetles. This induces a synchronized mass attack that is necessary to kill the tree. When a tree is full of beetles an anti-aggregation pheromone is produced to force host- seeking beetles to direct their attack towards adjacent trees. Verbenone is a synthetic pheromone treatment that replicates the anti-aggregate pheromone that sends a message to other beetles that the tree is full and the food supply is insufficient to support additional beetles.
MPB attacks may be reduced for a period of time with the use of verbenone if the infestation is light and treatment is timely. Infestations outside of the treated stand may build up to a level at which the treated area is overwhelmed with beetles and succumbs to the attack. Verbenone has shown mixed results in repelling MPB attacks. Some level of MPB mortality can be generally be expected. Verbenone is not recommended if more than 20% of the forest stand is infested. Results may be improved if all currently infested trees are removed prior to the application of verbenone. Local entomologists suggest packets be in place by early to mid-June. Packets should be placed on the north side of the tree as high as possible. Packets should be placed out of reach
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -82- of children, livestock, etc. Verbenone is considered to be non-toxic to humans, pets, birds and even the beetles themselves.
Individual Tree Protection Verbenone dispensers (pouches) can be deployed on individual trees or throughout a forest area on a grid pattern. Pouches are good for one season and must be reapplied each year. Verbenone manufacturer’s recommendations vary in regards to how the pouches should be deployed. One supplier recommends placement of two packets per tree. A second recommends placement of one packet early in the season (late-May), followed by placement of a second packet during the peak of the season (mid-July).
Area Wide Protection An even distribution of pouches throughout an area will blanket the area in a plume of repulsive pheromone. This is most often done with pouches set out in a grid pattern or along parallel lines. It is not absolutely necessary to have each pouch on a tree as vertical surfaces and non-host trees may be used to sustain the grid. Recommended density is 30-40 pouches per acre (30-45’ foot spacing between pouches).
Hercon Environmental (2011) researches, develops, manufactures and sells environmentally compatible insect monitoring and control products based primarily on insect pheromone technology. They have developed and registered DISRUPT MICRO-FLAKE VBN Flakes, which are in the form of small polymeric flakes formulated to release verbenone. They can be aerially or ground based applied and U.S. Forest Service studies indicate that in areas with low to moderate beetle populations that they can reduce the incidence of beetle attack on susceptible trees by about 65-70% compared to similar untreated stands (Hercon Environmental, 2011).
Douglas-Fir Beetle Dendroctonus Psuedotsugae The following discussion on life cycle and identification of the Douglas-fir beetle has been summarized from Forest Insect& Disease Leaflet 5, U.S.D.A. Forest service listed in the reference section.
In the Big Sky area Douglas-fir beetle favors trees that are greater than 15” in diameter and are stressed from drought, overstocking or from western spruce budworm defoliation. Douglas-fir beetle outbreaks are usually initiated by catastrophic events such as blow down, or winter breakage. Wind thrown, horizontal trees are especially productive breeding places for the beetle, which prefers the partially shaded, cool environment on the underside of the tree bole.
Life Cycle The Douglas-fir beetle typically has one generation per year. The female bark beetle bores through the bark and into the inner bark where it constructs the egg gallery and deposits the eggs in small groups. A male will then follow the female into the gallery. The eggs hatch within 2 weeks and the young larvae bore away and feed on the inner bark for 2-3 months, pupate and in a few weeks emerge as young adults. Beetles emerge in mid to late spring and attack another tree. Beetle larvae that over winter develop and emerge in mid-summer. It’s the feeding of the young adult beetles and larvae that eventually girdles the tree and kills it.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -83- Identification Egg galleries run vertical to the grain and the larvae feed out from these galleries and form a distinctive perpendicular pattern. Reddish brown boring dust is found in the bark crevices and at the base of the tree. At times, the most evident sign of attack is the clear resin exuding from entrance holes on the stem at the upper limits of the attacks. Discolored foliage and fading crowns is another indicator of attacked trees, but the discoloration can start upwards of six months after attack. Monitoring large diameter Douglas-fir Douglas-fir beetle should occur in the spring and fall of each year.
Recommendations to Reduce Risk of Additional Douglas-Fir Beetle Attacks Salvage of susceptible trees and beetle attacked trees. The salvage of down or weakened Douglas-fir is a primary tool in preventing Douglas-fir bark beetle outbreaks. When attacks have occurred, removing standing green or faded infested trees before beetles emerge in the spring will help reduce or prevent further attacks in the area. In areas where tree removal is not feasible, cutting, piling and then burning infected trees is warranted. Boring dust on base of mature Douglas-fir attacked by Douglas-fir beetle
Reduce Douglas-Fir Stands Susceptibility to Attack The risk of Douglas-fir beetle damage is reduced when dense mature stands are commercially thinned. Damage in standing trees is greatest in dense stands containing a high percentage of large, mature Douglas-fir. Some trees could be harvested in early spring, prior to about April 1 and left through beetle flight, can attract and hold beetles to the site being harvested (Kegley, 2010). These “trap trees” will need to be removed or disposed of prior to beetle flight. Use of anti-aggregation pheromone, MCH, an anti-aggregation pheromone has been developed to help protect Douglas-fir from bark beetles. The pheromone tricks the beetles into believing the tree is occupied with other beetles, causing the beetles to fly around more and be susceptible to predation from forest birds and insects. MCH is applied in the spring before beetles emerge and fly. MCH is a small bubble cap that is stapled to the north side of the tree as high as a person can reach. Bubble capsules are placed with the flat side facing out and the bubble side toward the object to which they are attacked (Daterman, 2006). It is recommended that 30 caps per acre be installed on a systematic grid pattern. Large diameter trees can have two caps installed.
Fir Engraver Beetle Scolytus Ventralis The following discussion on the life cycle and identification are summarized by the Forest Insect and Disease Leaflet 13 U.S.D.A. Forest service listed in the reference.
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -84-
The fir engraver beetle attacks subalpine fir within Moonlight Basin. Subalpine fir weakened and stressed by drought, western spruce budworm defoliation, and overstocking are particularly susceptible to beetle attacks.
Life Cycle The fir engraver beetle has one generation per year and attacks host trees from June–September with the most activity occurring from July—August. The female enters the tree first, followed by the male. During the 5 to 7 weeks after mating, the female lays 100-300 eggs. The eggs incubate in 9 to 14 days. Fir engravers overwinter mainly as young or mature larvae. Pupation takes 7 to 14 days and in another two weeks, the adults are ready to fly.
Identification The fir engraver beetle is small, 0.2 inches and dark black. It spends its whole life under the bark of a tree except when it emerges and attacks another tree. Individual branches or the entire crown of a tree under attack turn yellow-green and eventually red. A portion of recently attacked trees may fade in the fall; the remainder fades the next spring. Removing patches of bark and finding the beetle or its distinctive
Fir engraver beetle gallery can confirm fir engraver attacks on dead trees.
Trees under attack display reddish-brown or white boring dust in bark crevices. An attack site favored by this beetle is the branch collar, the junction of a branch and the trunk. Frequently streams of clear pitch flow down the bark from the point of beetle attack.
Recommendations to Reduce Risk of Additional Fir Engraver Beetle Attacks Beetle outbreaks often occur in the years following drought. Outbreaks of defoliating insects such as the western spruce budworm may be followed by fir engraver beetle outbreaks that peak one to three years later. A sustained drought event can result in entire fir stands being killed by the fir engraver beetle rather than a few individual trees.
Salvage of Susceptible Trees and Beetle Attacked Trees Beetle populations can be reduced by removing recently killed trees, those still holding yellow or red needles, from the stand before the beetle flight in June. Remove injured or decadent subalpine fir that might provide breeding material for the fir engraver beetle. The fir engraver beetle can breed in fresh slash with a diameter >4 inches. Avoid having large pieces of woody debris in slash piles from January--July.
Maintain Healthy Stand Conditions Overstocked fir stands should be thinned to reduce competition and increase tree vigor.
Western Spruce Budworm Choristoneura Occidentalis The following discussion on the life cycle and identification is summarized from the Forest Insect & Disease Leaflet 53, Western Spruce Budworm listed in the reference section.
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Western spruce budworm is a widely distributed and destructive defoliator common in much of the western United States. The most common tree species host of western spruce budworm in the Big Sky area is Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir. Currently, western spruce budworm is de-foliating a significant portion of these trees in the Big Sky area. Most outbreaks of this insect are cyclical in nature and last a few to several years, then subside naturally. Perhaps, due to changing climatic conditions and/or contiguous multi-storied over stocked stands spruce budworm infestations are becoming increasingly longer in Montana. Due to the extended infestation we are seeing increased tree mortality.
Life Cycle Moths emerge from pupae cases usually in late July or early August, mate within 7 to 10 days and the female deposits eggs usually on the underside of conifer needles. Larvae hatch from eggs in about 10 days and seek sheltered spaces under bark scales and other places on the tree bole or limbs and spin silken tents called hibernacula in which they remain inactive through the winter.
In early May the hibernating larvae emerges to search for food. They first bore into the year old needles, closed buds, and newly developed buds. As new shoots flush, the larvae begin to focus on the new growth, often resulting in total defoliation of the newly formed branches.
Larvae develop through six stages. Larvae become fully grown in July about 30 to 40 days after leaving their overwintering sites. Larvae pupate in webs of silk that they have spun at their last feeding site. The pupae stage lasts 10 days when they reappear as moths and the lifecycle starts over again.
In addition to foliage, budworm larvae feed heavily on flowers and developing cones resulting in a significant decrease in seed production. A budworm larva does not restrict their feeding to a single cone; often larva will feed on newly developing cones as well. As these cones dry out and become unsuitable for food, larvae continue feeding on other cones and foliage. During outbreaks, tree stands will have nearly all cones damaged or destroyed. This along with top killing of host trees results in poor cone production for several years following defoliation.
Mature western spruce budworms
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -86- Identification During July reddish brown branch tips will give trees a scorched appearance. The upper portion of the tree crown may appear bare or thin. Budworm larvae feed in buds and foliage from May- July. Older larvae have dark heads and an olive-brown body with whitish spots. Pupae cases are attached to damaged shoots. Orange to gray-brown moths less than an inch across are abundant in late July and August during an outbreak.
Recommendations to Reduce Risk of Defoliation by Western Spruce Budworm Reduce overstocked forest stands. Silvicultural practices include thinning from below to create single story forest stand structures, and thinning to reduce inter-competition between trees and to increase the vigor of retention trees. Identify, protect and retain individual trees that exhibit resistance to defoliation, as these trees may have genetic traits to help them survive the effects of western spruce budworm.
Individual Tree Protection Individual trees can be sprayed with a variety of insecticides. The section on mountain pine beetle discusses these chemicals. These chemicals when sprayed on developing larvae will kill them. A microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) can also be sprayed on individual trees. A discussion on the aerial application of Bt follows. Acephate implants are a systemic insecticide that can be installed to protect cone crops
Injecting acephate to protect Douglas-fir cones
Aerial Application of Chemical Insecticides Insecticides are most effective when applied as larvae are actively feeding on new foliage in late spring and early summer. For large outbreaks aerial applications of the chemical insecticide carbaryl (Trade name –Sevin) has been used. Unfortunately, carbaryl is toxic to aquatic insects and is not recommended as an aerial treatment option in the Big Sky area.
Aerial Application of the Microbial Insecticides Bt is a naturally occurring bacterium. Bt must be eaten by the larvae to cause mortality. A protein crystal formed by the bacterium carries a toxin which is released in the gut of the larvae. When Bt is ingested the toxin is released and the midgut wall is destroyed and the larvae stops feeding. The bacteria enters the blood of the insect causing full scale infection and death of the insect within 3-5 days.
Aerial application can be accomplished with fixed wing aircraft or helicopters. Fixed wing aircraft are generally less expensive if a landing strip can be located in close proximity to the project area. The application must be timed with the emergence new foliage and presence of feeding larvae to be effective. Generally results are decreased level of defoliation but not complete elimination. Reapplication of chemical and biological treatments will likely be required
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -87- during the duration of the spruce budworm outbreak. Historically, outbreaks in Montana have duration of 2-5 years. Cost of aerial treatment can vary significantly but generally range from $55-85 per acre.
Aerial application of Bt in the Big Sky Area. White Pine Blister Rust Cronartium Ribicola White pine blister rust is an introduced rust fungus from Europe whose host is five needle pines like whitebark pine. Whitebark pine mortality from the combination of blister rust and mountain pine beetle exceeds 50% in the Big Sky area on trees greater than 5 inches in diameter.
Life Cycle White pine blister rust has a complicated and interesting life cycle. The following is summarized from forestpathology.org website, White pine blister rust listed in the reference section. The fungus cannot spread from a diseased whitebark pine to a non-infected whitebark pine without an intermediate host which is Ribes or gooseberry. A whitebark pine branch with a blister rust canker in late summer produces spores which are actually tiny drops of sweet liquid which insects carry to other cankers. The following spring they develop into white to yellow blisters which eventually pop and release more spores. These spores can be dispersed hundreds of kilometers! The spores cannot infect pines, or anything else except gooseberry. The spores develop thru a complex life cycle on gooseberry where they transform and release another type of spore that can only infect 5 needle pines. The spores enter through stomata into the needles. Within a month or so a small yellowish spot can be seen where the infection occur. The fungus grows down the needle into the bark, and the cycle is complete.
Identification After a couple of years of infection branches become swollen and may have a yellowish margin. When a stem is girdled by the canker the needles turn red and the branch is dead.
Management Strategies The best strategy is to prune infected branches before they reach the stem. Stem infections are lethal, particularly on smaller trees. If the infected branch dies before the fungus reaches the next
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -88- larger branch or stem it will die. Pruning healthy trees can also be beneficial because it decreases the occurrences of new infections, especially on young trees. It is best to prune early, prune up to 50% of tree height from ground, and repeat until pruning extends up to about three meters 011).
Lodgepole Pine Dwarf Mistletoe Areceuthobium Americanum The following discussion is summarized from the Forest Insect & Disease Leaflet 18.
Dwarf mistletoe is prevalent throughout the remnant mature lodgepole pine in the Big Sky area. The infected lodgepole pine over story is also dispersing dwarf mistletoe seeds and infecting seedling and sapling sized trees in close proximity.
Life Cycle Dwarf mistletoe is a parasitic native seed plant. On lodgepole pines stem and branches, it produces slender, leafless olive green to yellow colored shoots. The principal function of these shoots is reproduction
Female plants produce seeds that spread the disease. Both sexes damage trees. Seeds are produced in small berries. During late summer berries burst and seeds can travel horizontal distances of 10 to 35 feet. The sticky seeds attach to branches and infect them. Birds also carry seeds, but most infection is from nearby infected trees. Mistletoe in Ponderosa Pine
Identification Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe is a native small, leafless, parasitic plant that grows on branches and stems of lodgepole pine. They are usually 1 to 5 inches tall and mostly green yellow, brown or orange in color.
Mistletoe fruiting bodies on lodgepole pine branches. Affected trees are characterized by bunched growths of branches called witches’ brooms. Witches brooms are preferred habitat for a number of forest birds and small mammals. The time it takes mistletoe to kill a tree depends on several factors. Damage tends to develop slowly until the tree is heavily infected. Trees are usually killed within about 10 to 15 years once they become heavily infected throughout the crown.
Management Strategies
Moonlight Basin Community Area Forest Management Plan Northwest Management, Inc. -89- Control of dwarf mistletoe involves reducing the amount of mistletoe to a low level. Heavily infected trees are cut. Lightly infected trees can have branches pruned. All live branches up to the highest infected branch should be cut off. Infected trees can be retained if they are isolated from healthy trees or surrounded by resistant tree species within 40 feet. Mistletoe control is generally a long-term process with activities usually focused around harvest or thinning operations to reduce cost. The first step is to select heavily infected trees for removal during current or future harvests. Second, remove infected young trees during pre-commercial thinning operations. Third, prune infected branches off of trees which are left behind but have light infections. Lastly, monitor for mistletoe outbreaks every three to five years. Lodgepole pine mistletoe is host specific to lodgepole pine. A large percentage of the mature lodgepole pine with mistletoe was the first trees attacked and killed by mountain pine beetle within Moonlight Basin.
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