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SOME GLIMPSES OF THE TSUNAMIGENIC POTENTIAL OF THE CARIBBEAN REGION

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Mario Octavio COTILLA RODRÍGUEZ and Diego CÓRDOBA BARBA Departamento de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica Facultad de Ciencias Físicas Universidad Complutense de Madrid Ciudad Universitaria, S/N. 28040 Madrid [email protected]; [email protected]

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“Science is the instrument that human society has to explain natural phenomena.”

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Index

Prólogo Foreword-Prefacio Introduction

1- Review of tsunami studies 2- Tsunami activity in the Pacific region 3- Tsunamis data of the Atlantic Ocean 4- Some information about tectonic activity in the Caribbean region 5- Seismicity and focal mechanisms in the Caribbean plate 6- Tsunamigenic activity of the Caribbean region 7- Final comments

Main conclusions Acknowledgements References

5 Prólogo

El peligro olvidado, que resucitó y posteriormente ha sido magnificado por Hollywood, así podríamos definir a los tsunamis. Son diferentes los procesos que dan origen a los tsunamis: terremotos que provocan un movimiento con componente vertical del fondo marino; explosiones de islas volcánicas; grandes movimientos de masas en pendientes continentales y/o a la orilla de las costas; caída de meteoritos; los más comunes son los dos primeros. Hay informes sobre grandes tsunamis históricos que han causado mucha destrucción, algunos muy famosos donde quizá el más antiguo conocido sea el de la Isla Santorini en 1650 AC, pasando por los de Lisboa en 1755 y Krakatoa en 1883 hasta los de 1964 en Alaska, de 2004 en Indonesia y 2011 en Tohoku. De estos seis, posiblemente los de más impacto en su momento, dos son de origen volcánico (Santorini y Krakatoa). El experto Dr. Modesto Ortiz Figueroa (2011) ha definido al tsunami como el último de los Titanes, el hijo secreto de Tetis, que se salvó de ser encarcelado en el Tártaro, y se mantuvo oculto por milenios ante los ojos de los humanos. Todo aquel que de cerca lo veía no vivía para contarlo y los testimonios de aquellos que sobrevivían se perdían en las leyendas. Poblados chicos y grandes, ciudades y hasta civilizaciones enteras desaparecieron de la franja costera bajo el manto del Titán. Ésta es una forma poética, pero que describe de manera muy real la historia y los efectos de los tsunamis. En una época donde las redes globales de observación sísmica nos hacen suponer que conocemos las más importantes estructuras tectónicas tsunamigénicas, nos sorprenden los tsunamis de Indonesia y Tohoku que superan los pronósticos previos (particularmente el de Tohoku) debido a elementos que no habían sido adecuadamente evaluados. ¿Cuántos tsunamis de este tipo están perdidos en la historia? No lo sabemos ¿Cuándo será el próximo? Tampoco lo sabemos ¿Dónde será el próximo? Lo descocemos; pero si conocemos que la mayor parte de las fronteras tectónicas son regiones donde se puede producir un terremoto tsunamigénico; incluso se tienen modelos de los tsunamis que pueden causar, las áreas que afectarían y los posibles efectos (altura de olas, etc.). Estos modelos se basan en los conocimientos que se tienen de eventos previos; sin embargo existen demasiadas variables a considerar. Los avances en el conocimiento de los mecanismos de generación de los tsunamis han permitido el desarrollo de sistemas mundiales de alertas para tele-tsunamis que funcionan con éxito, particularmente en el Océano Pacífico. Este sistema emite avisos que contienen altura probable y tiempos de arribo de las olas (tsunami) a las diferentes costas del Pacifico. Esto proporciona un período (dependiendo de la distancia al epicentro) que permite tomar medidas preventivas a lo largo de las costas para mitigar los efectos, particularmente en pérdidas de vidas humanas. Sin embargo, cuando el tsunami es local (distancia menor de 200 km) el único posible aviso o alerta es el terremoto en sí mismo. La primera ola tardará, como máximo, de 15 a 20 minutos en llegar. Para diseñar medidas de prevención y mitigación de los efectos de tsunamis locales se requiere que los países con costas cerca de los bordes tectónicos, potencialmente tsunamigénicos, realizan estudios y evalúen el peligro que esos fenómenos representan. Actualmente esto se realiza de manera sistemática en casi todo el mundo. No obstante, existe una región que también está expuesta a este peligro, y que no ha sufrido recientemente la ira del Titán. Esa región es afectada frecuentemente por huracanes, terremotos y erupciones volcánicas: El Arco de las Antillas Mayores, y éste es el objeto de estudio del presente libro, que será indudablemente una herramienta básica para el diseño de investigaciones que permitan caracterizar mejor el peligro tsunamigénico.

6 En estas islas del Mar Caribe viven más de 25 millones de personas y están conformadas básicamente por 5 países: Cuba, Jamaica, Haití, República Dominicana y Puerto Rico; pero, lamentablemente, ninguno de ellos está en el nivel de los países desarrollados, por lo que sus recursos económicos son muy limitados. Esto realza la importancia de iniciar de manera sistemática estudios para evaluar el peligro y el riesgo de los tsunamis en la región. Este libro recorre, con siete capítulos, un tema de mucha importancia y actualidad sobre todo para un territorio insular y disperso. Está ilustrado con 15 figuras y tiene 41 tablas que apoyan la exposición del trabajo. Acompañan al texto un glosario con los términos científicos empleados en el estudio de los tsunamis. También hay un extenso catálogo de 522 tsunamis documentados para todo el planeta. El lector encontrará a su alcance más de 400 referencias, todas ellas empleadas en la confección del trabajo; y que muestran no hay un texto similar para la región. Así mismo presenta una interesante discusión, muy bien fundamentada, sobre la calidad de la información de estos fenómenos en el Caribe, y en particular de Cuba. Esta obra es indiscutiblemente un importante paso.

Dr. Francisco Javier NUÑEZ CORNU Universidad de Guadalajara México

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Foreword / Prefacio

Foreword: A tsunami potential study in the Caribbean region is presented and in particular to the Septentrional area. The region is part of the Atlantic Ocean. This large basin has a minor tsunamigenic potential than the Pacific Ocean. The Caribbean area is better known for its hurricanes and quite less for its tsunamis. Nevertheless, historically the amount of deaths [~9,000] connected with tsunamis in the Caribbean is very important. In fact there are well documented ~120 tsunamis [local and regional]. Also, there are some sea waves generated by teletsunamis like of the 01.11.1755 of the SW Portugal. They took ~7-8 hours to arrive. In the Caribbean there are ten tsunamigenic sources: 1) Mona Canyon; 2) Puerto Rico trench; 3) Mona trench; 4) Septentrional fault; 5) Pedro Bank; 6) Jamaica area; 7) Western Caribbean Sea [Gulf of Honduras-Panama]; 8) Lesser Antilles arc; 9) Central America trench; 10) Southern Caribbean plate [Panama-Colombia-Venezuela region]. Septentrional Caribbean is distinguished by two large active tectonic branchs: 1) Northern: La Española-Puerto Rico-Islas Vírgenes; 2) Southern: La Española-Puerto Rico. From our point of view the second one is the area of highest hazard and Puerto Rico Island is under the major risk. However, the majority of countries in the Caribbean region have not the scientific and technical resources to manager suitable and sure tsunami plans, and much less to stanch the economic losses.

Prefacio: Se presenta un estudio del potencial de generación de tsunamis en el Caribe y en particular para el Caribe Septentrional. El Caribe es parte del Océano Atlántico, una cuenca marina que tiene un potencial tsunamigénico menor que el Océano Pacífico. El Caribe es más conocido por la ocurrencia de huracanes y ciclones tropicales que por tsunamis, sin embargo la cifra de fallecidos por ese último fenómeno es de ~9,000. La región Caribe no tiene grandes terremotos con tsunamis. Sin embargo, muchos tsunamis han ocurrido en él, y se contabiliza una cifra aproximada de 120. La experiencia del tsunami del 01.11.1755 [SW de Portugal] demuestra que las olas alcanzaron la región caribeña 7-8 horas después. Está establecido que el Caribe ha sido afectado por tsunamis de fuentes cercanas y lejanas. El Caribe se distingue por 10 zonas tsunamigénicas: 1) Cañón de la Mona, 2) Fosa de Puerto Rico, 3) Fosa de la Mona, 4) Falla Septentrional, 5) Banco de Pedro, 6) Jamaica, 7) Mar Caribe Occidental [Golfo de Honduras-Panamá], 8) Arco de las Antillas Menores, 9) Fosa de América Central, 10) Caribe Meridional [Panamá-Colombia-Venezuela]. En la parte septentrional del Caribe se distinguen dos segmentos activos: 1) Zona Norte: La Española-Puerto Rico-Islas Vírgenes; 2) Zona Sur: La Española-Puerto Rico. También en el Caribe hay zonas donde ocurren terremotos fuertes, pero no siempre se acompañan por tsunamis. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los países de la región no tiene los recursos necesarios para manejar, adecuadamente, los planes de protección contra estos fenómenos naturales, y mucho menos para restañar las pérdidas económicas.

“It is not worthy of the man to accept with naturalness what is own of the Nature.” Alexander von Humbolt

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Introduction

“Scientists say that they can indicate the way to preserve life and property of the society whereas politicians always decide.”

9 Introduction

Our interest is to show the tsunami potential in the Caribbean region [a marine basin of ~2,760.00 km2]. It is a typical area where the earthquakes occurrence produced important number of deaths and economic damages. Also, there are some volcanoes in the eastern and western end of the plate. All these phenomena are mainly connected to the hazard in the islands and have been study by other authors. However, tsunamis can be considered another natural danger, and it is our goal. Tsunami [from the Japanese= harbor wave] is a gravitational sea wave produced by any large-scale, short-duration disturbance of the ocean floor, principally by a shallow submarine earthquake, but also by submarine earth movement, subsidence, or volcanic eruption. It is characterized by long period ~5-60 min, and low observable amplitude on the open sea, although it may pile up to heights of 30 m or more and cause much damage on entering shallow water along an exposed coast, often thousand of kilometers from the source. In other words, tsunami is a water displacement produced by fault movement, whereas the seismic waves are caused directly from the fault motion. Then earthquakes are a clear manifestation of rock deformation. The general features of tsunamis are well known and have been discussed extensively in the literature. In order to made more clear the exposition we present some specific terms in table 1. Another characteristic of tsunami is that the fault in a sedimentary layer structure can generated a larger tsunami than a fault in a rigid structure. The study of tsunami deposits is recent. Nevertheless, it is a good opportunity to get a more complete register of such phenomena. Tsunami waves as a long-period ocean wave has very low speed in deep water. It is ~0.2 km/s and near the coastline can be slower, producing the refraction phenomena and the increment of wave height. In the ocean where can be considered constant the depth the velocity is estimated by the following expression [v= (gh)1/2, where: v= speed (m/s), g= 9.8 m/s2, h= ocean depth (m)]. Tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab of oceanic crust is descending vertically along a fault or where the vibration of a quake sets an underwater landslide into motion. Once formed, the tsunami advances across the ocean at speeds of [500- >900 km/h]. But in an open ocean the tsunami can pass undetected because its height is generally around one meter and the distance between wave crests [λ] is [100-700 km]. In contrast when the tsunami arrives entering shallow water, near the coast, became in destructive waves that move slowed and the water start to pile up to heights of ~30 m. Since the speed of a tsunami is greater in a deep sea than in a shallow one when the tsunami travels in an open sea of variable depth, the direction of propagation gradually veers toward the shallowest zone. This process is known as wave refraction and it is quite important in order to model the tsunamis. The majority of tsunamis are caused by large earthquakes. Also volcanic eruptions and landslides can produce tsunamis, although these occur less frequently than earthquakes tsunamis. Tsunamis can be result of earthquakes in subduction zones (Figure 1), where the sudden vertical movements or subsidence of the sea floor by faulting. Subduction is a complicate physical process where a tectonic plate descends beneath another one. This process produces in the relief a large and narrow belt with great number of earthquakes and some volcanoes. Such regions can be studied using the concept of Wadati-Benniof zone (Figure 2). In it appears the earthquake foci [up to tens kilometers] as a sequence in the depth.

10 Table 1. Some terms used to measure and describe tsunamis Term Brief description Arc Island It is a type of archipelago composed of a chain of volcanoes which alignment is arc- shaped, and which are situated parallel and close to a boundary between two converging tectonic plates. See figures 3 and 5. Active fault A fault that is likely to have an earthquake sometime in the future. Faults are considered to be active if they have moved one or more times in the last 10,000 years. Arrival time Time of the first maximum of the tsunami waves. Backarc It is the region landward of a volcanic chain on the other side from a subduction zone. See figure 3. Basement Harder and older igneous and metamorphic rocks that underlie the main sedimentary rock sequences of a region and extend downward to the base of the crust. Benniof Zone A dipping planar zone of earthquakes that is produced by the interaction of a (Wadati-Benniof) downgoing oceanic plate with a continental plate. These earthquakes can be produced by slip along the subduction thrust fault or by slip on faults within the downgoing plate as a result of bending and extension as the plate is pulled into the mantle. See figure 1. Breakwater Artificial structure such as a wall or water gate to protect a beach or harbor from the force of waves. Fault A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative to one another parallel to the fracture. See figure 4 and table 2. Forearc The region between the subduction zone and the volcanic chain (volcanic arc). Forecast point The site or location where the authorities estimate the arrival of tsunami. Historical tsunami The tsunami documented by different means in the past. Interplate It pertains to processes between the earth's crustal plates. Interplate coupling It is the ability of a fault between two plates to lock and accumulate stress. Strong interplate coupling means that the fault is locked and capable of accumulating stress whereas weak coupling means that the fault is unlocked or only capable of accumulating low stress. Intraplate It pertains to processes within the plates. Landslide tsunami It can be produced by landslides of different origin (earthquake. volcano. etc.). The effects are local and limited in area. Local tsunami The tsunami originated from a nearby source (about 100 km to the coast). Magnitude A number assigned to the properties of an event such that the event can be compared to other events of the similar class. Mareograph Instrument to record the sea level gauge. Mareogram The record obtained in a mareograph. Oceanic trench It is a linear depression of the sea floor caused by the subduction of one plate under another. See figure 3. Overflow Inundation. Paleotsunami A tsunami that occurred prior to the historical record. Propagation speed It is a propagation velocity of the tsunami according with the following expression v= (gh)2 Recession The drawdown of the sea level prior to tsunami flooding. Regional tsunami The tsunami capable of destruction in an area located within 1,000 km from its source. Run-up Value of the difference between the elevation of maximum tsunami penetration on the coast and the sea level at the time of the tsunami occurrence. It is only measured where there is a clear evidence of the inundation limit on the shore. Sea floor spreading It is what happens at the mid-oceanic ridge where a divergent boundary is causing two plates to move away from one another resulting in spreading of the sea floor. As the plates move apart, new material wells up and cools onto the edge of the plates. See figure 11. Sea level The height of the sea at a given time measured. Seiche A sea movement initiated by a standing wave oscillating in a partially or fully enclosed body of water. It can be start by long period seismic waves. Wind and water waves as a tsunami. Seismic sea wave Waves generated by earthquakes. Seismogenic zone That means capable of generating earthquakes. The base of the seismogenic zone is the top of the more ductile asthenosphere. Slab It is the oceanic crustal plate that underthrusts the continental plate in a subduction and is consumed by the earth's mantle.

11 Term Brief description Subduction A process of the oceanic lithosphere colliding with and descending beneath the continental lithosphere. See figure 1. Subduction zone The place where two lithospheric plates come together, one riding over the other. Most volcanoes on land occur parallel to and inland from the boundary between the two plates. See figure 1. Tectonic tsunami It is related with the subduction process. Teletsunami A tsunami originated from a faraway source (more than 1,000 km). Tidal wave The wave motion of the tides. An erroneous synonymous of tsunami and storm surge. Tide The alternate rise and fall of the ocean surface, or bodies of water connected with the ocean. Tide station The place where is obtained the tide data. Travel time Time that the first tsunami wave required to propagate from its source to a given point on a coastline. Tsunameter The instrument to detect in real-time tsunamis. Tsunamigenic It is referring to those earthquakes, commonly along major subduction zone plate boundaries such as those bordering the Pacific Ocean that can generate tsunamis. Tsunami bore A typical movement occurring in a river mouth or estuary by the tsunami wave front. Tsunami magnitude The magnitude (MT) is a number used to compare sizes of tsunamis generated by different earthquakes and calculated from the logarithm of the maximum amplitude of the tsunami wave measured by a tide gauge distant from the tsunami source. Tsunami sediments Sediments deposited by tsunamis. Tsunami forerunner The oscillations of the water level preceding the arrival of the main waves. Tsunami intensity The size of a tsunami using the macroscopic observation of the tsunamis effects on objects and persons. Tsunami numerical Mathematical descriptions that permit to describe the observed tsunami and its modeling effects. Tsunami simulation A numerical model of tsunami generation, propagation and inundation. Tsunami zoning The designation of distinctive zones along the coastal areas with varying degrees of tsunami risk and vulnerability. Planning, construction codes or evacuation of populations. Volcanic tsunami Tsunami produced by eruptions of volcanoes. Wave height Symbol H. The vertical distance between the trough and the crest of the sea wave while the tsunami is traveling toward the land.

The models of sea-floor spreading and the plate tectonics show that the more important seismic zones on the arc islands are directly related with the major under thrusts along which the lithosphere plates converge and descend. Examples of such situation are the Aleutian arc [Gulf of Alaska] and the Chile-Peru arc [western margin of South America] (Figure 3). These segments are tectonically actives. They coincide with two largest lithosphere plates [Pacific and America]. Nevertheless, the two mentioned before regions have some similarities as: 1) deep oceanic trenches; 2) a belt of active seismicity [Wadati-Benniof zone]; 3) an active volcanoes inside of sub parallel discontinuous mountain chain. Nevertheless, they differ in the type of contact. Chile-Peru region is an ocean-continent transition along its entire length with maximum foci at ~650 km, and large package of Mesozoic and older crystalline rocks with a clear not deformed Tertiary sediments layer. Whereas, Aleutian arc marks the transition between ocean and continent in its eastern part where is located the true arc of islands, the maximum depth occurrence of earthquakes is 170 km, and exists a thick package of Mesozoic-Cenozoic deformed sediments. In these regions occurred two important earthquakes [1960= Chile and 1964= Alaska] which generated two tsunamis. The mechanisms determined were of thrust-fault type.

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Figure 1. Model of the subduction zone for a great earthquake sequence in three stages [I= Interseismic, II= Coseismic, III= Postseismic; lithosphere (1= Oceanic, 2= Continental), 3= Trench, 4= Outer Ridge, 5= Subduction plane, 6= Sense of movement, 7= Deformed lithosphere, 8= Intense inelastic deformation, 9= Stress concentration, 10= Sudden interplate faulting, 11, 12= Faulting, 13= Tsunamigenic or aseismic complex faulting.]

Figure 2. Example of the Wadati-Benniof zone (modified from Westbrook, Boot and Peacdok, 1973) [1= Barbados Ridge, 2= Atlantic Ocean, 3= Caribbean Sea, 4= Faulting, 5= Subduction plane.]

Table 2. Main fault types Fault type Short description Normal They are developed in crust undergoing extension in which the maximum principal compressive stress is vertical. Also, a dip-slip fault on which the hanging wall has moved downward relative to footwall. See figure 4I. Reverse A fault on which the hanging wall appears to have moved upward relative to the footwall. The dip of a reverse fault is relatively steep, greater than 45°. See figure 4IIA. Strike-slip They are faults that have slip vectors parallel (horizontal) to their strike. It is frequent (transcurrent) to find some comments using the term lateral as a synonym for strike-slip. The fault surface is usually near vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. A strike-slip fault with left-lateral motion is known as sinistral fault. And the other type (right-lateral motion) is also known as dextral fault. See figure 4III. Thrust A fault with a dip of 45º or less over much of its extent on which the hanging wall appears to have moved upward relative to the footwall. See figure 4IIB.

13 In the other hand, the fault motions like as a strike-slip displacement are not capable to generate a tsunami because such movements are horizontal and there is no change of the sea-floor. It was stated by different authors that on gently sloping coasts, as California area, large tsunamis are quite rare and the relatively small tsunamis are quite probably generated by faulting at the bottom of the ocean. Table 2 shows the faults’ types (Figures 4A-4C). As we mentioned before most tsunamis are caused by large shallow earthquakes that occur on major plate boundaries. Then many tsunami sources are located on Circum-Pacific Ocean zone [the Aleutian Islands, Central America, Japan, Kuril Islands, and Tonga] (Figure 5). Nevertheless, no large tsunamis are generated where the plate motion is transform-fault type as in the west coast of North America the large earthquakes are strike-slips that occur on land. Historical geological data show that landslides sometimes generate tsunamis and increase the tsunami magnitude. Nevertheless, the occurrence of tsunamis induced by landslides is minimal. For example: In 1989 Loma Prieta, California [U.S.A.] was affected by a small earthquake. The epicenter was located on land but this seismic event produced underwater local slums [landslides] that generated a small tsunami in Monterey Bay. Also, it was the case of the 1998 tsunami of Papua New Guinea. Tsunami earthquakes are those tsunamis have greater amplitudes than would be expected from their seismic waves. They have low magnitudes that can be not felt by the population and then may not take precautionary evasive measures. Some results have shown that sources in tsunami earthquakes cannot be explained by a regional signal identifiable in other moderate to major events along the same subduction system. Also, it is demonstrated the difficulties for fault models in order to fit the distribution of tsunami height. Magnitude scales permit determined the size of tsunamis. There are some scales between then is the Imamura-Ida scale (Table 3). Also, there are intensity scales (Table 4) as the earthquake one. That scale is principally employed with old tsunami from which no instrumental records exist [m= log2 H, where m is the magnitude, H is tsunami height (run-up height)]. Another one is the Abe magnitude scale develops to a trans- Pacific tsunami [MT= log H + C + 9.1]. He included for a range of 100-3,500 km [with the expression MT= log H + log Δ + 5.8]. In both formulas H is the maximum amplitude [meters] on tide gauges. This scale allows to measure the seismic moment of the tsunamigenic earthquake as the overall size of a tsunami at the source. Table 5 has a classification to the size of tsunamis. Table 6 shows a classification in three levels of tsunamis taking into account the distance from the source. To subduction zones were proposed three types of tsunami and tsunami earthquakes looking to the source and the tsunami earthquakes to the source location: 1) typical interplate earthquake; 2) intraplate earthquake; 3) tsunami earthquake (Table 7). Tsunamis from typical interplate earthquakes can be used to demonstrate that the slip is concentrated in asperities. Intraplate earthquakes at outer rise in the subducted slab and in the overlying crust can all be tsunamigenic [i.e.: 1995 Kuril Islands]. It was suggested two types of the tsunami earthquakes: 1) very anomalous; 2) moderate (Table 8). For example, we can mention four cases: 1) 1896 Sanriku Islands; 2) 1946 Aleutian Islands; 3) 1992 Nicaragua; 4) 1996 Peru. All of them had sources between the trench and 10 km depth beneath the accretionary wedge. This source is a shallow extension of the seismogenic zone for typical interplate earthquakes. Schematic cross-section of fault for a subduction zone earthquake and the vertical deformation of ocean floor (Figure 6) show a vertical deformation pattern along the cross-section of a subduction earthquake. If the fault is 10 km wide the vertical uplift extends toward land and the tsunami arrival becomes early. But if the fault is narrower,

14 40 km, the vertical deformation is limited in a smaller area and the tsunami would arrive at the coast later.

Figure 3. Model of Alaska and Chile tsunamis (modified from Plafker, 1972) [Earthquakes (I= Alaskan 1964.03.28, II= Chilean 1960.05.22), Plates (1= American, 2= Pacific), 3= Volcanoes, 4= Oceanic crust, 5= Aleutian trench, 6= Edge of Continental Shelf, 7= Sense of movement, 8= Patton Bay Fault, 9= Peru-Chile trench.]

Table 3. Tsunami magnitude scale (Imamura - Ida) Magnitude Maximum wave Run-up Damages -m- height (metre) (metre) 0 1-2 1-1.5 No damage. 1 2-3 2-3 Houses are flooded / Timber houses and earthen buildings are damaged / boats are swept away also destroyed. 2 4-6 4-6 Timber buildings, vessels and people are swept away. 3 10- ~20 8-12 Serious damage along 400 km of coast. 4 >30 16-24 Serious damage along >500 km of coast.

Two models of the relation between the normal fault earthquakes and the tsunami earthquakes are in figures 7B and 7C. They generated despite their relatively small magnitude two of the largest and most widespread tsunamis in history. The march 17 of 1929 Aleutian Islands earthquake [M=8.1; h=50km] is located beneath the Aleutian trench. In the Aleutian and Sanriku regions are the large normal-fault earthquakes along the trench axis. That is quite interesting and striking. The 1933 Sanriku earthquake is the largest of such type of event. The normal-fault earthquakes may imply the presence of a weak zone along the inner margin of the trench. It is in this part of the trench that the tsunami earthquake of 1896 occurred. The situation is slightly different along the Aleutian zone. The two tsunami earthquakes, the 1896 Sanriku and the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquakes are very similar to each other with respect.

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Figure 4. Models of the main fault types [Black arrows= sense of block movements, Faults (I= Normal, IIA= Reverse, IIB= Thrust, 1= Foot wall, 2= Hanging wall, III= Strike-slip).]

Table 4. Modified Sieberg seismic sea-water intensity scale [Sieberg-Ambraseys intensity scale] Intensity Description 1 Very light. Wave so weak as to be perceptible only on tide-gauge records. 2 Light. Wave noticed by those living along the shore and familiar with the sea. On very flat shore generally noticed. 3 Rather strong. Generally noticed. Flooding of gently sloping coats. Light sailing vessels or small boats carried away on shore. Slight damage to light structures situated near the coast. In estuaries reversal of the river flow some distance upstream. 4 Strong. Flooding of the shore to some depth. Light scouring on man-made ground. Embankments and dikes damaged. Light structures near the coasts damaged. Solid structures on the coast injured. Big sailing vessels and small ships carried inland or out to sea. Coast littered with floating debris. 5 Very strong. General flooding of the shore to some depth. Breakwater walls and solid structures near the sea damaged. Light structures destroyed. Severe scouring of cultivated land and littering of the coast with floating items and sea animals. With the exception of big ships, all other type of vessels carried inland or out to sea. Big bores in estuary rivers. Harbor works damaged. People drowned. Wave accompanied by strong roar. 6 Disastrous. Partial or complete destruction of man-made structures for some distance from the shore. Flooding of coasts to great depths. Big ships severely damaged. Trees uprooted or broken. Many casualties.

Table 5. Classification of tsunamis according to Mw and size of source areas (Furumoto, 1991) Nº Classification Mw / Rupture length (km) 1 Giant tsunami Mw> 9.1 / >550 2 Major tsunami 8.4

Table 6. Classification of tsunamis according to the distance from the source Nº Classification Distance from the source (km) 1 Local <100 2 Regional 100-750 3 Distant >750

Nowadays, there are a lot of scientific issues about tsunamis on the market, mainly since the 50’s in the 20th century. These contributions were quite increased in quantity after the Nicaragua tsunami of 1992. Then, all reader who is interested about such topic

16 can find in our references some of the most relevant papers and books used here. All the epigraphs started with this crucial information.

Table 7. Types of tsunami and tsunamigenic earthquakes in subduction zones Nº Type Description 1 Typical interplate Occur at the seismogenic interface or megathrust between earthquake subducting and overlying plates. 2 Intraplate earthquake There are two types: A) Outer-rise event when its location is outside the trench; B) Slab-earthquake when it occurs within the subducting slab. The slab earthquakes include deep earthquakes. In the overlying crust are also intraplate earthquakes. 3 Tsunami earthquake Locate at a shallow extension of the interpolate seismogenic zone, beneath the accretionary wedge.

The second section of this book contains the most relevant information on reported and registered tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. This is the region with the largest number of tsunamis and their study will allow the comparison with the included in the following two epigraphs, on the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean region. In particular our goal is the northern Caribbean. The last epigraph includes the techniques and resources for the detection of tsunamis, as well as data and recommendations that can serve to the people who live and remain in the coastal zones.

Figure 5. Tsunamigenic regions in the Pacific Ocean [Sites (AO= Atlantic Ocean, NA= North America, SA= South America, C= Caribbean), 1= Pacific Ocean, 2= Hawaii Islands, 3= Alaska, 4= Aleutian Islands, 5= Kuril Islands, 6= Tonga, 7= Kermadec Islands, 8= Chile, 9= Peru, 10= Colombia, 11= Central America, 12= Mexico.]

Table 8. Types of tsunamis earthquakes (Kanamori and Kikuchi, 1993) Nº Type Description 1 Very anomalous It occurs at an accreting margin with large amounts of sediments and the accretionary prism where occasional slumping causes the tsunami earthquake. 2 Moderate It occurs in a subduction zone with little sediment where rupture in subducted sediment is responsible for large tsunamis.

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Figure 6. Schematic model of fault for a subduction zone with earthquake and resulting vertical displacement of ocean bottom (modified from Satake, 1994) [Fault width (C1= 100 km, C2= 40 km), A= Ocean deformation; B= Bathymetry, 1= Land, 2= Trench, 3= Uplift, 4= Subsidence.]

Figure 7. Subduction profiles in Central America and two models of earthquakes and tsunamis in island zones [A= Subduction profiles projections from the trench axis in Central America, Subduction models of (B) Sanriku islands and (C) Aleutian islands (modified from Kanamori, 1972), Lithosphere (1= Continental, 2= Oceanic), Earthquakes (3, 5= 1896.06.15, 4= 1933.03.02, 6= 1946.04.01, 7= 1929.03.07).]

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1- Review of tsunami studies

“The first step is to guard against and then prepare to face the contingencies of natural hazards.”

19 1- Review of tsunami studies

The used works in this chapter are: Abe, 1989, 1985, 1983, 1981, 1979, 1973 and 1972; Abe and Ishii, 1980; Abe et al. (1993); Albercrombie, Antolik, Ferlzer and Ekström, 2001; Affleck, 1809; Ando, 1982; Ando (1982); Arcas and Uslu, 2010; Arce, Molina, Havskov and Atakan, 1998; Atwater and Moore, 1992; Bates and Jackson, 1987; Belcher, 1843; Ben-Menahem and Rosenman, 1972; Berninghausen, 1964 and 1962; Bilek and Lay, 2002 and 1999; Bryant, 2001; Bryant, Young and Price, 1994; Caballero and Ortiz, 2002; Caicedo, Martinelli, Meyer and Steer, 1996; Camacho and Víquez, 1993; Carrier and Noiseux, 1983; Chalas-Jiménez, 1989; Cheng, 1995; Corner, 1984; Cotilla, 2014A, 2012 and 2011; Cotilla and Córdoba, 2011A; Cruz and Wyss, 1983; Curtis and Pelinovsky, 1999; Dawson, 1994; Dmowska and Saltzman, 1998; Dudley and Lee Min, 1998; EC, 1998; Fernández, 2002; Fernández, Molina, Havskov and Atakan (2000); Fernández, Havskov and Atakan, 1999; Fukao, 1979; Furumoto, 1991; Geist, 2000 and 1998; Geist and Bilek, 2001; Geist and Yoshioka, 1996; Gonzalez et al., 2009; González, Satake, Boss and Mofield, 1995; Grindlay, Hearne and Mann, 2005; Gusiakov, 2002; Hammackm 1973; Hatori, 1995, 1986 and 1979; Heck, 1947; Heilpin, 1903; Heinrich, Schindele, Guibourg and Ihmlé, 1998; Hwang and Divoky, 1970; Ide, Imamura, Yoshida and Abe, 1993; Ihmlé, Gomez, Heinrich and Guiborg, 1998; Iida and Iwasaki, 1981; Iida, Cox and Pararas-Carayannis, 1967; Imamura, 1950 and 1928; Imamura et al., 1993; INETER, 1993; ITIC, 2004; Ishii and Abe, 1980; Johnson, 1998; Johnson and Satake, 1996, 1994 and 1993; Johnson, Satake, Holdahl and Sauber, 1996; Johnson et al., 1994; Kajura, 1981, 1970 and 1963; Kanamori, 1972 and 1971; Kanamori and Kikuchi, 1993; Kikuchi and Kanamori, 1995; Kowalick and Whitmore, 1991; Kuroiwa, 2004, and 1985; Lamb, 1942; Lander, 1996; Lander and Whiteside, 1997; Lander, Whiteside and Lockridge, 2002; Lay, Kanamori and Ruff, 1982; Linde and Silver, 1989; Lockridge, 1998; Lockridge and Smith, 1984; Lomnitiz, 1971; Lynch and Bodle, 1948; Ma, Satake and Kanamori, 1991; Mader and Centes, 1991; Mallet, 1854; Matsuyama, Igarashi and Yeh, 1999; Marshall, Fisher and Gardner, 2000; McCaffrey, 1992; Mercado and McCann, 1998; Merino y Coronado, Salyano, Rosales and Martínez, 1962; Milne, 1911; Minoura and Nakaya, 1991; Molina, 1997; Momoi, 1964; Monge, 1993; Montadon, 1962; Montero, 1990; Montero, Paniagua, Kussmaul and River, 1992; Montessus de Ballore, 1888; Murty, 1977; Nagano, Imamura and Shuti, 1991; Ng, Le Blond and Murty, 1990; NOAA, 2004; Nuñez-Cornú, Ortiz and Sánchez, 2008; Okal, 1994 and 1993; Okal and Newman, 2001; Okal, Piatanesi and Heinrich, 1999; O`Loughlin and Lander, 2003; Ortiz Figueroa, 2011; Papadopoulus and Imamura, 2001; Pararas-Carayannis, 1974; Pelayo and Wiens, 1992 and 1990; Piatanesi, Tinti and Gavagni, 1996; Plafker, 1972 and 1969; Plafker and Savage, 1970; Polet and Kanamori, 2000; Quiceno and Ortiz, 2001; Reid and Taber, 1919; Rubio, 1982; Ruff, 1992; Ruff and Kanamori, 1980; Sainte-Claire Deville, 1867; Sapper, 1905; Sarria, 1990; Satake, 2005, 1994, 1992 and 1985; Satake and Imamura, 1995; Satake and Tanioka, 2003, 1999 and 1993; Satake, Yoshida and Abe, 1992; Satake et al., 1993; Sauber and Dmowska, 1999; Schwab, Daanforth, Scalon and Masson, 1991; Shepard, McDonald and Cox, 1950; Shubert, 1994; Shuto, 1993 and 1991; Sieberg, 1932; Sigurdsson, 1996; Soloviev, 1970; Soloviev and Go, 1994; Soloviev, Go and Kim, 1982; Soloviev et al., 2000; Stoneley, 1964; Suarez, Monfret, Wittlinger and David, 1990; Sutch, 1981; Synolakis, 1991 and 1987; Takahashi et al., 1995; Tang, Titov and Chanbulino, 2009; Tanioka and Satake, 1996A and 1996B; Tanioka, Satake and Ruff, 1995A; Tanioka, Ruff and Satake, 1995B; Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2006; Tatehata, 1998; Titov, 2009; Titov et al., 2005; Tsuchiya and Shuto,

20 1995; Tsuji et al., 1995 and 1994; UNESCO-IOC, 2006, 2005, 1999, 1998 and 1997; Vergara Muñoz, 1988 and 1988A; Ward, 1982 and 1980; Watanabe, 1985; Wei et al., 2008; Weissert, 1990; Williams, 1941; Yamashita, 1980; Yamashita and Sato, 1974; Yeh et al., 1993; Yoshida, Satake and Abe, 1992; Zahibo and Pelinovsky, 2001; and Zetler, 1947. In old literature we can find the data about most historic tsunamis. That information can contain descriptions about casualties, damages and observed run-up heights. Table 9 has the most significant tsunamis [479 B.C.-2011]. Between them is the Aleutian Islands event [of 1946] where the magnitude of earthquake was relatively small but produced one of the largest and most widespread tsunami in history (Figure 5). This historical relation of tsunamis [total= 522] was prepared in order to show in a simple way the time and geography distributions of such natural phenomena. Inside of the table appears 18 Great Tsunamigenic Earthquakes [M> 8.6], twelve events belong to the 20th century. Table 9 has two columns with the date and the geographical localization of tsunami. Other column includes the main characteristics of the event. There are other two columns with the code of tsunamigenic region proposal by: 1) other authors [to the Pacific Ocean (Table 20)]; 2) the authors [this last is most complete because include all regions]. We have found in our research that some catalogs are merely repeats of other results. They only incorporated very little new information. Nevertheless, it is possible to look clear repetition of mistakes. We also prepared a set of tables 10-16 where is easy to understand the time distribution, the quantities and distribution by region of the largest tsunamis occurred. The majority of the largest tsunamis were located in the Pacific Ocean [17/18]. In specific table 10 shows the biggest tsunamigenic potential of the Pacific region.

Table 9. Chronological relation of tsunamis (479 B.C.-2011) Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 1-479 B.C. Greece (Potidaea) M 2-425 B.C. Greece Accompanied by great inundation M of the sea. 3-375 B.C. Greece Great inundation of the sea M overwhelmed Helike. 4-365 A.D. Greece. Asia Minor. Sea retired and flowed again, M Crete causing damage. 5-416 Indonesia (Java. Waves swept the coast. W P Sumatra) 6-684.11.29 Japan (Shikoku) Severely shaken, eight square T P miles sank. [Great tsunamigenic earthquake]. 7-740.10.26 Turkey. Thrace. Sea retired then returned. M Constantinople 8-850.11.27 Japan Sea W P 9-869.07.09 Japan (Oshu. One thousand lives lost and W P Rikusen) hundreds of the villages ruined. 10-881 Spain (on the south There was a sea wave on the coast. A coast) 11-887.08.26 Japan (Settsu) W P 12-1050 Greece (Cyclades Small tsunami accompanied M Islands) submarine volcanic eruption. 13-1069 Syria (Ramla). SW Sea retired and then returned M Palestine. Egypt inundating coast. Many lives lost. 14- Coast of England Sea rose and inundated coasts. A 1134.10.01 and Netherlands Possibly not seismic.

21

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 15-1240.05.22 Japan (Kamakura- W P Sagami) 16-1293 Japan Thirty thousand persons killed. W P 17-1344 Constantinople. Shores of city inundated. M Syria 18-1361.08.3 Japan (Nankaido. Sea receded and returned. Great F P or 28 Settsu. Awa) loss of life at Yukiminato and some loss at Osaka. 19-1402 Syria Sea retired then returned with M great impetuosity. 20-1498.09.22 Japan (Kii. Ise. Great loss of life. W P Mikawa. Sagami) 21-1500.07.10 Japan (Totomo) W P 22-1509.09.14 Turkey Sea came over walls at M Constantinople and Galata following earthquake. 23-1510.09.21 Japan (Settsu) W P 24-1510.10 Japan (Totomi) No earthquake recorded. W P 25-1530.09.01 Venezuela (Paria. Sea rose more than 6.2 m and fell CS Cumana. Cubacoa) again. 26-1531.01.26 Portugal (Lisbon) Tagus River. A 27-1539.11.24 Honduras Gulf of Fonseca. Caribbean Sea. CA 28-1543 Venezuela CS 29-1546 Palestine (Joppa. Sea retired and then returned. M Sichem. Nablus and Rama) 30-1562.07.25 Japan (Yatsuhiro. Three waves. W P Higo) 31-1562.10.28 Chile (Santiago. Wave extended along ~145 km of P S Arauco) coast. Great loss of life among the Indians in the area. 32-1570.02.08 Chile The sea retired and returned in Q S Concepcion (today Penco). 33-1575.12.16 Chile Valdivia (Bahia Corral). Two Q S Spanish galleons were wrecked. 34-1579.03.16 Costa Rica (Isla N CA Cano) 35-1586.01.18 Japan (Honshu) Great sea waves. W P 36-1586.07.09 Peru Waves were reported as being O S ~26 m high. The shore was inundated for 6 miles inland; 22 deaths. 37-1586.09 Japan Sea inundated country and carry W P away houses. 38-1591.07.26 Portugal (Azores. Sea greatly inundated. A St. Michel) 39-1596.09.01 Japan (Oita. Bungo. Tsunami. Determined three sea W P or 04 Beppo. Urdu-jima) waves. 40-1604.11.24 Chile – Peru Arica inundated, wave affected O, P S ~930 km of coast. 41-1605.02.03 Japan (Kiushiu. Sea receded and returned. Five W P or 1605.01.31 Shikoku. Kazusa. thousand death. Awa. Satsuma)

22

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 42-1611.12.02 Japan Great sea waves flooded Yamada. W P 220 meters from the coast. Wave at least 100 feet high at Koyatori; ~50 hundred lives lost. 43-1614.11.26 Japan (Takata) Many deaths. W P 44-1615 Chile Waves at Arica. P S 45-1616.09.09 Japan W P 46-1621.05.02 Panama (La Vieja) Gulf of Panama. Caribbean Sea. N CA 47-1626 Italy (Fortore, San Sea retired and returned M Nicandro) inundating country. 48-1629.08.01 Indonesia (Banda Height of waves ~15 m, damage T P Islands) to mole. Heavy masses of iron thrown about. 49-1630 or Indonesia (Banda, Sea overflowed shore. T P 1631 Neira, Moluccas) 50-1633.03.01 Japan (Atami-Izu) W P 51-1640 Japan Seven hundred persons drowned. W P 52-1640.04.04 France, Belgium, Inside waters of Holland much A Holland disturbed. 53-1641.12.21 Portugal (Azores) Port of Velas, Ilha de Sâo Jorge. A 54-1646.04.05 Turkey Sea rushed in violently and threw M (Constantinople) ships ashore. 55-1653 Portugal (Azores) Ilha Terceira. A 56-1657.03.15 Chile (Santiago. Waves high along a great extent P S Concepcion) of coast. Concepcion inundated. 57-1661.01.08 Formosa (Taiwan) Sea violently agitated. D P or 09 58-1662.10.30 Japan (Hiuga, W P Osuni) 59-1664.05.12 Peru (Prisco) 70 deaths. O S 60-1667 Ragusa, all Great damage from four sea M Dalmatia waves. 61-1668.11.23 Portugal (Azores) Ilha de Sâo Jorge. A 62-1673.05.20 Halmahera Island Moderate sea wave. C P (Moluccas) 63-1673.08.12 Indonesia (Ternate. Sea wave of considerable force. T P a small island lying west of Halmahera. which lies NW of New Guinea) 64-1674.02.17 Indonesia. Moderate sea wave except at T P (Amboina. SW of Hitu, where it was high and Ceram Island which caused loss of life. lies SW of New Guinea) 65-1674.05.06 Indonesia Moderate waves at Hitu. T P 66-1676 Portugal (Azores) Praia da Victoria, Ilha Terceira, A Baia Praia. 69-1678.06.17 Peru (Santa Fe) Sea receded and returned with O S destructive force. 70-1688.03.01 Jamaica (Port CN / Gregorian Royal) 71-1686 Chile Sea wave. P – Q S 72-1687.10.20 Peru At Callao the sea retreated and O S returned with great violence.

23 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 73-1690.04.16 U.S.A. (Virgin St. Thomas. CN Island) 74-1692.06.07 Jamaica Port Royal. Large wave on north CN coast. Sea retired and returned at Liganee. Run-up= 1.8 m; 2.000 deaths. 75-1703.07.01 Italy (Genoa) Sea fell ~2 m and then returned. M 76-1703.12.30 Japan (Sagamim Observed four waves. W P or 31 Awa, Kazusa. Oshima. Musasi) 77-1705.11.26 Chile – Peru Waves reported in Arequipa. O, P S Arica destroyed. 78-1706.05.06 Canary Islands Garachico, Isla de Tenerife. A 79-1707.10.28 Japan Great sea waves destroyed the W P coasts of Kyushu. Shikoku, and Aldo Honshu and Izu. 80-1708.11.28 Indonesia Great sea wave with some T P (Amboina) damage. 81-1711.09.05 Indonesia Three moderate waves in bay. T P (Amboina) 82-1716 Japan (Oshima W P Island) 84-1724 Peru Eighty-foot waves at Callao O S flooded the city and sank 19 ships. 85-1730.07.08 Chile The waves caused destruction Q S along ~960 miles of coast. Valparaiso inundated. Waves damaged Concepcion. 86-1732.02.25 Mexico (Acapulco) Extraordinary flux and reflux of N N the tide. Height at least ~4 m. Sea rose to a great height, covering the Plaza. 87-1737.10.06 Kamchatka, Kuril Sea overflowed land to great I, J P Islands height and returned. Eruption of Awatscha. 88-1741 Japan (SW 2,000 deaths. H P Hokkaido) 89-1746.10.28 Peru Callao destroyed by waves of ~20 O S m high. All the ships in the harbor either destroyed or washed ashore. One ship stranded nearly one mile inland. Of 5,000 inhabitants only about 200 survived. 90-1746.12.26 Portugal (Lisbon) A 91-1751.03.25 Chile (Concepcion) Sea withdrew and returned at Q S great height. Disastrous effects at Juan Fernandez Island. 92-1751.05.24 Chile The old city of Concepcion Q S destroyed. Waves continued for about 24 hours. 93-1751.09.15 Hispaniola (Haiti) CN 94-1751.10.18 Santo Domingo Overwhelmed by a great sea CN (Azua) wave. Damage at city of Santo Domingo.

24 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 95-1751.11.21 Lesser Antilles Run-up= 7 m. L (Antigua. Barbados) 96-1752.04.28 Portugal Buarcos, Aveiro. A 97-1752.10.18 Hispaniola (Azua CN de Compostela. Santo Domingo. Santa Cruz. El Seybo) 98-1754.08.17 Mexico Moderate sea wave. N CA (Acapulco) 99-1754.08.20 Mexico Sea rose 5 m above normal. N CA (Acapulco) 100-1754.09.07 Indonesia Moderate sea wave. T P (Haruku) 101-1755.11.01 Portugal (Lisbon) Called tsunami earthquake. A Maximal height of 7 m. The tsunami waves crossed the Atlantic Ocean ~7-8 hours. Affected many countries in the Caribbean. 102-1756.03.29 Portugal (Lisbon) Tagus River. A 103-1757.07.09 Portugal (Azores) Sea was violently agitated and A came in at St. George Island, the Pico. Graciosa and Terceira Islands. 104-1761.03.31 Portugal (Lisbon) Called tsunami earthquake. A Produced flux and reflux of the sea in Lesser Antilles. Wave height of 1.2 m. 105-1763.09.01 Indonesia Sea rose and fell suddenly T P (Moluccas) inundating the land. 106-1767.04.24 Surinam. CL Martinique. Barbados Is. 107-1769.08.29 Japan Sea wave in Satsuma. W P 108-1769 Haiti (Port-au- CN Prince) 109-1770.06.03 Haiti Sea wave in the Gulf of Gonaive. CN Foot of la Saline mountain was partly submerged. Port-au-Prince ~200 deaths. 110-1771.04.24 Japan (Isigaki- Sea wave killed 9,400 persons. W P zima) 111-1773.05.06 Algiers (Tangier. Series of waves 1.8 m high at M north coast of most places, and 9 m at Tangier. Africa) 112-1775.02.11 Haiti Great damage done by sea wave CN following three earthquakes shocks. 113-1775.12.18 Hispaniola. Cuba CN 114-1780.10.03 Jamaica (Savanna Run-up= 3.0 m; 300 deaths CN La Mar) 115-1781.08.01 Jamaica (Montego CN Bay)

25 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 116-1783.02.05 Italy (Straits of Sea violently agitated. Rising more M Messina) than 6 m and advancing and retiring suddenly. Thirty thousand killed. 117-1787.03.14 Mexico (San Sea retired, leaving rocks of Punta N CA Marcos) Manzanillo dry and returned very high, estimated at 11 m. Observed at Acapulco. 118-1787 Portugal (Azores) Sea inundated shore. A 119.1788.07.27 U.S.A (Alaska. Overflowed by tidal wave. Natives L NA Sannak, Unga, lost lives and hogs drowned. Shumigan Islands) 120.1792.01.23 Portugal (Azores) Velas. Ilha de Sâo Jorge. A 121-1792.04.01 Japan (Shimabara) Seven hundred and seven W P drowned. Explosive eruption. 122-1792.05.21 Japan (Shimbara- Eruption of Mount Unsen W P Hizen) accompanied by sea wave. Twelve hundred killed. 123-1793.02.08 Japan Earthquake with tsunami. W P (Adigasawa) 124-1797.02.10 Indonesia Waves of great force. T P (Sumatra, west coast) 125-1799 Indonesia Wave about 15 m above ordinary T P (Sumatra) level. 126-1799.06.22 Japan Sea wave at Miakoshiura and W P Kaga. 127-1802.03.12 Lesser Antilles Great agitation of the sea. CL (Antigua. St. Christophers, West Indian Islands) 128-1802.08 Indonesia Sea very high and did damage after T P (Amboina) earthquake. 129-1804.07.10 Japan Wave at Kisakata. W P 130-1806.12.01 Peru (Callao) O S 131-1809.07.04 Portugal Lisbon. A 132-1809.12.04 Cape of Good Table Bay. A Hope 133-1812.06.23 France (Marsilles) Sea retired and returned with great M violence. 134-1812.11.11 Jamaica (Annotto CN Bay) 135-1812.12.21 Small sea wave near Refugio and NA at Santa Barbara (California). 136-1815.04.10 Indonesia Powerful wave ~3.7 m high. T P (Sumbawa, east Eruption of Tambora. Java, Bima) 137-1815.11 Indonesia Great wave inundated land. T P 138-1818.03.18 Indonesia Sea withdrew and returned with T P (Sumatra. great force and overflowed land. Benguelen) 139-1819.04.11 Chile (Atacama) Caldera was damaged by the wave. P, Q S The sea receded and returned. overflowing the land to a distance of approximately 270 m inland; 2 m at Hawaii west coast.

26

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 140-1819 Marianas Islands S P (Assongsong) 141-1820.05.10 Mexico Sea retired and returned in two O CA (Acapulco) hours, rising to church door. 142-1820.12.29 Indonesia A of wall water 24 m high swept T P (Celebes Islands, over fort of Boelekomba in Macassar. Flores Macassar. Great damge at Nioa- Sea) Nipa and Serang-Serang. 143-1821 Greece (Zante Carried away houses. M Island, Morea) 144-1822.11.20 Chile Waves were reported along the P S coast from Rio Copiapo to Valdivia. Valparaiso coast raised 1-2 m for ~150 km. 145-1823.11.30 Lesser Antilles A very high tide accompanying an CL (Martinique earthquake caused damage in Island, St. Pierre) harbor. 146-1823 Ragusa, Turkish The sea retreated a great distance. M Bosnia 147-1824.09.13 Montserrat Island Volcano. CL 148-1824.11.30 Lesser Antilles CL (Martinique Island) 149-1825.02 Roatan Island CN (Caribbean Sea) 150-1827 Aleutian Islands Tidal wave accompanied K P (Chernabura earthquake and eruption of a Island) volcano on Unimak. 151-1828.12.18 Japan (Echigo) Sea wave at Kiushu. W P 152-1828.12.29 Indonesia Sea rose and fell several times. T P (Celebes Islands. Very high. Macassar, Boelekomba) 153-1831.12.03 Lesser Antilles CL (Antigua. Trinidad. St. Kitts) 154-1833.03.10 Mexico Sea retired 12 m and gently N CA (Acapulco) resumed its former level. 155-1833.12.07 Japan (Sado Sea retired and returned. W P Island, Uzen, Echigo) 156-1834.02.09 Japan (Ishikari) Three waves. W P 157-1834.03.13 Mexico Sea receded 46 m and returned. N CA (Acapulco) Several buildings destroyed. 158-1835 Japan (Hanasaki) W P 159-1835.02.20 Chile Waves reported along the Chile P S coast from Copiapo to Isla de Chiloe (1,600 km).Waves swept the area around Concepcion. At Talcahuano the wave was possibly 15 m high. Waves swept Hawaii. 160-1835.07.20 Japan Sanriku houses washed away. W P 161-1836.07.03 Chile Sea wave at Cobija and P S Antofagasta.

27 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 162-1837.07.26 Martinique Island CL 163-1837.08.02 Martinique Island CL 164-1837.11.07 Chile (Valdivia) Violent waves along the Chile P S coast. Valdivia destroyed. Severe damages in Hawaii. MT=9.25; local height= 6 m (Hilo. Hawaii). [Great tsunamigenic earth- quake]. 165-1841.05.17 Russia Waves in Hawaii and Japan. J P (Kamchatka) MT=9.0. [Great tsunamigenic earthquake]. 166-1841.11.26 Indonesia A wave of great force. 2 m high. T P (Moluccas, Banda Struck the south coast. Neira) 167-1841.12.16 Indonesia Moderate sea wave 1.5 m high. T P (Amboina, Buru, Amblau) 168-1842.02.17 Antigua Island Tsunami of volcanic origin. Run- CL up= 18.3 m. 169-1842.05.07 Lesser Antilles On north coast of Haiti there was CN (West Indies, a destructive tidal wave. At Port Haiti (Cap de Paix the sea withdrew 60 Haitien, Mole-St.- meters and upon returning Nicolas, Port de covered city with 5 m of water. Paix, Fort Run-up= 18.3 m; ~5,000 deaths. Liberté), Santo Influence on Guadaloupe, Domingo Grenada. (Santiago de los Caballeros)) 170-1842.07.07 Haiti (Cape 5 p.m. NC Nicholas. Mole) 171- Indonesia Great sea wave on both days. T P 1843.01.05-06 (Sumatra. southeast coast of Baros and Nias Island) 172-1843.02.08 Lesser Antilles Run-up= 1.2 m. CL (Antigua Island) 173-1843.04.25 S Kuril Islands Waves 4.5 m at Kushiro. I P 174-1843 Japan (East coast Two large waves. W P of Yezo, Kushuro, Nemuro) 175-1844.05 Nicaragua N CA (Nicargua Lake) 176-1845.04.07 Mexico N CA (Acapulco) 177-1845.02.08 Indonesia (North Sea withdrew to outer end of T P Celebes, Menado) mole and returned, moderate. 178-1846.01.25 Indonesia Moderate height. T P (Moluccas, Ternate Island) 179-1847.10.31 Little Nicobar, Small island of Kondul was OI Bay of Bengal inundated.

28 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 180-1848.10.16 New Zealand A P (Wellington, Nelson. Wanganaui) 181-1849.06.17 Chile Sea wave. P S 182-1849.12.17 Chile (Coquimbo, Waves caused great damages at P S Santiago, Valparaiso, Coquimbo. Valparaiso) 183-1851.05.26 Chile (Copiapo, P S Huasco, Vallenar, Freirana) 184-1852.07.17 Cuba (Santiago de CN Cuba) 185-1852.11.26 Indonesia Waves 8 m high at Amboina. T P (Moluccas, Great Banda Sea, Lathoir, Papenberg, Neira) 186-1853.07.15 Venezuela Violent earthquake followed by CN (Cumana) tidal wave. 187-1853.11 S Kuril Islands Waves penetrated in Simushir. I P 188-1854.07.09 N Kuril Islands Flooded Shumushu. I P 189-1854.08.05 Costa Rica (Golfo N CA Dulce) 190-1854.12.23 Japan (Tokaido) Wave 9 m high at the Shimada, F P Nankaido. MT= 8.25. 191-1855.01 New Zealand Near Wellington. A P 192-1855.02.17 Portugal (Azores) Ilha Terceira. A 193-1855.07.10 Southern Heavy waves rolled in at Point M N California Sur. 194-1855.08.04 Gulf of Fonseca Trujillo Bay, Caribbean Sea. CN 195-1856.01.06 Portugal (Azores) Velos, Ilha Sâo Jorge. A 196-1856.03.02 Indonesia (Awu Volcano. T P Island) 197-1856.08.04 Honduras (Omoa) Pacific coast of Honduras N CA damaged by earthquake and sea wave. MT=2; h= 2m. 198-1856.08.23 N Japan Waves of 6m at Noda. W P 199-1857.05.13 Indonesia (Timor) In Bay of Dilli wave reached T P height of ~3.5 m. 200-1858.11.13 Indonesia (Banda Moderate sea wave. Considerable T P Sea) damage in Celebes Islands. east coast 201-1859.06.28 Indonesia Waves 9 m at Halmahera. T P (Molucca) 202-1859.08.26 Honduras N CA (Fonseca Gulf) 203-1859.08.23 El Salvador (La Observed at Guatemala and N CA Unión) Nicaragua. 204-1859.09.25 Indonesia (south Wave of great force. T P coast, Banda Neira) 205-1859.10.05 Chile (Atacama) At Caldera sea receded ~4.5 m P S below normal sea level and then swept back, damaging boats in the harbor.

29 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 206-1859.10.20 Indonesia (Java S Strong wave. T P coast, Patjitan and vicinity) 2071859.10.25 Indonesia (North A powerful wave caused damage. T P or 26 Celebes Islands. Kema) 208-1859.12.08 Central America Sea wave at many places. N CA (Guatemala, Nicaragua) 209-1860.03.08 Haiti (Port-au- Sea wave at Gulf of Gonaive. Sea CN Prince, l’Anse au withdrew and broke with crash on Veau, Cayes, shore. Acquia) 210-1861.02.16 Indonesia A tidal wave of great force at T P (Sumatra) Anjer Bangis. Great wave on south coast of Nias Island, Batu Island inundated. Some damage at other islands. Strong at Padang. Wave noted by several vessels at sea. 211-1861.03.09 Indonesia High wave swept inland with loss T P (Sumatra, of life. Padang) 212-1861.06.05 Indonesia (Java, Wave of great force. T P Krawang, Pakis) 213-1861.09.25 Indonesia Height wave swept coast. T P (Sumatra, Padang, Indrapoera) 214-1861.10.21 N Japan Wave 4 m at Ryori. W P 215-1862.04.08 Indonesia (north Waves 2 m high. T P coast of Java, Lenor) 216-1863.06.03 Philippine Islands Began with rise of water at D P (South Luzon, Manila. Manila and adjacent provinces) 217-1864 Indonesia (west T P Sumatra, Padang, Bat Island, Penjaboangam) 218-1864.05.23 Indo-Australian Three waves 3 m in height. C P Archipielago (North New Guinea, Geelvink Bay) 219-1867.11.18 Virgin Islands A wall of water ~6 m high swept CN the harbors of St. Thomas and St. Croix. At St. Thomas the U.S.S. de Soto struck against a wharf and lost her propeller and at St. Croix the U.S.S. Monogahela was thrown ashore. The wave was strong on adjacent islands and the east coast of Puerto Rico. {M=7.5 / h<50 km / 18.5 N 65.5 W. Tsunami waves [Run-up= ~18 m]}.

30 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 220-1867.12.18 Formosa-Taiwan Wave swept harbor of Keelung. D P Great landslides occurred. 221-1868.03.17 Virgin Islands Small sea wave near St. Thomas. CN 222-1868.04.02 Hawaiian Islands Waves 15 m high reported on R P Hawaii Island, near epicentre. Ebb and flow of the sea was observed thirteen times with a seven or eight minute interval between each flow. A fifteen- minute interval was noted at Honolulu. The village of Keau- hou and the store-house were swept away. Punalu was also swept. 223-1868.04.03 Hawaiian Islands Local shock near Hawaii. R P 224-1868.08.13 Chile (Arica)- Destructive waves reported along O, P S Peru the coast from Trujillo to Concepcion (Penco). The USS Wateree was carried a quarter mile inland. Maximum height of the waves was ~20 m. Receding wave uncovered bay at Iquique to a depth of 15 m and returned with a height of 12 m. Waves 9 m above high tide reported at Talcahuano. Waves reported from Islas de Chincha, Hawaii and Australia. MT=9.0; local height= 14m (Arica). [Great tsunami- genic earthquake]. 225-1869.07.24 SW Pacific? / R P Hawaii 226-1869.08.19 Chile-Peru Sea wave. O, P S 227- Chile-Peru Sea wave. O, P S 1869.08.20-24 228-1871.03.02 Indonesia A wave of 26 m at Toen of T P (Tagulandand Buhias swept ~18 m inland with Island, NE of much damage. Two other waves Celebes Islands) followed. 229-1871.08.21 Peru Sea wave. O S 230-1872.03.14 Japan (Hamada) Six and one-half foot W P displacement of shore preceded earthquake which was followed by a moderate tsunami. 231-1873.10.13 Panama Colon, Caribbean Sea. CN 232-1874.03.11 Lesser Antilles CL (Dominica Island) 233-1875.03.28 New Hebrides Waves 4m at Aneitgum Island. B P Islands (Caledonia) 234-1877.05.10 Chile (Iquique)- Waves caused damage along the O, P S Peru coast of South America from Pico to Antofagasta. Waves reported from Japan. New Zealand. Hawai. Samoa and California. MT=9.0; local height= 21 m (Mejillones). [Great tsunamigenic earth- quake].

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Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 235-1878.01.10 New Hebrides At Port Resolution the sea rose 12 B P Islands (Tanna m. This was accompanied by a Island. south end maximum rise of 10 feet of the of group. sea bottom. Eruption of Yasowa. 236-1878.01.20 Hawaiian Islands R P (Manu. Hawaii) 237-1878.01.23 Chile-Peru Sea wave inundated coastal O, P S towns. 238-1878.02.04 New Guinea Raluan Volcano. Eruption with C P two tsunamis. 239-1878.02.11 New Hebrides B P Islands (Tanna Island) 240-1878.08.29 Unalaska Island Town of Makuslin destroyed by L N earthquake and tidal wave. 241-1881.08.12 Jamaica Run-up= 0.46 m. CN (Kingston) 242-1881.12.31 India (Bay of Four waves of unusual height. OI Bengal, Port Blair. Andaman Islands, Nicobar Island) 243-1882.01 or India (Ceylon, OI 02 Tricomali) 244-1882.07.07 Archipielago San Caribbean Sea; waves height= 3 CN Blas m. 245-1883.08.26 Indonesia (Java Three waves following eruption T P and Sumatra) of Krakatoa. On Java shore height was estimated at from ~35 m at Mera, 15 m at Tyringen, and 10 m at Anjer. On Sumatra shore, height rose to 24 m, at Telok Batong 22 m at Batavia 5 m. 246-1883.10.06 U.S.A. (Alaska- Sea waves. Eruption of St. L P St. Augustine) Augustine. 247-1884.11.05 Colombia N CA (Acandi) 248-1885 California (San Series of waves reported but they M N Francisco) were undoubtedly from an unknown distant source. 249-1887.09.23 Philippine Islands Sea wave along the Tiburon D P Peninsula. At Jeremic sea withdrew 20 m and returned with a rush. 250-1887.02.02 Philippine Islands D P (Panay) 251-1888.03.13 Bismarck Coast engulfed by a seismic sea C P Archipielago wave which caused great damage (New Britian, and some loss of life. Eruption at north coast of Ritter Island. New Guinea) 252- Indonesia (Awu T P 1892.06.07-08 Island) 253-1893.06.04 Japan (Hokkaido). Eight-foot tsunami in Shikitan H P south side of Island, ~1.5 m at Etrup Island. Kuril Islands

32 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 254-1894.03.22 N Japan (coast of Wave of 4 m at Miyako. W P Nemuro) 255-1896.06.15 Japan (Sanriku) Called tsunami earthquake. W P Intensity (M.M. scale) = IV; M= 5x10 dyne.cm. Normal-fault earthquake along the trench axis. Waves of 30 m height; more than 27,000 deaths. MT= 8.6; local heigh=24m. [Great tsunami- genic earthquake] “Very ano- malous tsunami earth-quake”. 256-1897.02.20 Japan (north W P coast. Sendai) 257-1897.08.05 Japan Waves on Sanriku coast 3 m high. W P 258-1897.09.21 Philippine Islands Greatest sea wave ever recorded D P (Basilan. in Philippines. Zamboanga, Jolo Islands) 259-1899.02.03 Portugal (Azores) Velas. Ilha de Sâo Jorge. A 260-1899.09.08 Indonesia (Ruang Eruption going on when tsunami T P Islands) occurred. 261-1899.09.29 Indonesia (Banda 30 m in Indonesia. Disastrous T P Sea. Ceram) wave on south coast. 262-1901.12.30 Alaska (Keani, Earthquake caused several tidal L N Cook Inlet) waves. 263-1902.01.18 Guatemala (Ocos) N CA 264-1902.02.26 Salvador Observed at Guatemala (San N CA (Acajutla) Diego). Run-up= 2 m; MT=2; 185 deaths. 265-1902.04.19 Guatemala (Ocos) Run-up= 1 m. N CA 266-1902.05.05 Lesser Antilles Volcanic eruption of Mt. Pelèe, CL (Martinique ~100 deaths; waves height=4-5 m. Island) 267-1904.06.25 Russia Boats stranded at Petropavlovsk. J P (Kamchatka) 268-1904.06 Haiti (Cap Port-au-Pau. 6,000 deaths. CN Haitien) 269-1905.01.20 Costa Rica (Coco N CA Island) 270-1905.09.08 Italy (Calabria) Sea rose about 1.5 m above M normal. 271-1906.01.31 Ecuador- Wave at Tumaco, MT= 8.7; local N CA Colombia height = 3.6 m (Hilo-Hawaii). [Great tsunamigenic earth- quake]. 272-1906.04.08 U.S.A. (San M N Francisco) 273-1906.07.01 Marshall Islands Sea wave. S P 274-1906.08.17 Chile (Valparaiso) Little local effect from earthquake P S though wave was strong at Honolulu and was recorded in California and Japan. Possible deep water close shore accounts for lack of local damage. MT= 8.4. 275-1906.09.14 Eastern New Earthquake and sea wave. C P Guinea

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Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 276-1906.10.02 East New Guinea C P (Buna Bay) 277-1907.01.04 Indonesia Wave followed earthquake on T P (Sumatra) west coast. 278-1907.01.14 Jamaica (eastern) Hope Bay, Orange Bay, CN Sheerness Bay, St. Ann’s Bay, Annotto Bay, Port Maria, Ocho Rios, Bluff Bay, Port Antonia, Kingston. Run-up= 2.5 m. 279-1907.01.14 Jamaica Although principal damage was CN done at Kingston, the sea wave was principally on the north coast. High wave followed withdrawal of water all along coast. At Annotto Bay returning wave was 2 m high. Higher at other places. 280-1907.04.15 Mexico N CA (Acapulco) 281-1908.02.06 Indonesia T P (Sumatra south and middle part) 282-1908.09.21 Hawaii R P 283-1908.12.21 Italy (Messina) West side of Strait 12 m at San Alessio, 10 m at Giardini. Twenty-ton block of stone moved 18 m. Similar heights on east side of Strait. 284-1909.07.30 Mexico Thirty-foot tidal wave. N CA (Acapulco) 285-1911.03.03 Waves observed on Trinidad and CL Tobago. 286-1911.05.08 Bismarck Lome. C P Archipielago (New Britian. Gold Coast) 287-1912.06.08 Japan (Rickuchi) W P 288-1913.02.26 New Zealand Tide extraordinarily high after A P (west part) earthquake. 289-1913.10.11 Near east end of Tidal wave probably local, since C P New Guinea there was a record of such a wave at the proper time at Honolulu. MT= 8.0. 290-1913.10.02 Panama (Azuero) N CA 291-1914.01.12 Japan (Kagoshima W P Bay) 292-1914.03.14 Indonesia (Sangir T P and Talaut Islands, between Celebes Islands and Mindanao) 293-1914.05.26 Near north coast Probably a tidal wave since there C P of New Guinea was a record at the proper time at Honolulu. 294-1915.09.07 El Salvador N CA (south coast)

34 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 295-1915.11.01 Japan (coast of Earthquake and tsunami. W P Rikzen) 296-1916.01.31 Panama (Panama N CA Channel) 297-1916.04.25 Panama (Bocas) Colon Island, run-up=1.2 m. N CA Slight sea wave carried debris 200 m inshore. 298-1917.01.25 Taiwan Strait D P 299-1917.05.02 Kermadec Islands Forty-foot wave at Samoa. A P Pronounced wave recorded at Honolulu and on west coast of U.S.A. MT= 8.0. 300-1917.05.06 Taiwan (East 6 deaths. D P coast) 301-1917.06.25 Samoa Islands Destructive earthq-uake and 12 m A P tidal wave. Recorded at Honolulu and on west coast of U.S.A. MT= 8.0. 302-1918.08.15 Philippine Islands Wave 7 m high. At Port Lebak D P (Mindanao. was 2 m high. Recorded on tide between Cotobato gage at Honolulu. MT= 8.2. and Gulf of Davao) 303-1918.09.08 Kuril Islands Wave ~1.8 m high probably I P (Urup Island) higher elsewhere. Twenty men killed on Simusirijima. Prominent record on Honolulu tide gage. MT= 8.7; local height = 12 m (Urup Island). [Great tsunami- genic earthquake]. 304-1918.10.11 Puerto Rico (off Run-up= 2.5 m. Mona Canyon. CN norwestern) 305-1918.10.24 Puerto Rico Wave from northwest was 5 m CN (northwest coast) high at Port Borinquen and about 4 m high at Aguadilla where it went 100 meters inland. At Point Jiguero the wave was ~5.5 m high. Elsewhere it was moderate except at Mona Island where it was 4 m high. Run-up= 6.1 m; 140 deaths. 306-1918.11.08 Kuril Islands I P (Urupand Uturup) 307-1918.12.04 Chile Waves 5 m at Caldera. P S 308-1919.04.30 Tonga Islands Recorded on Apia. Honolulu and A P California tides gages. MT= 8.4. 309-1919.06.29 Nicaragua N CA (Corinto) 310-1919.12.12 Nicaragua (El N CA Ostial) 311-1920.08 Samoa Earthquake and tidal wave at A P Pago Pago. 312-1920.09.21 New Hebrides Recorded at Apia. B P Islands 313-1920.12.06 Honduras N CA (Fonseca Gulf)

35 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 314-1922.02.27 Philippine (Bohol D P Strait) 315-1922.11.10 Chile (Atakama) Three waves height of 5 m went 2 P S km inland. Height at head of funnel-shaped bay was 23 feet. At Caldera, sea rose several times to height of 6 m bur did not drive ships ashore, though sea went 100 m inland. Recorded at Hilo. Hawaii. MT= 8.7; local height= 9m (Charanal). [Great tsunami- genic earthquake]. 316-1923.02.04 Russia (E Seven tidal waves swept shores. J P Kamchatka) Half dozen persons lost lives at Hilo. 317-1923.02.23 Russia Waves in Japan. MT= 8.8; local J P (Kamchatka) heigh= 8 m (Kolgir Bay). [Great tsunamigenic earthquake]. 318-1923.04.13 Japan (E Kanto) Tidal wave on east coast of Korea W P destroyed fishing station. Felt strongly at Petropavlosk, Kam- chatka. MT= 8.2. 319-1923.06.02 Japan (Kashima W P Sea) 320-1923.09.01 Japan (Sagami The tidal wave was confined to W P Bay) Sagami and Tokyo bays and was only a few feet high in the latter. On the west side of Sagami Bay the height reached more than 11 m. At Ito here were two large waves, the second the higher, reaching 9 m. MT= 8.0. 321-1924.04.15 Philippines (SE D P Mindanao) 322-1924.05.30 Hawaiian Islands R P 323-1925.11.16 Mexico Swept by wave estimated 11 m N CA (Zihuatacanejo, high. west of State of Guerrero) 324-1926.08.22 Portugal (Azores) Ilha de Fayal, Ilha do Pico. A 325-1926.09.18 Solomon Islands Shock followed by sea wave B P which inundated the whole island of Kokomaruki and port of Guadalcanal. Sea receded and returned three times. 326-1926.11.05 Nicaragua N CA (Offshore) 327-1927.03.07 Japan (Tango) Town of Mino-yama nearly W P destroyed. 1,100 persons died. Tsunami`eight ~1.5 m. 328-1927.08.07 Indonesia (Flores Volcanic eruption Rokatiga and T P Island, District of earthquake accompanied by Paloweh) inundation of coast by sea wave. 226 deaths.

36 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 329- U.S.A. (California) A submarine earthquake off Point M N 1927.11.04 Arguello caused a ~2 m wave at Surf. MT= 7.6. 330- Chile (Aysen River Earthquake caused sea to invade P S 1927.11.21 region) land along 40 km of coast, covering land for 99 inland. Boat Mannesix with crew flung into treetops of forest. 331- Russia MT= 7.5. J P 1927.11.28 (Kamchatka) 332- Greece (Piraeus) Moderate tidal wave. Sea rose to M 1928.04.25 great height and receded. 333- Japan (Iwate) W P 1928.05.27 334- Mexico (Guerrero- Sea rushed at Puerto Angel for N CA 1928.06.17 Oxaca) distance of 55 m. destroying waren-houses on waterfront. This was a minor accompaniment of a widely felt an earthquake. MT= 8.1. 335- South of U.S.A. Wave recorded at Galveston tide A 1928.10.25 gage. 336- Philippines D P 1928.12.19 (Celebes Sea) 337- Venezuela Steamer endangered by huge CS 1929.01.17 (Cumana) wave which followed earthquake. Many sailboats were wrecked. MT= 8.1. 338- Aleutian Islands Slight tidal wave at Hilo. Hawaii. K P 1929.03.06 (Fox) 339- W Canada (Bristish L P 1929.05.26 Colombia) 340- Philippine Islands Severe earthquake accompanied D P 1929.06.13 (East Mindanao, by small tidal wave. Hinatuan) 341- Earthquake of the Azores. A 1929.11.19 Grand Banks 342- E Canada A tidal wave from the Grand A 1929.11.28 (Newfounland, Banks earthquake swept up Burin Peninsula) several inlets to a height of 15 m. destroying villages and causing heavy loss. Wave was recorded on tide gages on New Jersey coast. 343- Japan (Iwati- W P 1931.03.09 Aomori) 344- Portugal (Azores) Azores. Horta and Feteira A 1931.08.31 damaged by tidal wave. 345- Cuba (Playa CN 1931.10.01 Panchita. Rancho Veloz. Las Villas) 346- Solomon Islands Villages destroyed by earthquake B P 1931.10.03 (Christobal) and tidal wave. MT= 7.8; 4 deaths. 347- Japan (Kyshui W P 1931.11.02 Miyazaki) 348- Cuba (Santiago de CN 1932.02.03 Cuba)

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Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 349- Mexico (Jalisco- High waves at Cayutlán and N CA 1932.06.03 Cayutlán) Manzanillo swept away railroad track between these places. Part of San Blas, State of Nayarit, swept by wave. Waves recorded strongly at Hilo, Hawaii, with ~1 m range. MT= 8.2. 350- Mexico (Jalisco) Severely damaged by wave at N CA 1932.06.18 Cayutlán. Some damage at Manzanillo. Some persons and small buildings carried about to sea. MT= 7.75. 351- Mexico (Jalisco) Tidal wave at Cayutlán. N CA 1932.06.22 352- Mexico (Jalisco) N CA 1932.06.29 353- Japan (Sanriku Waves 29 m feet high at head of W P 1933.03.02 coast, Ryori Bay) funnel-shaped bay, Sasu 14 m, and elsewhere in proportion. Horizontal movement of induced current said to have been strong enough to stop progress of 12- knot boat. MT= 8.3; 2,665 deaths. Waves h> 10 m; 3,000 casualites. 354- N Kuril Islands Eruption of Kharimkota. I P 1933.01.28 355- China Sea Wave felt on northwest coast of U P 1934.02.14 Luzon. 356- Panama (Chiriqui N CA 1934.07.18 Gulf) 357- Chile The level of the sea oscillated P – Q S 1936.07.13 approximately one yard after the earthquake. 358- Japan (Miyagi) W P 1936.11.03 359- Indian Ocean (E OI 1936.11.14 Kamet) 360- Indian Ocean OI 1937.09.21 (Kamet) 361- Indonesia (Strait of Wave in Strait of Macassar 2-3 m T P 1938.05.19 Macassar. Timor) high. Epicenter 1º N /119º E. 362- W Japan (Ibaraki) W P 1938.05.23 363- Japan (Ibaraki) W P 1938.11.05 364- U.S.A. (Alaska) Violent seaquake off Alaskan L N 1938.11.10 Peninsula sent tidal waves across Pacific. MT= 8.4. 365- E Australia (Gold East Australia, Accra, Fete, P 1939.06.22 Coast) Labadi, Tishi. 366- Cuba (Cayo North-central Cuba. CN 1939.08.15 Francés) 367- Japan (off More than thousand boats swept W P 1940.08.02 Hokkaido Island) away and seven lives lost. 368- Costa Rica N CA 1941.12.05 (Dominical)

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Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 369- Costa Rica (Nicoya N CA 1941.12.06 Gulf) 370- Peru (Ica) Wave recorded at Matarani and O S 1942.08.24 Callao. 371- Chile (Coquimbo) Three-foot waves at Valparaiso. P S 1943.04.06 MT= 8.2. 372- Japan (Tonankai) Violent seaquake. Sea wave W P 1944.12.07 recorded in California. MT= 8.2; 998 deaths. 373- India (Karachi) Four thousand persons killed by OI 1945.11.27 wave. 374- Aleutian islands Called tsunami earthquake. K P 1946.04.01 (Unimak Island) MS=7.4; M= 5x10 dyne.cm. Normal-fault earthquake along the trench axis. Tsunami destructive over wide area. Five killed at Scotch Cap. Unimak Island. Alaska. Wave 6 m high in Hawaii, killed 165 persons and caused $25,000,000 damage. Boats damaged at Iquique. Damaging waves at Isla Juan Fernandez. Waves were also reported from Australia and California. Cuba (Guanabo-Jai- manitas). MT= 9.3; Local height= 30 m (Unimak Island and run-up= 42 m). [Great tsunamigenic earthquake] “Very anomalous earthquake”. 375- Dominican Sea wave swept northeast coast CN 1946.08.04 Republic (Santo causing greatest damage at Domingo) Matancitas, Julia-Molina, and Punta Samana. Run-up= 5.0 m; 1.790 deaths. 376- Dominican Run-up= 5.0 m; 1,790 deaths. CN 1946.08.04 Republic (Matancitas, Julia Molina, Cabo Samana), Haiti and Puerto Rico (San Juan) 377- Puerto Rico 75 deaths. CN 1946.08.08 (Aguadilla) 378- Japan (Nakaido) Fifteen hundred killed on Shikoku W P 1946.12.20 Island. Two thousand houses destroyed. MT= 8.0. 379- New Zealand A P 1947.03.26 (North Island) 380- Japan (W H P 1947.11.04 Hokkaido) 381- Philippines (Ilorto 2 deaths. D P 1948.01.25 Strait) 382- Tonga Islands MT= 8.0. A P 1948.09.08

39 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 383- U.S.A. (Alaska) MT= 8.0. L N 1949.08.22 384- Costa Rica, Observed at Puntarenas and N CA 1950.10.05 Nicaragua, and La Union. MT= 7.75. Salvador 385- Coast of Observed at Puntarenas and N CA 1950.10.23 Guatemala, La Union. MT= 7.5. Salvador 386- S Mexico N CA 1950.12.14 (Acapulco) 387- Honduras (Fonseca N CA 1951.08.03 Gulf) 388- Hawaiian Islands R P 1951.08.21 389- Japan (Tokachi- MT= 8.2. W P 1952.03.04 Oki) 390- Costa Rica N CA 1952.05.13 (Puntarenas) 391- Russia Waves were reported at 71 J P 1952.11.04 (Kamchatka) stations throughout the Pacific. Some houses were inundated at Valparaiso. Damage at Callao was light. No waves were reported from Puerto Montt and Punta Arenas. MT= 9.0; local height= 18m (Paramushir Island). [Great tsunamigenic earthquake]. 392- Kuril Islands I P 1953.03.17 (Paramushir) 393- Dominican Run-up= 0.06 m. CN 1953.05.31 Republic (Puerto Plata) 394- Indonesia T P 1953.09.14 (Kandoaru, Fiji Island) 395- Chile (Coquimbo) Waves with a maximum P S 1955.04.19 height of three feet above normal high water were reported from Coquimbo, Tongay and La Serena. 396- Russia MT= 8.0. L P 1956.03.30 (Kamchatka) 397- Nicaragua (S. Juan N CA 1956.10.24 Sur) 398- Aleutian Islands Waves at Hawaii. U.S. West T P 1957.03.09 Coast, Japan. MT= 9.0; local height= 12 m (Unimak Island). [Great tsunamigenic earth-quake]. 399- El Salvador The tsunami was recorded at N CA 1957.03.10 (Acajutla) 52 tide stations throughout the Pacific region. Damages of $3,000,000 were reported from Hawaii. 400- S Mexico Wave height= 2.5 m at N CA 1957.07.28 (Acapulco) Acapulco.

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Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 401- Ecuador-Colombia Twenty killed, many injured and N CA 1958.01.19 extensive damage at Las Esmeraldas, Las Palmas and Guayaquil. Large water waves caused damage at Las Esmeraldas and Guayaquil. 402- U.S.A. (Alaska, MT= 8.1. L N 1958.07.09 Lituya Bay, Gulf of Alaska) 403- Kuril Islands MT= 8.2. I P 1958.11.06 (Iturup) 404- Peru – Ecuador There was evidence of a tsunami O S 1959.02.07 on the tide gage at Talara. 405- N Kuril Islands MT= 8.0. I P 1959.05.04 406- Japan (Miyagi) W P 1959.10.26 407- Morocco Agadir. M 1960.02.29 408- S Chile Waves at Hawaii. US West Coast. Q P 1960.03.22 Japan. Samoa. 409- Chile-Peru- An earthquake off the coast of O S 1960.05.22 Ecuador-Colombia Chile generated a tsunami that ravaged coastlines in the Hawaiian Islands. Japan. Alaska and other places. Local height= 25m (Mo-ha Island). One of the largest tsunamis (MT=9.4). [Great tsunamigenic earth- quake]. 410- Peru MT= 7.75. O CA 1960.11.20 411- Japan (Ibaraki) W P 1961.01.16 412- New Hebrides B P 1961.07.23 413- Panama (Chiriqui N CA 1962.03.12 Gulf) 414- S Mexico N CA 1962.05.11 (Acapulco) 415- N Taiwan D P 1963.02.13 416- Kuril Islands MT= 8.4; 23 deaths. I P 1963.10.13 417- Kuril Islands MT= 7.9. I P 1963.10.20 418- U.S.A. (Alaska) Waves at Hawaii. U.S. (West L N 1964.03.28 Coast), Japan. M= 9.2; 119 deaths; damages of 300-440 million dollars MT= 9.1; local height= 30 (Valdes Inlet) [Great tsunami-genic earthquake]. 419- Aleutian Islands MT= 8.6; local height= 10 m K P 1965.02.04 (Rat Island) (Semya Island). [Great tsunami- genic earthquake].

41 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 420- Aleutian Islands MT= 7.75. K P 1965.02.30 (Rat Island) 421- Peru MT= 8.2. O S 1966.10.17 422- Chile MT= 7.5. P S 1966.12.28 423- Japan (Tokachi- MT= 8.3. W P 1968.05.16 Oki) 424- Philippines MT= 8.1. I P 1968.08.01 425- Indonesia (Molucca MT= 8.0. T P 1968.08.10 Passage) 426- Pacific Coast P 1968.09.25 427- Kuril Islands MT= 8.2. I P 1969.08.11 428- Russia MT= 7.75. J P 1969.11.22 (Kamchatka) 429- Lesser Antilles Run-up=0.5 m. CL 1969.12.25 (Antigua, Barbados, and Dominica Islands) 430- New Ireland MT= 8.0. C P 1971.07.14 431- New Ireland MT= 8.1. C P 1971.07.26 432- Russia MT= 7.8. J P 1971.12.15 (Kamchatka) 433- Southern Mexico MT= 8.0. N CA 1973.01.30 (Manzanillo) 434- Japan (Nemuro- MT= 8.0. W P 1973.06.17 Oki) 435- Peru (Callao) MT= 8.1. O P 1974.10.03 436- Japan (Nemuro- W P 1975.06.10 Oki) 437- U.S.A. (Hawaii) 2 deaths. R P 1975.11.29 438- Gulf of Fonseca Caribbean Sea. CN 1976.02.04 439- Panama (Darien) CA 1976.07.11 440- Philippines ~8,000 deaths. D P 1976.08.17 441- Indonesia ~189 deaths. T P 1977.08.19 442- Samos Island Wave height= 4 cm at Apia. M 1977.04.02 443- Tonga Islands Wave height= 40 cm at Suva. A P 1977.06.22 444- South of Sum-bwa Wave height= 6 cm at northern T P 1977.08.19 Islands Australia. 445- Japan (near the Wave height= 35 cm at Oshima. W P 1978.01.14 South Coast of Hunshu) 446- Kuril Islands Wave height= 25 cm at Yuzhumo I P 1978.03.23 – Kurihl.

42

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 447- Kuril Islands Wave height= 23 cm at Nemuro. I P 1978.03.24 448- Taiwan Wave height= 10 cm at D P 1978.07.23 Ishigakijima. 449- Indonesia ~540 deaths. T P 1979.07.18 450- New Guinea ~100 deaths. C P 1979.09.12 451- Colombia-Ecuador Wave height= 3 m (Colombia CA 1979.12.12 coast); ~500 deaths. 452- New Guinea (New Wave height= 25 cm at Rabaul. C P 1983.03.18 Ireland Region) 453- Japan (Tsugaru “Tsunami of the Japan Sea W P 1983.05.26 Peninsula) earthquake” [Great tsunami- genic earthquake]. ~100 deaths. Artificial constructions on the shore destroyed. Wave height of 14 m at Honshu. 454- Japan (Hokkaido) Wave height= 1 m at Akita. H P 1983.06.21 Noshino and Wakami. 455- Japan (off East Wave height= 11 cm at Hachijo- W P 1984.09.18 Coast of Honshu) jima. 456- Near coast of Wave height= 1.1 m at P, Q P 1985.03.03 Central Chile Valparaiso. 457- Lesser Antilles Run-up=1 m. CL 1985.03.16 (Guadeloupe Island) 458- Mexico Wave height= 3-2.8 m at Lazaro N P 1985.09.19 (Michohoacan) Cardenas and Manzanillo. 459- Kermadec Islands Wave height= 22 cm at Hilo. A P 1986.10.20 460- Japan (Near East Wave height= 12 cm at Onahama. W P 1987.02.06 Coast of Honshu) 461- Near Coast of Wave height= 22 cm at Caldera. P P 1987.03.05 Northern Chile 462- Solomon Islands Run-up= 30 m in Kandrian. Wave B P 1987.10.06 (New Britian) height= 13 cm at Rabaul. 463- Gulf of Alaska Wave height= 85 cm at Yakutat. L P 1987.11.30 464- Near Coast of Wave height= 12 cm at Caldera. P P 1988.02.05 Northern Chile 465- Gulf of Alaska Wave height= 38 cm at Yakutat. L P 1988.03.06 466- Solomon Islands 1 death; Tsunami ran 50-100 m in B P 1988.08.10 San Cristobal inland. 467- Hawaiian Islands Wave height= 57 cm at Honnapi. R P 1989.06.26 468- Central California Wave height= 40 cm at Monterey. N P 1989.10.18 469- Japan (of East Wave height= 11 cm at Ofumato. W P 1989.10.19 Coast of Honhsu) 470- Puerto Rico (Cabo CN 1989.11.01 Rojo, E Nuevo Dia) 471- Costa Rica Wave height= 1 m. CN 1990.03.25 (Puntarenas)

43

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 472- Marianas Islands Wave height= 24 cm at Muroto- S P 1990.04.05 misaki. Normal fault (focal mechanism). 473- Bering Sea Wave height=30 cm at Dutch J, K P 1991.02.21 Harbor. 474- Costa Rica-Panama Run-up= 300 m; wave height= 2 N CA 1991.04.22 m. 475- Near Coast of Wave height=1.1 m. M P 1992.04.35 Northern California 476- Japan (off East Wave height= 46 cm at Ofumato. W P 1992.07.18 Coast of Honshu) 477- Nicaragua (San Tsunami ran 1,000 m inland at N CA 1992.09.01 Juan del Sur) Masachapa; 170 deaths and 40,000 affected. Slow tsunami associated with subducted sediments. Waves height=2.5 m; thrust fault mechanism; h= 10 km; 19:15 h; 11.716 N / 87.419 W; Mw=7.6. 478- Indonesia (Flores High of 10 m was observed at El W P 1992.12.12 Island) Transito; MT= 7.9. Kroho village (NE of Flores Island) h= 26.2 cm; ~1,690 deaths; 1,900 injured. 479- Japan (Hokkaido) 230 deaths (Okushiri Island). h= W P 1993.07.12 31 m. 480- Marianas Islands Wave height= 98 cm at Muroto- S P 1993.08.08 (Guam) misaki. Thrust focal mechanism. 481-1994. Philippine Strike-Slip focal mechanism. D P (Mindoro) Wave height= 7 m; ~70 deaths. 482- Indonesia (Java) ~220 deaths. T P 1994.06.03 483- Off Coast of Wave height= 14 cm at Crescent M P 1994.09.01 Northern California City. 484- Kuril Islands Wave height= 36 cm at Hanasaki; I P 1994.10.04 ~10 deaths. 346 injured. 485- Philippines 74 deaths. D P 1994.11.14 486- Japan (Sanriku-oki) Wave height= 110 cm at Miyako. W P 1994.12.28 487- Philippine Islands Wave height= 10 cm at Legaspi- I P 1995.04.21 (Samar) Luzon. 488- Indonesia (Timor) 11 deaths. T P 1995.05.04 489- New Caledonia Wave height= 40 cm. B P 1995.05.16 (Loyalty Islands) 490- Near Coast of Wave height= 55 cm at P P 1995.06.30 Northern Chile Valparaiso. 491- Solomon Islands Wave height= 55 cm at Rabaul. B P 1995.08.16 492- Mexico (Near Coast Wave height= 200-500 cm at N M 1995.10.09 of Jalisco) Manzanillo. 493- Japan (Ryukyu Run-up= 100-260 m at Kikai- W P 1995.10.18 Islands) shima and Amani Oshima. 494- Japan (Ryukyu Wave height= 1.5 m. W P 1995.10.19 Islands)

44 Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 495- Mexico 1 death. N P 1995.10.09 (Manzanillo) 496- Kuril Islands Wave height= 37 cm at Wake I P 1995.12.03 Island. 497- Indonesia (Sulawesi 9 deaths. T P 1996.01.01 Island) 498- Indonesia (Irian. Wave height= 7 m; 110 deaths. T P 1996.02.17 Jaya Islands) 499- Peru (off the Thrust focal mechanism. 12 O S 1996.02.21 northern coast) deaths (Cimbote-Callao); MT=7.8. 500- Andreanof-Aluetian Wave height= 102 cm. P 1996.06.10 Islands 501- Lesser Antilles CL 1997.04.22 (Windward Island. Trinidad-Tobago) 502- Lesser Antilles CL 1997.07.09 (Tobago Island) 503- Near East Coast of Wave height= 60 cm at Kahalmi. J P 1997.12.05 Kamchatka 504- Lesser Antilles Tsunami of volcanic origin. CL 1997.12.26 (Montserrat Island) 505- New Guinea Wave height= 15 m; 2.500 deaths. C P 1998.07.17 (Papua) 506- Japan (Near S Wave height= 7 cm at Minamizu. G P 2000.07.01 Coast of Honshu) 507- Peru (Camana) O P 2001.06.23 508- Taiwan region Wave height= 20 cm at D P 2002.03.31 Yonaguni-Jima, Ryukyu Islands. 509- Mexico (Offshore Wave height= 1.2 m at N P 2003.01.22 Colima) Manzanillo. 510- Japan (Hokkaido) M=8.3 H P 2003.09.25 511- Northern Algeria Damaged estimated ~600 million M 2003.05.21 and 5 billion U.S. dollars. Wave height= 1-2 m at Palma Mallorca (Spain). 512- New Zealand Wave height= 30 cm at Jackson A P 2003.08.21 (South Island) Bay in Westerland. 513- Japan (Near S Wave height= 63 cm on Kozu- W P 2004.09.05 Coast of Western Shina. Japan) 514- Ocean Indic M=9.1; Banda Arch. (h=20-30 OI 2004.12.26 m); Sumatra= 283,100 deaths (+14,100 missing), Tailandia= 5,388 deaths. India= 10,744 deaths. Tsunami maximum height= 273 cm at South Africa. [Sumatra-Andaman Islands tsunami earthquake]. [Great tsunamigenic earthquake]. 515- Indonesia (N Run-up= 2 m (West coast of Nia); T P 2005.03.28 Sumatra) ~1,000 deaths. 516- U.S.A. (Off the Wave height= 26 cm at Crescent M P 2005.06.15 coast of northern City. California)

45

Nº-Date Area-Locality Characteristics-Effects Tsunamigenic Authors’ region symbol 517- Japan (Near the Waves height= 10 cm (northern W P 2005.08.16 East Coast of Japan). Honshu) 518- Japan (Off the Wave height= 32 cm. W P 2005.11.14 Coast of Honshu) 519- Kuril Islands Wave height of 34 cm at I P 2006.11.15 Honolulu. 520- Peru (Prisco- 3 deaths. O S 2007.08.15 Laguillos) 521- Samoa 149 deaths. A P 2009.09.29 5222- Chile 110 deaths (Arch. de Juan P S 2010.02.27 Fernandez). h= 15 m. Mw=8.8. 523- Japan Earthquake (05:46:23 UTC; M= W P 2011.03.11 9.0; 38.322 N. 142.369 W; h= 32 km); wave height= 10m (Sendai. Iwanuma. Arakama. Wakaba- yashi. Fukushima). ~13,000 deaths. [Great tsunamigenic earthquake].

Symbols: A= Atlantic Ocean; CA= Central America; CL= Lesser Antilles; CN= Northern Caribbean; CS= Southern Caribbean; M= Mediterranean region; N= North America; OI= Indian Ocean; P= Pacific Ocean; S= South America. MT = Magnitude of tsunami; Tsunamigenic region= See table 20.

Several shallow subduction zone earthquakes have excited destructive tsunamis. These phenomena are produced by large shallow earthquakes beneath the ocean floor. It is known that a great shallow earthquake beneath the ocean floor should be expected to be followed by a tsunami caused by the large displacement of water near the ocean floor. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere occurs along massive interplate thrust faults that are the contact surfaces between overriding and under thrusting plates in convergent margins. The megathrusts accommodate the convergent motions by varying portions of seismic and aseismic slip with significant variations on geometry and maximum earthquake size from region to region. About 90% of the seismic moment released by global earthquakes occurs near subduction zone with most events involving slip on megathrust including the largest recorded events. Interplate thrust faults in subduction zones host the largest earthquakes and majority of seismic energy release on the world. The seismically coupled portion of the megathrusts extends ~100 km across the depth range 5-60 km with convergent motions between under thrusting and overriding plates being accommodated by a mixture of the process: 1) earthquake slip; 2) postseismic deformation; 3) interseismic creep (Figure 1). This is a model of great earthquake sequences. Studies of the largest earthquakes along megathrust in different subduction zones have suggested some correlations with convergence rate, lithospheric age, sediment supply, bathymetric features and back arc spreading (Figure 8). In it is represented a model in a subduction zone to typical earthquake. This type of earthquake occurs at the seismogenic boundary between the subducting and overlying plates. In the other hand, intraplate earthquakes include out-rise events, slab events, and crustal earthquakes. This figure shows a comparison between a typical interplate earthquake and a tsunami earthquake. It is easy to observe the slip at varying depth on megathrust and resulting

46 surface vertical displacement. Large slip at very shallow depth in low rigidity sediments causes large ocean bottom displacement relative to comparable seismic moment events with less slip in higher rigidity material at greater depth along the megathrust.

*

Figure 8. Model of megathrusts (modified from Satake and Tanioka, 1999) [1= Moho, (Black circles = focus of earthquakes), 2= Crustal earthquakes, 3= Subduction plane, 4= Volcanoes, 5= Accretionary wedge, 6= Trench, Earthquakes (7= Outer rise, 8= Tsunami, 9= Thrust, 10= Slab).]

Table 10. Brief comparison between tsunamis’ characteristics [using Table 6A] to four regions Tsunamis Great tsunamis Maximum MT / Deaths Run-up (m) Maximum 522 18 9.4 / >1 million >100 Pacific Ocean 393 17 9.4 / >1 million >100 Central America [14 / 47]= [0 / 1] [? / 8.7] / [- / 5 ] [ - / >50] [eastern / western] 61 Lesser Antilles 19 - - / 40 20 Northern Caribbean 61 - - / ~9,000 18 Southern Caribbean 27 - 8.1 / 18 10

Table 11. Relation of Great Tsunamigenic earthquakes Nº Site Date Nº Site Date 1 Aleutian Islands 1946.04.01 10 Japan 684.11.29 2 Aleutian Islands 1957.03.09 11 Japan (Sanriku) 1896.06.15 3 Aleutian Islands 1965.02.04 12 Japan (Tsugaru Peninsula) 1983.05.26 4 Chile (Valdivia) 1837.11.07 13 Japan (Sendai) 2011.03.11 5 Chile (Arica) 1868.08.13 14 Kuril Islands 1918.09.08 6 Chile (Iquique) 1877.05.10 15 Ocean Indic 2004.12.26 7 Chile (Atakama) 1922.11.10 16 Russia (Kamchatka) 1841.05.17 8 Chile-Perú 1960.05.22 17 Russia (Kamchatka) 1952.11.04 9 Ecuador-Colombia 1906.01.31 18 U.S.A. (Alaska) 1964.03.28

Some outer-rise events caused significant tsunami damage as: 1) 1933 Sanriku earthquake [Mw=8.4; 3,000 casualties]; 2) 1977 Sumba earthquake [Mw=8.3; 150 casualties] (Figure 7A). The June 26, 1896 Sanriku earthquake; March 02, 1933 Sanriku earthquake [M=8.9], and April, 1st, 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake [M=7.4]. Earthquakes occurring in the crust of the overlying plate can also be tsunamigenic [i.e.: 1) 1992 Flores Indonesia earthquake, Mw=7.8; 2) 1993 Southwest Hokkaido Japan earthquake, Mw=7.6]. Earthquakes in the subducting plate are commonly called slab event [i.e.: 1993 Guam earthquake, Mw=7.7; 1994 Kuril earthquake, Mw=8.2]. The last mentioned was one of the strongest earthquakes occurred in and around Japan. Figure 8 shows a model in a subduction zone to typical earthquake. This type of earthquake occurs at the seismogenic boundary between the subducting and overlying plates. In the other hand, intraplate earthquakes include out-rise events, slab events and crustal earthquakes. The source region of tsunami earthquakes is beneath the most trench ward part of the accretionary wedge. The figure 3 has two schemes of the

47 subduction mechanisms to the 1964 Alaskan earthquake and 1960 Chilean earthquake. Figure 2 illustrates the under thrusting zone in the Lesser Antilles. Tsunami generation is one of the most important subduction processes. Most shallow large earthquakes in subduction zones caused tsunamis. An earthquake is tsunamigenic if it generates a tsunami and it is tsunami earthquake if it generates a much large tsunami than expected from its seismic waves. Most, but not all, large or great tsunamigenic earthquakes are typical interplate earthquake. To these events the fault plane is located along the interface between the subducting and overlying plates.

Table 12. Great Tsunamigenic Earthquakes by region Region Total Chile-Pacific 5 Japan-Pacific 4 Aleutian Islands-Pacific 3 Russia (Kamchatka)-Pacific 2 U.S.A. (Alaska)-Pacific 1 Kuril Islands-Pacific 1 Ecuador-Colombia-Pacific 1 Ocean Indic 1 Total 8 / Pacific= 7

Table 13. Great Tsunamigenic Earthquake by large regions Nº Regions Total P1 Alaska-Aleutinian-Kuril-Kamchatka (Northern Pacific) 7 P2 Chile-Ecuador-Colombia (Eastern Pacific) 6 P3 Japan (Western Pacific) 4 I4 Indian Ocean 1

Table 14. Great Tsunamigenic Earthquake by time period Time period Total 684-1600 1 1601-1900 5 1901-2000 10 2001-2011 2 Total 18

Table 15. The largest earthquakes to the 20th century (Jonhson et al.. 1994) Nº Zone / Region Year Mw 1 Chile / Pacific 1960 9.5 2 Alaska / Pacific 1964 9.2 3 Kamchatka / Pacific 1952 9.0 4 Ecuador / Pacific 1906 8.8 5 Aleutian / Pacific 1965 8.7 6 Assam / Mediterranean 1950 8.6 7 Aleutian / Pacific 1957 8.6 8 Kurile Islands / Pacific 1963 8.5 9 Chile / Pacific 1922 8.5 10 Banda Sea / Indic 1938 8.5

At most subduction zones the seismogenic interface extends from about 10 km depth to about 40 km depth. The source extent of large intent of large interplate earthquakes is limited to the seismogenic zone. As a result of under thrusting of the seismogenic zone is uplifted whereas the surface above the deeper end subsides. The coseismic deformation is generally in the direction opposite to interseismic deformation, the

48 gradual crustal deformation in earthquake cycles. Also, some tsunamis in subduction zone result from shallow intraplate earthquakes.

Table 16. The largest earthquakes (Ms>7.2) and tsunamis of the Pacific coast in Central America Nº Date Coordinates H Ms Tsunami locality Runup (km) (m) 1 1844.05 11.20N / 84.0W 30 7.4 Nicaragua Lake 2 1854.08.05 08.50N/ 83.00 W 33 7.3 Dulce Gulf 3 1884.11.05 40.00N/ 76.00 W 100 7.5 Colombia (Acando) 4 1902.04.19 14.90N/ 91.50 W 60 7.5 Guatemala (Ocos) 5 1906.01.31 01.00N/ 81.30 W 8.1 Ecuador-Panama-Costa Rica 2.5 6 1915.09.07 13.90N/ 89.60 W 60 7.7 El Salvador (South coast) 7 1916.05.25 12.00N/ 90.00 W 7.5 El Salvador 8 1934.07.18 08.10N/ 82.60 W 7.5 Panama (Chiqui Gulf) 0.6 9 1941.12.05 08.70N/ 83.20 W 7.6 Costa Rica (Dominsal) 0.2 10 1950.10.05 10.00N/ 85.70 W 60 7.7 Costa Rica-Nicaragua-El Salvador 11 1950.10.23 14.30N/ 91.80 W 7.3 Guatemala-El Salvador (coast) 12 1956.10.24 11.50N/ 86.50 W 7.2 Nicaragua (San Juan Sur) 13 1957.03.10 51.63N/ 171.4 W 8.1 El Salvador (Acajutla) >2 14 1960.05.22 38.20N/ 73.50 W 32 8.5 Guatemala-El Salvador

Table 17. Tsunamis in the Atlantic Ocean Nº Region Total 1 Caribbean Sea 114 2 Mediterranean Sea 24 3 Azores Islands 15 4 Canary Islands 1 5 England 1 Total 155

Table 18. First reports of tsunamis by region Nº Region Year Nº Region Year 1 Mediterranean Sea 479 B.C. 14 Russia (Kamchatka) 1737 2 Indonesia 416 15 Hispaniola 1751 3 Japan 684 16 Lesser Antilles 1751 4 Venezuela 1530 17 Haiti 1769 5 Honduras 1539 18 Alaska 1788 6 Chile 1562 19 Marianas Islands 1819 7 Panama 1621 20 Aleutian Islands 1827 8 Peru 1664 21 El Salvador 1859 9 Philippine Islands 1677 22 Guatemala-El Salvador 1859 10 Jamaica 1688 23 Hawaiian Islands 1868 11 Virgin Islands 1690 24 New Hebrides Islands 1875 12 Mexico 1732 25 Puerto Rico 1918 13 Kuril Islands 1737

Table 19. The most important tsunamis in the Northern Caribbean Nº Site Events Date 1 Dominican Republic 2 1946.08.04; 1946.08.08 2 Haiti 2 1770.06.03; 1842.05.07 3 Jamaica 4 1692.06.07; 1780.10.03; 1881.08.12; 1907.01.04 4 Puerto Rico 1 1918.10.14 5 Virgin Islands 2 1690.04.16; 1867.11.18 Total 11

49

2- Tsunami activity in the Pacific region

“The people always believe to scientists while has doubts over the politicians.”

50 2-Tsunami activity in the Pacific region

We used the following works in this part: Abe, 1981 and 1972; Abe et al., 1993; Adamek, Tajina and Wien, 1987; Ambraseys and Adams, 1996; Arce, Molina, Havskov and Atakan, 1998; Atwater, 2005; Atwater et al., 1995; Baptista, Priet and Murty,1993; Bernard, 1997; Berninghausen, 1962; Bourgeois et al., 1999; Bryant, Young and Price, 1992; Caballero and Ortiz, 2002; Camacho, 1994; Campos, Madariaga and Scholtz, 1996; Chael and Stewart, 1982; Cheng, 1995; Clague, 1997; Cruz and Wyss, 1983; Dean and Drake, 1978; Dewey and Algermissen, 1974; Fernández, 2002; Fernández et al., 1999; Fernández, Molina, Havskov and Atakan, 2000 and 1993; Geist, 2000; Geist and Yoshioka, 1996; González, 1910; Gonzalez, Satake, Boss and Mofield, 1995; Grases, 1974; Güendel and Bungum, 1995; Guzman-Speziale, Pennignton and Matumita, 1989; Hatori, 1995; Heinrich, Schindele. Guibourg and Ihmlé, 1998; Hey, 1977; HTDB/PAC, 2001; Huene, Ranero, Weinrehe and Hinz, 2000; Hyndman, Yamano and Oleskevich, 1997; Ide, Imamura, Yoshida and Abe, 1993; Ihmlé, Gomez, Heinrich and Guiborg, 1998; Iida, Cox and Pararas-Carayannis, 1967; Imamura, 1928; Imamura et al., 1993; INETER, 1993; ITIC, 2004; Johnson, 1998; Johnson and Satake, 1997, 1996, 1994 and 1993; Johnson et al., 1994; Johnston and Thorkelson, 1997; Kanamori, 1971; Kanamori and Kikuchi, 1993; Kikuchi and Kanamori, 1995; Kolarsky and Mann, 1995; Kostoglodov and Ponce, 1994; Kowalick and Whitmore, 1991; Lagos, 2000; Lander, 1996; Larde, 1960; Leeds, 1975; Linde and Silver, 1989; Lockridge, 1998; Lockrige and Smith, 1984; Lopez and Okal, 2006; Lundgren and Dixon, 1990; Ma. Satake and Kanamori, 1991; Mader and Centes, 1991; Martinez and Noguera, 1998; Matsuyama, Igarashi and Yeh, 1999; McNally and Minster, 1981; Meshede, Backausen and Worm, 2000; Minoura and Nakaya, 1991; Molina, 1997; Montero, 1990; Nishenko, 1991; Ng, Le Blond and Murty, 1990; Pararas-Carayannis, 1974; Pelayo and Wiens, 1990; Piatanesi et al., 1996; Plafker, 1972 and 1969; Plafker and Savage, 1970; Protti, Guendel and McNally, 1994; Quiceno and Ortiz, 2001; Rojas, Bungum and Lindholm, 1993; Sacks, 1983; Satake, 1994 and 1985; Satake and Imamura, 1995; Satake and Tanioka, 2003 and 1993; Satake et al., 1993; Satake, Yoshida and Abe, 1992; Shepard, McDonald and Cox, 1950; Soloviev, 1978 and 1970; Soloviev and Go, 1994, 1975 and 1974; Soloviev, Go and Kim, 1992; Spence, 1986; Stewart and Cohn, 1979; Suarez, Monfret, Wittlinger and David, 1990; Sugi and Uyeda, 1984; Swenson and Beck, 1996; Sykes, 1971; Takahashi et al., 1995; Tanioka and Gonzalez, 1998; Tanioka and Satake, 1996A; Tanioka, Ruff and Satake, 1995B; Tanioka, Satake and Ruff, 1998 and 1995A; Tichelaar and Ruff, 1993; Tsuji et al., 1995 and 1995A; Utsu, 1971; Uyeda and Kanamori, 1970; Vergara Muñoz, 1988 and 1988A; Víquez and Toral, 1987; Vlaar and Wortel, 1976; Ward, 1963; Watanake, 1985; Wei et al., 2008; Wolters, 1986; Wortel and Vlaar, 1978; Yeh et al., 1993; Yoshida, Satake and Abe,1992; and Zetler, 1947. We present in table 20 the division proposed by others authors to the Pacific Ocean [~166.106 km2] in 24 tsunamigenic regions. It is applied in table 9. The majority of tsunamis have been generally local to any particular area. It seems the tsunamis like Alaska [1964 March 29] and Chile [1960 May 22] are not characteristic of this region (Figure 3). The Alaskan-Aleutian zone is a typical subduction zone where great tsunamigenic interplate earthquakes repeat (Tables 11-13). Also, the Pacific coast of Central America-Mexico region has been the setting of several great earthquakes. Much of them produced tsunamis in the same period. The Alaska-Aleutian region (Figure 5) is a typical subduction zone where great tsunamigenic interplate earthquakes repeat in time. In this zone the North American

51 plate [from the north] is subducted by the Pacific plate in the Aleutian trench. This zone is a large island arc from southern Alaska to the western Aleutian. In it some strong earthquakes occurred as: 1938 [Mw=8.2], 1946 [Mw=8.3], 1957 [Mw=8.6], 1964 [Mw=9.2], 1965 [Mw=8.7], 1986 [Ms=8.0], and 1996 [Ms=7.9]. So, the Cascadia Subduction zone is a type of convergent plate boundary which stretches from northern Vancouver Island to northern California [two triple junctions at its north and south ends]. It is a very long sloping fault that separates the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, and Gorda plates from the North American plate. The ocean floor moves toward and beneath the North American plate at approximately 4 cm/year. The Cascadia Subduction zone is where the two plates meet and some large and offshore earthquakes have occurred here and produced devastating tsunamis.

Table 20. Tsunamigenic regions in the Pacific Ocean (Iida, Cox and Pararas-Caraynnis, 1967) Region Site (symbol) A New Zealand. Kermadec Islands. Tonga. Samoa. Fuji B New Hebrides. New Caledonia. Solomon Islands C New Guinea. Bismarck Archipielago. Pacific side of Halmahera Island D Philippine. Taiwan. Pacific Coast E Ryukyu Islands. Kyshu Island F Nankaido-Tokaido area (Shikoku-Sagami) G Northeast Honshu Island (Boso-Sanriku) H Hokkaido Island I Kuril Island J Kamchatka Peninsula and Komandorskiye (Commader) Islands K Aleutian Islands L Mainland Alaska and British Colombia M Washington. Oregon. California. Baja California N Mexico. Central America. North Colombia O South Colombia. Ecuador. Peru P North Chile Q South Chile R Hawaiian Islands S Marshall Islands-Marianas Islands T Indonesia U South China Sea V East China Sea and Yellow Sea W Sea of Japan X Sea of Okhotsk Total= 24 Note: See table 9.

The tectonic setting of Central America is given by the interaction of the Northamerican, Southamerican, Cocos, Caribbean and Nazca plates (Figure 9). The Cocos plate subducts under the Caribbean plate along the Middle American trench. From Mexico to Central America the subduction process is a normal process and the Wadati-Benniof zone is well defined by intermediate and deep earthquakes. But in southern Costa Rica subduction becomes shallowest due to the presence of Cocos Ridge. This structure collides with de Cocos plate generating a buoyant effect. That process makes difficult the penetration of Cocos plate under the Caribbean plate. That effect is responsible for the lack of deep seismicity there as well as for inhibiting of volcanism and uplift of the Talamanca Range, Costa Rica. The limit between Cocos and Nazca plates is the Panama Fracture Zone (Figure 9). It is composed of north-south trending faults located in front of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama. The

52 boundary between the Caribbean plate and Nazca plate is quite ambiguous. The Panama Deformed Belt lies towards the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and it is convergent margin.

Figure 9. (I) Tectonic contact zone between Caribbean and the Pacific plates [Localities (1= U.S.A., 2= Mexico, 3= Guatemala, 4= El Salvador, 5= Honduras, 6= Nicaragua, 7= Costa Rica, 8= Panama, 9= Colombia, 10= Ecuador, 11= Peru, 12= Venezuela, 13= Cuba, 14= Hispaniola, 15= Jamaica, 16= Galapagos Islands), Structures (MAT= Mesoamerican trench, PCHT= Peru-Chile trench, PB= Panama block, GH= Gulf of Honduras), Heavy black arrows = sense of the plate movements.] (II) Tsunamigenic zones in the northern Caribbean. [1= Jamaica, 2= Haiti, 3= Dominican Republic, 4= Muertos trough, 5= Puerto Rico trench, 6= Virgin Islands.]

The Middle America margin off Costa Rica-Nicaragua convergence with the Cocos plate at equivalent rate also has sparse trench sediment but it vary in crustal structure and the subducting oceanic crust. The morphology of this convergent region is well known as the variation of arc volcanism. The main feature of this Wadati-Benniof zone geometry are: 1) a smooth contortion of the seismically active slab under the Nicaragua- Costa Rica border; 2) a decrease in the maximum depth of earthquakes from 200 km under Nicaragua to less than 50 km under southern Costa Rica; 3) a segmentation of the slab under Central Costa Rica; 4) the abrupt termination of the seismically active slab at 83º W coincident with the SE end of the Central America active volcanic chain. No evidence of Wadati-Benniof zone deeper than 50 km is found SE of Punta Vista (Figure 7A). The subduction zone from Nicaragua to Costa Rica is divided into four segments: 1) Nicargua; 2) Northern Costa Rica; 3) Central Costa Rica; 4) Southern Costa Rica.

53 Also, the differences in coupling between the Cocos and Caribbean plates for Nicaragua and Costa Rica can also be correlated with the characteristics [bathymetric features] of the subducted ocean floor. It is important to note that historically large under thrust earthquakes [Ms>7.0] have occurred along the NW and SE segments but not within the Central segment. Costa Rica as part of Central America is located on the western margin of the Caribbean plate where the Cocos plate subducts under it along the Middle American trench. The direction of convergences of these two plates is N25-30E and their relative velocity varies from 72+/-5 mm/year off the coast of northern Guatemala to 10+/-5 mm/year off the coast of southern Costa Rica. South of the border between Costa Rica and Panama is the Panama Fracture Zone. This right lateral transform fault is the plate boundary between the Cocos and Nazca plates. West of Cocos-Nazca-Caribbean triple junction and SW of the Osa Peninsula, the Cocos Ridge [N45E] is also being subducted beneath southern Costa Rica as part of the Cocos plate. The epicentral distribution of earthquakes shows a high level of seismic activity along the whole Middle American trench. Also the Panama Fracture Zone has intense seismic activity. In the north [Mexico] the seismic activity suggests a shallowest mode of subduction and similarly in the south where there is no seismicity below 50 km. Most of earthquakes are shallow and related to the Cocos-Caribbean subduction zone. Some large earthquakes occurred and they are associated with the Middle American trench. There are two differentiated groups of earthquakes looking to the depth of occurrence [0-30 and 40-200 km]. It is well known that the seismicity on the Caribbean coast of Central America is low. In it there were only three large earthquakes during the last century all them generated small tsunamis. If the probability of tsunami occurrence is proportional to the rate of seismicity, the possibility of finding tsunamis should be lower. Nevertheless, it was found that the area have been hit by tsunamis which have caused damage and loss of life. In tables 15-16 appear the largest earthquakes and tsunamis of the Pacific coast of Central America. However these tsunamis might not be dangerous if the earthquake source is inland. Regional tsunamis from elsewhere in the Pacific region have also hit the coasts of Central America. These tsunamis flooded villages washed out houses and produced great damage to property and produced ~350 casualties. As we said before, the majority of the tsunamis of Central America have taken place at the Pacific coast (approximately 40). This is normal considering that the most active margin of Caribbean plate is the Middle American trench that is located in front of the Pacific coast of Central America (Table 16). Based on this data set it seems that Cocos- Central America is the most important environment to generate tsunamigenic earthquakes on the Pacific coast of Central America. Then the largest tsunamis of this area were the Guatemala-El Salvador tsunamis [Nº 258 and 259, Table 9] and Nicaragua tsunami [Nº 467, Table 9]. They produced 185 and 170 deaths, respectively.

54

3- Tsunamis data of the Atlantic Ocean

“There are various justifications to not allocate the necessary financial funds for the preservation of human life and for the defense of the environment.”

55 3-Tsunamis data of the Atlantic Ocean

Many sources have been consulted in order to develop this epigraph, between them are: Affleck, 1809; Ambraseys, 1962; Arce, Molina, Havskov and Atakan, 1998; Asencio, 1980; Atwater and Moore, 1992; Atwater et al., 1995; Beck and Ruff, 1989; Bernard, 1997; Berninghausen, 1964 and 1962; BRGM, 1990; Brink et al., 2004; Caicedo, Martinelli, Meyer and Steer, 1996; Chalas-Jiménez, 1989; Cotilla, 2011 and 2007; Cotilla and Córdoba, 2011 and 2011A; Fernández, 2002; Fernández, Havskov and Atakan, 1999; Fukao, 1979; Grases, 1990; Grindlay, Hearne and Mann, 2005; Heilpin, 1903; Lander, 1996; Lander and Whiteside, 1997; Lander, Whiteside and Lockridge, 2002; McNamara, Hillebarndt and Cruz Calderón, 2005; Mercado and McCann, 1998; Polet and Kanamori, 2000; Reid and Taber, 1920 and 1919; Romero, 2008; Rubio, 1982; Sainte-Claire Deville, 1867; Schubert, 1984; and Soloviev et al., 2000. The vast majority of the area of the Atlantic Ocean is not tsunamigenic, for example the Gulf of Mexico [~1,600,000 km2 and middle deep of ~2,000 m]. The Atlantic region [~82,400,000 km2 and middle deep of ~3,700 km] has the following sea: Baltic, Black, Caribbean, Greenlandic, Mediterranean, and Northern. It appears in figure 10. The deepest troughs in this region are Puerto Rico [8,800 m] and Oriente [~7,700 m]. The region is clear divided in different tectonic areas as: Mediterranean, Caribbean, Azores, Portugal, and eastern of South America and North America. Our interest is the Caribbean and in particular the northern Caribbean. It will be discuss later and include tectonic, seismicity, and focal mechanisms in order to understand the actual tectonic behaviour of the region. We must say that in 1962 a seismic sea-waves catalogue was prepared to the eastern Mediterranean [31º-44º N / 18º-36º E]. It included 141 events. Table 9 contains the most significant tsunamis in the Atlantic area. The oldest data about tsunamis came from the Mediterranean area [479 B.C.]. The most important tsunamigenic area of the Atlantic Ocean is very well defined and corresponds to the Mediterranean Sea (Table 17). In it there are several seismic sources active and important, as: 1) Azores Islands; 2) eastern end of the PBZ Europe-Asia [SW of Portugal] associated with the earthquake and tsunami of 1755 November 1st; 3) Assam [north of Africa]; 4) Greece-Turkey (Table 9). This region has a very high level of risk for many populations and tourist facilities. Nevertheless, in the Atlantic Ocean there is not report of great tsunamigenic earthquake. Table 18 contains the year of the first report of tsunami to 25 regions. From it is easy to understand that the reports are associated at first with the human settlements. It is well known that the largest population density is in the Pacific Ocean. But the heaviest traffic of boats and planes is in the Atlantic one. The differences between the tsunamigenic sources of both the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans are in table 10. Among other things the first one is further more active, dangerous and complex than the other. Nevertheless, the event of 1755.11.01 was without doubts one of the most important in all the history and it occurred just southwest of Portugal even reaching areas so far as the Caribbean at about 7-8 hours later. A second tsunamigenic source is the Canary Islands. It has the capability to produce a tsunami that can hit Caribbean. Finally, we may assure that in this last century there were not strong tsunami in the Atlantic Ocean but several hurricanes.

56

Figure 10. Tsunamigenic regions in the Atlantic Ocean [I= Mediterranean (1= Mediterranean Sea, 2= Portugal, 3= Spain, 4= France, 5= Italy, 6= Morocco, 7= Algeria, 8= Tunisia, 9= Libya, 10= Egypt, 11= Israel, 12= Lebanon, 13= Syria, 14= Turkey, 15= Greece), II= Western Mediterranean-Spain-Portugal-Azores Islands (1= SW Portugal, black circles= epicenters), III= Caribbean Sea (PBZ= Plate Boundary Zone, Black circles= epicentres, Heavy black arrows= sense of plate movements).]

57

4- Some information about tectonic activity in the Caribbean region

“The economic losses due to a natural disaster can be replaced with more or less effort, but never human life.”

58 4-Some information about tectonic activity in the Caribbean Region

The following works were employees here: Adamek, Tajima and Wien 1987; Álvarez et al. 1999; Audemard, Romero, Rendon and Cano, 2005; Avé Lallemant, 1997; Beardsley and Avé Lallemant, 2007; Bilek and Lay, 1999; Benford, DeMets and Calais, 2012; Bertand, 1989; Bezada, Levander and Schmandt, 2010A; Bezada et al., 2010B; Bilham and King, 1989; Bowin, 1976 and 1968; Brink et al., 2004; Bunce and Fahlquist, 1962; Burke, Grippi and Sengor, 1980; Butterlin, 1956; Byrne, Suarez and McCann, 1985; Calais and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1991; Calais, Perrot and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1998; Calais et al., 2010 and 2002; Calais, Bethoux and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1992; Campos, Madariaga and Scholz, 1996; Carr and Stoiber, 1977; Case, Holcombe and Martin, 1984; CAYTROUGH, 1979; Chiesa and Mazzoleni, 2001; Clark, Levander, Magnani and Zelt, 2008; Clark et al., 1982; Correa Mora et al., 2009; Cotilla Rodríguez, 2017; Cotilla, 2014; Cotilla and Álvarez, 1998; Cotilla and Córdoba, 2017, 2011, 2011A, 2011B, 2009 and 2007; Cotilla and Udías, 1999; Cotilla, Córdoba and Calzadilla, 2007; Cotilla et al., 2017, 1997, 1991 and 1991A; Dean and Drake, 1978; de Zoeten and Mann, 1992; DeMets, Gordon and Argus, 2010; DeMets, Gordon, Argus and Stein, 1990; DeMets et al., 2000; Deng and Sykes, 1995; Dewey, 1972; de Zoeten and Mann, 1992; Dillon et al., 1992; Dixon et al., 1998; Dolan and Wald, 1997; Dolan, Mullins and Wald, 1998; Draper, 1989; Drully, 1994; Fernández Arce, 1996; Fisher and Raitt, 1962; Fox, Ruddiman, Ryan and Bruce, 1970; Guzmán-Speziale, Pennigton and Matumoto, 1989; Hayes et al., 2010; Hernández, Seguinot and Reyes, 2002; Hey, 1977; Holcombe, Vogt, Mathews and Murchisan, 1973; Horsfield, 1975 and 1974; Horsfield and Roobol, 1975; Huene, Ranero, Weinrebe and Hinz, 2000; Hyndman, Yamano and Olekevich, 1997; Jansma et al., 2000; Johnston and Thorkelson, 1997; Jordan, 1976; Kaye, 1959; Kelleher, Sykes and Oliver, 1973; Kellog and Bonini, 1982; Kolarsky and Mann, 1995; Ladd, Holcombe, Westbrook and Edgar, 1990; Larue, 1994; Larue and Ryan, 1990; Leeds, 1975; Leroy and Mauffret, 1996; Levander et al., 2006; Lewis and Draper, 1990; Lopez and Okal, 2006; Lopez et al., 2006; Lyon Caen, 2006; Magnani, Zelt, Levander and Schmitz, 2009; Mann and Burke, 1984; Mann et al., 1995; Mann, Draper and Lewis, 1991; Martínez and Noguera, 1992; Marshall, Fisher and Gardner, 2000; Masson and Scalon, 1991; Mauffret and Jany, 1990; McCaffrey, 1992; McCann, 2002; Mercier de Lépinay et al., 2011; Meschede and Frisch, 1998; Meschede, Backhaussen and Worm, 2000; Meyerhoff, 1933; Mocquet, 1984; Molnar and Sykes, 1969; Montero, Paniagua, Kussmaul and River, 1992; Mullins et al., 1992; Nishenko, McCann and Wiggins-Grandison, 1996; Pennington, 1981; Pérez and Aggarwal, 1981; Pérez et al., 2001; Nuñez D., Córdoba D., Cotilla M.O., and Pazos A., 2015; Nuñez- Cornú, Ortiz and Sánchez, 2008; Perrot, Calais and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1997; Ostos, Yoris and Ave Lallemant, 2005; Pennington, 1981; Pérez and Aggarwal, 1981; Pérez, Sanz and Lagos, 1997; Pérez et al., 2001; Perrot, Calais and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1997; Pindell et al., 1988; Plafker, 1972 and 1969; Plafker and Ward, 1992; Pockalny, 1997; Prentice and Mann, 2005; Prentice, Mann and Burr, 2000; Prentice et al., 1993; Protti, Guendel and McNally, 1994; Pubellier et al., 2000; Pubellier, Vila and Boison, 1991; Renard, Mercier de Lèpinay and Buffet, 1992; Rosencratz and Mann, 1991; Rosencratz, Ross and Sclater, 1988; Ross and Scotese, 1988; Rubio, Cotilla and Álvarez, 1994; Russo and Villasenor, 1997 and 1995; Russo et al., 1993; Sacks, 1983; Scheidegger and Schubert, 1989; Schmitz et al., 2005; Schubert, 1980 and 1979; Schwab, Danforth, Scalon and Masson, 1991; Schwartz, Cluff and Donnelly, 1979; Shemenda and Grokhol’Skiy, 1986; Silver, Case and MacGillay, 1973; Speed and Larue, 1991; Stewart and Cohn, 1979; Sugi and Uyeda, 1984; Sykes, 1978; Sykes, McCann and Kafka, 1982;

59 Taber, 1922 and 1922A; Van Benthem and Govers, 2010; Van Dusen and Dosen, 2000; Van der Hilst and Mann, 1994; Van Gestel, Mann, Grindlay and Dolan, 1999; Van Gestel, Mann, Dolan and Grindlay, 1998; Vergara Muñoz, 1988; Vlaar and Wortel, 1976; Wadge and Shepherd, 1984; Webber et al., 2001; Westbrook, Boot and Peacdok, 1973; Westbrook, Hardy and Heatwortels, h, 1995; Westbrook, Boot and Peacdok, 1973; Wiggins-Grandison and Takan, 2005; Wolters, 1986; and Wortel and Vlaar, 1978. The Caribbean domain and Central America form a small lithospheric plate inserted between North America and South America plates that is moving eastward relative to North American plate (Figure 11). The North American and Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone [PBZ] is an irregular seismogenic area of a 100-250 km wide with left-lateral strike-slip deformation extending over 2,000 km along the northern border of the Caribbean Sea. The main structural element in the PBZ is the Cayman trough, a submarine pull-apart basin of 1,100 km of oceanic crust at the Mid-Cayman spreading centre, a 100 km long-jog between left-lateral faults of the plate boundary. This spreading centre is active since the Middle Eocene and has a rate of 1.5 cm/yr. Farther to the east are situated Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico Islands. The Cayman strike-slip system is divided into two branches: 1) northern branch from the Cayman spreading centre to the Puerto Rico trench; 2) southern branch from Central America to Haiti. The western part of the southern branch, Walton-Plantain Garden- Enriquillo fault is clearly active and runs from Jamaica up to the Muertos trough. Within the North America-Caribbean PBZ two microplates Gonave and Hispaniola- Puerto Rico were defined (Figure 12). A continuous, northern strike-slip fault bounding both Gonave and the Hispaniola-Puerto Rico microplates runs from the northern coast of Haiti, and the Bartlett-Cayman [Oriente] fault zone; Cibao valley of northern Hispaniola, northern fault zone to Puerto Rico island slope and Puerto Rico trench. Figure 1 of McCann (2002) shows two other microplates, El Seibo [eastern Hispaniola] and Puerto Rico, with a great difference in speed, 17 mm/yr and 2 mm/yr, for the North American plate oblique subduction NE-SW [Puerto Rico trench] and the Caribbean plate in the Muertos trough subduction zone, respectively. The strike-slip faults type appear in the Northern of Caribbean region and constitute the northern boundary of Caribbean plate and include the following elements: Motagua, Chixoy-Polochic, Swan and Oriente. The main function of such system faults is: 1) accommodated horizontal extrusion in zones of continental collision; 2) served as agent for boundary-parallel slip between obliquely convergent oceanic and continental plates. At the western edge of this region the Swan Islands fault zone, with left lateral strike- slip motion, defines the plate boundary. This fault zone terminates at the southwestern edge of the Cayman spreading center. Then appear the Morant trough. It is an active pull-apart basin between Haiti and Jamaica of ~60 km. This is a submarine structure that limits on rates of movements on the mentioned fault zone Enriquillo-Plantain Garden. More to the east the Mona Canyon is a narrow deep depression on the Caribbean Sea in northwestern Puerto Rico. It is part of the inner wall of the Puerto Rico trench and related with normal faults. All this suggested that E-W extension process occurs here. The Muertos trough is an E-W striking bathymetric feature of ~5 km depth at south of Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic. Between Puerto Rico and Virgin Island [northern of Lesser Antilles] is located the ENE trending Anegada Passage.

60

Figure 11. Simplified tectonic map of the Caribbean [I= {Heavy black arrows (sense of plate movements), black lines= main fault systems (CNF= Cauto- Nipe, NCF= Nortecubana, HG= Honduras-Guatemala, OF= Oriente, SEF= Septentrional, SWF= Swan, WPGEF= Walton-Platain Garden-Enriquillo), other structures (CB= Colombia basin, MP= Mona Passage, MT: Muertos trough, NR= Nicaragua Rise, OT= Oriente trough, PBZ= Plate Boundary Zone, PRT= Puerto Rico trench, VB= Venezuela Basin, WP= Winward Passage); localities (LH= La Habana, SC= Santiago de Cuba)}, II= {Heavy black arrows (sense of plate movements), black points (epicentres), black lines= main fault systems (CF= Camú, CNF= Cauto- Nipe, HG= Honduras-Guatemala, NCF= Nortecubana, NHF= North Hispaniola, OF= Oriente, SF= Samaná, SEF= Septentrional, SWF= Swan, WPGEF= Walton-Platain Garden-Enriquillo), the drawing of the points outlines the structure BR= Beata Ridge, HE= Hess Escarpment, passages (MP= Mona, WP= Windward), islands (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico), microplates (GM= Gonave, HPRM= Hispaniola-Puerto Rico), troughs (MT= Muertos, NT= Navassa, OT= Oriente, PRT= Puerto Rico), other structures (CB= Colombia Basin, GR= Gonave Ridge, GRS= Gonave).]

The South Caribbean region is characterized as a deformed belt from Panama, Colombia to Venezuela along the border. The contact between South American and Caribbean plates is defined as a PBZ. It can be divided in the surrounding of Venezuela at least seven segments. All of them with a clear east-west trending belts and constitute a transpressive boundary with a combination of strike-slip faults and thrust belt in order to produce a positive flower structure.

61

Figure 12. Strongest earthquakes in the northeastern Caribbean [Black circle= epicenter, 1766 (7.5)= year (magnitude).]

The Lesser Antilles volcanic arc is results from subduction of the American plate under the Caribbean plate. It runs from the Anegada Passage [at north] to the South America. The volcanic arc draws a curve of ~850 km in length and 450 km ray. We can say that the seismic risk is high in it because the active geodynamic context. The movements of two mentioned plates control the tectonic, volcanic and seismic activity in the region. Each plate is also the seat of a network of major faults. The north and the east of the Caribbean correspond to an active margin, related to the subduction of American plate under Caribbean plate [~2 cm/year]. The subduction angle is stronger in the centre of the arc [60º N, Martinique] than in the north [50º N, Guadeloupe] and in the south (Figure 2). This type of subduction is considered as an intermediate type between: 1) The Mariana type [low speed of convergence with weak subduction earthquakes]; 2) The Chile type [high speed of convergence with strong subduction earthquakes [M>8]]. In the other side, the plate boundary between Caribbean and North American plates in the north-western region is located near the Pacific trench [with the active left-lateral sense Motagua fault and the Cayman trough] (Figure 11). This is an active region where the seismicity is shallow [h<70 km]. The Middle America Trench delineates quite well a subduction zone where Caribbean plate is under thrust by Cocos plate. Near to Mexico and Guatemala is determined a triple junction of the three mentioned before plates. More to the south, near the northeast of Panama and Colombia the boundary between South America, Caribbean and Cocos plates the boundary is much more complex [other triple junction]. There is a mixed of strike-slip fault with under thrust fault systems. Around Panama is determined a weak subduction process. In Colombia-Ecuador region appears the subduction of the Nazca plate under the South American plate. As we said before the Central America subduction zone is not uniform from different points of view. In this sense the volcanic information confirm such situation and the seismicity permit establish at least consider four segments. The Hess Escarpment is a great feature of the Caribbean seafloor with a defined NE strike. It is located from South America to Hispaniola. Another important structure is the Beata Ridge. It extends 400 km south from Beata Cape, Hispaniola, dividing the Caribbean into the Colombia [crust of <10 km] and Venezuela [crust of 10 km] basins. It is a ~20 km Cretaceous volcanic plateau that has near 10 km in the Aruba area. To the west, the ridge is bounded by a steep escarpment with a regional slope of 15°-25° which rises 2,500 m above the Colombia abyssal plain. To the east, the ridge drops down to the centre of the Venezuela basin in a series of steps. Beata Ridge is an oceanic plateau whose edges have been reactivated by differential motion between the two

62 aforementioned structures. Hispaniola and Puerto Rico are separated from the Venezuela Basin by the Muertos trough.

63

5- Seismicity and focal mechanisms in the Caribbean plate

“After a natural disaster scientists continue to increase their knowledge by analyzing the initial data and results whereas politicians express their sorrow and promise large improvements and social advances.”

64 5-Seismicity and focal mechanisms in the Caribbean plate

The used data in the chapter were: Álvarez et al., 1999 and 1994; Ambraseys, 1962; Ambraseys and Adams, 1996; Asencio, 1980; Atwater et al., 1995; Audemard, Romero, Rendon and Cano, 2005; Bolt, 1993; Boscowitz, 1885; Byrne, Davis and Sykes, 1988; Calais, Bethoux and Mercier de Lépinay, 1992; Calais and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1991; Calais et al., 2002; Calais, Perrot and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1998; Camacho, 1994; Camacho and Viquez, 1993; Carr and Stoiber, 1977; Chael and Stewart, 1982; Chalas- Jiménez, 1989; Chuy, 1982; Chuy and Alvarez, 1988; Clague, 1997; Clinton et al., 2006; Cotilla Rodríguez, 2017; Cotilla, 2014, 2007, 2003 and 1998; Cotilla and Alvarez, 1997; Cotilla and Córdoba, 2017, 2011, 2011A, 2011B, 2010, 2010A, 2010B, 2009 and 2007; Cotilla, Rubio, Álvarez and Grünthal, 1997A; Davidson, 1907; Dean and Drake, 1978; Deng and Sykes, 1995; Dewey, 1972; Dewey and Algermissen, 1974; Díaz Hernández, 1985; Dorel, 1981; Figueroa, 1962; Gasperini, Bernadini, Valensise and Boschi, 1999; González, 1910; González and Vorobiova, 1989; Grases, 1990 and 1974; Gutenberg, 1939; Gutenberg and Richter, 1954; Guitis V.G., Álvarez L., Chuy T. and Cotilla M., 1992; Hall, 1922; HCMTC, 1998; Iñiguez, Acosta and Vizcaino, 1975; Johnson and Satake, 1997; Kafka and Weiden, 1979; Kanamori, 1977, 1972 and 1971; Kanamori and Steward, 1976; Kelleher, Sykes and Oliver, 1973; Kostoglodov and Ponce, 1994; Larde, 1960; Lundgren and Dixon, 1990; Lynch and Bodle, 1948; Lynch and Shepherd, 1995; Malave and Suarez, 1995; Mann, Draper and Lewis, 1991; McCann, 2002; McCann and Pennington, 1990; McNally and Minster, 1981; Mercier de Lépinay et al., 2011; Milne, 1912; Molnar and Sykes, 1969; Montadon, 1962; Monteulieu, 1933; Nettles and Hjörleifdóttir, 2010; Nishenko, 1991; Osots, Yoris and Ave Lallemart, 2005; Pacheco and Sykes, 1992; Panagiotopoulos, 1995; Pérez, 1999; Pérez, Sanz and Lagos, 1997; Perrot, Calais and Mercier de Lèpinay, 1997; Poey, 1857, 1855 and 1855A; Prentice and Mann, 2005; Prentice, Mann and Bure, 2000 and 1993; Reid and Taber, 1920 and 1919; Reyes, 1977; Robson, 1964; Rojas, Bungum and Lindholm, 1993; Ruiz et al., 1992; Russo and Villaseñor, 1997 and 1995; Russo et al., 1003; Sainte-Claire Deville, 1867; Schuckloper et al., 1992, and 1992A; Sherer, 1912; Shepherd and Lynch, 1992; Schubert, 1984; Schultz, 1962; Sheren, 1912; Shepherd and Lych, 1992; Sieberg, 1923; Spece, 1986; Swenson and Beck, 1996; Sykes, 1978 and 1971; Sykes and Ewing, 1965; Sykes, McCann and Kafka, 1982; Taber, 1922; Tanioka and Gonzalez, 1998; Tang, Titov and Canbulino, 2009 and 1988; Tichelaar and Ruff, 1993; Tomblin and Robson, 1977; USGS, 2009 and 1988; Utsu, 1971; Uyeda and Kanamori, 1970; Van Dusen andd Dosen, 2000; Vergara Muñoz, 1988A; Viquez and Toral, 1987; Ward, 1982; Whiteside, Dater and Dunbar, 1996; Wiggins-Grandison, 2001; Wolters, 1986; and Young, Lay and Lynnes, 1989. In the northern Caribbean the most intense seismicity is located around restraining bends such as southern Cuba and northern Hispaniola (Figure 13). In particular, the seismicity of Hispaniola is plainly justified by its geodynamic position, both with respect to frequency of occurrence and to the magnitude of the seismic events. So, in a catalogue of the 1502-1971 period, there appear 15 intensity VII, 12 intensity VIII and 10 intensity IX earthquakes, and one earthquake of X degrees of intensity [MSK scale], which the authors place in two independent bands to the north and the south of Hispaniola. On the other hand, there were described three bands of seismic activity, one to the north and two in a NW transversal direction, of which the one found in the southeastern area, corresponds to deep earthquakes. This zone was studied and recognized much earlier. Also there were described eight active zones in the northeastern Caribbean. However, five of them do not have any associated with

65 seismicity in the last 40 years. On the basis of all this data and a statistical treatment describe two seismogenetic bands two the north and the south, and one transversal band in a NW direction. Later, it was defined the seismic potential for the Cuba-Jamaica- Hispaniola sector, and determine that the strongest events [M=8.0] could occur in two sectors in the northern region, in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Figure 14 shows some of the strongest earthquakes in the Caribbean area, all occurring within the PBZ. We prepared table 21 in order to show the earthquakes [141] that affected the Caribbean territory with M>6.4. This is a significant magnitude to the region if we take in consideration the seismic history (Tables 22-23). Table 26 has the first seismic report in the Caribbean region and tables 27-28 contain some information about Puerto Rico seismicity.

Figure 13. Selection of the focal mechanisms in the northern Caribbean [I= All northern Caribbean area, II= Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands area, III= Hispaniola area.]

Table 21. Selection of earthquakes in the Caribbean with M > 6.4 Date Time Coordinates Year Month Day Hour Minute N W H [km] M 1562 12 03 01 00 19.60 70.80 30 7.2 1564 04 20 19.60 70.80 30 7.0 1578 08 19.90 76.00 30 6.75 1667 17.80 77.00 30 6.75 1673 05 09 11 30 18.40 70.30 30 7.5 1678 02 11 14 59 19.90 76.00 30 6.75 1684 18.40 70.30 7.5 1692 18.20 77.00 33 7.75 06 07 16 40 17.80 76.80 20 7.5 1751 10 18 20 00 18.40 70.60 30 7.25 1760 07 11 19.90 76.00 30 6.75 06 11 00 00 19.9 76.10 25 6.8

66

Date Time Coordinates Year Month Day Hour Minute N W H [km] M 1761 11 21 13 00 18.40 70.80 30 6.6 1766 06 12 00 00 19.9 76.10 30 6.8 1770 06 04 00 15 18.60 72.60 70 7.5 1787 05 02 8.0 1826 09 18 09 29 19.75 75.35 30 6.4 1842 05 07 17 30 19.7 72.80 7.7 07 07 17 25 19.75 75.35 30 6.8 1852 08 20 14 05 19.75 75.32 30 6.4 1867 11 18 14 43 50-100 7.3 1880 10 14 19.9 75.90 30 6.4 1887 09 23 11 55 19.40 73.40 60 7.9 1897 12 29 11 32 20.10 71.20 50 7.5 1899 06 14 11 09 18.00 77.00 7.8 1900 06 21 20 52 20.00 80.00 25 7.9 1902 04 19 02 23 14.00 91.00 25 7.4 09 23 20 18 16.00 93.00 25 7.7 1903 03 01 01 47 15.00 93.00 7.7 1904 01 20 14 52 07.00 79.00 7.1 12 20 05 44 08.30 83.00 25 7.1 1907 01 14 15 40 18.20 76.70 10 6.5 04 15 06 08 16.70 99.20 25 7.6 1910 01 01 11 02 16.50 84.00 60 7.0 10 08 02 14 13.00 87.00 7.0 1911 10 06 10 16 19.00 70.50 7.0 1912 04 09 08 32 19.00 85.00 7.3 1914 08 25 05 19 19.53 76.37 30 6.7 1916 04 24 04 26 18.50 68.00 80 7.2 08 23 23 30 18.80 68.20 30 6.5 1917 02 20 19 29 19.50 78.50 7.1 12 09 08 32 19.00 85.00 60 7.1 07 27 01 01 19.00 67.50 50 7.0 1918 10 11 14 14 18.50 68.00 7.3 10 25 03 42 18.50 68.00 7.0 1921 03 28 07 49 12.50 87.50 7.2 1926 02 08 15 17 13.00 89.00 7.0 1928 03 22 04 17 15.67 96.10 7.3 06 17 03 19 16.30 96.70 25 7.6 08 04 18 26 16.20 96.76 7.2 10 09 03 01 16.30 97.30 7.4 1931 10 15 01 50 16.00 96.75 40 7.6 1932 02 03 06 16 19.70 75.50 30 6.75 1934 07 18 01 36 08.14 82.38 7.4 1935 12 14 22 05 14.75 92.50 7.2 1937 12 23 13 17 16.57 98.53 18 7.3 1939 12 21 20 54 10.00 85.00 7.1 1941 04 07 23 29 17.50 78.40 40 7.1 04 15 19 09 18.05 102.94 7.5 12 05 20 46 08.50 83.00 7.3 1943 02 22 09 20 17.62 101.15 16 7.3 07 29 03 02 19.20 67.50 25 7.5 1946 08 04 17 51 19.25 69.00 7.8 08 08 13 28 19.50 69.50 7.4 1947 08 07 00 40 19.90 75.30 20 6.75 1948 04 21 20 22 19.20 69.20 40 7.3

67 Date Time Coordinates Year Month Day Hour Minute N W H [km] M 1950 10 05 16 09 10.35 85.00 7.7 10 23 16 13 14.50 91.50 7.2 12 24 14 15 16.81 98.92 16 7.1 1952 10 28 04 29 18.51 73.52 24 7.0 1956 10 24 14 42 11.50 86.50 7.2 1957 03 02 00 27 18.35 78.11 40 6.5 07 28 08 40 16.76 99.55 17 7.5 1962 04 20 05 47 20.50 72.13 6.8 05 11 14 11 16.93 99.99 37 7.0 07 26 08 14 07.50 82.80 7.1 1965 08 23 19 46 16.28 96.02 16 7.6 1968 08 02 14 06 16.75 98.08 16 7.2 1969 12 25 21 32 15.80 59.60 42 7.0 1970 04 29 14 01 14.70 92.60 25 7.1 1973 01 30 21 01 18.39 103.21 32 7.3 1974 07 13 01 18 07.80 77.60 12 7.1 10 08 09 50 17.37 62.00 47 7.3 1976 04 02 09 01 15.32 89.10 5 7.5 1978 03 19 01 39 17.03 99.74 36 6.6 08 23 00 38 10.20 82.22 56 7.2 11 29 19 52 16.03 96.67 18 7.6 12 25 23 57 10.37 103.87 10 6.5 1979 01 26 10 04 17.41 100.88 41 6.9 03 23 19 32 17.99 69.04 80 6.4 07 01 20 38 08.32 82.94 28 6.7 08 24 04 26 08.95 83.48 40 6.5 10 27 14 35 13.83 90.88 58 6.8 10 27 21 43 13.78 90.73 65 6.8 11 23 23 40 04.81 76.22 108 6.7 1981 10 25 03 22 18.05 102.08 33 7.3 1982 06 07 10 59 16.56 98.36 34 7.0 08 19 15 59 06.72 82.68 10 6.5 1983 01 24 08 17 16.15 95.23 57 6.7 04 03 02 50 08.72 83.12 37 7.3 1984 06 24 11 17 17.98 69.34 24 6.7 1985 09 19 13 17 18.19 102.53 28 8.1 09 21 01 37 17.80 101.65 31 7.6 1986 04 30 07 07 18.40 102.97 27 7.0 1988 03 10 06 17 10.40 60.59 56 6.4 1990 03 25 13 22 09.92 84.81 22 7.0 1991 03 22 21 56 09.69 83.08 10 7.6 1992 05 25 16 55 19.61 77.87 23 6.9 09 02 00 16 11.74 87.34 45 7.2 10 17 08 32 06.85 76.81 14 6.7 10 18 15 11 07.08 76.82 10 7.3 1993 09 03 12 35 14.52 92.71 27 6.8 09 10 19 12 14.72 92.65 34 7.3 1994 05 31 14 11 07.41 72.03 12 6.3 06 06 20 47 02.92 76.06 12 6.6 12 10 16 17 18.24 101.35 67 6.5 1995 01 19 15 05 05.05 72.92 17 6.6 09 14 14 04 16.78 99.60 23 7.2 10 09 15 35 19.06 104.21 33 7.4

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Date Time Coordinates Year Month Day Hour Minute N W H [km] M 1996 02 25 03 08 15.98 98.07 21 6.9 03 03 14 55 11.66 86.86 33 6.5 03 03 16 37 11.91 86.77 33 6.7 07 15 21 23 17.60 100.97 18 6.5 1997 01 11 20 28 18.22 102.76 33 6.9 07 09 19 24 10.60 63.45 20 6.8 09 02 12 13 03.85 75.75 199 6.5 1999 06 15 20 42 18.39 97.44 70 6.4 07 11 14 14 15.78 88.33 10 6.6 08 20 10 02 09.04 84.16 20 6.9 09 30 16 31 16.06 96.93 61 7.5 2001 01 13 17 33 13.05 88.66 60 7.7 02 13 14 22 13.67 88.94 10 6.6 2002 07 31 00 16 07.93 82.79 10 6.5 2003 09 22 04 45 19.78 70.67 494 6.4 12 25 07 11 08.42 82.82 33 6.5 2004 11 20 08 07 09.60 84.17 16 6.4 12 14 23 20 18.96 81.41 10 6.8 2005 07 02 02 16 11.23 86.17 27 6.6 2007 06 13 19 29 13.55 90.62 23 6.7 09 10 01 49 02.97 77.96 15 6.8 11 29 19 00 14.94 61.24 146.2 7.4 2008 02 12 12 50 16.36 94.30 83 6.5 10 16 19 41 14.42 92.36 24 6.7 2009 05 28 08 24 16.73 86.22 19 7.3 09 12 20 06 10.71 67.93 14 6.4 2010 01 12 21 53 18.44 72.57 13 7.0

Figure 14. Some earthquakes of Cuba [CF= Cayo Francés (1939, M=8.1?), G= Gibara (1914, M=6.2), SCU= Santiago de Cuba (1766, M=6.8, 1852 M=6.6, 1932 M=6.75).]

Table 22. Earthquakes by magnitude range Magnitude Total 6.4-7.0 75 >7.0-7.5 48 >7.5 19 Total 142

69 Table 23. Earthquakes of M>6.4 by time period Time period Total 1940-1960 16 1961-1980 22 1981-2000 35 2001-2011 16 Total 89

Reports of the 1751.10.18 earthquake [M~8] showed large and extensive damage only to the south of Hispaniola which suggest that the earthquake occurred along the southern margin of Hispaniola-Puerto Rico. A triggering tsunami affected Hispaniola. Also the earthquake of 1984.06.24 [M=6.7] occurred south of Hispaniola beneath the San Pedro Basin and the shallow earthquakes that occurred between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. These events showed the seismic activity of the Muertos trough and suggest that they lie on two separate microplates. In the northeastern Hispaniola occurred a large earthquake in 1946.08.04 [Ms=7.8]. The epicenter was at 15 km in South Samana Bay. It was located ~25 km to the south of Septentrional Fault Zone. About this earthquake and its focal mechanism there were some interesting discussions. Nevertheless, we consider that the north central of the Caribbean region is tectonically well characterized by strain partitioning above a south- southwest dipping thrust interface along the top of the under thrust North American slab below the Caribbean plate. The mentioned earthquake produced in Julia Molina locality [north-eastern of Dominican Republic] a maximum intensity value of X degree [Mercalli scale]. In its vicinity Samana-Sanchez-Moca-Santiago-Puerto Plata the value was IX degree. Also the first mentioned village suffered the effect of tsunami, but very little. In the southeast of Julia Molina [Matanzas village] only 3 km far the damage were more heavy and produced 100 fatalities. No earthquake faulting was detected on the field trip. And according with the isoseismal map prepared is possible assumed that the epicentre lay to the NE of Julia Molina about 50 km offshore. This tsunami affected Puerto Rico. The stress and strain distribution deduced from focal mechanisms analysis infers a small N-S to NE-SW convergent component associated with the major strike-slip motion of the Caribbean and North American plates (Table 24). Northern Hispaniola is under transpressional tectonic regime with the main compressive stress axis being sub horizontal and striking about N50° (Figure 15).

Table 24. Focal mechanisms in the northern Caribbean Nº Date H (km) Mw Source Localization 1 1925.06.14 12 V Western of Cayman spreading center 2 1954.12.10 11 V South of Cayman spreading center 3 1962.07.25 10 V North of Cayman spreading center 4 1984.08.16 10 CMT Middle of Cayman spreading center 5 1991.08.26 15 CMT Northeastern of Cayman spreading center 6 1992.06.27 15 CMT Northeastern of Cayman spreading center 7 1995.06.27 15 CMT Northern of Cayman spreading center 8 1995.12.25 15 CMT Swan Island 9 1917.02.20 7 7 V Cabo Cruz, Cuba 10 1932.02.03 24 6.7 V Santiago de Cuba 11 1941.04.07 30 6.9 V Off SW Jamaica 12 1947.08.07 20 6.6 V Santiago de Cuba 13 1957.03.02 13 6.9 V Jamaica (NW) 14 1978.11.13 15 CMT Santiago de Cuba 15 1980.02.08 53 CMT Santiago de Cuba 16 1985.09.01 10 CMT Santiago de Cuba

70

Nº Date H (km) Mw Source Localization 17 1988.11.12 20 CMT Jamaica (SE) 18 1990.04.09 15 CMT Santiago de Cuba 19 1990.05.22 15 CMT Santiago de Cuba 20 1990.08.26 15 CMT Cabo Cruz, Cuba 21 1992.05.25 19 CMT Cabo Cruz, Cuba 22 1993.01.13 15 CMT Jamaica (SE)

Note: CMT= Harvard Centroid Moment Tensor Catalog; V = Van Dusen and Doser, 2000.

Figure 15. Region with the highest risk in the northern Caribbean (Eastern Hispaniola-Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands) [Islands (1= La Mona Island, 2=Desecheo, 3= Culebra, 4= Vieques), 5= San Juan.]

A portion of the Caribbean plate, seismically active, oriented NNE and dip to the NNE is subducted below the North of Colombia. Thus, the North of Venezuela is part of the boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates. The contact zone has produced a system of dextral strike-slip faults right with E-W strike along a mountainous belt of 150 km. It is formed by the mountain systems of the Venezuelan Andes, and the Cordillera Central and Eastern, called Oca-Ancon-Bocono-San Sebastian-El Pilar fault system. While the Venezuela East has two distinct tectonic regimes: 1) the dextral strike-slip system El Pilar; 2) the subduction zone between the NW of the region and the Lesser Antilles Islands. The seismicity of the Venezuelan territory is superficial and is concentrated in ~40 km deep, except the detected in the subduction zone of the NE with ~20-120 km. The magnitudes are low [<3-5]. However, highlights a strong event in 1812.03.26 [Mb=7.7; ~20,000 deaths]. In addition, Venezuela has at least five strong earthquakes [Ms>8.4] that have produced tsunamis (Table 34).

Table 25. Focal mechanisms of some earthquakes in the Caribbean Sea-Central America (Wolters, 1986) Nº Date Coordinate H (km) Fault type 1 / 10 1966.03.27 08.89 N / 83.43 W 48 T 2 / 4 1966.04.09 09.6 N / 84.1 W 35 T 3 / 31 1978.04.04 10.06 N / 77.89 W 51 N 4 / 32 1978.07.01 09.36 N / 78.33 W 69 N 5 / 9 1979.08.24 08.95 N / 83.49 W 45 T

Symbols: T= thrust; N= normal

71 Table 26. First reports of Caribbean earthquakes Year Site Year Site 1502 Santo Domingo (Hispaniola) 1566 Colombia 1516 Panama 1608 Costa Rica 1526 Guatemala 1657 Martinique (Lesser Antilles) 1528 Cuba 1663? Puerto Rico Nicaragua 1667 Jamaica 1530 Venezuela 1669 Guadaloupe (Lesser Antilles) 1538 Honduras El Salvador

Table 27. The most important earthquakes of Puerto Rico Nº Date Magnitude Locality Tsunami 1 1670 8.0 San German 2 02.05.1787 8.0 Puerto Rico Trench 3 18.11.1867 7.3 Anegada Passage Yes 4 11.10.1918 7.3 Mona Passage -Aguadilla Yes

Table 28. Largest earthquakes of Hispaniola and Virgin Islands affecting Puerto Rico Nº Date Site 1 08.09.1615 (M~8.0) Hispaniola 2 20.04.1824 St. Thomas (Virgin Islands) 3 18.11.1867 St. Thomas-Sta. Cruz (Virgin Islands) 4 17.09.1869 St. Thomas (Virgin Islands) 5 28.07.1943 Mona Passage 6 04.08.1946 (M~7.8) Hispaniola

72

6- Tsunamigenic activity of the Caribbean region

“In the coastal areas of the Caribbean more than 30 million people reside who may be subjected to important natural hazards.”

73 6-Tsunamigenic activity of the Caribbean region

The works used to prepare this chapter were: Brink et al., 2004; Caicedo, Martinelli, Meyer and Steer, 1996; Cotilla, 2011 and 2007; Cotilla and Córdoba, 2011, 2010, 2010A and 2009; Cotilla and Udías, 1999; Grases, 1990 and 1974; Grindlay, Hearne and Mann, 2005; Güendel and Bungum, 1995; Heilpin, 1903; Hillebrandt-Andrade and Huerfano Moreno, 2004; Lander and Whiteside, 1997; Lander, Whiteside and Lockridge, 2002; McCann, 2002; McNamara, Hillebrandt and Cruz Calderón, 2005; Mercado and McCann, 1998; NOAA, 2004; O`Loughlin and Lander, 2003; Rubio, 1982; Schubert, 1984 and 1979; Weissert, 1990; and Zahibo and Pelinovsky, 2001. Within the Caribbean region there are multiple fault segments and submarine features that could be the source of earthquake and landslide triggering tsunamis. The perimeter of the Caribbean plate is bordered by no fewer than four plates [North America, South America, Cocos and Nazca]. Subduction occurs along the eastern and north-eastern margins of the Caribbean plate. Normal, transform and strike-slip faulting characterize northern South American, eastern Central America, the Cayman Ridge, and trench and the northern PBZ. All these elements are in direct relation with the focal mechanisms determined in the region. In the north-eastern Caribbean the Puerto Rico trench roughly parallel to and about 130 km off the northern coast of Puerto Rico are about 900 km long and 100 km wide. At 8,350 m below the surface it is deepest in the vicinity of Atlantic Ocean. The Hispaniola trench parallels to the north coast of the Dominican Republic and Haiti is 550 km long and 4,500 m deep. The Virgin Islands and Anegada troughs cut across the Antilles arc between the northern Virgin Islands and St. Croix and the Lesser Antilles. The Muertos trough is an E-W striking bathymetric feature of ~5,000 m depth at south of Puerto Rico-Hispaniola. Tsunamis could be generated along these structures but the direction of the waves would depend on many factors including where the earthquake occurred. Tsunamis have been documented in the Caribbean [1688-2011] (Table 9). Rubio (1982) lists 16 tsunamis associated with earthquakes, the strongest [Ms=8.1] occurring on 04.08.1946 in the northeast of Hispaniola. A list of 38 Caribbean tsunamis can be found at {http://www.ineter.gob.ni/geofisica/tsunami/tsu-caribe-list.html} published by Caribbean Tsunami Awareness, Florida Inst. Technology, Univ. Publ. EN-158-399. Of the 37 events, three are stated to have occurred in Cuba [1755, 1775, and 1932]. Table 29 gives 7 reports on Cuba, following Rubio (1985). The occurrence probability of tsunamis in Cuba is very low, because of certain focal mechanisms and the arrangement of the seismogenetic marine structures that surround the island. Interestingly, the tsunami caused by the earthquake on 1755.11.01 in Lisbon was perceived in Santiago de Cuba …”The severe earthquake of 1755 was accompanied by a sea-wave which almost completely inundated the town”...(Table 29). A comparison of data using two sources appears in table 30. The authors show that only two tsunamis hit Santiago de Cuba bay (01.11.1755 and 18.12.1775). We have to say that there is an error in the assigned magnitude of the earthquake [8.1] of 1939 in Cayo Francés (Nº 32, Table 29). This region belongs to the North-Center of Cuba and it has never an earthquake with magnitude so great, or even happened one of those in the south-eastern part [Santiago de Cuba] which is the most active. As an example, we put the 1914.02.28 earthquake [21.30 N / 76.20 W; h= 50 km; 05:19; M=6.2]. It was the strongest earthquake in the north coast of Cuba [vicinity of Gibara- Holguin]. The authors also demonstrated that some historical strong earthquakes that affected Santiago de Cuba (i.e.: 1766, 1852, 1931, 1932 and 1939) has not associated with any

74 tsunami. It was a repeatedly mistake in some issues. Also, our field works in northern central Cuba showed that there were any tsunami relicts as recently some author assured.

Table 29. Tsunamis in the Northern Caribbean (Lander et al., 2002) Nº Date / time Site Note Classification 1 1688.03.01 17.6 N / 76.5 W; Jamaica [Port P /Gregorian Royal] 2 1690.04.16 17.5 N / 61.5 W; Ms=8.0; U.S. V Virgin Island 3 1692.06.07/11:43 LT 17.8 N / 76.7 W; Ms=7.7; Jamaica Run-up [1.8 m]; V [Port Royal, Liganee (Kingston). 2,000 deaths Saint Ann’s Bay] 4 1751.09.15/19:00 UT 18.5 N / 70.7 W; Ms=7.3; P Hispaniola [Haiti] 5 1751.11.21 18.3 N / 72.3 W; Haiti [Port-au- P Prince] 6 1751.10.18/19:00 UT 18.5 N / 70.7 W; Ms=7.3; V Hispaniola [Azua de Compostela, Santo Domingo. Santa Cruz, El Seíbo] 7 1755.11.01/09:50 LT Lisbon Cuba [Santiago V de Cuba] 8 1766.06.12/04:45 UT 20.0 N / 75.5 W; Cuba [Santiago de P Cuba. Bayamo], Jamaica 9 1769 18.5 N / 72.3 W; Haiti [Port-au- P Prince] 10 1770.06.03/19:15 LT Haiti [Golfe de la Gonave and V Arcahaie] 11 1775.02.11 19.0 N / 72.4 W or 20.0 N / 15.8 W; P Hispaniola, Cuba 12 1775.03 19.0 N / 72.3 W or 20.0 N / 15.8 W; P Hispaniola 13 1775.12.18 19.2 N / 70.3 W; MMI= VIII; P Hispaniola, Cuba 14 1780.10.03/22:00 LT 18.1 N /78.1 W; Jamaica [Savanna Run-up [3.0 m]; P La Mar] 10 deaths 15 1781.08.01 18.2 N / 78.1 W; Jamaica [Montego P Bay] 16 1787.10.27/14:20 LT 18.4 N / 77.9 W; Jamaica [Montego P Bay] 17 1812.11.11/10:50 UT 18.0 N / 76.5 W; Jamaica [Annotto P Bay] 18 1842.05.07/17:30 LT 19.7 N / 72.8 W; Ms=7.7; Haiti Run-up [5.0 m]; V [Mole St. Nicolas. Cap Haitien, ~5,000 deaths Port-de-paix. Forte-Liberte], Dominican Republic [Santiago de los Caballeros, Santo Domingo, North coast of Hispaniola] 19 1852.07.17/07:25 20.0 N / 75.8 W; Cuba [Santiago de P Cuba] 20 1860.03.08 19.0 N / 72.0 W; Hispaniola [Golfe V de la Gonave, Les Cayes, Acquin, Anse-a-Veau] 21 1867.11.18/18:45 18.0 N / 65.5 W; Ms=7.5; Virgin Run-up [19.8 V Islands [St. Croix and St. Thomas] m]; MT=2-3 22 1874.03.11/04:30 LT 18.3 N. 64.9 W; Lesser Antilles Virgin Islands P 23 1881.08.12 19.9 N / 76.8 W; Jamaica Run-up [0.46 m] P [Kingston]

75

Nº Date / time Site Note Classification 24 1882.09.07/07:50 UT 07.3 N. 77.8 W; Ms=8.0; Panama V 25 1883.08.27/10:00 LT 05.8 S. 106.3 E; Indonesia Virgin Islands V (Krakatoa Volcano) (St. Thomas) 26 1887.09.23/12:00 UT 19.7 N / 74.4 W; Haiti [Mole Saint- V Nicolas, Jeremie, Anse-d’Hainault, Point Tiburón] 27 1907.01.14/21:36 UT 18.1 N / 76.7 W; Ms=6.5; Jamaica Run-up [2.5 m] V [Hope Bay, Orange Bay, Sheerness Bay, St. Ann’s Bay, Annotto Bay, Port Maria, Ocho Rios, Bluff Bay, Port Antonia, Kingston] 28 1918.10.11/04:14 UT 18.5 N / 67.5 W; Ms=7.5; Puerto Run-up [6.1 m]; V Rico [Aguadilla. Punta Agujereada; 140 deaths Punta Higuero, Punta Borinquen, Isla Mona, Rio Culebrinas, Bahia de Boqueron, Isabella, Cayo Cardona, Guanica, Mayaguez, Isla Caja de Muertos, Puerto Arecibo, Rio Grande, Rio Grande de Loiza, Playa Ponce], Dominican Republic [Santo Domingo (Rio Ozama)] 29 1918.10.24/03:43 UT 18.5 N / 67.5 W; Ms=6.9; Puerto V Rico [Mona Passage, Texas, Galveston] 30 1931.10.01 21.5 N / 80.0 W; Cuba [Playa P Panchita, Rancho Veloz, Las Villas] 31 1932.02.03/06:16 UT 19.5 N / 75.6 W; Ms=6.8; Cuba P [Santiago de Cuba] 32 1939.08.15/03:52 UT 22.5 N / 79.2 W; Ms=8.1; Cuba V [Cayo Francés] 33 1946.08.04/17:51 UT 19.3 N / 68.9 W; Ms=8.1; Run-up [5.0 m]; V Dominican Republic [Matancitas, 1,790 deaths Julia Molina, Cabo Samana], Haiti and Puerto Rico [San Juan] 34 1946.08.08/13:28 UT 19.5 N / 69.5 W; Ms=7.9; Puerto 75 deaths V Rico [Aguadilla, Mayagüez, San Juan] 35 1953.05.31/19:58 UT 19.7 N / 70.7 W; Dominican Run-up [0.06 m] P Republic [Puerto Plata] 36 1989.11.01/10:25 UT 19.0 N / 68.8 W; Ms=5.2; Puerto V Rico [Cabo Rojo, E Nuevo Dia] 37 1991.04.22/21:56 UT 09.7 N / 83.1 W; Ms=7.4; Costa Virgin Islands V Rica

Note: P= possible. V= verified.

On the western Caribbean coasts tsunamis are concentrated near Honduras Gulf that included coasts of Belize, Guatemala and Honduras and at Costa Rica-Panama coasts (Table 33). They are related to seismic activity in North American-Caribbean and Panama Deformed Belt tectonic environments, respectively. The majority of the tsunamis were small causing little damage. But along the Pacific coast many tsunamigenic earthquakes are inland or close to the coast which might have reduced the height of the sea waves.

76 Caribbean region has not great tsunamigenic earthquake. However, most of the tsunamis [58] occurred in it (Table 31) and at least two teletsunamis were triggering far away by earthquakes [near the coasts of Portugal and Indonesia-Krakatoa Volcano, respectively] (Table 32). They represent only 10% of the world’s oceanic tsunamis. It has been estimated by authorities that in the region died ~9,000 people (Table 10).

Table 30. Tsunamis in Cuba according to two different sources Nº Date Site Rubio Lander Note 1 1755.11.01 Santiago de Cuba X X Teletsunami 2 1766.06.12 Santiago de Cuba X Cotilla, 2003 (no agree) 3 1775.12.18 Santiago de Cuba X X 4 1852.07.17 Santiago de Cuba X X Cotilla, 2010A (no agree) 5 1931.10.01 Playa Panchita-Rancho Veloz X Cotilla, 2007 (no agree) 6 1932.02.03 Santiago de Cuba X X Montelieu, 1933 (no agree) 7 1939.08.04 Cayo Francés X Cotilla, 2007 (no agree); Ms5.6

Table 31. Local tsunamis in the Caribbean Nº Region Verified / Possible = [Total] Comments 1 Costa Rica -/ 1 [1] 2 Cuba 2 / 3 [5] Cotill1a (2007) (no agree) [0] 3 Dominican Republic 2 / 1 [3] 4 Guiana (British) -/ 1 [1] 5 Haiti 4 / 6 [10] 6 Honduras (western area) 1 / 1 [2] 7 Jamaica 2 / 6 [8] 8 Panama (western area) 1 / 4 [5] 9 Puerto Rico -/ 4 [4] 10 Venezuela 7 / 19 [26] MT=8.1 11 Virgin Islands 11 / 8 [19] Total 30 / 54 [84] 28 / 40 [58]

Table 32. Teletsunamis in the Caribbean From the region Total Lisbon 2 Indonesia (Krakatoa Volcano) 1 Total 3

Table 33. Tsunamis earthquakes in the Caribbean - Central America area Nº Date Coordinates Ms H (km) 1 1798.02.22 10.2 N / 82.9 W 2 1822.05.07 09.5 N / 83.0 W 7.6 3 1873.10.14 10.2 N / 80.0 W 4 1882.09.07 10.0 N / 79.0 W 7.9 5 1904.12.20 09.2 N / 82.8 W 7.3 25 6 1916.04.26 09.2 N / 83.1 W 6.9 7 1991.04.22 09.6 N / 83.2 W 7.6 20

The recent tsunami history is quite rare in the Caribbean. Then, under our experience about hurricanes and polar fronts in the tropical region we can assured that could be reported in the last centuries [15th-18th] some of these phenomena as tsunamis. Thus, in the Caribbean are historically most dangerous cyclones and hurricanes to tsunamis, in the frequency of occurrence. In addition the first two phenomena cause frequent and important floods from the sea on the land. This last is also produced with the arrival of

77 north fronts and south fronts. The period of greater probability of occurrence of fronts is December-February, while to the cyclones and hurricanes is September-November. These situations of the sea movements could affect the first reports on tsunami. In the next epigraph we shall discuss about it.

Table 34. Strongest earthquakes with tsunamis in Venezuela Nº Date / Time Coordinates MT / I (MM) Locality 1 1530.09.01 / 14:30 UT 10.7 N / 64.1 W - / X Cumana 2 1868.08.13 18.5 N / 70.3 W 8.5 / - Rio Caribe 3 1900.10.29 10.9 N / 64.1 W 8.4 / - Cumana 4 1906.01.31 2.4 N / 79.3 W 8.9 / - Cumana 5 1929.01.17 10.0 N / 64.0 W 8.1 / - Cumana

Table 35. Tsunamis in the Lesser Antilles (Zahibo and Pelinovsky, 2001) Nº Date Localities 1 1751.11.20 Antigua 2 1761.03.31 Barbados 3 1767.04.24 Barbados and Martinique 4 1755.11.01 Barbados 5 1802.03.19 Antigua and St. Kilts 6 1823.11.30 Saint Pierre Harbour (Martinique) 7 1824.09.9-13 Plymouth (Montserrat) 8 1824.11.30 Saint Pierre Harbor (Martinique) 9 1831.12.03 Antigua, Trinidad and St. Kilts 10 1837.07.26 Martinique 11 1842.02.17 Antigua 12 .05.07 Deshaies and Sainte-Rose 13 1843.02.08 Guadeloupe, St. Lucia, St. Kilts, Montserrat and Martinique 14 1867.11.18 St. Barlhetemy, St. Martin, St. Vincent, Martinique, Pointe- à-Pitie and Isles des Saintes (Guadeloupe) 15 1874.03.11 St. Thomas (Virgin Islands) 16 1902.05.05 Martinique 17 .05.07 St. Pierre 18 1911.03.03 Trinidad and Tobago 19 1969.12.25 Barbados 20 1985.03.16 Basse Terre and Guadeloupe 21 1991.04.21 Martinique 22 1997.07.09 Tobago 23 .12.26 Trinidad and Tobago

It was stated that the Caribbean region has been affected by tsunami from near and far sources. In particular the areas with most tsunamis are in the West [Middle America] and East [Lesser Antilles]. In these areas there are a direct contact with the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, respectively (Table 12). These edges have troughs, volcanoes and undersea sediments with defined subduction profiles. The subduction profile of the eastern edge of the Caribbean has a minor seismic activity than the western one, as well as characterized by the typical island arc. As explained above, these two parts have been much studied but there are still many knowledge gaps to explain its geodynamic behavior. The area of the Caribbean Pacific has been investigated by segments according to the possibilities of each country that make up (Figure 9). In general, there are accounted 393 tsunamis (Table 9). While in the Atlantic area there are 155 tsunamis (Table 9). Being adjacent to large bodies of water, it is clear that the danger of seismic-sea waves is very high. Furthermore, the fact of having strong seismic events [M>8.5] (Table 15) in a range of superficial to deep depth is an element added to the generation of local and

78 regional tsunamis. As we exposed, the northern and southern edges of the Caribbean plate also differ in terms of contacts and movements. The northern border is more regular and homogeneous, although in its outline there are two deep troughs [Oriente and Puerto Rico] and it has been affected by several local tsunamis and teletsunamis. Our interest is directed to the northern edge. Major tsunamis in the Northern Caribbean are in Table 33. Tables 19 and 35-36 contain information about tsunamis in Venezuela [southeastern Caribbean] and in the Lesser Antilles.

Table 36. Tsunamis in the Southern Caribbean (Lander, Whiteside and Lockridge, 2002) Nº Date / time Site Note Classification 1 1498.08.02 or 03/- 09.9N 62.3W; Venezuela P 2 1530.09.01/14:30 UT 10.7N 64.1W; I=X MM; Venezuela Run-up V =7.3 m 3 1541.12.25/ - 10.8N 64.2W; Venezuela P 4 1543/- 10.7N 64.1W; Venezuela P 5 1726/- 10.6N 64.2 W; Venezuela P 6 1750/- 10.7N 64.1W; Venezuela P 7 1766.10.21/09:00 UT 07.4N 62.5W; Ms=7.5; Venezuela P 8 1812.03.26/- 08.6N 71.1W; Ms=7.7; Venezuela P 9 1853.07.15/- 12.1N 63.6W; Ms=6.7; Venezuela V 10 1867.(09 or 10)/- 18.0N 65.5W; Ms=7.5; Venezuela P 11 1868/- 10.6N 66.9W; Venezuela P 12 1868.08.13/- 18.5N 70.3W; Venezuela P 13 1900.10.29/- 10.9N 66.8W; Ms=8.4; Venezuela Run-up V =10 m 14 1906.01.31/15:36 UT 02.4N 79.3W; Ms=8.9; Venezuela V 15 1906/- 10.6N 66.9W; Venezuela P 16 1916.11.12/- 10.1N 66.8W; Venezuela P 17 1928.09.13/- 10.6N 63.2W; Venezuela P 18 1929.01.17/11:52 UT 10.6N 65.6W; Ms=6.9; Venezuela V 19 1932.11.04/- 10.7 N 75.6W; Venezuela P 20 1950.08.03 09.8N 69.7W; Ms=6.8; Venezuela P 21 1955.01.18/- 11.3N 69.4W; Venezuela P 22 1961.06.16/- 09.7N 71.5W; Venezuela P 23 1968.09.20/06:09 UT 10.7N 62.6 W; Ms=6.2; Venezuela P 24 1979.09.13/02:12 UT 05.9N 82.5 W; Ms=5.0; Venezuela P 25 1997.07.09/19:24 UT 10.6N 63.5 W; Mw=7.0; Venezuela V

Note: P= possible. V= verified.

The authors consider that in the Caribbean there are also regional tsunamigenic sources. They are able to produce tsunamis but never based on the data presented here greatly affected the North Caribbean. Between these sources are: 1) the southern edge of the Caribbean; 2) the eastern edge of the Caribbean; 3) the western of the Caribbean Sea. We must say that tsunamis generated in Venezuela and in the Lesser Antilles did not affect seriously the northern Caribbean (Tables 19 and 35-36). Other areas or outer regions to the Caribbean plate are the Gulf of Mexico, the South of U.S.A., and the Bahamas Platform. But they also do not constitute a great hazard. In addition the Caribbean islands are also susceptible to be affected by tsunamis generated within the region and by distant earthquakes as 1755 Lisbon (Table 32). According to the table 17 is Jamaica the tsunamigenic structure of the Caribbean which has more events [4]. The Hispaniola [Haiti-Dominican Republic] has the same amount, while Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands together have three. However, according to the location of Puerto Rico on the Greater Antilles arc and the surrounding structures

79 [Puerto Rico, Anegada and Muertos troughs, the Atlantic Ocean, and the active faults system] turns out to be where the risk of tsunamis is highest the risk to the Northern Caribbean (Figure 16). Looking at the focal mechanism type more favorable [thrust fault and normal fault] to the tsunami generation in the northern Caribbean we consider two zones: 1) southern Hispaniola-Puerto Rico; 2) northern Hispaniola-Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands. They are also the zones were occurred the strongest earthquakes and the most important tsunamis. Then, these zones exhibit the highest probability of tsunamis. The study of tables 19 and 26 confirm that the first European settlements [16th century] in America report earthquakes and tsunamis. Considering the year of arrival of the first European settlers to the Caribbean [1492] as the initial time of the tsunami’s observations, is that there are 61 events up to date [2011]. This gives a rate of 0.12 tsunamis/yr. While for the Pacific Ocean the rate is 0.30 tsunamis/yr [393 tsunami/ 1,327 yr]. Studies of tsunami travel-time in order to generate different charts for tsunamis in the Caribbean showed that the estimated time for a complete crossing of the Caribbean is ~3 hours laterally and only 1.5 hours transversally. The experience with the 1755.11.01 tsunami of the SW Portugal show that the sea waves arrived to the Caribbean area ~7-8 hours later. These times are enough in order to inform adequate and seriously to the population. The magnitudes of the speed indicated in the Introduction are agreed with these time results.

80

7- Final comments

“We should never forget the hazard of tsunamis.”

81 7-Final comments

In this last part we used the following materials: Alisov, 1989; Atwater et al., 2005; Baptista, Priet and Muty, 1993; Bernard, 1997; Bilek, Satake and Sieh, 2007; Bourgeois et al., 1999; Borrero, Synolakis and Fritz, 2006; Brink et al., 2004; Bryant, 2001; Caballero and Ortiz, 2002; Cotilla and Alvarez, 1998; Curtis and Pelinovsky, 1999; Dawson, 1994; Dinnen, 1995; Dmowska and Saltzman, 1998; EC, 1998; Grindlay, Hearue and Mann, 2005; Hillebrandt-Andrade and Huérfano Moreno, 2004; ITIC, 2004; Kuroiwa, 2004 and 1985; Lachmar, Tatsuoka and Bonk, 1961; Lander, Whiteside and Lockridge, 2002; Llauge, 1971-1976; Mader and Centes, 1991; McCann, 2002; McNamara, Hilebrndt and Cruz Calderón, 2005; Mercado and McCann, 1998; Monge, 1993; Nagano, Imamura and Shuti, 1991; Ng, Le Blond and Murty, 1990; NOAA, 2004; Okal, 1994 and 1993; Okal, Piatanesi and Heinrich, 1999; Quiceno and Ortiz, 2001; Ramírez and Sosa, 1989; Rodríguez, 1989 and 1983; Romero, 2008; Rubio, 1982; Shuto, 1993 and 1991; Soloviev, 1970; Tatehata, 1998; Titov, 2009; Titov et al., 2005; Tsuchiya and Shuto, 1995; Tsuji et al., 1995A; UNESCO-IOC, 2006, 2005, 1999, 1998 and 1997; Vega, 1989; Vidaillet, 1989; Wei et al., 2008; and Zahibo and Pelinovsky, 2001. At first it is necessary to be clear about two concepts: 1) hazard is a potentially perilous event; 2) risk is the probability that the hazard will occur repeatedly and affect a locality, region and population. In this last concept is included: magnitude, frequency of occurrence, and exposure. Then, all these indicate a big problem to the scientists in order to estimates of the tsunami risk. It is quite complex because include some factors as: 1) technical, 2) economic, 3) social. With these elements, it is necessary to collect all available data and the analyses should be used in order to generate at first a basic scheme of tsunami risk. After that it is necessary to continue the localization of the areas and zones with the higher hazard and risk. The results obtained should be discussed with other specialists and public officials before to transmit them to the community. Then such document will become in “the guidelines for correct tsunami response and community preparedness from local emergency managers”. There are 23 countries in the Caribbean. All they are located at three different zones: 1) Continental (Belice, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Nicaragua, Panamá, and Venezuela); 2) Greater Antilles (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico); 3) Lesser Antilles (Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Granada, Granadinas, San Cristóbal and Nieves, San Vicente, Santa Lucía, and Trinidad and Tóbago). The largest coast extension is 4,200 km in Venezuela. The Caribbean region is known for its hurricanes and quite less known for tsunamis. Historically the amount of deaths connected with tsunamis in the region is very important (Table 29). In particular, the northern Caribbean distinguishes some tsunami sources: 1) Mona Canyon; 2) Puerto Rico trench; 3) Mona trench; 4) Septentrional fault; 5) Pedro Bank; 6) Western Caribbean Sea (Figure 11). Caribbean is a region of islands and it can be consider potentially from the tsunami hazard point of view. The region is related with the coastal culture [residential buildings, hotels, large tourism activities areas, etc.]. In general, the population has been greatly increased and in a similar manner the natural hazard [hurricanes, earthquakes, etc.]. Then, it can be affected because is vulnerable and need to take into consideration several programs to try became minimal the possible disasters. The occurrence of natural disasters is difficult to predict from observations in restricted period of time. Ancient writings are important sources of information but are restricted either locally or historically. The possibility exists however that large-scale tsunamis are

82 recorded in coastal sediment deposits. The disturbance of normal sedimentary processes by a tsunami may remain in lacustrine deposits and be represented by unusual sedimentary layers. These tasks correspond to the scientists and take time and money. We know that Caribbean region is composed by poor developing countries. Then it is also known that quite costly tsunami defense could be in order to protect the inhabitants and their properties. Also the culture behaviors and the scholar resources are always very limited. A first logical and economic option is to leave a strip of land by the sea that is to be occupied only by constructions necessary for the port, bay and structures of a type that of necessity have to be close to the sea, such as beach clubs, warehouses, etc. The width of this strip depends on the wave’s height on the coast and how far it would advance inland. The Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands region should be considered one of highest risk in the Caribbean, around 4 million people live there. In the last several hundred years some tsunamigenic earthquakes have occurred in that region as the 1867 Virginia Islands and the 1918 Puerto Rico. In this sense, Grindlay et al. (2005) assured that the northern Caribbean is under a high risk of tsunami and in the opposite side is Rubio (1982). The recommendations of this last specialist say that Cuba should not be considered the risk of tsunami in objects of works in the coastal zones. However, UNESCO IOC, U.S. Natural Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program and Warning Coordination Subcommittee prepared the Exercise Pacific Wave 08, during 28-30 October 2008. Actually they prepare the Exercise Caribbean Wave 11 / Lantex 11, on March 23, 2011, because consider that tsunamis represent a significant hazard to the society in this area. The particular study of a given coastal area to assess the tsunami risk is quite complex task. In it is involved some variables which result difficult to model because their great variability. Between them are: 1) topography; 2) bathymetry; 3) shape coast type; 4) strike of sea wave movements; 5) earthquake magnitude; 6) focal depth; 7) focal mechanism. This is more complicated when considering the periodicity of the sea waves after the event occurred. Actually, the velocity differences between the seismic and tsunami waves are used for tsunami warning systems. We mentioned before that the velocity of tsunami is very fast as an ocean wave [0.2 km/s for a water depth of 5,000 m] but it is yet quite slower than the seismic waves [5-10 km/s]. Thus, there is time to issue a tsunami warning after seismic wave detection in seismological stations but before the actual tsunami arrives. The parameters used in order to judge about tsunamigenicity are: 1) seismic magnitude; 2) focal depth. It is valid to protect coastal villages from the damage of tsunamis by planting trees in front of the residential areas. A zone of arranged trees [greenbelt] cannot prevent sea water from flowing into the villages but we can expect it to effectively dissipate the energy of the incident waves of the tsunamis and to reduce the number of victims. In order to improve the efficiency of dissipating the tsunami energy, then we should select varieties of trees that have many low branches with a high density of leaves. A wide coral reef is an effective obstacle in order to dissipate part of the tsunami energy. The roots, trunks and branches of mangroves are an effective defense against tsunamis and tropical storms. Also thick rows of the trees and shrubs are used to increase resistance to the sea waves in the land. Stakes are even driven into the ground for this purpose. Normally, the first warning of a tsunami approaching the coast is a relatively quick withdrawal of water from the beaches. Then, in the time interval of 5-30 minutes later, the recoil is followed by a wave capable of extending hundreds of meters inland. Thus, we can observe a rolling in and out with the resulting eddies. Estimates made in the Pacific Ocean feel that a tsunami generated in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands will

83 arrive about 5 hours later to Hawaii. While one produced off shores of Chile it will take about 15 hours to reach Hawaii. In general, the energy carried by a tidal wave, when it originates in an earthquake, is small in relation to the tremor which led to its generation. It has been found that the ratio between the energy carried by a tsunami and earthquake is between 0.1 and 0.01. But it is also an important level of energy. Different specialists have argued that the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea have a tsunami [with 10 m wave height] return period estimated waves of 1,000 years. However, to Hawaii Islands the value is only 200 years. Table 37 contains some general recommendations to the population in order to protect again a tsunami occurrence. There are three groups of tsunami warning systems: 1) Pacific-wide system; 2) regional systems; 3) local systems. This electronic direction has information and videos http://www.usgs.gov/science/science.php?term=304: 1) Tsunami preparedness along the U.S. West Coast; 2) Tsunami preparedness in California; 3) Tsunami preparedness in Oregon; 4) Tsunami preparedness in Washington.

Table 37. Some general information and recommendations Nº Information / recommendation 1 Tsunamis that strike coastal areas are almost produced by earthquakes. They can be generated near or far away of the place where you are situated. 2 Low coast areas may be affected by tsunamis. 3 Tsunami can move faster than any person. 4 The water near the shore can be receding before to the arrival of a tsunami. 5 The force and energy of a tsunami are enormous. Tsunamis may transport heavy rocks. Boats and other debris inland hundreds of meters. 6 The occurrence of tsunamis can be at any time. 7 Tsunamis can travel up rivers and streams from the ocean.

Inhabitants of a possible tsunami-inundation zone may be protected at different steps inside of a master emergency plan whose most important component is evacuation. This last action is necessary to be very well studied and practiced with the citizens. Also, two basic parts of information are: 1) the arrival time of the first wave; 2) delimitation of the inundation zone [floods]. Then, it is very important prepare previously an action plan by the local and regional authorities together with scientists and specialists of civil defense, police, fire departments, and medical emergency. It is necessary to plan and locate: 1) places of refuge; 2) evacuation routes; 3) organization of the community; 4) signal the escape routes and locate speakers and sirens; 5) create education programs to the population; 6) planning the use of the coastal land; etc. A lot of information about tsunamis is actually possible finding in some websites: 1- The followings institutions [National Weather Service: NWS Tsunami Centers. 1) West Coast Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC); 2) Richard H. Hagemeyer Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC); 3) International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)] are located in this direction: http://tsunami.gov/ 1.1- This Institution provides tsunami warning guidance for all U.S. coastal states, except Hawaii, and the Canadian coastal provinces 1.2- Tsunami warning to Hawaii and countries in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and Caribbean Sea are support by PTWC 1.3 ITIC operated on behalf of the intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of U.N.E.S.C.O. in order to coordinate the tsunami warning and mitigation systems globally.

84 2- Tsunami Society [International Journal: Science of Tsunami Hazards ({STH} Mitigating the impact of tsunami disasters through research and dissemination of knowledge) ISSN: 8755-6839]. http://www.tsunamisociety.org/ 3- Tsunami data resources [NGDC Tsunami Database; Tsunami Field Survey Photographs; Atlas of Canada; Tsunamis; Centro International de Tsunamis] are included here: http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/miscellaneous/relsites.html 4- ITIC [International Tsunami Information Centre (It is located in Honolulu from November 1965 by the intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the U.N.E.S.C.O.)] has the following address: http://www.prh.noaa.gov/itic/ 5- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory [NOAA Center for Tsunami Research (It has as the main task to develop methods in order to reduce hazard tsunami and protect life] appear in the following address: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/ 6- The preliminary catalog of tsunamis occurring in the Pacific is located in: http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/Library/Tsunami%20Reports/Iida_et_al.pdf

Application of the climate classification of Köppen in the Caribbean shows that there is predominance of maritime conditions. This means occurrence of winds from the east strike, cyclones, and tropical hurricanes, and significant variations in temperature. On that basis, the region is divided into two parts [the limit has NE strike and is located approximately between the Gulf of Honduras and the Atlantic Ocean]: 1) Western Caribbean [in the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico]; 2) Eastern Caribbean [the rest of the region]. The study of occurrence of cyclones and hurricanes in the region indicates that the June- November season [1785-1984] there have been 108 events of which 14 are high intensity hurricanes (Tables 38-39). The surf factor is conditioned mainly by synoptic situations [hurricanes and polar fronts-south] (i.e.: to the Hispaniola, Table 40). Thus we can put three examples for Cuba: 1) 1932 [high sea level of Santa Cruz de Sur, South- Central Cuba]; 2) 1988 [the hurricane Gilbert, height waves of 12 m, considered the most intense hurricane of the century, minimum pressure of 880 Mb and wind of 85 m/s]; 3) 1993 [tropical storm with height waves of 5 m in the Caribbean].

Table 38. Classification of the meteors (Instituto Cubano de Meteorología) Meteoro Definition Hurricane Meteor with vertical structure and closed circulation of winds. The maximum values of the maximum winds >117 km/h. Tropical Storm Meteor of lower category and similar in organization and structure to the hurricanes. but the winds of 63-117 km/h. South Storm [Souths] Winds affecting the Western region of the Caribbean in September - May. They have S. SSE and SSW directions.

Table 39. Some hurricanes affected Caribbean Nº Date Category Denomination Damages 1 1844.10 5 Storm of San Francisco de Asís >100 deaths 2 1846.10 5 Storm of San Francisco de Borja >100 deaths 3 1870.10 5 San Marcos >800 deaths 4 1910.10 5 Hurricane of Cinco Días >100 deaths 5 1926.10 5 Hurricane of 1926 ~600 deaths 6 1930.09 4 San Zenón ~6,000 deaths 7 1932.11 5 Hurricane of Santa Cruz del Sur ~3,500 deaths 8 1944.10 5 Hurricane of 1944 ~300 deaths

85 Nº Date Category Denomination Damages 9 1963.10 5 Flora ~2,000 deaths 10 1966.09 4 Inés Unknown 11 1979.08 5 David ~4,000 deaths 12 1988.09 4 Gilbert Unknown 13 1992.08 5 Andrew ~29 deaths 14 1998.09 3 George Unknown 15 2001.11 4 Michelle Unknown 16 2004.09 4 Ivan Unknown 17 2005.07 5 Dennys ~20 deaths 18 2008.09 5 Paloma Unknown 19 2018.09-10 5 María ̴500 deaths

Table 40. Strong tropical storms affected seriously Hispaniola Nº Date Denomination 1 1961.09.30 Frances 2 1979.09.06 Federico

Finally, we can assure that in the Caribbean region the economic losses produced by earthquakes and hurricanes have never been solved. Recently, we had two clear examples: Haití earthquake of 12.01.2010 (M 7.0) [~350,000 millins USD] and the Puerto Rico hurricane of 20.09.2018 (Category 5) [~100,000 millions USD]. It is the real life of the Caribbean people. In fact, the picture is quite dramatic!

86

Main conclusions

“The human society know very well how dramatic are the natural disasters.”

87 Main conclusions

Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “harbor wave”. It is a set of gravity waves propagate in seawater from an important disturbance of the sea floor such as an earthquake, a submarine volcano, or a submarine landslide. These phenomena can be caused great destructions and loss of life in coastal regions because waves can transport large heavy blocks hundreds of meters inland. In island arcs [as the located in the Caribbean plate] the oceanic lithosphere under thrusts beneath a continent at the time of a large earthquake occurs. The continental lithosphere is dragged with the descending slab of oceanic type before to the earthquake occurrence. With this scope UNESCO IOC, U.S. Natural Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program and Warning Coordination Subcommittee prepared the Exercise Pacific Wave 08, during 28-30 October 2008. Actually they prepare the Exercise Caribbean Wave 11 / Lantex 11, on March 23, 2011, because consider that tsunamis represent a significant hazard to the society. The Caribbean region is part of the Atlantic Ocean. This large basin has a minor tsunamigenic potential than the Pacific Ocean. The Caribbean area is better known for its hurricanes and quite less for its tsunamis. Nevertheless, historically the amount of deaths [~9,000] connected with tsunamis in the Caribbean is very important. In fact there are well documented ~120 tsunamis [local and regional]. Also, there are some sea waves generated by teletsunamis like of the 1755.11.01 of the SW Portugal. They took ~7-8 hours to arrive, and it is agree with the speed indicated at Introduction. We consider as Iida, Cox and Pararas-Caraynnis (1967) there are 24 tsunamigenic regions in the Pacific region. But our proposal to the Caribbean include 10 sources: 1) Mona Canyon; 2) Puerto Rico trench; 3) Mona trench; 4) Septentrional fault; 5) Pedro Bank; 6) Jamaica area; 7) Western Caribbean Sea [Gulf of Honduras-Panama]; 8) Lesser Antilles arc; 9) Central America trench; 10) Southern Caribbean plate [Panama- Colombia-Venezuela region]. From our point of view the second one is the area of highest hazard and Puerto Rico Island is under the major risk. However, the majority of countries in the Caribbean region have not the scientific and technical resources to manager suitable and sure tsunami plans. The structures of the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba and Cayman Spreading Centre do not constitute tsunamigenic danger. Nevertheless, in those zones were produced some important earthquakes. The authors demonstrated that some historical strong Cuban earthquakes (i.e.: 1766 and 1852) has not associated with any tsunami.

88

Acknowledgements

The financial support came in part from the projects: TSUJAL (CGL2011-29474-C02- 01), TOPOIBERIA (CONSOLIDER 52Q6016), CTM 2006-13666-C02-02, CTM 2008- 02955-E/MAR, GR35/10-A/910549, 41-SISMO-HAITI, and CGL-2011-29474-C02-01. All figures were drafted by Amador García Sarduy.

89

References

“Reading makes man complete, speaking makes it expeditious, and the writing makes it accurate.” Francis Bacon

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