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Home , Ewine van Dishoeck, Interferometry, Observatory

From Medicine to Wi-Fi Technical Applications of to Society 02

EDITED BY: Bethany Downer, Michael Burton, Ewine van Dishoeck and Pedro Russo

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM: Jacob Baars, Tony Beasley, Dmitry Bisikalo, Georgia Bladon, Michael Burton, Ana Gomez de Castro, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Gabriele Giovannini, Jan Mathijs van der Hulst, Christoph Keller, Antonio Mário Magalhães, Marissa Rosenberg and Frans Snik

Published by the IAU April 2019

Cover credit: ESO/Y. Beletsky 03

“Preserving knowledge is easy. Transferring knowledge is also easy. But making new knowledge is neither easy nor profitable in the short term. Fundamental research proves profitable in the long run, and, as importantly, it is a force that enriches the culture of any society with reason and basic truth.” 1

– , winner of the Nobel Prize in (1999) 04 05

Introduction

Astronomy has always had inspires is perhaps the reason that a significant impact on our world. the beautiful images astronomy Early cultures identified celestial provides us with are so popular in objects with the belief systems and today’s culture. took their movements across the sky as prophecies of what was to come. Astronomy and related fields are Astronomy has also been used to at the forefront of science and measure time, mark the seasons, technology; answering fundamental and navigate across vast oceans. questions, pushing engineers to new Now, as our understanding of the levels and driving innovation. It is world progresses, we find ourselves for this reason that the International and our view of the world even more Astronomical Union’s (IAU) strategic entwined with the Universe. The plan emphasises technology and discovery that the basic elements skills, science and research, and that we find in , and the gas culture and society. and dust around them, are the same elements that make up our bodies This booklet aims to highlight has further deepened the connection some of the technical applications between us and the cosmos. that have been supported and Astronomy also helps us to broaden driven by astronomy research and our perspectives and to think on development. From medicine to grander scales. Our connection airport security, astronomy visibly to the cosmos and the awe it holds an integral role in our daily lives.

Children are shown how to use a in Ethiopia as part of the 2019 International Astronomical Union’s 100 Hours of Astronomy event. Credit: Mekbeb Tamrat 06 07

Medicine

The applications of astronomy human tissue. When the pulses are to medicine are quite vast, from turned off, the protons ‘relax’ and improved diagnostic techniques emit waves. These waves are to enhanced image processing. seen by radio receivers in the MRI machine, recorded and One of the most integral technology processed into an image similar to transfers between these domains is an interferometric image. the interferometry technique used by to obtain high- The design of able to resolution images of the radio-sky. measure the radiation produced by Interferometry simulates the effect some of the highest energy phenomena of a very large dish by electronically in the cosmos has found application combining the signal from many in medical imaging diagnosis through small, single-dish, radio telescopes the technique of computer-assisted that are distributed over a large , or CAT scans. distance. The technique of combining data from multiple telescopes to Another important example of produce a single image is known how astronomical research has as ‘ synthesis’, developed contributed to the medical world is by the radio and Nobel in the development of clean working Laureate, . One important areas. The manufacture of space application of telescopes requires an extremely is Magnetic (MR) to clean environment to prevent dust enhance the imaging details and or particles that might obscure or to reduce the scan time in medical obstruct the or instruments diagnoses. Magnetic Resonance on the telescopes2. The cleanroom Imaging (MRI) uses powerful protocols, air filters, and bunny suits magnets and that were developed to achieve this pulses to polarize and excite single are now also used in hospitals and protons of water molecules in the pharmaceutical labs3.

The manufacturing of space-based telescopes and satellites has contributed to medicine by improving standards and development of clean working areas. Credit: NASA/Dominic Hart 08 09

Climate Change

Technology and research methods electromagnetic radiation through developed in astronomy have also the atmosphere of Venus and developed valuable means of effectively used these techniques understanding Earth’s systems to model the climatic effects of and climate change. trace gases and aerosols in Earth’s atmosphere4,5. By studying the planet Venus using astronomical techniques, More recently, the development of researchers have developed a better polarimetric techniques to study understanding of our own climate. the atmospheres of exoplanets With a similar size and composition has also led to a suite of SPEX to Earth, Venus provides a valuable (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary opportunity to study an evolving EXploration)instruments to study climate system like Earth in our own the effects of particles in the solar system. Today, the Venusian Earth’s atmosphere on our health atmosphere is more than 90 and climate6. This initiative has times thicker than our own, as it is led to the large citizen science believed that the planet experiences campaign iSPEX for measuring a runaway greenhouse effect air pollution7. The technology is following rising surface temperature also being commercialised and greater levels of atmospheric for ground-based air pollution water. Climatologist James Hansen measurements and has been further used radiative transfer models adapted for operation on an Earth- that calculated the transfer of observing satellite platform.

Image of Earth taken by ESA astronaut Alexander Gerst in 2014 from the International Space Station. Credit: ESA/NASA 10 11

Computing

The processing of astronomical has also been formative in spawning data has supported the develop- grid computing – the pooling of vast ment of improved computing meth- numbers of machines, distributed ods, including grid and distributed around the world, for crowd computing, and large astronomical computing efforts to solve complex citizen science initiatives. scientific problems.

Over recent decades, the amount of Historically, the first two public data obtained by astronomers has distributed computing projects were grown dramatically. New telescopes initiated to solve mathematical and space missions have all (GIMPS, 1996) and cryptographic contributed to the development of (distributed.net, 1997) problems. The new tools and methods to analyse third (and the most famous) project the data they obtain. Vast amounts was the SETI@home initiative that of computational resources are began in 1999. SETI – the Search for needed for their processing. Grid Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence – sought computing, through which computers to find signs of other intelligent forms are widely distributed and connected of life through the transmission of together across a common network, radio signals. SETI@home is the first is an efficient method of sharing and of many new citizen science projects using these vast amounts of collected that collaboratively contribute to resources. Astronomers are gathering valuable scientific initiatives, in ways exponentially greater amounts of data, that were never possible before. often referred to as the era of “big data”, This work continues today and has which is changing how science is done. already harnessed the engagement of more than 1.7 million users, that The search for extra-terrestrial all contribute their computing power intelligence by radio astronomers to SETI@home.

Data Centre at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) Headquarters in Garching bei München, Germany, which archives and distributes data from ESO’s telescopes. Credit: ESO 12 13

Time Keeping

The position of the Earth and on International Atomic Time, which is the stars in the sky has held an kept by a few hundred atomic integral role in time keeping, at various institutions around the world. from the earliest calendars to today’s satellite navigation and The task of combining the time of positioning services. all atomic clocks around the world is carried out by the International Throughout history, many calendars Bureau of Weights and Measures have been developed, primarily tied and the International Earth Rotation to culture or region. The concept and Reference Systems Service. of time was conceived through This service is responsible for observation of the apparent motion keeping clocks in synchronization of the Sun, Moon and stars and the with the motion of the Earth around rhythm of night and day. The notion the Sun and the Earth’s own rotation. of a day was connected to the motion These are measured very precisely of the Sun and the conception of using strong and distant radio a month came from observations of astronomy sources – radio galaxies the changing phases and positions and – as a reference frame, of the Moon. The concept of an hour known as ephemeris time. can be traced back to the Egyptians who divided the day into 10 parts, The ability to keep accurate time is with an extra part before and after to essential for the Global Positioning allow for sunrise and sunset. System (GPS) satellites, which have accurate atomic clocks on board that are Today, keeping accurate time is done tuned to ephemeris time. The precise with high precision atomic clocks, knowledge of the time and their positions in which the frequency of an atomic makes it possible to use their signals for transition is used as a standard to accurate position determination on the keep time. The world’s time is based surface of the Earth.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites rely heavily on the accurate keeping of time. Each satellite is equipped with an atomic onboard that is tuned to ephemeris time. Credit: Air Force Base 14 15

Imaging

Some of the most useful of choice in astronomical observato- examples of technology transfer ries worldwide, whether in-space or between astronomy and industry on the ground, and for observations include advances in imaging and ranging from the to X-rays. communications. CCDs are also implemented in ama- teur telescopes, which has improved A film called Kodak Technical Pan the feasibility of astronomical obser- is used extensively by medical and vation from within cities. industrial spectroscopists, industrial photographers, and artists, and was Along with these improved imaging originally created so that solar astron- techniques, astronomy has omers could record the changes in contributed to the development of the surface structure of the Sun. various programming languages that make image processing much In 2009, Willard S. Boyle and George easier, including IDL and IRAF. E. Smith were awarded the Nobel These languages are widely used for Prize in Physics for the development medical applications10. of another device that would be widely used in industry8. The sensors for Various astronomy instruments image capture developed for astro- have also found their way into nomical images, known as Charge airports. Technology developed for Coupled Devices (CCDs), were first distant gamma-ray observations used in astronomy in 1976. These is used in current airport luggage sensors quickly replaced film not belts scanners. A chromatograph, only on telescopes, but also in per- a device used for separating sonal cameras, webcams and mobile and analysing compounds, was phones. The improvement and popu- compacted and improved for use larity of CCDs is attributed to NASA’s on a Mars mission. This smaller and decision to use super-sensitive CCD lighter adaptation is now used to technology on the Hubble Space Tele- survey and image baggage for drugs scope9. Today, CCDs are the and explosives.

Charge Coupled Devices were first used in astronomy but have since become a common component of personal cameras and mobile phones. 16 17

Communication

In the realm of communication, capabilities to enter the field of satellite has provided communication ground stations. a wealth of useful tools, devices, and data-processing methods. With the availability of high capacity Many successful communi- cables, a number cations companies were originally of decommissioned 30-meter founded by radio astronomers. communication antennas are now being refurbished to form The era of satellite communication the African Very Long Baseline originated for telephony but soon Interferometry Network. Similarly, extended to TV, radio and data the development of microwave exchange. This was largely born from receiving systems of high sensitivity, the development and construction such as parametric amplifiers, was of large parabolic reflector antennas pioneered by radio astronomers. that radio astronomers used to collect This resulted in the creation of radio radiation from celestial bodies many companies responding to the like the Sun, planets, the Milky Way, needs of satellite communication. and various extragalactic sources. Such process continues today with The very weak astronomical signals the development of devices for required large reflectors of the order the detection and amplifications of 25 to 75 meters in diameter and of signals in the submillimeter and were developed in close collaboration infrared with many between radio astronomers and commercial applications, including industry. Several companies around security checkpoints in airports and the world used their newly acquired vehicle collision avoidance.

Atacama Large Millimeter/ (ALMA) antennas. ALMA is an astronomical interferometer of 66 radio telescopes in the of northern . Credit: ESO/B. Tafreshi (twanight.org) 18 19

Wi-Fi

Of the many tools, devices and enabled radio waves to be used in processing methods developed complex environments where the throughout radio astronomy, it is signal’s reflection off many surfaces also credited for contributing to can confuse the information the invention of Wi-Fi. transfer. The patents awarded to the inventors paved the way Using techniques which were for companies around the world developed for analysing radio to begin using Wi-Fi to exchange emission from black holes, a team information between networks of scientists at the Commonwealth and portable devices. Modern Scientific and Industrial Research life depends critically on the flow Organization (CSIRO) in Australia of data, and science – including developed a new technique for radio astronomy – will continue transferring information wirelessly11. to produce technologies to benefit They developed a microchip that all humankind.

45-meter at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory in Japan. Credit: Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO), NAOJ 20 21

References

1 Edwards, Kieran Jay., et al. Astronomy and Big Data A Data Clustering Approach to Identifying Uncertain Galaxy Morphology. 2014. 2 Gruman, J. B., Image Artifacts-Telescope and Camera Defects, 2011 [http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/artifacts/artifacts_camera.shtml] 3 Clark, H., Modern-day cleanroom invented by Sandia physicist still used 50 years later, 2012 [https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/news_releases/ cleanroom_50th] 4 Hansen, J.E.; S. Matsushima,The atmosphere and surface temperature of Venus: A dust insulation model,Astrophys. J. 150: 1139–1157, 1967 5 Hansen, J.E., et al., GISS Analysis of Surface Temperature Change, J. Geophys. Res. 104(D24): 20997-31022, 1999 6 Snik, F. et al., SPEX: the spectropolarimeter for planetary exploration. Pro- ceedings Volume 7731, Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2010: Opti- cal, Infrared, and Millimeter Wave; 77311B, 2010 7 Snik, F. et al., Mapping Atmospheric Aerosols with a Citizen Science Network of Smartphone Spectropolarimeters. Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 41, no. 20, pp. 7351–7358, 2014 8 Boyle, W.S., Smith, G.E., Charge Couple Semiconductor Devices. Bell System Technical Journal 49, p. 587, 1970 9 Kiger, P. & English, M., Top 10 NASA Inventions, 2011[http://www.howstuff- works.com/innovation/inventions/top-5-nasa-inventions.htm] 10 Shasharina, S. G. et al. GRIDL: high-performance and distributed interactive data language, High Performance Distributed Computing, HPDC-14. Pro- ceedings. 14th IEEE International Symposium, 291–292, 2005 11 J. P. Hamaker, J. D. O’Sullivan, and J. E. Noordam, Image sharpness, Fourier , and redundant-spacing interferometry, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 67, 1122-1123, 1977

The astronomical technique of combining data from multiple telescopes to produce a single image, known as ‘aperture synthesis’, has been applied to Magnetic Resonance (MR) to enhance the imaging details and to reduce the scan time in medical diagnoses. Credit: ESA www.iau.org