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Ecological Resilience and the Interaction Between the Freshwater Ecosystem Services and Built Environment in the City of Tshwane

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Ecological Resilience and the Interaction Between the Freshwater Ecosystem Services and Built Environment in the City of Tshwane Ecological resilience and the interaction between the freshwater ecosystem services and built environment in the City of Tshwane by Emmarie Otto Treatise submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Landscape Architecture (Research) in the Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology University of Pretoria Supervisor: Prof C du Plessis Co-supervisor: Prof P T Vosloo November 2015 © University of Pretoria Declaration I, the undersigned, hereby confirmed that the attached treatise is my own work and that any sources are adequately acknowledged in the text and listed in the bibliography. I accept the rules of the University of Pretoria and the consequences of transgressing them. This treatise is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Landscape Architecture (Research) at the University of Pretoria. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination at any other University. ------------------------------------------------------------------- Signature of acceptance and confirmation Emmarie Otto Date ii © University of Pretoria Abstract Nature and humans are intrinsic parts of the same system called a social-ecological system (SES), wherein freshwater ecosystems form one of the most important bases of the survival of all life. Human activities, such as land use and overconsumption, impact on freshwater systems; and freshwater systems also impact on the urban systems through which they flow. Changes in one part of the system, be it human or ecological, will impact on the other. If a freshwater ecosystem’s resilience is negatively affected and fails to retain its functional integrity, it will increase the vulnerability of the SES. Disregarding this connection can have a significant impact on the quality of an urban system. Throughout its 159-year history (1855–2014), the City of Tshwane SES has moved through different eras of change which have altered the quality of the connection between the Apies River and the urban infrastructure through which it flows. These eras of change have been identified as: a) First era (1855–1909) Apies River as a natural system; b) Second era (1910–1970) Apies River becoming a hidden, polluted and disconnected freshwater system c) Third era (1971–2014) the era of attempts at beautification and to regenerate the Apies River freshwater system. The main goal of this study is to understand how changes in the connection between the built infrastructure in the City of Tshwane and the Apies River have affected the resilience of the Apies River freshwater ecosystem as an integral part of the Tshwane SES. The study achieved this by identifying the different changes, the drivers of change, and the effects that these changes have had on the resilience of the Apies River as part of the Tshwane SES. This was carried out using the method of a historical narrative. It was concluded that the Apies River gained specific resilience but lost its general resilience and therefore also lost its adaptive capacity, which is the capacity to deal with change. The main drivers behind the loss of general resilience of the Apies River systems were: a) the lack of a local government structure to supply proper infrastructure and service delivery to the people of Pretoria, followed by an inflexible and largely unresponsive local government system; and b) ecological ignorance, lacking the understanding of how freshwater ecosystems function in order to incorporate natural freshwater ecosystems as an integral and functional part of the urban infrastructure. Keywords: Resilience, City of Tshwane, freshwater ecosystem services, Apies River, social-ecological system (SES). iii © University of Pretoria Acknowledgements The author is grateful for the support and guidance of my supervisors, Prof Chrisna du Plessis and Prof Piet Vosloo, who have shared their knowledge and expertise with me during this process. The author is also grateful to the Unit for Geoinformation and Mapping, Department of Geography, Geoinformatics & Meteorology, University of Pretoria, in particular, Ingrid Booysen, Senior Cartographer, who managed the process of generating the historical data and maps contained in this dissertation. The author would also like to acknowledge the support of Gawie Jansen van Vuuren, Chief Engineer: Integrated Stormwater Planning of the City of Tshwane’s Transport Department for making available documents and information related to the Apies River. The author would also like to express her gratitude to Edna Peres, a dear friend and colleague, who despite her own commitments with her doctoral thesis, provided much encouragement and support throughout as a valuable sounding board. On a personal note, I would like to thank Carl, my life partner, for his faith in me and who made it possible for me to take this study gap. I would also like to express my gratitude to my son, Robert, who had so much patience with me. I would like to dedicate this study to my mom and dad, who made me aware of nature from an early age. Without their inspiration, I would not have become a landscape architect, driven to learn more about the complexities of ecology and how we, as humans, exist within these fascinating and dynamic systems. A special thanks to my dad who inspired my thinking in so many ways. The author is grateful to the National Research Foundation (NRF) who supported this study as part of the program: Resiliency Strategies for Aspirational African Cities, through the research Grant no. 78649. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and cannot necessarily be attributed to the NRF. iv © University of Pretoria Table of Contents Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ xiii Definitions ................................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ............................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ........................................................................................................ 2 1.2.1 The importance of freshwater systems for cities ............................................. 2 1.2.2 The problem of deteriorated urban freshwater systems .................................. 3 1.2.3 Apies River freshwater system in the City of Tshwane .................................... 3 1.2.4 Levels of disconnection between built infrastructure and freshwater systems . 6 1.3 Research problem .............................................................................................. 8 1.4 Research questions ........................................................................................... 9 1.5 Goal and objectives of the study ......................................................................10 1.6 Expected contribution of the study ..................................................................12 1.7 Research Design ...............................................................................................12 1.7.1 Research approach .......................................................................................12 1.7.2 Research methodology ..................................................................................13 1.8 Assumptions, limitations and delimitations ....................................................13 1.8.1 Assumptions ..................................................................................................13 1.8.2 Limitations .....................................................................................................14 1.8.3 Delimitations ..................................................................................................14 1.9 Conclusion .........................................................................................................16 CHAPTER 2 - THEORETICAL BASIS ............................................................................18 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................18 1.2 Social-ecological system (SES) ........................................................................18 1.3 The concept of resilience ..................................................................................19 1.3.1 What is resilience? ........................................................................................19 1.3.2 General and specific resilience ......................................................................22 1.3.3 Characteristics of resilience ...........................................................................23 1.4 System dynamics of an SES .............................................................................26 1.4.1 Adaptive capacity ..........................................................................................27 1.4.2 What is necessary to build the adaptive capacity of a system? ......................27 1.4.3 Press and pulse disturbances affecting the adaptive capacity of a system ....29 1.4.4 The panarchy ................................................................................................30 1.5 Ecosystem services ..........................................................................................31 v © University of Pretoria 1.6 Urban
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