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HORNS, SPIKES, & ARMOR , frills, and crests Fierce Plant-eating dinosaurs were The fragile plates along the back may have Many plant-eating dinosaurs All those spikes and armored often slow-moving, trudging changed color to attract a mate or warn a rival. had beaks, rather like the plates gave protection against Or might have used them to control 3 (try-SER-ah-tops) along on all fours. It would be its temperature, turning towards the wind to of a tortoise. They used their terrifying carnivorous dinosaurs. cool down or standing in the sun TRICERATOPS LIVED: , US; hard for them to run away from to warm up. beaks for shearing through 68–66 mya ATE: Plants These predators came in all sizes, a fierce meat-eater, so some plant matter or for gripping Triceratops had three LENGTH: 26 ft. (8 m) but shared good eyesight, speed, horns and a distinctive neck WEIGHT: 24,200 lb. grew armor plates and sharp, and tugging at it. Beaked frill. Channels for blood vessels (11,000 kg) fearsome teeth, slashing claws – protective spikes. dinosaurs often had dramatic on the frill suggest it could be and often ! frills or crests on their heads. flooded with blood to change color, either to attract a mate STEGOSAURUS Morisson Formation 8 ’s 3.3 ft. 7 (STEG-oh-SAW-rus) or scare a rival or predator. (1 m ) long was packed with sharp, 1 Horseshoe LIVED: US, ; 10 saw-edged teeth. STEGOSAURUS 156–144 mya Canyon Formation Allosaurus was one of the Stegosaurus had a fearsome ATE: Plants LENGTH: 2 Provincial Park ALLOSAURUS weapon called a “” at the end 21 ft. (6.5 m) WEIGHT: 9 Cedar Mountain first dinosaurs investigated ALBERTOSAURUS Pachycephalosaurus was a (AL-oh-SAW-rus) of its tail, with long, sharp spikes sticking 7,700 lb. (3,500 kg) Formation PARASAUROLOPHUS using computer modeling. Albertosaurus was smaller than bonehead – literally. Adult It made swift bites, slashing LIVED: US; 150 mya but just as fast and out on each side. It could use this to swipe an The bony crest of Parasaurolophus hides a network ATE: Meat LENGTH: ALBERTOSAURUS were topped with a PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS and tearing at its prey with deadly. Young Albertosaurus grew attacking dinosaur. One Allosaurus shows of airways. It may have used its crest to make 28 ft. (8.5 m) WEIGHT: (al-BERT-oh-SAW-rus) Gastonia had spikes dome of up to 10 in. (pak-ee-SEF-ah-loh- sharp, backwards-curving quickly, and were the largest predators an injury to the tail probably caused by SAW-rus) sounds, passing air from its throat through 3,300 lb. (1,500 kg) LIVED: Canada; 76–74 mya and armored plates (25 cm) thick. The dinosaur teeth. It could easily kill small ATE: Meat LENGTH: in their area by the age of just two. a bashing from a Stegosaurus. LIVED: US; 70–66 mya Different of the crest rather like a trumpet. to keep it super-safe. Any predator may have used its hard Parasaurolophus have , and might even have attacked heavier 29.5 ft. (9 m) WEIGHT: They might have hunted in packs – that ATE: Plants LENGTH: Scientists have used computer 4 Hell Creek was entirely covered in trying to get close ran the risk of head for butting the flanks different types of crests. They animals like Stegosaurus by relying on speed. 2,900–3,700 lb. (1,300–1,700 kg) would have been a fearsome sight! 4.8 ft. (4.5 m) WEIGHT: models of the crest to try to hard, bony plates called . receiving a nasty injury from of rivals when fighting for would have looked different, ANKYLOSAURUS 90 lb. (450 kg) and probably made different re-create the sound of a Four spikes at the back of the Gastonia as it swiped its spiked tail. territory or a mate. sounds, helping potential Parasaurolophus call. Antlers Formation 11 head protected the neck, mates to find the right species. and even its eyelids were DEINONYCHUS armored. The large of Deinonychus had giant, curved claws on its fused bone at the end of the feet to hold its prey still. The largest claw tail could deliver a could rotate, so Deinonychus could nasty thump. ANKYLOSAURUS GASTONIA The bone was hold it out of the way while walking. (an-KILE-oh-SAW-rus) (gas-TOE-nee-ah) not solid but filled Gastonia had short legs This -like dinosaur was found in 1964. with holes, like a sponge and couldn’t outrun its DEINONYCHUS LIVED: Canada, US; 74–67 mya LIVED: US; 142–126 mya – solid bone would have Work on it by the American paleontologist attackers. It relied on its (die-NON-ee-kus) ATE: Low-growing plants ATE: Plants been very heavy. Babies John Ostrum sparked a revival of interest in LENGTH: 23 ft. (7 m) thick armor for defense. LENGTH: 16 ft. (5 m) PARASAUROLOPHUS LIVED: US; 120–110 mya may have had a flat head, LENGTH: 24.5 ft. This computer model of an Allosaurus skull was used to the study of dinosaurs in the 1970s, which WEIGHT: 13, 200 lb. (6,000 kg) WEIGHT: 4,200 lb. (1,900 kg) growing bony domes as (PAR-ah-SAW-oh-LOH-fus) ATE: Meat (7.5 m) WEIGHT: study how the dinosaur used its teeth to tackle its prey. became known as the “Dinosaur Renaissance.” Ankylosaurus’s skull was protected by bony scales. they matured. LIVED: Canada, US; 76–74 mya LENGTH: 10.8 ft. (3.3 m) ATE: Plants 5,700 lb. (2,600 kg) WEIGHT: 130 lb. (60 kg) NORTH AMERICA 4 Hell Creek T-REX meat-eaters that has ever lived. of all,and one ofthe largest – it’s the most famous dinosaur dinosaur everyone has heard of Tyrannosaurus rex isthe 13,200 lb.(6,000kg) m)WEIGHT:39 ft.(12 ATE: Meat LENGTH: LIVED: mya US;68–66 -rus REX) (tie-RAN-oh-SAW TYRANNOSAURUS REX Brown uncovers dinosaur inWyoming The first Tyrannosaurus fossil was found in1902 inHell Creek by the American fossil-hunter Barnum during adig inthe 1930s. Brown (1873–1963). needed a heavy heavy a needed didn’t tipover. head sothat it tail to balance its enormous The dinosaur

behind it asit walked. held its tailout horizontally Tyrannosaurus would have wedged inits neck. Tyrannosaurus? There isatooth ceratopsian fall victim to the have battled to the death. So did the Some paleontologists thinkthey may and the other alarge ceratopsian. probably ayoung Tyrannosaurus together. The one on the leftis and shows two dinosaurs tangled up The fossil on the right was found in2006 FOSSILIZED FIGHT around 19mph (30 kph). the longest legs for its enough to let it runat size ofanydinosaur. They were powerful powerful were They Tyrannosaurus had

them –perhaps to hold smaller animals while Tyrannosaurus used No one knows how how knows one No reach the mouth. tiny armswere biting them. too short to The teeny, Fossilized Tyrannosaurus its meals. Tyrannosaurus Sweet, but savage… but Sweet, down, like bird chicks! in covered been have feathers. The babies may had at least some Tyrannosaurus probably covered infeathers –but something sofierce It’s odd to thinkof probably hunted other bone and musclefrom dinosaurs and ate any dead animals it found poop contains bits of lying around.

found was 12 in. (30.5 cm) long, including

The largest T-rex tooth ever the root that held it in the jaw. Could they have been squabbling siblings? so perhaps it wasn’t avery serious fight. teenage – Tyrannosaurus. The bite healed, the teeth ofanother young –probably Tyrannosaurus found in2001 are from Bite marks on the skullofayoung BATTLING TEENS like we do. binocular vision, just Tyrannosaurus had good together. This meant making the eyes close had anarrow snout, head enormous The

ACTUAL SIZE TOOTH! tore at flesh. out when Tyrannosaurus they wouldn’t be pulled curved backwards, so dinosaurs. The front teeth large chunksout ofother teeth ofT-rex could rip The powerful jaw and NORTH AMERICA ago, soto find their the southeast, they are too new. HUNTING old for dinosaur fossils, whilein and midwest, the rocks are too the continent. Inthe northeast running through the middle of Dinosaurs lived million 242–66 DINOSAURS FIRST AMERICAN were American dinosaurs recognized. dinosaurs had been found and named inEurope were the footprints ofgiant . Onlyafter in North America people in1802, thought they When the first dinosaur footprints were found are near the surface inaband in rocks ofthat age. InNorth paleontologists need to look America, rocks the right age FOSSIL-

1 scouring winds but not washed away. the best places to look, asfossils are exposed by of bone sticking out ofthe rock. Desert areas are often fragments ofbone inriverbeds, fossilized footprints, or bits for clues that might reveal dinosaur remains. They may find Once they’ve found some suitable rocks, paleontologists look DINOSAUR HUNT 2 DIGGING AWAY before moving them. They photograph the positions ofallthe bones and soil to reveal the bones. Itcan take weeks. scrape and brush away the remaining rock rock, called overburden. Then they carefully first remove large chunksof surrounding When they find alarge skeleton, fossil-hunters Hawkins put the bones back together in1868. Joseph Leidy and artistBenjamin Waterhouse display anywhere inthe world. The paleontologist skeleton to be reassembled and mounted for This American Hadrosaurus was the first dinosaur JIGSAW PUZZLE WHO’S THAT DINOSAUR? PICK UP YOUR TAIL Around 10 in. (25 cm) long, these Putting a dinosaur back together can be like Fossils don’t come out of the ground labeled. Paleontologists often Not all fossils are made from body parts. “Trace” fossils are created 150-million-- tackling a very challenging jigsaw puzzle. have to figure out what of they have found from a few when an impression made by an animal in soft mud or sediment old footprints were Fossil-hunters collect and label every tooth, mixed up or broken fossilized bones. They compare the pieces with hardens. They are often footprints or marks made by a tail dragging in found in Arizona and may have been left claw, and bone – even tiny fragments of previous finds to decide if it is a completely new, unknown type of the mud. Fossilized footprints can show whether dinosaurs walked on by an Allosaurus. shattered bones. Only later will they dinosaur or one that has already been describedz two or four legs, their speed, and even whether they moved together in figure out which go together. groups. Stride length (the distance between footprints) can reveal Sometimes, several animals whether dinosaurs were running or plodding along. A paleontologist cleans and are jumbled together. reassembles fragments of fossilized dinosaur bone.

Paleontologists can tell from the size, structure, and GLEN ROSE TRACKWAY shape of the head, tail, and limbs what type of dinosaur they have found. Can you guess what sort of dinosaur The Glen Rose Formation preserves tracks made 107 million this jumble of bones may be? Lift the flap to find out. years ago. They are now in the Paluxy River, Texas. Some sauropod footprints are 3.3 ft. (1 m) long and 10–12 in. (25–30 cm) deep, showing the heavy dinosaur was sinking into the mud. In other places, three- toed footprints 10–12 in. (25–30 cm) long were produced by large theropods that walked FROM BONES TO BODIES on just their back legs. WHERE DOES From the size of one bone, we can figure out the size of a whole dinosaur! THE HEAD GO? Suppose a type of dinosaur that is In 1868, 32 ft. (10 m) long has a leg bone 3.2 Scientists would only need Situated on the sketched a reconstruction of ft. (100 cm) long – so its leg bone to see a single leg bone of riverbed, the is a tenth of its body length. If this Allosaurus to figure out footprints of a newly discovered marine roughly how big it was. the Glen Rose reptile, Elasmosaurus. paleontologists find a leg bone Trackway are However, he made a 2.9 ft. (90 cm) long, they can often underwater. major mistake, putting guess the whole dinosaur the head on the wrong would have been 29 ft. DINOSAURS IN ACTION (9 m) long, or ten times end – on its tail rather This is just the tip of a Stegosaurus scute (bony back plate), than on its neck. which is over 24 in. (60 cm) across at its widest point. the length of the bone. Fossils can show us how dinosaurs Studying birds, which ACTUAL SIZE SCUTE! descended from moved. Muscles attach to bones, so Lift the flap GROWTH RINGS dinosaurs, can tell us a to see what experts can figure out from the shape Bones have growth rings, just like trees. Counting the growth lot about how dinosaurs happenened. of the bones what the muscles were may have walked. rings in a fossilized bone shows how old an animal was when it like. Computer models can compare died. The image on the left shows growth rings in a thighbone dinosaurs with living animals to show from an unknown species of dinosaur. how they held their heads and tails. Bernissart Calcirudites Formation, Belgium 7 NO-BRAINER GETTING IT WRONG Sebeș Formation, Romania 11 THUMB SPIKES Dinosaurs had very small brains for their body size. ACTUAL SIZE BRAIN! It’s hard to figure out from just a few fossilized bones what an animal EITHER/OR Does that mean they were stupid? It’s hard to tell. If a might have looked like and how it lived. It’s become easier as we’ve The creature now called Balaur is a bit of a mystery. It had two large claws on each small brain makes for a dumb dino, Iguanodon, with a found more dinosaurs, and now have computers to model how their BALAUR was similar to the animal Mantell hind foot rather than the usual single claw of theropods – brain the size of a couple of walnuts, was pretty stupid – bodies worked, but in the past people sometimes got it very wrong. (BAL-lor) found. It was a lumbering, heavy were they for holding on to branches or for gripping prey? but the sauropods were even more stupid. Theropods were the For instance, early paleontologists portrayed the dinosaur that LIVED: Romania; 80 mya plant-eater with a large spike on Balaur may have been an early plant-eating bird, a bit like a smartest, being about as brainy as a modern ostrich. Mantell had named Iguanodon (now known as Mantellodon ) with its ATE: Meat each of its thumbs. modern goose or a hoatzin, or it may have been a meat-eater spike on its nose rather than on its thumb. Lift the flap to see how our LENGTH: 6.5 ft. (2 m) This “pickled” dinosaur brain looks like a brown WEIGHT: 51 lb. (23 kg) that would have hunted small prey – like a flightless eagle. pebble; it may be from an Iguanodon. reconstructions of dinosaurs have improved over the years.

At Crystal Palace, the was shown as a Rögling Formation, 8 Eichstätt Formation, Germany 9 WHY FLY? squat, stocky, four-legged lizard. Germany We now know this to be incorrect. BIRDS AS DINOSAURS No one is quite sure why FURRY FEATHERS The dinosaurs around today are all birds, but the first bird-like birds first took flight. One idea is that they began by 10 12 Sânpetru Formation, Romania The theropod Sciurumimus had fuzzy dinosaurs flew around Europe 150 million years ago. Trossingen Formation, Germany using their wings to help The tail was stiffened feathers all over. Unlike bird feathers, Unlike modern birds, by that turned DIFFERENT SIZES SHRINKING DINOSAURS these were single strands (or filaments) Archaeopteryx is seen as a them run and hop upwards Archaeopteryx had teeth. to escape from predators. to spikes of bone as the There’s more variety in the size of adult On the islands of Europe, large dinosaurs shrank! that looked more like fur. The only link between modern birds animal aged. Always walking Then they might have than in any other dinosaurs Types of dinosaurs that grew large elsewhere became smaller in Sciurumimus found and dinosaurs. It had lots The thumb on two legs, SCIURUMIMUS taken to gliding or flapping yet discovered. They grew big if things Plateosaurus was Europe. It’s a trend called “insular dwarfism” and has happened so far is a youngster of features that birds don’t spike may have (skee-ORE-ooh-MY-muss) down again when danger been used for Iguanodon could were going well (if they had lots of food ), probably the first with other types of animals stranded on islands, too. that was just 2.4 have, but it could fly. First, passed. Archaeopteryx defense, or for walk on either two and stayed smaller if times were hard. dinosaur to be able to Magyarosaurus is the smallest adult sauropod ft. (72 cm) long. We LIVED: Germany; 150 mya a single fossil was collecting food. or four feet. eat leaves from ATE: Meat lived on dry, barren islands Plateosaurus possibly lived in yet found, and is believed to have grown don’t know how big found in around 1861, then a high in the trees. LENGTH: Unknown with low shrubs, so it herds, roaming across no taller than a horse. an adult would have bird with no head, and finally IGUANODON WEIGHT: Unknown probably didn’t launch large areas. grown. a complete fossil. (ig-WAH-no-don) itself from trees. LIVED: Belgium; 126–125 mya ATE: Plants LENGTH: 30–33 ft. (9–10 m) ARCHAEOPTERYX WEIGHT: 18,300 lb. (8,300 kg) (AR-key-op-ter-iks) PLATEOSAURUS MAGYAROSAURUS LIVED: Germany; 150 mya ACTUAL SIZE (PLAY-tee-oh-SAW-rus) (mag-YAR-oh-SAW-rus) ATE: Almost anything! Plants, seeds, insects, ACTUAL SIZE LIVED: Germany; 210 mya LIVED: Romania; 71–65 mya crustaceans, small reptiles, ARCHAEOPTERYX THUMB SPIKE! ATE: Plants ATE: Plants and perhaps fish LENGTH: 16–33 ft. (5–10 m) LENGTH: 16–20 ft. (5–6 m) FEATHER An adult LENGTH: 1.6 ft. (50 cm) The legs were The tail was long and had WEIGHT: 1,900 lb. (900 kg) WEIGHT: 1,600 lb. (750 kg) human male The bone inside a thumb spike would have WEIGHT: 7 oz. (200 g) more feathery a bone running through been covered with a casing of horn. – to . than those of it – modern birds have The Sciurumimus fossil showed it was covered in hair-like feathers. most modern birds. no tailbones. EUROPE China and Mongolia are rich in dinosaur fossils, as the dry deserts there MARINE REPTILES have preserved them over millions of years. was not joined to the rest Marine reptiles swam in the warm – Lias Group, 4 ASIA of Asia until about 25 million years ago, so dinosaurs there evolved separately. Cretaceous seas that covered much of England Europe. They were the descendents of land- FOSSIL-HUNTER This pup had just LIVE BIRTH been born, having A group of three giant, fierce, feathered going reptiles, and had to rise to the surface From early childhood, Mary emerged from its to breathe. Their fossils formed on seabeds Anning (1799–1847) hunted Ichthyosaurs gave birth to live mother, tail first. found together may have been a YIXIAN that have since become dry land. for fossils along England’s pups which swam straight to the – or they may have hunted together. FORMATION 8 YUTYRANNUS Dorset coast, and sold them surface to take their first breath. China as souvenirs to tourists. She This fossil from Germany shows a female ichthyosaur that died NEMEGT FORMATION Besano Formation, Switzerland 13 taught herself how to extract and reassemble fossils, and while giving birth. Several unborn Mongolia EEL-LIKE pups can be seen inside her ribs. The ichthyosaur’s “hand” was a sort of paddle made up of lots Remains of the strange dinosaur became one of the most of separate bones – more bones than our own fingers have. 2 The earliest Ichthyosaurs, such as Cymbospondylus, successful and knowledgeable Therizonosaurus found here were first thought to be a giant turtle. were long and thin, and swam by wriggling through the fossil-hunters of her time. THERIZINOSAURUS water like an eel. LONG AND Lias Group, England 4 Oxford Clay Formation, France 6 Mary Anning shown fossil- SHORT Plesiosaurus was the first plesiosaur discovered, found by Liopleurodon was a pliosaur and well-equipped as a savage hunting with her dog, Tray Mary Anning in 1823. Plesiosaurs gave birth to a single, large killer. The size of a killer whale, with pointed teeth 8 in. SHISHUGOU FORMATION 6 NECKS baby; today, whales do the same. (20 cm) long, it was the top predator in the Jurassic seas China of Europe. Plesiosaurs The paddle-like limbs were stiff and Liopleurodon’s head was about MAMENCHISAURUS adapted to life good for pushing quickly through the PLESIOSAURUS a fifth of its body length. in the water by water, but probably could not move (PLEE-zee-oh-SAW-rus) CYMBOSPONDYLUS the plesiosaurus over land. turning their limbs LIVED: England; Like other In 1952, workers (sim-BO-spon-DIE-lus) The huge eyes – up to 10 OPHTHALMOSAURUS into flippers. Most 199–175 mya plesiosaurs, it building a LIVED: Switzerland, Germany, in. (26 cm) across - are (off-THAL-moh-SAW-rus) ATE: Fish, squid LENGTH: had lots and lots SHAXIMIAO the largest of any known had long necks and US; 240–210 mya 1.5 ft. (3.5 m) WEIGHT: of vertebrae highway uncovered creature, and allowed LIVED: Norway, Germany, small heads, but 1 ATE: Fish and other marine England, US, Russia; 990 lb. (450 kg) packed into its Mamenchisaurus, FORMATION Ophthalmosaurus to see a subgroup called backbone. reptiles well in dim light deep 165–145 mya 1 Oxford Clay Formation, England a dinosaur with an , China LENGTH: 20–33 ft. (6–10 m) underwater. Its name ATE: Squid, fish LENGTH: pliosaurs had short immensely long neck. WEIGHT: 3,300 lb. (1,500 kg) Many types of stegosaurs have means “eye lizard.” 20 ft. (6 m) WEIGHT: 2,050– LOOKING FISHY necks, large heads, LIOPLEURODON been found in one site in China, 2,100 lb. (930–950 kg) Later ichthyosaurs, like Ophthalmosaurus, and mouths full of (LIE-oh-PLOO-roh-don) fearsome teeth. including . were more fish-shaped and resembled modern LIVED: England, France; The long neck The reptile’s nostrils 9 dolphins. Ophthalmosaurus probably swam like a was not bendy 160–150 mya were adapted to smell HUKAWNG ATE: Fish, marine reptiles tuna, keeping the front part of its body and was held underwater. Liopleurodon The end of a dinosaur’s TUOJIANGOSAURUS A ring of bone inside the steady and moving the back part from Narrow, needle-like teeth point forwards – nearly straight. LENGTH: 23 ft. (7 m) could even tell the direction VALLEY tail was found preserved ideal for snapping small fish as the reptile eyeball helped prevent the WEIGHT: 5,500 lb. (2,500 kg) a smell came from. Kachin State, in a lump of amber for sale at a eye being squashed by the side to side. It could dive to 2,000 ft. swam through a shoal. pressure of deep water. (600 m) and stay submerged for 20 minutes. Myanmar market in Myanmar (Burma) in 2015. TAIL IN AMBER