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The Rheology of Crystallizing Basaltic Lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira Volcanoes, D.R.C

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The Rheology of Crystallizing Basaltic Lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira Volcanoes, D.R.C V V V V V V O O O O O RESEARCH ARTICLE VOL O NI The rheology of crystallizing basaltic lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira volcanoes, D.R.C. Aaron A. Morrison*α, β, Alan G. Whittingtonα, β, Benoît Smetsγ, δ, Matthieu Kervyn", Alexander Sehlkeζ αDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Texas San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA βDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA γ Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Museum for Central Africa, 3080 Tervuren, Belgium δESO Research asbl, Antheit, Belgium "Department of Geography, Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium ζ NASA Ames Research Center/Bay Area Environmental Research Institute, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA Abstract Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of Congo) erupts fluid, fast-moving, foidite lavas. Nearby Nyamuragira fre- quently erupts less mobile tephrite lavas. Nyamuragira flows rarely threaten urbanized areas, but Nyiragongo flows threaten Goma (pop. ~900,000) and surrounding villages, resulting in fatalities in 1977 and 2002. We report new laboratory measurements of viscosity evolution during cooling and crystallization from both volcanoes by con- centric cylinder viscometry. Melt viscosity is ~33 Pa s at the liquidus (~1220°C) for Nyiragongo lavas, similar to Hawaiian basalts. Lavas remain fluid over ~75°C of undercooling (φ 0:05) before rapid crystallization forms a c ≤ crystal network inhibiting flow. Melt viscosity is ~40 Pa s at the liquidus (~1260 ◦C) for Nyamuragira lavas, which remain fluid over ~110 ◦C of undercooling (φc 0:11) before the onset of rapid crystallization. Low viscosity al- lows thin Nyiragongo flows to reach >10 ms-1 even≤ at subliquidus temperatures on low slopes, posing great risk to Goma. Keywords: Nyiragongo; Nyamuragira; Rheology; Viscosity; Lava flows; Goma 1 Introduction have a high likelihood of impacting human society. This study contributes to this goal by experimen- Lava flows are typically regarded as relatively modest tally investigating the rheology of lavas from these volcanic hazards when compared to other faster and two volcanoes. Rheology is the study of flow, or the farther-reaching hazards such as pyroclastic density way material respond to stress, and links the physi- currents, lahars, or debris flows [National Academies cal processes occurring during flow emplacement to fi- of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2017]. Yet, hot, nal post-emplacement morphology. The main factors fluid, mafic lavas can advance rapidly and are particu- controlling lava rheology are temperature, composi- larly hazardous when human settlements begin to en- tion ( volatiles), and crystal and/or bubble fractions croach on the volcanic flanks, for example at Mt Etna, [e.g. Bagdassarov± and Pinkerton 2004; Diniega et al. Italy [Guest and Murray 1979], Fogo [Richter et al. 2013; Mader et al. 2013; McBirney and Murase 1984]. 2016], or K¯ılauea, USA [Turner et al. 2017]. Nyiragongo To quantify changes to rheology we look at how pa- volcano, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), rameters such as viscosity and apparent yield strength is another example of where lava flows have resulted change as a function of cooling and crystallization. In in considerable societal impacts and also the loss of life this study, we conducted super- and subliquidus vis- [e.g. Allard et al. 2002; Baxter et al. 2002]. Along with cosity experiments to quantify these changes. Such its neighbor Nyamuragira volcano, these are the only information is essential for the physical modeling of two active volcanoes in the Virunga Volcanic Province lava flow emplacement and the associated hazards [e.g. (VVP), part of the East African Rift System (EARS; Fig- Harris and Rowland 2001; Wantim et al. 2013]. Us- ure 1). With the city of Goma located on the south- ing electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and scanning ern flank of Nyiragongo, this volcano poses a high risk electron microscopy (SEM) techniques, subliquidus ex- and was named a “decade volcano” by the United Na- periments conducted at di erent temperatures can be tions and International Association of Volcanology and ff compared to observe changes in crystal content and Chemistry of Earth’s Interior [Newhall 1996] to push chemistry of the interstitial melt. This study attempts research efforts toward understanding volcanoes that to quantify experimentally the rheological behavior of *Corresponding author: [email protected] lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira, two volca- The rheology of lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira Morrison et al., 2020 noes that pose a threat to the nearby city of Goma, DRC than one implies shear-thickening behavior, and a flow and its vicinity. index less than one implies shear-thinning behavior. Bingham materials are characterized by n = 1 but with a detectable yield strength. Material with no yield 2 Background strength that still exhibit shear thinning/thickening be- havior (n , 1) is characterized with a power-law. Gior- 2.1 Previous rheological studies dano et al. [2007] made rheological measurements of Nyiragongo lavas, but they did not quantify how rhe- Many studies have investigated lava rheology in terms ology changes with crystal content or strain rate. In of two-phase (melt + crystals or melt + bubbles) the current study, viscosity was measured during cool- and three-phase (melt + crystals + bubbles) materials ing experiments until crystallization caused a deviation [Mader et al. 2013; Truby et al. 2015]. Silicate melts from Newtonian behavior of the liquid trend. These behave as Newtonian fluids until they either cool be- experiments provide disequilibrium information while low their liquidus and crystallize a critical volume frac- the isothermal experiments that we conduct provide tion or are deformed faster than the timescale of re- complimentary information under equilibrium condi- laxation of the melt [Dingwell and Webb 1989]. Con- tions (i.e. constant temperature and crystal fraction). centric cylinder viscometry can be used to measure the viscosity of high temperature (superliquidus) materials [e.g. Bockris et al. 1955; Mysen et al. 1985; Scarfe and 2.2 Regional Setting Cronin 1986; Urbain et al. 1982]. At much lower tem- peratures and much higher viscosities, parallel-plate East African Rift volcanism spans the entire range of viscometry can be used to measure viscosity just above magmatic compositions, from felsic to ultramafic [An- the glass transition [e.g. Avard and Whittington 2012; dersen et al. 2012; Barette et al. 2017] The rift system Bouhifd et al. 2004; Cordonnier et al. 2009; Villeneuve has been suggested to divide into two branches around et al. 2008]. Rheological constitutive equations de- a microplate centered on the Tanzanian Craton [Calais scribe the relationship between applied stress and re- et al. 2006; Saria et al. 2014]. Within the western sulting strain rate. The simplest form of this relation- branch of this division lies the VVP [Smets et al. 2016], ship applicable to lavas is that of a Newtonian fluid: located at the border between the DRC, Uganda, and σ = ηγ˙ (1) Rwanda. This province contains eight volcanoes, only two of which are active [Demant et al. 1994]: Nyamura- where η is the viscosity and γ˙ is the strain rate. Silicate gira (commonly: Nyamulagira) and Nyiragongo. These melts behave as Newtonian fluids except at very high are the most active volcanoes in Africa [Coppola and strain rates [Webb and Dingwell 1990]. Measurements Cigolini 2013; Smets et al. 2015; Wright et al. 2015], can also be made at subliquidus temperatures with with Nyiragongo erupting some of the lowest viscosity the concentric cylinder viscometer, allowing for the lavas on Earth [Barette et al. 2017; Chakrabarti et al. quantification of the effect of crystals on viscosity [e.g. 2009a; Chakrabarti et al. 2009b; Giordano et al. 2007]. Chevrel et al. 2015; Ishibashi and Sato 2007; Ishibashi While these two volcanoes are separated by only 13 km, and Sato 2010; Pinkerton and Norton 1995; Ryerson they produce very different lavas suggesting the volca- et al. 1988; Sehlke and Whittington 2015; Sehlke et al. noes sample different sources and/or are fed by magma 2014; Soldati et al. 2016; Vona et al. 2011]. As crystals chambers with different degrees of differentiation [An- nucleate and grow, a crystal framework may develop as dersen et al. 2012; Barette et al. 2017; Chakrabarti et al. they begin interacting with each other. This framework 2009a; Smets et al. 2016]. may begin to resist flow, leading to the appearance of a yield strength (σy), the minimum required stress before flow can initiate [e.g. Barnes 1999; Nguyen and Boger 2.3 Nyiragongo volcano 1992]. Once crystals and/or gas bubbles are included, experiments have shown that a linear relationship typ- Nyiragongo has a stratovolcanic morphology (Fig- ically no longer holds [Giordano and Dingwell 2003; ure 1C) rising approximately 3470 m above sea level, Giordano et al. 2008; Sehlke and Whittington 2015; ~2000 m above the rift valley plain, and is located 18 Sehlke et al. 2014]. A more general constitutive rela- km north of Lake Kivu in eastern DRC [Smets et al. tionship is the Herschel-Bulkley equation: 2017]. The volcanic system itself is composed of the main cone of Nyiragongo as well as parasitic cones to σ = σ + Kγ˙ n (2) y the north (Baruta) and south (Shaheru) [Sahama 1978]. where σy represents the initial yield strength that must This volcano is well known for its persistent lava lake be overcome before strain occurs, K is the consistency activity [Platz et al. 2004; Smets et al. 2017; Tazieff of the material (equivalent to the viscosity for a strain 1949]. The main crater is roughly 1.3 km in diameter 1 rate of 1s− ), and n is the flow index or power-law expo- with a lava lake approximately 250 m across making nent, which describes the deviation from linearly pro- it the largest persistent lava lake in the world [Sawyer portional (Newtonian) behavior.
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