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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM WOMEN TO THE RADIATION SCIENCES: A BRIEF HISTORY

Nicole E. Martinez*

This work highlights only a sampling of female scien- Abstract—Contributions from men to radiation are well known, particularly the early contributions from such luminaries tists, engineers, and mathematicians who have contributed as William Roentgen, , , Robert to the current state of knowledge and technology and is Oppenheimer, and the like. Although not ignored per se, beyond not meant to be a comprehensive history of women in the Marie and , the contributions of female nu- . It draws from many excellent biographies and bio- clear scientists are not as widely recognized. This paper provides a concise historical summary of contributions to radiation science graphical essays that the interested reader is referred to for from the discovery of radiation through the current status of in- more in-depth discussions and analysis (see works cited). ternational leadership within the radiation protection community. Beyond lead scientists and academics, this paper also considers THE WOMEN support personnel as well as the role women have played in the ad- vancement of radiation epidemiology. – – The early years: 1895 1930 Health Phys. 112(4):376 383; 2017 Since the discovery of ionizing radiation in 1895, Key words: historical profiles; epidemiology; Health Soci- women have made numerous contributions to the field of ety; radiation protection radiation science. Many of these women faced significant personal and professional challenges, particularly those liv- ing in the early to mid-twentieth century who provided the foundation of nuclear science. Early female scientists, and women in general, encountered many barriers in pursuit of INTRODUCTION their occupational field of choice due to their gender. Even exceptionally talented and qualified women had very lim- THIS PAPER presents a synopsis of the contributions women ited educational opportunities, particularly in higher educa- have made related to the broad field of nuclear and radiation tion. Also, even after receiving an advanced degree, most science. Studies have shown that having a role model to women had to take unpaid positions (Byers and Williams identify with is an important factor in the recruitment and 2006). For perspective, at the time of Roentgen’sdiscovery retention of women (or other minorities) in the sciences, of x rays in 1895, New Zealand (a British colony at the time) where women are still an underrepresented group (Dimitriadi was the only country in which women had the right to vote 2013; Young et al. 2013). Recognizing the historical contri- (Ramirez et al. 1997). Only two more countries (Australia butions from women, then, is important not just for the his- and Finland) granted women the right to vote by the time tory of science but for communicating the value of and , a Polish-born French and chemist, won continued need for . Beyond providing her second in 1911. Between 1915 and 1920, 13 stories of inspiration, considering this history of accom- more countries granted this right, with 20 more between plishment (and in many cases sacrifice) provides insight 1920 and 1945 (Ramirez et al. 1997). As France granted into how and why things have changed as well as the poten- women’s suffrage in 1944, Curie (1867–1923) was never tial for identifying legacies of past events in current situa- allowed to vote in her lifetime, despite the fact that she tions (Dimitriadi 2013). was, and still remains, the only person to be a Nobel laureate in two scientific disciplines (Greer and Tolmachova 2011). *Clemson University, Clemson, SC. The author declares no conflicts of interest. Marie Curie (née Sklodowska) shared her first prize, For correspondence contact the author at 342 Computer Ct., the 1903 , with her husband Pierre Anderson, SC 29625 or email at [email protected]. for their combined research on radiation and radioactivity, (Manuscript accepted 17 November 2016) 0017-9078/17/0 along with , who was awarded one-half Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society of the prize for the initial discovery of radioactivity. As DOI: 10.1097/HP.0000000000000646 an aside, “radioactivity” was a term first used by Curie in 376 www.health-physics.com

Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. Contributions from women to the radiation sciences c N. MARTINEZ 377 1898. This was the same year she became the first woman of viruses within a . Alper also had a broad range of ex- in France to receive a doctorate. Five years later, Curie be- pertise and experiences beyond radiobiology, which in- came the first female professor at the Sorbonne in Paris, cluded training and conducting research related to teaching having taken her husband’s place after his untimely death those without hearing, as one of her sons was born deaf in 1906. Soon after, she was independently awarded the (Hornsey and Denekamp 1997; Sime 2005). After her time 1911 for the 1898 discovery of at KWI, Alper returned to South Africa and married Max as well as the discovery and isolation of Sterne. Now married, she was unable to attain an academic (Sime 1996; Greer and Tolmachova 2011; Wirten 2015). position, so she and her new husband set up a laboratory in Although Curie is the most recognizable female radia- a garden shed at their personal residence. After a few years tion scientist, and arguably one of the most famous histori- in , the couple again returned to South Africa in cal figures in science in general, there were other women 1948, when Alper became head of the Biophysics Section who made related discoveries. For example, Harriet Brooks of the South African National Physics Laboratory. This (1876–1933), a Canadian nuclear physicist and a student of appointment lasted until 1951, when she was forced to , discovered radon in 1901 and in 1904 relocate due to her active and vocal opposition to apartheid. became the first person to observe nuclear recoil following The remainder of her career, as well as her retirement, was (Rayner-Canham and Rayner-Canham spent primarily in England. Happily married (retaining her 1992). She worked as a tutor at a women’s college for 2 y maiden name) with two children, Alper passed away just after that, at which time she became engaged and was shy of what would have been her 63rd wedding anniversary promptly asked by the dean to resign her position. Brooks (Hornsey and Denekamp 1997). found this ultimatum highly inappropriate, and the stress Many of the early discoveries involving radiation and of the situation led her to leave both the position and the en- radioactivity found medical or commercial use. One of the gagement. She worked briefly in Curie’s lab but ironically now infamous examples is the so-called radium boom. ended up forming a second engagement and leaving re- For a while, radium was marketed as a medicinal cure-all search, seemingly for the social and financial stability mar- (Cothern and Smith 1987), and even today, “radon caves” riage provided (Rayner-Canham and Rayner-Canham 1992; remain a tourist attraction in several areas (Harvie 1999). Byers and Williams 2006). A second utility emerged when it was discovered that ra- With a similar view on the supposed incompatibility of dium could be combined with phosphorescent material to marriage and science (for women, at least), Lise Meitner make luminous paint, with related patents filed as early as (1878–1968), an Austrian-born German physicist, never 1903. The first radium dial watches were sold commercially married and devoted her ’s work to ; starting in 1913, followed by a rapid increase in demand she was of the mindset that science required one’s complete for similar radioluminous products through dedication (Sime 2005). Meitner discovered protactinium in (Rowland 1994). During this time, more than 1,000 workers 1917 in collaboration with the radiochemist , (nearly 5,000 by 1980), mainly women, painted instruments who was also her close friend. That same year, Meitner be- with radium, licking the brush tip to get a fine point. Al- came head of the physics section at the Kaiser Wilhelm In- though such “tipping” was prohibited starting in 1926, stitute for Chemistry (KWI) and then a professor in 1919. many young women had spent years ingesting radium, in No other women were given permanent scientific positions some cases on the order of 40 mg (Fry 1998). The subse- at this institution during her tenure there, and only three are quent health effects had a significant historical impact on listed as authors on the institution’s publication list. Meitner industrial safety standards, and eventually (1941) a toler- herself never published with another woman nor graduated ance level for radium was established from dial painter data a female doctoral student (Sime 2005). A few years later (Rowland 1994; Clark 1997). Clinical studies of those ex- (1922), Meitner offered one of the first explanations (albeit posed to radium, particularly dial painters, have resulted in not quite right) for the Auger effect, named for the French major contributions to the understanding of radium’sbe- scientist Pierre Auger, who experimentally observed said havior in the body as well as the disease processes, includ- effect in 1923 and offered its complete theoretical explana- ing tumor formation, that result from ingestion of radium tion (Duparc 2009). (Boice and Lubin 1997; Fry 1998). One of the women who was a student in Meitner’s On the medical side, diagnostic radiography also led to section at KWI was Tikvah Alper (1930–1933), a South some significant exposures. In many instances, it was radi- African who would become a prominent radiobiologist ologists and technicians who received the highest doses due and author of the seminal textbook Cellular Radiobiology to the frequency with which they were exposed. Such expo- (Alper 1979). Her particular areas of interest included sure may have even contributed to Marie Curie’sanemic mechanisms of DNA damage, cell survival curves and the condition, as she served as a radiologist during World War influence of dose modifiers, and the and movement I (Byers and Williams 2006; Greer and Tolmachova 2011). www.health-physics.com

Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. 378 Health Physics April 2017, Volume 112, Number 4 Another group with fairly extensive exposures were were unable to formulate a comprehensive explanation of those being treated for in the mid‐1920s their results. However, the pair were awarded the 1935 No- through the mid‐1950s. Treatment at the time included col- bel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of artificial radioac- lapsing the lung with subsequent inspection using x-ray tivity (Byers and Williams 2006). fluoroscopy, which was repeated several times a month for had been observed by several groups, up to 5 y. This resulted in considerable exposure to the although it was not identified as such for several years. In chest. The increased risk of breast cancer in groups of such 1934, Ida Noddack (1896–1978), a German scientist, was women helped identify the breast as a particularly radiosen- the first person to suggest that the fission event might in- sitive tissue. Moreover, epidemiological analysis found that volve a large splitting into smaller . Without a fractionation of dose had little impact on the risk of induced theoretical basis or experimental verification, this predic- breast cancer, that risk of breast cancer remained high for a tion was largely ignored (Hook 2003). As an aside, Noddack long time after exposure, and that age was a significant risk also played an important role (along with her husband) in the factor with younger women being much more susceptible to identification of rhenium (1925) and technetium (1933), radiation-induced breast cancer (Miller et al. 1989; Boice which have found use in both therapeutic and diagnostic et al. 1991). These exposure scenarios are interesting from nuclear medicine (Biersack et al. 2015). a risk assessment standpoint, as each examination resulted Experiments conducted by Otto Hahn in 1938 revealed in a fairly low exposure, but the long-term continuation that Ida Noddack’s theory was true; fission did result in the of said exposures resulted in measureable excess risk. The splitting of the atom into fragments. Lise Meitner provided benefit to the corresponding risk estimates compared to intellectual input regarding these experiments, but having those from high dose scenarios is that they may be more rel- fled Germany 3 mo prior, she was not physically present evant to realistic exposure scenarios, such as those seen oc- for their completion. For related political reasons, she was cupationally or in diagnostic medicine (Boice et al. 1991). not included on Hahn’s corresponding publication. She In 1928, to address the health implications of effects did provide the comprehensive theoretical explanation for starting to become evident from exposure to radiation, the the experimental results in 1939, publishing her results International X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee accordingly (Sime 2005). It was this paper that first used (predecessor to the International Commission on Radiolog- the phrase “nuclear fission,” which was subsequently ical Protection) was established, consisting of only five adoptedbythecommunityasawhole.Hahnalonere- members (Taylor 1958). The Advisory Com- ceived the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discov- mittee on X-Ray and Radium Protection [predecessor to ery, even though Meitner had long been his collaborator the National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea- and her theoretical explanation considered seminal. De- surements (NCRP)], was established a year later in 1929 spite being nominated several times, she never received a (Bushberg 2015). Nobel (Sime 2002). The Manhattan District began to develop the atomic Pre-war developments: 1930–1945 bomb following ’s demonstration of the first Although the years leading up to World War II saw sig- self-sustaining in 1942 at Chicago nificant discoveries and progressions in the radiation sci- Pile‐1(CP‐1). It was just three short years later that the ences, this time was also tarnished by the rapid spread of first atomic bomb was detonated at Site, followed anti-Semitism (Rhodes 1986). Many scientists of both gen- by the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3 wk later ders were forced to flee their homes and institutions to es- (Rhodes 1986). cape ethnic persecution. Even the Nobel committee has The included in its ranks several been accused of interpreting a lack of productivity due to female scientists as well as numerous female support forced emigration as a lack of dedication to the field, color- staff (Rhodes 1986; Howes and Herzenberg 1999; Kiernan ing the prize results of that time (Sime 2013). World War II 2013). Among them was Leona Marshall Libby (née Woods, also marked the first attack using an atomic bomb. The road 1919–1986), an American scientist who was the only to the atomic bomb was remarkably fast, taking only 13 y woman in Fermi’s group at the from the initial discovery of the to fully develop (Sanger and Wollner 1995); she was present and reading and deploy. off her BF3 counter when CP‐1 first went critical. Libby The formal was made by had a long working relationship with Fermi (until his James Chadwick in 1932 by adapting experiments con- death in 1954) and was heavily involved in both reactor ducted by Irène Joliot-Curie (1897–1956) and her husband design and production during World War II Frédéric. Irène (Marie and Pierre’s daughter) and Frédéric (Kiernan 2013). were also close to discovering the positron and nuclear fis- Katharine “Kay” Way (1902–1995) was also an sion, having observed all of these experimentally, but they American nuclear physicist who worked on the Manhattan www.health-physics.com

Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. Contributions from women to the radiation sciences c N. MARTINEZ 379 Project in Chicago. Her major work focused on neutron photographic emulsions and the discovery of the pion. Blau fluxes, fission products, and reactor design, but she is pri- was nominated at least twice more for the Nobel but never marily known for her innovative methods for data handling received one; although there was evident, purposeful omis- and analysis. Way’s critical evaluation and analysis of nuclear sion of Blau from genuine consideration for these awards, it data (performed in collaboration with Alvin Weinberg) was is unclear whether this is based in gender or ethnicity (or a used in the design and construction of CP‐1. Additional the- combination of both). Blau’s situation was more difficult oretical work (in collaboration with ) led to than most, as Wambacher and at least three other of her an empirical equation for fission-product rate of decay, colleagues were members of the Nazi party and actively now called the Way-Wigner formula (Martin et al. 1996; worked against her starting in the early 1930s. Blau left Howes and Herzenberg 1999). Vienna the day before was annexed into the German The Manhattan Project also gave rise to the early days Reich. From then on, the remaining at the Ra- of health physics. Jane Hamilton Hall (1915–1981), a phys- dium Institute attempted to obscure any contributions Blau icist by training, was placed in the radiation protection made, even blatantly taking some of her work as their own group at Hanford during her time on the project because (Byers and Williams 2006; Sime 2013). her husband David was also a physicist, and a married cou- ple could not be in the same division. Hall worked on pluto- The : 1945–1980 nium inhalation hazards, instrumentation development, and The Atomic Age was the time of the Cold War, with monitoring of staff. She spent latter part of her career pri- many atomic weapons tested in the atmosphere, under- marily at Los Alamos National Laboratory working on a va- ground, and underwater throughout the world. However, riety of projects (Howes and Herzenberg 1999). this time also saw many other advancements in the radiation Although much of the work during this time contrib- sciences, from fundamental principles to medical applica- uted to the development of peaceful nuclear power as well tions. This section reflects such variety as new and different as the atomic bomb, work was also being done with other branches of nuclear science begin to form. applications in mind. For example, nuclear medicine began Gertrude “Trude” Scharff Goldhaber (1911–1998) was to grow as a field, with Edith Quimby (1891–1982), an a German physicist who experienced tremendous personal American medical physicist, considered as one of its foun- hardship in her lifetime, from having to eat bread made with ders. She pioneered various brachytherapy and internal do- sawdust during World War I to enduring her parents’ death simetry systems, and even added physics to the American in the Holocaust in World War II (Bond and Henley 1999). Board of Radiology examination in 1936 (Linton 2012). She left Germany in 1935 as soon as she finished her Ph.D. In 2011, the American Association of Physicists in Medicine and ultimately ended up in the United States at the Univer- (AAPM) named the Edith H. Quimby Lifetime Achievement sity of Illinois. The interpretation of nepotism laws at the Award in her honor (Rothenberg 2015). time prevented the hiring of spouses, so Goldhaber’s only Marietta Blau (1894–1970) was an Austrian-born option for work was to take an unpaid position in her new Jewish physicist who did quite a bit of work in fundamen- husband’s laboratory and shift her research focus to his tal . She worked for more than a decade at field: nuclear physics (her dissertation focus was in magne- the Radium Institute in Vienna, although her position was tism). It would be 15 y post-doctorate before Goldhaber unpaid. The first two directors of the Radium Institute would receive a regular, paid position on the staff at were known for supporting and encouraging women in Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL). She nonetheless science, with nearly a third of the scientists at the institute flourished and is said to have been very cheerful. One of being women. Blau pioneered the use of photographic her early accomplishments was the discovery that spontane- methods for imaging high-energy nuclear particles and ous fission is associated with the emission of events, such as those originating in cosmic radiation (Byers (1942), although this finding was held back until after the and Williams 2006; Sime 2013). were of particular war. In collaboration with her husband, she also demon- interest to Blau, and following the discovery of the neutron, strated that beta particles emitted in radioactive decay are she was able to quantitatively determine incident neutron identical to (1948) (Bond and Henley 1999; Byers energy through the resultant tracks of recoil protons. Her and Williams 2006). Some of her later work in nuclear most famous accomplishment was that she, with her as- physics was conducted in collaboration with her son, poten- sociate and former doctoral student Hertha Wambacher tially the first of that particular familial pairing in physics (1903–1950), discovered “disintegration stars” in 1937, collaborations. Brookhaven National Laboratory awards the paving the way for the discovery of the pion. Blau and Gertrude and Distinguished fellowship Wambacher were both nominated for the 1950 Nobel Prize to early career scientists in the couples’ honor (BNL 2016). in Physics by Erwin Schrodinger, which controversially Chien-Shiung Wu (1912–1997) was a Chinese- went only to Cecil Powell for his follow-up work with American scientist who is regarded as a founder of nuclear www.health-physics.com

Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. 380 Health Physics April 2017, Volume 112, Number 4 and particle physics. She made many contributions to the and radiation-induced hereditary effects in mice. In addition Manhattan Project (1944–1945), including providing in- to Lee Russell, many of the support staff, particularly sight into the reactivity loss experienced by Hanford re- technicians, were also women (Russell 2013). Oak Ridge actors (Byers and Williams 2006). Wu’s doctoral work National Laboratory currently awards an early career fel- (conducted at the at Berkeley) fo- lowship named in Lee Russell’s honor (ORNL 2016). cused on determining various properties of fission The Oxford Survey of Childhood Cancers was initi- products, through which she identified two of xe- ated in 1956, led by Alice Stewart, M.D. (1906–2002). Al- non (Xe), and her data was used to confirm 135Xe as a reac- though much of Stewart’s work remains controversial tor poison. Moreover, these data contributed to the reactor (Greene 1999; Wakeford 2000; Bithell 2002), this particular design process and the development of operational strate- study was the first to bring attention to the potential risks gies that became a critical contribution to the Manhattan of in-utero exposure to ionizing radiation and thus resulted Project (Howes and Herzenberg 1999; Lidofsky 2001; in the general adoption of alternate obstetric imaging mo- Benczer-Koller 2009). Most of Wu’s career was spent at dalities (Boice and Miller 1999). , where she initially worked on the (1906–1972) was a Polish- process for uranium enrichment. She American physicist who was the second, and only, woman transitioned to researching beta energy spectra, perform- behind Marie Curie to win the Nobel Prize in Physics ing elegant experiments that definitely confirmed the the- (1963) for the 1948 discovery of magic numbers and devel- oretical explanation for first suggested by opment of the . Her portion of the prize in 1930 and later modified and elaborated was shared with J. Hans Jensen, as they each independently upon by Fermi in 1933 (Jiang and Wong 2014). She is proposed the nuclear shell structure of the in perhaps best known, however, for her experimental work the late 1940s. The American Physical Society created the that proved is not conserved in beta decay (theo- Maria Goeppert Mayer Award in 1986 in her honor as an rized by Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang), publish- annual recognition of an outstanding early career female ing the seminal paper in 1957. The theorists were physicist (Byers and Williams 2006). awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics (Jiang and The NCRP in the United States was formally Wong 2014), but Wu was not included. Wu became the chartered the following year (1964). Both Edith Quimby first female president of the American Physical Society and Rosalyn S. Yalow were among the charter members in 1975 (Benczer-Koller 2009). (Bushberg 2015). The International Radiation Protection A charter member and the fourth president (1959–1960) Association (IRPA) began formation the same year and of the Health Physics Society (HPS), Elda “Andy” Anderson was officially established in 1965 with its first congress (1899–1961) was an American physicist who was instru- subsequently held in 1966 (Webb 2011). mental in the formation of the HPS as well as the estab- Rosalyn “Ros” Sussman Yalow (1921–2011) was a nu- lishment of professional certification for health physicists clear physicist whose research focused on medical applica- in the United States (Morgan 1965; Moeller 1972). After tions of radioisotopes. She became the first American working on the Manhattan Project, she became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in or Medicine chief of education and training in the Health Physics Divi- (1977), awarded for developing (RIA) sion at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in 1949 and which she shared with her long-time collaborator and and was well known for being a dedicated teacher and men- friend (Bauman and Langhoff 2011; Kahn tor. The Health Physics Society established the Elda E. and Roth 2012). RIA has found wide-ranging, far-reaching Anderson Memorial Fund in her honor, from which the Elda applications, from drug measurement and delivery to inves- E. Anderson Award was formed. This award has evolved to tigation of infectious diseases; RIA was truly revolutionary, annually recognize a young member of the society for distin- but rather than patent their discovery, Sussman and Berson guished contribution to the profession of health physics made every effort to make RIA accessible to anyone inter- (Kathren and Tarr 1974). Ironically, the first 30 y following ested (Bauman and Langhoff 2011). the award’s inception saw no female recipients; the first In 1972 Margaret Butler (1924–2013), an American woman to receive the award was Kimberlee J. Kearfott (cur- mathematician and computer scientist, became the first fe- rently a professor in the Department of Nuclear Engineering male fellow of the American Nuclear Society. Her career and Radiological Sciences at the University of Michigan) in was largely spent dedicated to the computational aspects 1992 (Kearfott 1992). Anderson’s appointment at ORNL of the various facets of nuclear energy. Argonne National happened to coincide with the establishment of the Mam- Laboratory awards a computational science fellowship to malian Genetics Section (Mouse House) at ORNL, led by early career scientists in her honor (ANL 2013). Liane “Lee” and Bill Russell. Among their many accom- Patricia Durbin (1927–2009), an American biophysi- plishments was the demonstration of both dose-rate effects cist, developed what has come to be referred to as the www.health-physics.com

Copyright © 2017 Health Physics Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. Contributions from women to the radiation sciences c N. MARTINEZ 381 Durbin model for plutonium excretion in 1972, using data 2012). Also in international leadership is Claire Cousins, an from human injection studies conducted by the U.S. govern- interventional radiologist from the United Kingdom. Taking ment in the 1940s (Durbin 1972; USDOE 1994). As an office in 2009, she is the current chairperson of the ICRP aside, Title IX of the Educational Amendments, which and the first woman ever to hold the position (ICRP 2016). banned gender discrimination in federally-funded educa- In the United States, E. Gail de Planque was a nuclear tional institutions, was signed into law in the United States physicist and health physicist who became the first woman the same year (1972) (Walters and McNeely 2010). Durbin’s to serve as a Commissioner (1991) of the U.S. Nuclear Reg- career focused largely on biodistribution and biokinetic ulatory Commission (NRC). She was also the first female models of various radionuclides, and she also made signif- president of the American Nuclear Society (1988). Her spe- icant contributions in the development and improvement cialties included, among others, environmental radiation of chelating agents (USDOE 1994). Durbin is one of only metrology and dosimetry (Cox et al. 2011). Shirley Ann three women to date to have given the Lauriston S. Taylor Jackson is a theoretical nuclear physicist and the current lecture (initiated in 1977) at the annual NCRP meeting president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She was the (2007), behind Naomi Harley (1999) and prior to Eleanor first African American woman to earn a doctorate from Blakely (2011) (NCRP 2016). the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1973) and Also in 1972, Dixy Lee Ray, a marine biologist by was the first female to serve as chairperson of the NRC training, became the first female and last person to chair (1995–1999) (RPI 2012). the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) (Ellis 2005). The year 2011 saw the tragic natural disaster and sub- The AEC was abolished in 1974 in favor of splitting its re- sequent nuclear accident at Fukushima-Daiichi. Although sponsibilities between different organizations to avoid a scientists researching in Fukushima are predominantly perceived conflict of interest (ultimately, these were the male, it is often women leading community support and ed- U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Depart- ucation initiatives, from public health professionals to com- ment of Energy) (USDOE 2016). Ray was also the first fe- munity members (ICRP 2015). One of the most notable of male governor of Washington, taking office in 1977. A these women is Ryoko Ando, of Fukushima Ethos, who is colorful, and at times controversial, character, Ray was a very active in promoting the collaborative yet autonomous strong proponent of public education in the sciences as recovery of the area (Ando 2016). well as the use of nuclear energy (Ellis 2005). The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) es- FINAL THOUGHTS tablished the Dixy Lee Ray Award in 1998 in honor of Ray’s dedication to engineering solutions for environ- There are many women, and many accomplishments, mental issues. The award is given annually in recognition not captured here, and there are also undoubtedly many of outstanding contributions to the field of environmental women whose accomplishments have been lost in the pages protection (ASME 2016). of history. The hope, however, is to have presented an inter- esting timeline from a perspective not often seen in radiation The recent years: 1980s–2010s protection. Although there has been tremendous progress in From the late 1940s, radiation protection began to societal reception of women in science since the discovery evolve to be its own diverse field. In recent years, the num- of radiation and radioactivity, and subsequently the number ber of women actively pursuing careers in radiation protec- of women in the field, gender representation remains un- tion and making significant contributions has increased even, seemingly due to lingering issues associated with prior dramatically, happily more than can be included here. As history of discrimination and stereotypes (Gillenwalters and opposed to specific scientific contributions, then, this sec- Martinez 2017). Most of the women mentioned here came tion focuses on the progress women have made in terms from supportive families and/or had supportive colleagues, of leadership positions within selected sections of the cur- which is a tradition that will continue to be important in the rent community. inclusion and encouragement of young women (and men) Z.M. “Nettie” Beekman (1927–2013), originally trained across disciplines. That is, there will always be a continued as a medical doctor and radiologist, was the first female (and need for recognizing and communicating that gender does ’ fifth overall) president of IRPA, serving from 1980–1984 not limit one s potential. (Webb 2011). She was also one of the founding members Acknowledgments—Financial support was provided by United States Nuclear of the Dutch Society of Radiation Protection (1960) and is Regulatory Commission Nuclear Education Grant #NRC-HQ‐13‐G‐38‐0002. known for being essential to the development of radiation protection in the Netherlands (Boersma 2014). The second REFERENCES female IRPA president behind Beekman was Renate Alper T. Cellular Radiobiology. (UK): Cambridge Czarwinski, who took office in 2012, some 30 y later (IRPA University Press; 1979. www.health-physics.com

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