International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 555 www.SID.irwww.SID.ir three main elements – the courtyard, the ‘’ wall and the – the courtyard, the ‘qibla’ three main elements later the basic plan for all – became roofed prayer hall design. a century of the death of Muhammad, the Umayyad Within in , had built monumental Al-Walid caliph house in Medina. Prophet’s of the site , and on the of the building; however, These retained the basic elements political factors became linked to religious factors so that mosque often refers architecture to the monumental state- sponsored mosques for Friday prayer. Jami congregational Muslims were content to adopt each local style that However, details, ornamental it in distinctive they found, modifying and introducing several important new features of plan and in non- 1961). Mosque constructed (Fletcher, structures can be grouped such as US and Britain Muslim communities - - into three types: Internationalist inclusive, internationalist (Biondo III, 2006). Others - exclusive and regional exclusive, see Muslim structures into two groups: religious (mosques, tombs and mausoleums) and secular (forts, palaces, gateways and gardens). In mosques, water represents purificationduring the passage world to from the profane to the sacred and from the real Sushmita Shrestha 2 Recieved 01.16.2014; Accepted 03.17.2014 Recieved 01.16.2014; Bijaya K. Shrestha, 1*

merging merging Architecture Mosque ’ wall perpendicular to wall perpendicular ’

2

E Archive of SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Though Muslims have been living in Nepal from the 15th century, they have started practicing practicing practicing they have started they have started they have started from the 15th century, from the 15th century, from the 15th century, in Nepalin Nepalin Nepal living living living Though Muslims have beenThough Muslims have beenThough Muslims have been SID of Archive ’ niche, was the ’ first community 3 Mosque architecture, Islamic culture, Muslim community, Secular Nepal. Secular Nepal. Secular Nepal. community, community, community, Muslim Muslim Muslim Islamic culture, Islamic culture, Islamic culture, Mosque architecture, Mosque architecture, Mosque architecture, (New Architectural vocabulary in Secular Nepal) Architectural vocabulary (New [email protected]

’ with a ‘qibla ’ 1 President, S (settlement-society-sustainability) 3 Alliance: Development Forum for Habitat, Kathmandu, Nepal. Alliance: Development (settlement-society-sustainability) 3 S President, 1 Researcher, S (settlement-society-sustainability) 3 Alliance: Development Forum for Habitat, Kathmandu, Nepal. Forum for Habitat, Kathmandu, Nepal. Alliance: Development 3 S (settlement-society-sustainability) Researcher, 2 Keywords: brotherhood among Muslim communities, learning place of Islamic education, besides their sentimental attachment. attachment.attachment. place of Islamic education, besides their sentimental place of Islamic education, besides their sentimental brotherhood among Muslim communities, learningbrotherhood among Muslim communities, learning of mosques and ‘’ of mosques and ‘madrasa’ with coexistencewith coexistence together together communities communities Muslims and other religious Muslims and other religious harmony betweenharmony between Social Social information, information, inadequate inadequate However, However, a unique situation. a unique situation. has presented has presented structures in the same vicinity structures in the same vicinity with Hindu religious with Hindu religious low low level level of of awareness awareness among among the the mosque mosque visitors visitors and and above above reverse this trend, reverse this trend, To To all all and Islamic culture. and Islamic culture. of mosque architectural of mosque architectural have hampered the conservation and developmenthave hampered the conservation and development lack lack of of government’s government’s specificspecific plans plans and and policies policies development of development of mosques mosques as and as and community development centre, incorporation of community development centre, incorporation of Islamic cultural Islamic cultural salient features of salient features of as well as in school syllabus and networking with domestic and as well as in school syllabus and networking with domestic and Islamic culture into local planning and building codesIslamic culture into local planning and building codes working for local development is suggested. working for local development is suggested. international organisations international organisations ABSTRACT: ABSTRACT: This paper aims to explore the potentialsThis paper aims to explore the potentials civil code in 1963. civil code in 1963. of newof new freely only after enactmentfreely only after enactment their religious activities their religious activities and and problems on problems on the existing mosques, the existing mosques, of of perceptionperception by by the religious structuresthe religious structures Muslim Muslim community and community and analysing analysing consists of consists of methodology methodology The researchThe research framework before drawing a conclusion. framework before drawing a conclusion. and institutional and institutional of existing legal of existing legal combination combination of of field field visit visit and and collection collection of detailed of detailed at at in Kathmandu and another ‘Masjid’ in Kathmandu and another ‘Masjid’ information, information,of ‘Jame Masjid’ of ‘Jame Masjid’ analysis analysis Detailed Detailed staffs. staffs. and municipal and municipal leadersleaders with local with local structured structured questionnaire questionnaire survey survey and consultation and consultation promoting promoting culture,culture, Islamic Islamic of practising of practising the centre the centre these mosques have become these mosques have become thatthat in Bidur reveals in Bidur reveals Bazaar Trishuli Trishuli International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development and Urban Architecture of Journal International 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, their religious activities freely only after enactment of new civil code in 1963. This paper aims to explore the potentials This paper aims to explore the potentials civil code in 1963. of new freely only after enactment their religious activities and problems on the existing mosques, of perception by the religious structures Muslim community and analysing consists of methodology The research framework before drawing a conclusion. and institutional of existing legal combination of field visit and collection of detailed at in Kathmandu and another ‘Masjid’ information,of ‘Jame Masjid’ analysis Detailed staffs. and municipal leaders with local structured questionnaire survey and consultation promoting culture, Islamic of practising the centre these mosques have become that in Bidur reveals Bazaar Trishuli attachment. place of Islamic education, besides their sentimental brotherhood among Muslim communities, learning of mosques and ‘madrasa’ with coexistence together communities Muslims and other religious harmony between Social information, inadequate However, a unique situation. has presented structures in the same vicinity with Hindu religious low level of awareness among the mosque visitors and above reverse this trend, To all and Islamic culture. of mosque architectural have hampered the conservation and development lack of government’s specific plans and policies development of mosques as and community development centre, incorporation of Islamic cultural salient features of as well as in school syllabus and networking with domestic and Islamic culture into local planning and building codes working for local development is suggested. international organisations

*Corresponding Author Email: axis to and or ‘ axis to Mecca its status in the dominant culture, financial recourses, functional functional recourses, recourses, financial financial culture, culture, dominant dominant thethe in in status status its its necessities, and necessities, and many many other other parameters (Serageldin, 1994), parameters (Serageldin, 1994), a mosque a mosque has unique and contextual has unique and contextual become architecturally become architecturally bonus. It is the ‘visible symbol of Islamic civilisation’s essential essential bonus. bonus. It is It is the ‘visible symbol of the ‘visible symbol of Islamic civilisation’s Islamic civilisation’s in a in a 1976). Due to differences 1976). Due to differences 1973; Graber, 1973; Graber, unity (Grabar, unity (Grabar, homogeneity, homogeneity, origin and ethnic origin and ethnic size, its cultural size, its cultural community’s community’s literally as ‘a place of prostration.’ Any neat and clean place place Any neat and clean Any neat and clean of prostration.’ of prostration.’ as ‘a place as ‘a place literally literally and can be and can be oriented towards Mecca can be used for prayingoriented towards Mecca can be used for praying as a mosque. Koranic inscriptions can be an added as a mosque. Koranic inscriptions can be an added considered considered INTRODUCTION A A A mosque, mosque, mosque, derived derived derived from from from the the the Arabic Arabic term term term ‘masjid,’ ‘masjid,’ ‘masjid,’ is is is defined defined defined place Any neat and clean of prostration.’ as ‘a place literally and can be oriented towards Mecca can be used for praying as a mosque. Koranic inscriptions can be an added considered essential bonus. It is the ‘visible symbol of Islamic civilisation’s in a 1976). Due to differences 1973; Graber, unity (Grabar, homogeneity, origin and ethnic size, its cultural community’s functional recourses, financial culture, dominant the in status its necessities, and many other parameters (Serageldin, 1994), a mosque has unique and contextual become architecturally 2009). and has imbued with cosmic power (Wiryomartono, provides a way of mosque architecture The art and technique of understanding the relationship between Islam and culture house The Prophet Muhammad’s (Kahera, 2002; Freek, 2004). courtyard by a large in Medina from 622 to 632, characterized front shaded prayer areas, which was lean, leading to a palm cool and had geometric order all was and above oriented towards the ‘Kaaba mosque (Lane-Poole, 1886). In fact, this simple scheme with the transcendent world. The rainbow as a symbol of spring community perceive this architecture in the local context, and rebirth represents the union of human and cosmological taking case studies of two mosques in Kathmandu and Bidur dualism: masculine-feminine, earth-sky, fire-water, hot- municipalities. It also identifies numerous potentials and cold, matter-light (Rodrigues, 2008). Geometric figures and problems including the analysis of the legal and institutional calligraphy taken from Islamic sacred texts have become framework for mosque architecture before drawing a Vol.4, No.2, Spring 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, mainstays of Islamic art (Ardalan, 1980). Typical of Islamic conclusion and proposing some key recommendations. ornament is the juxtaposition of opposite colours in large areas with analogous colours interwoven in minute areas creating MATERIALS AND METHODS ‘distinct colour sensation’ (Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 1973). Mosque architecture can be better understood by Henri Muslims’ adherence to Islam and their ethno-cultural Levebvre’s ‘trialectic’ framework – planned, perceive affiliation makes them unique in a predominantly Hindu- and lived, corresponding to ‘form, meaning and function’ Buddhist set up of Nepal. Muslim community comprising (Lefebvre, 1991). According to Lefebvre, the goal of a 4.4% (1,162,370) of total population of Nepal is the second mosque’s designers is to shape or reflect the perceptions of the largest religious minority group, next only to the Buddhists practitioner, but how a space is actually used or ‘lived’ cannot (CBS, 2012). The ancestors of the various groups of be controlled or predicted. Planning a new mosque project Muslims presently living in Nepal migrated from different involves choices about historical and regional references

International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International parts of South Asia and Tibet during three different periods. and the use of symbolically powerful and . According to ‘Gopalaraja Vamshavali4,’Kashmiri traders The shape of the , in referring to a particular time and were the first Muslims to arrive in Kathmandu during the place, can reveal a regionally specific or internationalist Islam King Ratna Malla’s5 reign (1484-1520), followed by migrated practiced within. A tall can signal a wealthy donor, from northern India at the time of Pratap Malla (1641-74) past victories of Muslim empires, or a contemporary clout (, 2004). They were engaged in business of carpets, in local politics. Hence, for the analysis of mosque in Nepal, shawls and woollen garments between Kashmir, Ladakh three interrelated aspects – form, meaning and functions are and Lhasa (Parmu, 1969). Malla Kings also invited Indian important. Muslims to work as courtiers, counsellors, musicians and As the available data and information on mosque architecture specialists on perfumes and ornaments whereas small states is limited and scattered among various agencies, this study of western Nepal employed Afghan and Indian Muslims to combines three different methods of data collection: detail train their soldiers to use firearms and ammunition during field survey, structured interviews and consultations with sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In fact, these Muslim local religious leaders and municipal staffs. It adapted a case and Arab traders introduced Islam in Nepal. The second lot study approach by taking two cases- mosque in Kathmandu of migrated Muslims arrived in Tarai (southern belt of Nepal) and Bidur municipalities – in detail. from India fleeing persecution by the British army during the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. These refugees were engaged in Detail Survey selling leather goods and working as agricultural labourers. The Jame Mosque in Kathmandu and Mosque in Trishuli Migration of Tibetan Muslims following the 1959 Chinese Bazzar, Bidur (79 km from Kathmandu) were visited. The takeover of Tibet, latest arrival of Bihari Muslims from India filed survey comprised of detail observations, examination and as well as refugees from Bangladesh in the post 1971 period documentation of physical items, use of spaces and their spatial have also added Muslim population in Nepal (Bista, 1985; linkages in order to understand the architectural arrangement Sharma, 1994). of the buildings, monuments and their constituent parts and Though the ‘Muluki Ain 1854’ (Civil Code) of Nepal meaning. The prayer hall in both cases was measured in categorized the migrated Muslims as ‘impure and detail. Various spaces and their linkages were also observed. untouchable,’ (Hofer, 1979;Archive Madan, 1995), the new legal With of permission SIDfrom Mosque management committees, code of 1963 provided equal rights for all regardless of photographs were also taken. ethnic origins and faith. As a result, Muslims also felt as an integral part of societies and started freely practicing their Questionnaire Survey customs and religious activities including construction of A structured questionnaire survey sheet comprising of all many new mosques in different parts of Nepal. The recent together twelve questions divided into three subheading was political transformation thereby changing Nepal from official prepared and then carried out the survey to about 40 Muslim Hindu state to secular one has further widen opportunities for people in each case. The respondent comprised of both mosque development, conservation and prosperity of Muslim cultural visitors on Friday (20 persons) and other Muslim community heritages. Among many religious and secular structures of living and working in the towns (20 persons). The questions Muslim communities, mosque has been considered unique asked comprised of both specific and open questions. As in many ways. Against such background, this paper aims to women generally do not visit mosque in both cases, their views explore the mosque architecture in Nepal and how Muslim were also incorporated by questioning them separately while

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 777 www.SID.irwww.SID.ir Prayer hall at Trishuli Bazzar, Bidur Bazzar, Trishuli Prayer hall at ,’which calls for a literal adherence to the Kuran and its to the Kuran and its adherence for a literal ,’which calls 6 adoption in the daily lives of the community members. Their members. community the daily lives of the adoption in of Saudi School Wahabi Al Hadith or the is close to doctrinaire comprise Valley in the Kathmandu Arabia. Muslim community of mix of people from various regions: Kashmiri, migrated even from Bangladesh at different Afghanistan, Iraq and India, from migrated they are mainly Bidur, periods. In the case of after parts of Nepal from different India who went to Bidur unification of Nepal by the then King Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1825. present present of of Mohammad Mohammad asas the the firstfirst All All ‘iman.’ ‘iman.’ the the three three floors floors at two levels have been dedicated at two levels have been dedicated with open terraces with open terraces together together for for praying praying at at the the Jame Jame Masjid Masjid whereas whereas the the firstfirst floor floor and and the the Form of the Mosques prayer hall prayer hall prayer hall comprised of rectangular comprised of rectangular comprised of rectangular Both the mosques Both the mosques Both the mosques to axis to axis to axis wall perpendicular wall perpendicular wall perpendicular by a ‘qibla’ by a ‘qibla’ by a ‘qibla’ (zulla) characterised (zulla) characterised (zulla) characterised niche in the to Mecca (west of Nepal) and a recess concave niche in the niche in the to Mecca (west of Nepal) and a recess concaveto Mecca (west of Nepal) and a recess concave front central front central front central of prayer, wall (mihrab) denoting the direction of prayer, of prayer, wall (mihrab) denoting the direction wall (mihrab) denoting the direction from () from from a pulpit (minbar) (minbar) of prayers (imam), a pulpit a pulpit space for the leader of prayers (imam), of prayers (imam), space for the leader space for the leader prayer on which sermon (khutba) is delivered at congregational prayer on prayer on which sermon (khutba) is delivered at congregationalwhich sermon (khutba) is delivered at congregational scared texts the Islam (Fig.1). Islamic Fridays, all interpreting scared texts scared texts the Islam (Fig.1). Islamic the Islam (Fig.1). Islamic Fridays, all interpreting Fridays, all interpreting forms were kept at the corner book shelf in both forms were kept at the corner book shelf in both forms were kept at the corner book shelf in both in different in different in different the commemorates the the commemorates commemorates The existence of ‘mihrab’ The existence of ‘mihrab’ The existence of ‘mihrab’ sides of the halls. sides of the halls. sides of the halls. present of Mohammad as the first All ‘iman.’ the three floors at two levels have been dedicated with open terraces together for praying at the Jame Masjid whereas the first floor and the district. Both these Masjids advocate the thought of ‘Deobandi the thought of ‘Deobandi these Masjids advocate Both district. School

Fig.1: Comparative study of mosques in Kathmandu and Bidur Bidur and in Kathmandu of study mosques Comparative Fig.1: Fig.1: Comparative study of mosques in Kathmandu and Bidur

Archive of SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Prayer hall of Jame Masjid, KathmanduPrayer hall of Jame Masjid, KathmanduPrayer hall of Jame Masjid, Kathmandu ground floor near the main entrance entrance main the near floor ground

Kathmandu, it is Kathmandu, it is only mosque within the whole Nuwakot only mosque within the whole Nuwakot the the Built by the Muslims migrated from the northern India from the migrated Built by the Muslims during the reign of Malla (1641-74), Pratap the Jame Masjid of Kathmandu was originally a Shia mosque, which was Ali Shah, converted into a Sunni Masjid by Maulana Sargaraz He Shah Zafar. a mufti of the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Hazrat came to Nepal with the entourage of Begum after the of Lucknow in Kathmandu took shelter when she The suppression Mutiny by the British in 1857. of the Indian old site in 1995. present mosque was reconstructed in the Bidur municipality Bazzar, Trishuli located at Another ‘Masjid’ with the Jame Masjid of Having linkage is also meaningful. Kathmandu, it is only mosque within the whole Nuwakot the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION RESULTS Formal and informal discussions were also carried out with Formal and informal committees mosque management municipality, of local staffs leaders and social organizations including local religious on the The discussion focused data. to generate qualitative problems faced by them as well as perception in their future changed context of Nepal. particularly in the present Consultation with Mosque Management with Mosque Consultation Staffs and Municipal Committee visiting their settlements in both cases. settlements in both visiting their top terrace are being used for praying at Masjid of Bidur. To used by the muezzin for calling the faithful to prayer five times a facilitate the prayers, ablutions fountains (fauwara) are located day. Such calling has been found unnecessary for the mosque at on the ground floor near the main entrance. Bidur due to presence of small number of Muslim community. The other element of the mosque, i.e., dome (qubbah) is not Meaning of the Mosques apparent here, whereas it is covered by first floor slab at Jame Vol.4, No.2, Spring 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, Islam believes in justice and fairness and has five bases: faith, Masjid. As it is the roof of the tomb and has nothing to do with prayer, pilgrimage, fasting and donation. Such religious belief prayer, this feature is not essential for a mosque. is significant in strengthening social bond among Muslim In the case of Jame Masjid, more than half of the respondent community, treating equality to all human, caring poor people mentioned ‘minaret’ as the most important element in mosque and sustaining cultural activities through personal donation. design with preference for dome by 20%, prayer hall by 10%, Nothing like modernisation has ever affected the people’s zeal colour and decoration by 5% (Fig. 2). However, 75% of the to remain hungry for a month and celebrate the end of it as a Muslims in Bidur mentioned ‘other’ such as orientation to great festival. Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of Roja fasting. On Mecca, symbol of Moon, were the most important in Islamic this day, they invite guests, eat various dishes together and buy architecture with only 25% preferring for the minaret. On new clothes and give money to hermits and beggars. the issue of building their own house, more than half of the Muslim’s obligation to perform prayer collectively expresses mosque visitors at Jame Masjid mentioned of ‘nothing special,’

International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International their strong sense of belonging to the whole community and and just required ‘neat and clean’ spaces (Fig.2). However, of sharing certain distinct, common rituals and beliefs. In about one fifth of the respondents are in favour of having a mosques, water represents purification during the passage well defined praying room so that female members can also from the profane to the sacred and from the real world to pray at their home in peaceful environment. Others emphasised the transcendent world. The rainbow as a symbol of spring on the durable building materials (15%), layout plan avoiding and rebirth represents the union of human and cosmological the location of toilets towards the west (Mecca) (7.5%) and

the location of toilets towards the west (Mecca) (7.5%) and dualism: masculine-feminine, earth-sky, fire-water, hot-cold, green and soothing colour (sufiyana) (5%). Similarly, the matter-light. Geometric figures and calligraphy taken from case of Bidur too, majority of the respondent (40%) felt ‘no Islamic sacred texts have become mainstays of Islamic art. special’ measures to be taken for construction of new house, Muslims always prefer to live in their own community and except the issue of neat, clean and durable. About one fourth keep contact with other Muslim communities from different of the mosque visitors would like to built their new houses parts of Nepal. In the case of Jame Masjid, Kathmandu, with a separate ‘praying room’ and ‘orienting’ the layout plan about 15% of the respondents were in touch with Muslims of building towards Mecca. Most of the interviewees who of Tarai and 5% mentioned of their linkage with Muslims of preferred to have a separate pray room in the future new house mountain. However, about 35% of Muslim in Bidur case has were of female members. somehow connection with Muslims of Kathmandu and 20% of Green colour has been extensively used both inside the prayer interviewees having linkages with Tarai Muslim community. hall and outside at Jame Masjid whereas it is applied at least The minaret (manarah) in both mosques has expressed the for the minaret in the case of Bidur. There is a light pink presence of Islam in the city. In addition to a symbol of social, colour inside the prayer hall and yellow cream colour outside imperial or personal prestige, they have also added the aesthetic the building. From the Islamic perspective, green has always value of mosques. The three storey minaret of Jame Masjid is been considered the superior of the four cardinal colours. located at the corner of the mosque whereas it is just erected Symbolically it is the sign of hope, fertility and eternity. from the terrace at Bidur. A separate low height tower has been refer to the sky as ‘the green dome’.

Archive Representationof of IslamicSID Preference in own house: Representationarchitecture: of : Preference in own house: a – dome m –mlayout – layout plan plan b -a minaret – dome n –npray – pray room room c –b hall/front - minaret yard o –obuilding – building material material d –c colour/decoration – hall/front yard p - colour/texturep - colour/texture e-otherd – colour/decoration q - otherq - other e-other

Jame JameMasjid, Masjid, Kathmandu Kathmandu Masjid Masjid at TrishuliTrishuli Bazzar, Bazzar, Bidur Bidur Fig. 2: Comparative study of elements of Islamic architecture and preference in own house .

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 999 www.SID.irwww.SID.ir

Madrasaat Bidur Want children to obtain: Want a-Islamic education only b-Islamic and other c-only modern education d-other Islamic education from: x-school y-parents z-other (home tuition) and and modern modern education to in education to in make their children competitive make their children competitive Only 10% of the visitors preferred to impart Only 10% of the visitors preferred to impart the 21st century. the 21st century. majority majority Similarly, Similarly, pure Islamic education for their children. pure Islamic education for their children. have combination have combination of the Muslims (70%) in Bidur also liked toof the Muslims (70%) in Bidur also liked to of and modern educations for of and modern educations for their children (Fig.4). their children (Fig.4). Islamic Islamic about 10% about 10% of of the respondents the respondents preferred only Islamicpreferred only Islamic However, However, 15% for only modern education. 15% for only modern education. and the remaining and the remaining education education The remaining 5% are undecided in this issue.The remaining 5% are undecided in this issue. and Coexistence and Coexistence and Coexistence Islamic Culture Islamic Culture Islamic Culture Representing Representing Representing Community Local With In fact, Mosque has played prestigious role by providing faithful people gather The shelter and refuge for the believer. there five times a day and every Friday on a The weekly basis. such as arches, domes and columns, of elements articulation decorating patterns illustrations and geometrical calligraphic While looking the mosque create a continuous sense of peace. either from the ‘madrasa’ (70%) or from their parents (30%). (70%) or from their parents (30%). (70%) or from their parents (30%). either from the ‘madrasa’ either from the ‘madrasa’ While asking While asking for for the educating their the educating their children, about 90% children, about 90% of of were in the opinion of continuing both Islamic were in the opinion of continuing both Islamic the interviewee the interviewee either from the ‘madrasa’ (70%) or from their parents (30%). (70%) or from their parents (30%). either from the ‘madrasa’ While asking for the educating their children, about 90% of were in the opinion of continuing both Islamic the interviewee and modern education to in make their children competitive Only 10% of the visitors preferred to impart the 21st century. majority Similarly, pure Islamic education for their children. have combination of the Muslims (70%) in Bidur also liked to of and modern educations for their children (Fig.4). Islamic about 10% of the respondents preferred only Islamic However, 15% for only modern education. and the remaining education The remaining 5% are undecided in this issue. Prayer’s hall at Bidur ’ (Fig. 3). ’ 7

Fig.4: Comparative study of views on Islamic education

Madrasa at Jame Masjid Jame at Madrasa Archive of SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Madrasa at Jame Masjid Prayer’s hall at Bidur Madrasa at Bidur hall at Bidur Madrasa at Bidur Masjid Prayer’s Masjid Prayer’s Madrasa at Jame Madrasa at Jame SID of Archive Fig. 3: Comparison of praying hall and madrasa at Jame Masjid and Masjid in Bidur at Jame Masjid and Masjid in Bidur at Jame Masjid and Masjid in Bidur Fig. 3: Comparison of praying hall and madrasa Fig. 3: Comparison of praying hall and madrasa Fig. 3: Comparison of praying hall and madrasa weak. Prayer’s hallat Jame Masjid

Jame Masjid, Kathmandu Masjid at Trishuli Bazzar,Bidur Trishuli Jame Masjid, Kathmandu Masjid at 22.5% 22.5% from their parents. Only from their parents. Only 17.5%17.5% of of the respondent the respondent The case The case learned the language from private tuition (Fig. 4). learned the language from private tuition (Fig. 4). educationeducation got Islamic got Islamic Here, they Here, they different. different. of Bidur is slightly of Bidur is slightly In the case of Kathmandu, about 60% of the mosque visitors mosque visitors In the case of Kathmandu, about 60% of theIn the case of Kathmandu, about 60% of the got the Islamic education from got the Islamic education from the ‘madrasa’, followed by the ‘madrasa’, followed by for increasing literacy rate among Muslim community. The The among Muslim community. among Muslim community. rate rate for increasing literacy for increasing literacy and other living expenses in these and other living expenses in these accommodation accommodation education, education, of most of most schools are free of cost, as the economic backgroundschools are free of cost, as the economic background along with provision of toilets and urinals. Many Muslims and urinals. Many Muslims along with provision of toilets along with provision of toilets local local withwith of Nepal together of Nepal together parts parts from different from different children children is is whichwhich also responsible also responsible students are studying at ‘madrasa,’ students are studying at ‘madrasa,’ ‘madrasa’ are are ‘madrasa’ ‘madrasa’ separatelyseparately located located at at On On Bidur. Bidur. the the ground ground floor floor spaces spaces guest guest and and store store office, office, – – rooms rooms three three are are there there Masjid, Masjid, of of Both the mosques have been used for praying as well as for as well used for praying been mosques have Both the propagating Islamic knowledge through ‘madrasa Functions of the Mosque In the case of Jame Masjid, it has rented its three and also uses in order to support half storey structures for commercial The Masjid and the running costs of mosque and ‘madrasa.’ are ‘madrasa’ separately located at On Bidur. the ground floor spaces guest and store office, – rooms three are there Masjid, of and urinals. Many Muslims along with provision of toilets local with of Nepal together parts from different children is which also responsible students are studying at ‘madrasa,’ The among Muslim community. rate for increasing literacy and other living expenses in these accommodation education, of most schools are free of cost, as the economic background of those students is weak. mosque visitors In the case of Kathmandu, about 60% of the got the Islamic education from the ‘madrasa’, followed by 22.5% from their parents. Only 17.5% of the respondent The case learned the language from private tuition (Fig. 4). education got Islamic Here, they different. of Bidur is slightly Prayer’s hall at Jame Masjid Prayer’s Madrasa at Bidur hall at Bidur Prayer’s Madrasa at Jame Masjid from Islamic cultural point of view, analysis of characters Majority of Muslim Communities Are Satisfied of spaces (interior space and the orientation of the qiblah), with the Present Management shapes (the dome and minaret) and symbolic meaning of More than two third of the respondent (70%) were satisfied with colours (green, gold, blue) is significant. As no Muslim empire the existing amenities and facilities at Jame Masjid (Fig. 5) and ruled in the history of Nepal, Islamic architecture in general reasons citied were smooth running of praying, education inside Vol.4, No.2, Spring 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, and mosque in particular is not visually expressive and in the mosque and central location. The remaining 30% showed monumental character. However, both mosques in Kathmandu dissatisfaction due to lack of extra facilities such as library and and Bidur have not only expressed the Islamic culture but information desk for non-Muslim communities. They were they are also best examples of how such religious edifice has also critical for lack of master plan for linking various blocks coexisted with the community and settlement of other religion. within the mosque complex. In the case of Bidur too, though Both the Masjids are located in the centre of the town and have majority of the mosque visitors (87.5%) were satisfied with been coexisting with the local Newari community in many the present state of the mosque and its activities, the rest were ways. Many mosque visitors can even speak Newari language critical of narrow entry point, poor lighting and ventilation fluently. There exist Rana period monument – Clock Tower and on the ground floor room and slippery lobby on the ground Malla period heritage – Rani Pokhari and Statue of Pratap Mall floor (Fig. 5). They also emphasised for need of neat and clean on the north and west sides in close proximity of Jama Masjid. toilets and non-slippery entry lobby.

International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International Both mosque and ‘madrasa’ in Bidur are located on the way In the issue of new mosque construction in future, the to Shiva and Ram temple (Hindus). According to the legend, respondents were divided. In the case of Jame Masjid, the Pratap Malla, the then King of Kathmandu provided the Kathmandu, more than one third (37.5%) of the interviewees present land of Jama Masjid and ordered the construction of did not specify any particular style but emphasised for neat and Mosque over there. The community bond between Muslims clean praying spaces looking towards Mecca (Fig. 3). However, and neighbours of other religion is more prominent at Bidur. 30% of the interviewees were in favour of building new mosque

The locals greet them on Friday and other festivals and remind based on local culture, followed by 15% for architectural style them of timing to visit mosque for ‘nawaz.’ The local non- of their origin destination. Similarly, about 72.5% of mosque Muslim businessman has also donated cloths and cash for visitors in Bidur also mentioned ‘no need’ of any particular children studying at ‘madrasa.’ The Bidur Municipality has also style in new construction except involvement of engineers and constructed the boundary wall from ‘kabristhan’ (burial ground technical persons (Fig. 5). The remaining respondents (27.5%) for Muslim) from its own budget. Another local cooperated were in favour of new modern construction for future mosque. by selling part of his land for opening access to the mosque. On the issue of future role of mosque, majority of respondents Such feature of mutual self-help between Muslims and other were satisfied with the present state in both case. More than local communities can be taken as an opportunity for further two third (67.5%) of the visitors at Jame Masjid were happy to expansion of mosque activities. Second, Muslims people in have both mosque and ‘madrasa’ running smoothly at present. Kathmandu and Bidur are very much faithful in the Islamic Another 25% of the visitors were in favour of adding more culture and religious practice. Huge gathering on Friday facilities so that it could act as a learning centre with praying praying and continuous donation has further demonstrated activity. In the case of Bidur, 70% mosque visitors were their strong commitment in this religion. satisfied with the present state of mosque and found nothing

Satisfaction with existing facilities: Archive ofm-yes, SID n-no Design preference for new mosque: a-mosque from place of origin b-mosque based on local culture c-modern structure Future role of mosque: x-satisfied with present status y-as an Islamic centre with other facilities Jame Masjid, Kathmandu Masjid at Trishuli Bazzar, Bidur z-other (do not know)

Fig.5: Satisfaction with the existing facilities, new mosque design and its future role .

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 111111 www.SID.irwww.SID.ir Bidur Unmanaged shoe storage at Unmanaged shoe storage at storage shoe Unmanaged Bidur . at Bidur Congested bedroom at madrasa Congested bedroom at bedroom Congested madrasa at Bidur in reading and understanding. in reading and understanding. Framework Framework Framework Inadequate Legal and InstitutionalInadequate Legal and InstitutionalInadequate Legal and Institutional with conservation with conservation with conservation and problems associated and problems associated and problems associated Numerous potentials Numerous potentials Numerous potentials of Masjids can not be addressed with the of Masjids can not be addressed with the of Masjids can not be addressed with the and development and development and development framework. Despite having framework. Despite having framework. Despite having and institutional and institutional and institutional existing legal existing legal existing legal historical historical historical significance significance significance and and and cultural cultural cultural attachment attachment attachmentlisted as neither both Jame Masjid and Masjid at Bidur are listed as listed as neither neither both Jame Masjid and Masjid at Bidur areboth Jame Masjid and Masjid at Bidur are of Muslims, of Muslims, of Muslims, maps. in the municipal maps. maps. monuments nor demarcated in the municipal in the municipal national monuments nor demarcated monuments nor demarcated national national As of these monuments has become a result, the conservation As As of these monuments has become of these monuments has become a result, the conservationa result, the conservation from involvement the task of Muslim people only without any The potential of social harmony between the government side. on commitment and Muslims’ Muslim and local communities Ancient building bylaws of The existing Islam is not realised. Act 1976 of Nepal do not speak anything on Monument amenities for synthesizing learning amenities for amenities for synthesizing learning and synthesizing learning and interaction among interaction among Islamic and Islamic and non-Islamic societies was non-Islamic societies was not not realised realised different different of awareness on future of awareness on future level level the the Third, Third, in new construction. in new construction. vocabulary of vocabulary of and architectural and architectural course of mosque development course of mosque development groups: groups: mosque visitors, mosque visitors, Islamic culture is Islamic culture is lowlow among different among different and Muslim senior citizen. and Muslim senior citizen. Committee Committee Mosque Management Mosque Management about the mosque and ‘madrasa’ about the mosque and ‘madrasa’ available available Fourth, information Fourth, information of of Nepal Nepal is is limited and scattered among Muslim community limited and scattered among Muslim community difficult difficult them them find find non-Muslims non-Muslims Arabic, Arabic, in in written written Mostly Mostly only. only. approach to the praying areas of the first floor from ‘madrasa. was the emphasis at Bidur, the Masjid constructing While on other design consideration with little hall on the prayer’s ‘madrasa’ plan and division of spaces in the The layout issues. the children used to sleep in a All also needs improvements. without provision of cupboards and single elongated room Their beddings and cloths were (Fig. cloth hanging facilities 6). The trend of keeping the iron corners. simply lying on the room is highly unexposed Concrete Cement rods of the Reinforced vulnerable to earthquake. are basically used for praying only. Second, both these Masjids The opportunity of and non-secular providing both secular amenities for synthesizing learning and interaction among Islamic and non-Islamic societies was not realised different of awareness on future level the Third, in new construction. vocabulary of and architectural course of mosque development groups: mosque visitors, Islamic culture is low among different and Muslim senior citizen. Committee Mosque Management about the mosque and ‘madrasa’ available Fourth, information of Nepal is limited and scattered among Muslim community difficult them find non-Muslims Arabic, in written Mostly only. in reading and understanding.

Fig.6: Numerous problems at Jame Masjid and Masjid at Bidur. outdoor praying at Jame Masjid Fig.6: Numerous problems at Jame Masjid and Masjid at Bidur at Masjid and Masjid Jame at problems Numerous Fig.6: Archive of SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive confusion for the mosque visitors at Jame Masjid of Jame Masjid of confusion for the mosque visitors at confusion for the mosque visitors at for cleaning hands and for cleaning hands and facility facility Water Water Kathmandu (Fig.6). Kathmandu (Fig.6). foots foots are are located located on on whereas whereasthe the one oneground ground can canfloor, floor, directly directly an artistic dimension by which the building itself must speak must speak itself itself dimension by which the building dimension by which the building an artistic an artistic both spiritual uplift and an both spiritual uplift and an providing providing to the local community, to the local community, has created has created construction construction Lack of master plan and piecemeal Lack of master plan and piecemeal social aspirations of the local community was was not fully realised. not fully realised. social aspirations of the local community social aspirations of the local community builds a mosque, the builds a mosque, the Muslim community Muslim community When an immigrant When an immigrant is is ThereThere also also goal shall goal shall a a be more thanbe more than suitable prayer space. suitable prayer space. opportunity to make these mosques as a symbol of Islam based of Islam based opportunity to make these mosques as a symbolopportunity to make these mosques as a symbol and and ethnic ethnic the the reflect reflect to to styles styles regional regional and and models models historical historical on on to be added. Instead, they were proud of the mosque being mosque proud of the were they Instead, to be added. rest, i.e., 25% of The district. the whole Nuwakot only one in future idea for any concrete did not present the respondents in Bidur. development of mosque Also, more than 90% of the visitors were satisfied at Jame Masjid for effectively Committee Mosque Management with the complex and within the mosque managing various activities maintaining neat and within clear environment the mosque good job despite Committee’s They appreciated the premises. constrain in land and finance. Only 7.5% of the respondents found some minor praying problems: the outdoor terraces in arriving in the mosque due to absence during rainy season; late and so on. In the system through loudspeakers of announcement with satisfied was visitor of percentage same the Bidur, of case for smooth running of mosque, Committee the Management of the remaining The dissatisfaction and ‘Idgaha.’ ‘madrasha’ lobby due to slippery staircase and entrance 10% was mainly and urinals. during rain and poor maintenance of toilets and few areas need serious consideration However, improvements, as identified during the survey and mentioned newly construed by respondents. First, as both Masjids are they could be more functional some 10-15 years back only, culture expressing the Islamic in terms of symbolically The the prayers. and providing comfort and convenient for of Islam based opportunity to make these mosques as a symbol and ethnic the reflect to styles regional and models historical on was not fully realised. social aspirations of the local community builds a mosque, the Muslim community When an immigrant is There also goal shall a be more than suitable prayer space. must speak itself dimension by which the building an artistic both spiritual uplift and an providing to the local community, identity. anchor for the community’s has created construction Lack of master plan and piecemeal Jame Masjid of confusion for the mosque visitors at for cleaning hands and facility Water Kathmandu (Fig.6). foots are located on whereasthe oneground canfloor, directly Confusing linkages at Jame Masjid outdoor praying at Jame Masjid Confusing linkages at Jame at Jame linkages Confusing Masjid erable to earthquake. earthquake. to erable mosques whereas the local municipality and Department of lack of government’s specific plans and policies. To address Archaeology does not have any concrete plans and proposals the present situation, the following strategic solutions are for the promotion of such unique heritage. No architectural recommended: design guidelines exist at present in the building bylaws for

Vol.4, No.2, Spring 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, conservation of mosque design. Instead of acknowledging the Development of Mosques as Islamic Cultural and Community mosque as heritage of Muslim community, the local government Development Centre: Numerous aspects of Koran and delayed the issuing building permit while constructing the philosophy of Islamic culture have a lot of relevancy in the Jame Masjid in the mid-1990s. There was a debate whether modern society of 21st century. Mosque architecture in Nepal new mosque construction should be allowed in the vicinity should be adaptive and assimilative rather than stubbornly where Malla and Rana period heritages exist. In the case of conservative. Moreover, it should encourage dialogue between Bidur, no permission was taken from the local municipality Muslims and non-Muslims by providing an interactive while constructing the mosque. The local government also did infrastructure to accommodate both secular and sacral programs not make any intervention assuming the importance of mosque within the same space. Mosque design should continue with the on Muslim community. past, while allowing them to execute spatial transformations in Numerous Muslims welfare organisations such as Ittehadual response to the social, political, economic and technological Muslimean Committee, Iqra Modal Academy, Islamic changes that take place over time. In addition to praying, the International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International Yuwa Sangh, Nepal Muslim Sangh, Bajme Adab and the mosque spaces should also be used for secular activities, such Muslim Seva Samiti, established after restoration of multiple as reading, learning, lecturing, discussing, playing, and even democracy system in 1991 and end of Monarchy system in the sleeping. In fact, such ‘elasticity’ of spatial use also represents past three years are more concerned towards safeguarding the the most important aspect of Islamic practice. Muslim identity, right and access to decision making process at

various level of nation’s development system. Such views are Identification of salient features of Islamic culture and mosque supported by Nepal Muslim Journalists Association, Al-hera design and incorporation of them into local planning and building Educational Society, Nepal, and Amir Islamic Association, codes as well as in school syllabus: Mosques and ‘’ Nepal. Although they make up 10% of the population, Nepal’s are now an established feature of the built environment of the Muslims are under-represented at the decision-making level city, developed progressively by the Muslim communities (Nepali Times, 2009). On the other hand, local Mosque to service their religious and social needs. Despite having a Management Committees have been engaged in running daily long history of Muslim migrants and existence of mosques in activities through managing the funds from various sources. Nepal, hardly any concrete study has been carried out from As a result, the agenda on conservation and promotion of architectural and cultural heritage perspectives. Same is true in mosque as cultural heritage of Muslim community has got little the government’s plans and policies. Syllabus of architectural attention even from the concerned organisations. The level of schools in Nepal also lack of it. In such context, research, awareness towards this goal is also low among the concerned development and dissemination of information of salient agencies. features of Islamic architecture of Nepal is meaningful not only to raise public awareness and community education but also to CONCLUSION add a new vocabulary in the history of Nepalese architecture. Detailed analysis of Jame Masjid in Kathmandu and another Such findings shall be incorporated in local building codes and Masjid at Trishuli Bazaar in Bidur reveals that these mosques public policy. have become the centre of practising Islamic culture, promoting brotherhood among Muslim communities, learning Cooperation, coordination and networking with domestic and place of Islamic education.Archive Moreover, social harmony between international of organisations: SID Despite social harmony with other Muslims and other religious communities together with religious groups, the promotion of mosque and Islamic culture coexistence of mosques and ‘madrasa’ with other religious at present in Nepal is limited to Muslim communities. Sharing structures of Hindus in the same vicinity has presented the information and data with government and other organisation unique situation. Architecturally they are not prominent with working in the similar field at local, national and international elaborative detailing yet they are representative of community levels will not only help to exchange problems and potentials with high sentimental value and attachment. Majority of the related to mosque but also assist to learn from the best mosque visitors are satisfied with the existing amenities but international practise. they are not clear on the future role of mosque. However, conservation and promotion of mosques as architectural Last but not the least, the commitment of Muslim in practising heritage of Muslim communities in secular Nepal is lacking on Islam and transformation of mosque design/ construction- behind not only due to lack of information and poor level new and addition of facilities to continue religious activities of awareness among the mosque visitors but also because of can be a source of inspiration for communities of other religions

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 131313 . In New www.SID.irwww.SID.ir Khumbu Himal, . de KATZ, Jonathan . de KATZ, , Vol. 32, NO. 32, NO. 93, UK: Vol. , . New Delhi: Manohar. Journal of Muslim Minority . Nepali Times, Issue 440, 27 Times, . Nepali The Art of the Saracens in Egypt. A A History of Architecture, on the The Formation of Islamic Art. Cities and Citizens: The Growth and Ethnicity: Its Problems and Prospects Prospects and and Problems Problems Its Its Ethnicity: Ethnicity: The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Journal of Affairs, 26(3), Muslim Minority Journal Journal of of AffairsAffairs Muslim Muslim Minority Minority

Indonesia and the Malay World Indonesia and and the the Malay Malay World World

Kahera, A. I. (2002). Urban Enclaves, Muslim Identity and Identity Muslim A. I. (2002). Urban Enclaves, Kahera, Lane-Poole, S. (1886). Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of . Oxford: Space A. (eds). (1995). Muslim Communities of South T. Madan, (2009). “Muslims Times. Nepali want identity, representation Rule in Kashmir, History of Muslim A Parmu, R.K. (1969). Military A. (2008). Islam and Symbolism. Rodrigues, Biondo III, V. F. (2006). The Architecture of Mosques in Architecture The (2006). F. V. Biondo III, (2012). National CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). B. (1961). Fletcher, Freek, C. (2004). Islamic Influences on Urban Form O. (1973). Grabar, O. (1976). Grabar, A. Hofer, (1979). Fletcher, B. (1961). B. (1961). Fletcher, Fletcher, Freek, Freek, C. C. (2004). (2004). Islamic Islamic Influences Influences on on Urban Urban Form Form Ardalan, N. (1980). The Visual Language of Symbolic Visual The Ardalan, N. (1980). L. (1973). L. (1973). N., & Bakhtiar, N., & Bakhtiar, Ardalan, Ardalan, D. B. (1985).D. B. (1985). Bista, Bista, of Mosques in of Mosques in Architecture Architecture The The (2006). (2006). F. F. V. V. Biondo III, Biondo III, (2012). (2012). CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). Ardalan, N., & Bakhtiar, L. (1973). The N., & Bakhtiar, Ardalan, Sense of Unity: Prospects and Problems Its Ethnicity: D. B. (1985). Bista, Nepal, A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854. Innsbruck, Austria: Universitatsverlag Wagner. America. the Urban Mosque in 22, No. 2, 369–380. Vol. Affairs, London: Chapman and Hall Limited. Blackwell, 1-67. and Power Society, Asia: Culture, ...” Constitutional Supplement Feb – 05 March. Kathmandu: Himal Media Private Limited. Publishing House. 1320-1819. Delhi: People’s CNAS Report, Kathmandu,13. the US and Britain. 399-420. Population and Housing Census – . National Planning 2011 on 4 (access in http://census.gov.np/ Commission Secretariat August 2012). Athlone Press, 17th edition. Method. London: the Comparative Centuries in Sumatra in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth CE. Routledge, 249-270. University Press. Yale Haven: of Islam, World The Lewis, B. (eds). in Islam, Urban of Culture and Hudson Ltd. Thames London: Population Population and and Housing Housing Census Census – – 2011 2011 on 4 on 4 (access (access in http://census.gov.np/ in http://census.gov.np/ Commission Secretariat Commission Secretariat August 2012).August 2012). MethodMethod Comparative Comparative Centuries Centuries in Sumatra in the Seventeenth to Nineteenthin Sumatra in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth CE. CE. Routledge, 249-270.Routledge, 249-270. REFERENCES 18-36. 18-36. Aga Khan d’Arquitectura, pp. Aga Khan d’Arquitectura, pp. G. Filadelfia: Premi G. Filadelfia: Premi The The Sufi Sufi Tradition Tradition in in Persian PersianUniversity of Chicago Press.University of Chicago Press. Architecture Architecture CNAS Report, Kathmandu,13.CNAS Report, Kathmandu,13. the US the US and Britain. and Britain. 7.The term madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educationalArabic word for madrasa is the 7.The term It (of any religion). whether secular or religious institution, place.’In and studying take ‘a place where learning literally means the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious study of the Islamic religion, though thisschool or college for the studied.may not be the only subject Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture. Study of Mosque Preliminary A Form: as Architecture Symbol and Self-Identity G. Filadelfia: Premi Aga Khan d’Arquitectura, pp. 18-36. Aga Khan d’Arquitectura, pp. G. Filadelfia: Premi The Sufi Tradition in PersianUniversity of Chicago Press. . Chicago: The Architecture

Archive of SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID SID of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive Archive inscriptions and other evidence has produced a fairly clear pictureinscriptions and other evidence has produced a fairly clear picture of portions of Nepali history. of portions of Nepali history. of solid documentation survive. Vanshavalis were based on orally were based on orally Vanshavalis Vanshavalis of solid documentation survive. of solid documentation survive. Although there is confusion about datesAlthough there is confusion about dates transmitted genealogies. transmitted genealogies. and chronology in each vamshavali, and a fair amount of ‘mythand chronology in each vamshavali, and a fair amount of ‘myth chronicles, chronicles, yet careful cross referencing between yet careful cross referencing between and fantasy,’ and fantasy,’ Gopalraja Vamshavali, the ‘Chronicle of the Gopala Kings,’ was was Kings,’ Kings,’ the ‘Chronicle of the Gopala the ‘Chronicle of the Gopala Vamshavali, Vamshavali, Gopalraja Gopalraja Gopal rulers. Gopal rulers.so named because it begins with a list of the obscureso named because it begins with a list of the obscure examples examples oldest oldest But it is from the Licchavi period that Nepal’s But it is from the Licchavi period that Nepal’s honours his gods, such as donations to temples or the founding of or the founding ofhonours his gods, such as donations to templeshonours his gods, such as donations to temples is supposed to be the oldest is supposed to be the oldest Vamshavali Vamshavali Gopalaraja Gopalaraja TheThe shrines. shrines. TheThe (1382-’95). (1382-’95). and was complied during the reign of Sthiti Mallaand was complied during the reign of Sthiti Malla of data for the reconstruction of Nepal’s long history. The mostThe most long history. long history. of data for the reconstruction of Nepal’s of data for the reconstruction of Nepal’s of kings, but othersof kings, but othersbasic of them vamshavalis are simple lists basic of them vamshavalis are simple lists actions to actions to ruler’s ruler’s provide details such as regnal dates and theprovide details such as regnal dates and the 4.Vamshavalis or chronicles have been the most important sources or chronicles have been the most important sources 4.Vamshavalis 4.Vamshavalis 1.The holiest place in Islam, a large cube-shaped building insideIslam, a large 1.The holiest place in mosque in Mecca the al-Masjid al-Haram Kibla, or Kıble Kiblah, Qibleh, Qiblah, as known also Qibla, 2.The be faced when a Muslim prays duringis the direction that should salat. It is fixed as the direction that indicates of niche, known as ‘mihrab’ mosques contain a wall the Kaaba in Mecca. Most prayer rooms will also contain a Qibla,the Qibla. Most multi-faith in appearance than one wouldalthough usually less standardised point same the towards praying all Muslims mosque. a within find to symbolise the unity of all Muslimsis traditionally considered Qibla has importance beyondThe of God. worldwide under Law The head of an salaat and plays a part in various ceremonies. is aligned with the methods animal that is slaughtered using ‘halal’ their heads turnedAfter death, Muslims are buried with Qiblah. right towards the direction of the Qibla. of a mosque that3.Mihrab is a semicircular niche in the wall Kaaba in Mecca andindicates the qibla, that is, the direction of the The when praying. hence the direction that Muslims should face wall.’Mihrabswall in which a mihrab appears is thus the ‘qibla which is the raised should not be confused with the ‘minibar,’ addresses theplatform from which an Imam (leader of prayer) congregation. or chronicles have been the most important sources 4.Vamshavalis The most long history. of data for the reconstruction of Nepal’s of kings, but othersbasic of them vamshavalis are simple lists actions to ruler’s provide details such as regnal dates and the or the founding ofhonours his gods, such as donations to temples is supposed to be the oldest Vamshavali Gopalaraja The shrines. The (1382-’95). and was complied during the reign of Sthiti Malla was Kings,’ the ‘Chronicle of the Gopala Vamshavali, Gopalraja Gopal rulers.so named because it begins with a list of the obscure examples oldest But it is from the Licchavi period that Nepal’s were based on orally Vanshavalis of solid documentation survive. Although there is confusion about dates transmitted genealogies. and chronology in each vamshavali, and a fair amount of ‘myth chronicles, yet careful cross referencing between and fantasy,’ inscriptions and other evidence has produced a fairly clear picture of portions of Nepali history. is not normally an ethnic designation or a 5.The name ‘malla’ wasand the name or ‘victor’ dynastic name. It means ‘wrestler’ The Malla king ruledactually adopted by the writers themselves. in Nepal from 1200 till 1769. 6.Deobandia is a term used for a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam (Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah). It is centered primarily in Afghanistan and Bangladesh and has recently India, Pakistan, Africa. spread to the United Kingdom and has a presence in South The name derives from Deoband, India, where the school Darul The movement was inspired by theUloom Deoband is situated. (1703–1762), while the foundation Waliullah spirit of scholar Shah of Darul Uloom Deoband was laid on 30 May 1866. and culture to continue their religious practices. to continue their religious and culture ENDNOTES Review, May/June, Vol. 88, No. 3, 106 Sharma, S. (1994). 'How the Crescent Fares?', Himal, Serageldin, I. (1994). “Regionalism”, in The Mosque, November-December, 37. (eds) Frishman, M. & Khan, H. U., New York: Thames and Wiryomartono, B. (2009). “Postcard from the field: A

Vol.4, No.2, Spring 2014 Spring No.2, Vol.4, Hudson, 72–76. Historical View of Mosque Architecture in Indonesia”. The Sharma, S. (2004). “Lived Islam in Nepal”, in Imtiaz, A. Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 10. No. 1, 33-45. And Helmut, R. (eds). Lived Islam in South Asia: Adaptation, Accommodation and Conflict, Social Science Press. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International

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