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Religion in Nordic Politics As a Means to Societal Cohesion an Empirical Study on Party Platforms and Parliamentary Debates 1988–2012

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Religion in Nordic Politics As a Means to Societal Cohesion an Empirical Study on Party Platforms and Parliamentary Debates 1988–2012 Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis Studies in religion and society 13 Religion in Nordic Politics as a Means to Societal Cohesion An Empirical Study on Party Platforms and Parliamentary Debates 1988–2012 Jonas Lindberg Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Ihresalen, Campus Engelska parken, Thunbergsvägen 3H, Uppsala, Friday, 6 March 2015 at 14:15 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Faculty of Theology). The examination will be conducted in Swedish. Faculty examiner: Professor Pål Repstad (Universitetet i Agder). Abstract Lindberg, J. 2015. Religion in Nordic Politics as a Means to Societal Cohesion. An Empirical Study on Party Platforms and Parliamentary Debates 1988–2012. Studies in Religion and Society 13. 143 pp. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. ISBN 978-91-554-9146-8. In this study, I address the relationship between religion and politics in the Nordic countries, 1988–2012, against a background of increasing religious diversity alongside more or less continuous relationships between church and state. My aim is to analyse possible changes in the way religion is referred to by Nordic parliamentary parties, and in the way these parties use religion as a means to societal cohesion. I use theories on religious change and on the motives for using religion in politics to discuss a possible re-emergence of religion in politics, with the help of concepts such as functional differentiation, glocalisation and politicisation. I apply different forms of content analysis in a mixed-methods approach, using both substantial and functional definitions of religion. The thesis is based on four articles published or accepted for publication in peer-reviewed international journals: First, a study on religion in Nordic party platforms from around 1988, 1998 and 2008. Second, a study on religion in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish parliamentary debates, 1988/89, 1998/99 and 2008/09. Third, a study on the role of the majority churches in the final Nordic parliamentary debates on same-sex unions 1989–2012. Fourth, a study on Danish and Norwegian parliamentary debates on the wearing of veils among judges and policewomen in 2009. The major findings are that the references to religious diversity in party platforms and parliamentary debates have increased, which leads to a more complex understanding of the religious cleavage in politics, and that right- wing populist parties in particular politicise religion to achieve political influence. Furthermore, human rights have been increasingly used to address religious diversity as a political issue. I interpret these findings as continuous use of religion for societal cohesion in Nordic politics, through a model of different forms of politicisation using the concepts civil religion, human rights and nationalism. The thesis contributes to a better understanding of the religious cleavage, politicisation of religion, the impact of globalisation on the political debate about religion and changes as well as continuity regarding the use of religion in Nordic politics. Keywords: Religion, politics, Nordic, Scandinavia, church, diversity, secularisation, globalisation, politicisation, cleavage, civil religion, human rights, nationalism, right-wing populist, privatised religion, content analysis, mixed methods Jonas Lindberg, The Centre for the Study of Religion and Society, Box 511, Uppsala University, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden. © Jonas Lindberg 2015 ISSN 1654-630X ISBN 978-91-554-9146-8 urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-241250 (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-241250) Cover photography: Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt (chairman of The Moderate Party) debates with Member of Parliament Jimmie Åkesson (chairman of The Sweden Democrats) in the Swedish parliament Riksdagen on 19 January 2011. Photographer: Melker Dahlstrand/Riksdagsförvaltningen. Printed in Sweden by Danagård LiTHO AB 2015 To Maria, Alva, Linn and Arild List of Articles This thesis is based on the following articles, which are referred to in the text by their Roman numerals. I Lindberg, Jonas. 2013. ‘Religion in Nordic Party Platforms 1988- 2008’, Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 26(2):121-139. http://tapir.pdc.no/pdf/NJRS/2013/2013-02-2.pdf II Lindberg, Jonas. 2014. ‘Politicisation of Religion in Scandinavian Parliamentary Debates 1988-2009’, Politics, Religion & Ideology 15(4):565-582. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2014.965693 III Lindberg, Jonas. 2014. ‘Renegotiating the Role of Majority Church- es in Nordic Parliamentary Debates on Same-Sex Unions’, Journal of Church and State. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jcs/csu103 IV Lindberg, Jonas. Forthcoming. ‘Values and Veils in Danish and Norwegian Parliamentary Debates’, accepted for publication in Reli- gion & Gender. Reprints were made with permission from the respective publishers. Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 15 One people, one nation – and one religion? ............................................. 17 Religious change ....................................................................................... 18 Research context ....................................................................................... 20 Aim and research questions ...................................................................... 23 Definitions ................................................................................................ 25 Religion ................................................................................................ 25 Politics .................................................................................................. 28 Previous research ...................................................................................... 29 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................... 30 2. Theory ....................................................................................................... 32 Background: The changing political use of religion ................................ 33 From a sacred canopy to a sacred narrative of secular progress .......... 33 The continuous relationships between church and state ...................... 34 New understandings of the secularisation theory ................................ 35 A return of religion in politics? ............................................................ 36 The impact of globalisation ................................................................. 38 Summary .............................................................................................. 40 Analytical tools ......................................................................................... 42 Article I: Social cleavage theory .......................................................... 42 Article II: Politicisation ........................................................................ 43 Article III: Functional differentiation, performance and cultural factors ................................................................................................... 45 Article IV: Symbolic politics and secular progress ............................. 46 Summary .............................................................................................. 46 Background: Societal cohesion and political legitimation through religion ...................................................................................................... 47 The use of religion to legitimise politics .............................................. 48 Religion as an expression of collective values .................................... 50 Religion used in a normative way? ...................................................... 52 Summary .............................................................................................. 53 Analytical model ....................................................................................... 53 Weak politicisation of religion for homogeneity: Civil religion ......... 54 Weak politicisation of religion in diversity: Privatised religion .......... 58 Strong politicisation of religion in diversity: Human rights ................ 59 Strong politicisation of religion for homogeneity: Nationalism .......... 62 Summary ................................................................................................... 68 Background and analytical tools for research question one ................. 68 Background and analytical model for research question two .............. 69 3. Method ...................................................................................................... 71 Definitions ................................................................................................ 71 Research design ........................................................................................ 72 Epistemological standpoints ................................................................ 72 A comparative approach ...................................................................... 73 The use of case studies ......................................................................... 74 Content analysis ................................................................................... 76 Material ..................................................................................................... 85 Context and the choice of empirical sources ....................................... 85 Party platforms ....................................................................................
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