diagonal arteries which had immense influence on Architecture in Sudan: his contemporaries. Kitchener’s plan for Khartoum (consolidated by McLean in 1912) was influenced The Post–Independence Era by the trends in England at that time—working on layers of the city established by the Turkish admin- (1956–1970) istration before him. Kitchener appointed Gorringe who went on to Focus on the Work of design a variety of large public buildings fronting on to the Blue Nile. Calling himself ‘Eureka’, Gorringe Abdel Moneim Mustafa described his work in Building News, 1902, under the heading ‘A New Style’. Inexperienced as he was, By Omer S. Osman1, Amira O. S. Osman2 and Ibrahim Z. Bahreldin3 Gorringe, with his ‘New Style’ approach, set the ground for the subsequent introduction of the Mod- ern Movement to the Sudan. His buildings showed HIS article is part of a study on the Sudanese social and political con- Islamic features of Byzantine legacy such as sand- text during the formation of the Modern Movement and the manifesta- T stone courses sandwiched between load–bearing tions in built form and spatial expression during the period 1900–1970. brick and pilasters integrated into the external The study has been on–going for several years and includes a literature walls with small balconies in between and plaster search, local surveys (of unpublished and undocumented information) as mouldings made of a mix of sand and slurry of Gum well as photographs taken by the authors, sourced from architects or pub- Arabic. Building techniques were commonly used in lished material. It is argued that the Sudanese response to the Interna- the buildings in Khartoum and other provincial capi- tional Style was in fact early experimentation in critical regionalism. tals during condominium rule were reinforced con- The most notable architectural heritage in the Sudan are the archaeo- crete slabs, supported on mild steel I–sections on logical remains at Kerma and Napata as well as the remains of ancient the roofs, and good quality bricks and roof tiles that Meroe about 180 km north of Khartoum. These cultures demonstrated were produced at Soba. Other features were sym- sophistication in building materials and construction techniques. Due to cli- metrical plans—similar to British colleges and public mate changes, political changes and religious changes over a large stretch buildings at the time and eclectic inclinations bor- of time (642AD with the signing of the Bagt Treaty–1898 at the demise of rowing from Gothic or Romanesque vocabularies. the Mahdist era) the qualities of the built environment became more tran- The plans of Gorringe’s houses have had substantial sient and rudimentary in character with a greater focus on manifesting tra- effects on later domestic Sudanese Architecture. 77 dition through body images, clothing and rituals that were not necessarily All Saints Cathedral (1909–1912) designed by Rob- tied to a particular physical location rather than through monuments. With ert Weir Schultz Weir also went on to influence the foreign interest in the strategic location of the Sudan, and as a part of the future of architectural practice in the country—Weir’s scramble for Africa, came specific stylistic and technical manifestations. buildings were characterised by simplicity of form and detailing and use of local materials. With these and budgetary constraints, Weir was able to develop Stylistic and Technical country in ruins due to fighting off foreign invaders, distinctive and highly appreciated building forms. Manifestations: the Influence of lack of sustained economic activity and political in- A new form of architecture developed during the Foreign Invaders stability. Local construction expertise and building the recession years around 1929 which included eriods in history perceived to have influenced practice had suffered. However, industry was flour- composite structural frames of mild steel and rein- Pthe development of a Sudanese modernism ishing in Europe, from which the dominant invading forced concrete slabs. The first reinforced concrete range from the Turkish era, through the Mahdist forces originated, where the architectural arena frame building in the country, and the first building era and the British Egyptian rule in the Sudan till was bustling with new ideas and a new Middle with a basement – was designed by Stefanidis, a independence. There was significant focus on Class was campaigning for better housing and more Greek contractor who came to Sudan in 1948. The construction during the Turkish/Egyptian era of humane working conditions. Thus 2 cultures and horizontal concrete shading elements that he intro- 1820–1882 which gave the central region its spatial vastly different conditions met due to the invasion duced were a novelty at the time. and physical identity. Khartoum is representative of Khartoum. of that era in layout and by virtue of certain iconic Several architectural movements in England in buildings. The Mahdiya state established in 1885 the late 19th century were oriented towards the Post–independence Construction led to the development of Omdurman in a unique abandonment of classical approaches. Ebenezer Industry in the Sudan manifestation of a typical pattern of Sudanese Ur- Howard published his book Tomorrow: A Peaceful he year 1950 marked an important turning banization. Settlement patterns revealed a dynamic Path to Real Reform in the same year of the inva- Tpoint in the economy of the country due to relationship between the Mahdist government sion of Khartoum 1898. Howard advocated the unprecedented high yields of the Gezira cotton policy, traditional practices and social interaction. creation of garden cities of limited size, combining harvest for the season. The construction industry Condominium forces, led by General Kitchener, de- the merits of the urban and rural life—some fea- also benefited from Atbara Cement Factory (400km feated the Mahdist army in 1898 and found the tures of his “ideal” plans are a rectangular grid and north of Khartoum) which started its production of Architecture in Sudan: The Post–Independence Era (1956–1970). docomomo 44 — 2011/1 Focus on the work of Abdel Moneim Mustafa Documentation Issues — docomomo 1 2 3 Portland cement of a high quality in 1948. This af- The Emergence of the Architectural which expressed architectural authenticity through fluence came as saviour for the colonial regime. The Profession in the Sudan reinforced concrete frame structures, free plans, government had come under strong pressure during s need for local replacement was accentu- free façades and wide windows. Unique roof shad- the recession due to demands for education and Aated, extra efforts were made for training for ing not only added dynamic visual impact but was health care—perhaps a cover for the real agenda— Sudanese to take over from the foreign officials. also able to create a good response to the prevalent independence and self–rule as people saw educa- The pioneers who shaped the newborn engineering climate. Many of Muller’s buildings were built by tion as a priority in the attainment of sustainable profession were Mirghani Hamza (1895–1973) and local builders using mostly local building materials. independence. So to address the need for numerous Hassan Atabani (1916–1997). Atabani became the His plans, while innovative, had much in common new buildings and construction projects, the British first Sudanese architect at the Department. He later with Gorringe’s plans. The focus on transparency supplied engineers in most cases, but builders were became the Chief Architect in 1950 and also held and lightness, maximisation of natural daylight mostly recruited from Egypt. Thus transformation the office of an Honorary Corresponding Member of rendered his contributions prominent examples of of the construction industry was achieved. the RIBA in the Sudan. the architecture of the 60s which had immense The political turbulence that followed the 1956 Gordon Memorial College developed to encom- impact on the Sudanese architectural scene. Pure, independence delayed progress in almost every as- pass several professional colleges, one of the first functional, dynamic, transparent and embellish- pect of life. Rebellion had already irrupted in south- being the College of Science and Engineering which ment–free forms were a source of inspiration and ern Sudan in 1955 – becoming one of the longest recruited its first batch in 1940. In 1947 the Gordon admiration for generations of young architects and running civil wars in history. Consequently most College was upgraded to a University College in a architecture students, many of whom had the op- developmental plans were brought to a total stand- special relationship with the University of London, portunity to get training in Muller’s office or on his still. Under such conditions, the new regime saw as awarding University of London external degrees. building sites. The heritage remaining from that 78 its main role the integrity and unity of the country After independence in 1956, the University of Khar- practice is still evident. – many times at the expense of development. The toum appointed Alick Potter, who then recruited During the early years of independence, the na- first Sudanese Prime Minister declared a telling four second–year engineering students to join the tional government became aware that, the capital motto that defined the priority of his government: new Department of Architecture in 1957. Abd ElMo- needed a Master Plan to replace Kitchener’s plan “to liberate and not to construct”. neim Mustafa joined the staff of the architecture of the city. By 1958, Doxiadis, the renowned Greek Under such conditions, the construction indus- department at the University of Khartoum in the town planner was requested to propose a compre- try in the public sector was one of the areas that mid–sixties and was the first Sudanese national in hensive town plan for Greater Khartoum. suffered most during the first four years of inde- such a post. Following the directives of Doxiadis’ Plan, the pendence.