Study Report on Wetland Agriculture and Water Management in the Mekong Region

Final report

(LOA/RAP/2018/57)

Final report

by Dr. Avishek Datta Prof. Rajendra P. Shrestha Dr. Hayat Ullah Asian Institute of Technology

Dr. Li He Dr. Yuji Niino

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok, 2020

Required citation: Datta, A., Shrestha, R.P., Ullah, H., He, L. and Niino, Y. 2020. Study Report on Wetland Agriculture and Water Management in the Mekong Region. Bangkok, FAO and AIT. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb0378en

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Contents Page

Executive summary v Introduction 1 Overview of wetlands in the Mekong Region 1 Socio-economic information of the Region 2 Importance of wetlands and water management 3 Threats 3 Wetland agriculture 4 Water management policy, incentives and technical tools 7 Background of the baseline study 9 Wetland agriculture and water management in Thailand 11 Introduction 11 Overview of wetland in Thailand 13 Current wetland management in Thailand 20 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture 23 Recommendations and moving forward 27 Case studies and lessons learned 28 Wetland agriculture and water management in Viet Nam 34 Introduction 34 Overview of wetland in Viet Nam 35 Current wetland management in Viet Nam 39 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture 41 Recommendations and moving forward 44 Case studies and lessons learned 45 Wetland agriculture and water management in Cambodia 50 Introduction 50 Overview of wetland in Cambodia 50 Current wetland management in Cambodia 55 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture 59 Recommendations and moving forward 62 Case studies and lessons learned 63 Wetland agriculture and water management in Lao People’s Democratic Republic 65 Introduction 65 Overview of wetland in Lao People’s Democratic Republic 65 Current wetland management in Lao People’s Democratic Republic 69 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture 71 Recommendations and moving forward 75 Case studies and lessons learned 76 References 81

iii

Executive summary The Mekong Subregion, with the Mekong River spanning the countries of Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, Myanmar, People’s Republic of China, and Viet Nam, is a critical area in terms of food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental aspects. It is a home to more than 60 million people, with agriculture as the most important economic activity in the region, owing to the rich natural resources and ecosystems found in the Mekong Basin. The Basin contains many and varied wetlands that perform wide-ranging functions and sustain key social, economic, and cultural values. Wetlands also play a vital role in supporting the livelihoods of local people, providing a productive environment for agriculture, aquaculture, capture fisheries, non-fish aquatic goods, and tourism revenue. Wetlands can be used to manage flood waters in the wet season and to improve soil moisture conditions. In agriculture, wetlands with regular water availability are used to mitigate the problem of low crop yields, especially in areas characterized by low and erratic rainfall, and frequent droughts. The Mekong River Commission (MRC) report (2016) indicated that, according to estimates made in 2003, Cambodia has lost 45 percent, Lao People’s Democratic Republic 30 percent, Viet Nam 99 percent and Thailand 96 percent of their original natural wetland areas. Under FAO initiative on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture, the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), as the service provider, prepared the Study Report on Wetland Agriculture and Water Management in Mekong Region study report on wetland agriculture and water management in the Mekong Region for further program formulation. The overall objective is to review the current water management in relation to agriculture and identify the good practices and experiences of water management as a win-win solution for agriculture production and wetland conservation and recommend program formulation on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture. The expected outcome of the overall initiative is sustainable use of wetland to stress both productive and ecological functions of agriculture. The outputs aim to provide the solution as a win-win strategy for wetland and agriculture through eco-friendly water management, which will contribute to the ecological health, function and integrity of the Mekong Wetland Agriculture Ecosystem. Country consultation workshops were conducted for Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, and Viet Nam to increase awareness on the issues of sustainable wetland management, and identify the threats, gaps and needs, priorities, and way forward towards sustainable use of wetlands in the Mekong Region. HIGHLIGHTS Inventory and map. A comprehensive inventory with updated maps can facilitate monitoring and classification of wetlands in the region. Most of the countries lack updated maps and latest inventory of the wetlands. An updated inventory will determine the demarcations and boundaries of protected sites and wetlands of importance. Policy and legal framework. There is no single policy that pertains to management of wetland agriculture, with legal framework governing wetlands management founded upon various pieces of legislations. This fragmented approach reflects the complex institutional framework and does not provide a clear legal basis for the holistic and integrated management of wetland. This resulted in overlapping of responsibility and poor communication and coordination among government line agencies. Current legislations and policy should be revised to integrate sustainable management of wetlands in agriculture, which could include mechanisms for benefit sharing, and strict compliance of penalties and violations. A single central agency could be appointed to serve as a focal entity for wetland agriculture.

Capacity building and awareness campaign. Awareness among the local community, concerned government agencies, and NGOs about the value of wetlands should be created to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services. Key focal personnel need to have sufficient capacity to carry out effective and efficient management practices such as livelihood skills, community organization functions, and resolving natural resource conflict. Trainings, workshops, benchmarking field visits should be organized for capacity building of wetland stakeholders. Research and extension outreach should also be part of the mandate of different government agencies. Moreover, such topics should be a regular part of the academic curricula from the elementary level to create awareness among the young generation. Eco-friendly agricultural practices. Unsustainable agriculture practices, such as excessive use of agrochemicals are a major cause of wetland degradation. Farmers usually apply more than required amount of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to increase productivity due to lack of awareness on the associated environmental and water quality issues. Pilot projects and demo farms can play a vital role in shifting the agricultural practices of the farmers. Technical support in alternative recommendations for improvement of the agricultural practices shall keep in mind the food security, farmers’ livelihood, and the ecosystem conservation and sustainable use as well. Improving the water management shall be essential, since water is the backbone of farming systems and wetlands are driven by water.

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview of wetlands in the Mekong Region The Mekong Subregion is a critical area in terms of food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental aspects, where one of the world’s great river systems, Mekong River, flows 4 909 km spanning six countries – China, Myanmar, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, Cambodia, and Viet Nam (Figure 1). The Mekong River Basin’s biodiversity is immense, even in comparison with other parts of tropical Asia. Its biodiversity is fundamental to the viability of natural resource- based rural livelihoods of a population of 60 million people living in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) (MRC, 2011). The Basin contains many and varied wetlands that perform wide-ranging functions and sustain key social, economic, and cultural values. Wetlands also play a vital role in supporting the livelihoods of local people, providing a productive environment for agriculture, aquaculture, capture fisheries, non-fish aquatic goods, and tourism revenue. In addition, natural wetlands provide equally important indirect benefits, such as flood mitigation, water storage, and wastewater treatment (MRC, 2014). Important wetland features include the Khone Falls and the braided river complex of Siphandone and Stung Treng and the Tonle Sap Great Lake. About 42 percent of the total land area of the LMB has been classified as wetland, of which only 56 000 km2 can be classified as natural wetlands; the majority of man-made wetland areas are paddy rice fields (Figure 2) (ICEM, 2012). Most of the 60 million people in the LMB live in rural areas and the most of them live near rivers, lakes, and wetlands. The collection of fish and other wetland products are very important for their livelihoods. The Mekong Basin has the largest inland fishery in the world, estimated at 2.8 Mt per year of which 1.9 Mt comes from the capture fishery, i.e., from the wetlands (Meynell, 2017). There are nearly 100 wetland sites, which have been identified as nationally and regionally important, that include 24 sites in Cambodia, 16 in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 39 in Thailand, and 18 in Viet Nam, of which 8 are located in the Central Highlands and 10 in the Mekong Delta (Figure 2). There are a total of 28 Ramsar Sites in the four Mekong WET countries, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Ramsar Secretariat, 2017).

Figure 1. The Mekong River flows through the six countries of the Figure 2. Map showing the major wetland types in Greater Mekong Subregion the Lower Mekong Region

1.2 Socio-economic information of the Region Over the last 20 years, the Lower Mekong countries have undergone varied economic growth and social transformation. In terms of socio-economic aspects, the wetlands in the Mekong Region countries are extremely heterogeneous and differ significantly from each other in their geographical size, number of inhabitants, types of economy, level of education, standard of living, political system or in relation to their cultural traditions and social practices. Being an upper-middle income country, Thailand has the highest industrial growth and reduced poverty rate. Thailand’s gross national income (GNI) per capita in 2018, at USD 6 610, was higher than that of its neighboring countries in Lower Mekong, with Lao People’s Democratic Republic at USD 2 450, Viet Nam at USD 2 360, and Cambodia at USD 1 390 (World Bank Data, 2019). In addition, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Cambodia still have low scores for many indicators on the United Nations’ Human Development Index (UNDP, 2016). Estimates about the range of demographic development of the Mekong region are varied; however, there is a consensus in the scientific discussion of the continuously growing population in the near future, reaching more than 90 to 100 million by 2025 (Institute of Technology and Resources Management in Tropics and Sub-Tropics, 2020). According to the United Nations Population Fund, the estimated combined population of the Lower Mekong countries (including Myanmar) was 242.8 million in 2018, with annual population growth rate of 1.12 percent in 2010–2016. The lowest population growth rate was recorded for Thailand (0.3 percent), followed by Viet Nam (1.0 percent), and Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic, both 1.5 percent. UN projects that Thailand will be the only country in the Lower Mekong to drop to negative population growth (–0.11 percent) by 2025–2030, as birth rate in the country continues to decline due to better family planning information and economic status (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2015). However, it is noteworthy that millions of people outside the Mekong River Basin (MRB) are presently dependent on products, which have their origins in the MRB, with rice as the main product, for commercial and household consumption. The Lower Mekong countries produced more than 109 Mt of paddy rice in 2017 (IRRI, 2019) with Viet Nam and Thailand as 5th and 6th largest rice producers in the world, respectively (Statistica, 2019). While a large percentage of this rice goes to local trade and remains within the countries, the region is also a significant exporter of rice to the world. Thailand and Viet Nam export the 2nd and 3rd largest volumes of rice, and Cambodia is the 8th largest exporter (Statistica, 2018). Consequently, the people living within this region have adapted their production techniques and their way of life to the given and seasonal varying natural conditions of the Mekong and its tributaries. Although urbanization is occurring in the Lower Mekong countries and there is a shift to industrialized agriculture, focusing on commercial cash crops for exports, 85 percent of those living in the Lower Mekong River basin’s population are still in rural areas, and rice and fish production of small-scale farmers still contributes to local economy and household consumption. Efforts have been made by the Lower Mekong countries in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); however, more than 35 percent of the population of Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic has incomes below the poverty line, with much higher percentages in many rural areas. Food security and malnutrition pose great challenges and inequalities are generally increasing between urban and rural groups (MRC, 2010; MRC, 2010b), which can cause strong competition as well as an increasingly unequal distribution of natural resources that can put a strain to the related ecosystems (e.g., forest cover, biodiversity, fish stocks, soil quality, etc.).

1.3 Importance of wetlands and water management The Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.” This broad definition includes inland wetlands (such as marshes, lakes, rivers, peatlands, forests, karst, and caves), coastal and near-shore marine wetlands (such as mangroves, estuaries, and coral reefs), and human-made wetlands (such as paddy fields, reservoirs, and fish ponds). Wetlands are a critical part of our natural environment and provide a wide range of services (Table 1). Besides, wetlands can be a vital link between land and water. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, wetlands account for about 45 percent of the total value of all global terrestrial ecosystem services (Boelee et al., 2011). Most wetlands – such as lakes, rivers, marshlands, mangroves, estuaries, and lagoons – host a wealth of biodiversity and support multiple ecosystem services. They protect our shores from wave action, reduce the impacts of floods, absorb pollutants, and improve water quality. They provide habitat for animals and plants and many contain a wide diversity of life, supporting plants and animals that are not found elsewhere. Different types of wetlands provide different hydrological regulatory functions, many of which are critical for agriculture. These include: water regulation (i.e., water storage, groundwater recharge and discharge, flood prevention by flow regulation and mitigation) and water quality control (water purification and retention of nutrients, sediments and pollutants) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In the Mekong Delta, farmers identified the ecosystem services provided by wetlands. Provisioning services included, in addition to rice, clean water, aquatic animals, wild vegetables, and fuels. Among supporting services, habitats for wildlife and soil structure, were most commonly mentioned. Regulating services such as pollinators and natural enemies to control insect pests and diseases were identified as important. Cultural services such as aesthetic values and festivals were not so commonly mentioned by the farmers, but still seen as important (Berg et al., 2017).

1.4 Threats According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), the loss and degradation of inland wetlands have been reported in many parts of the world, but there are few reliable estimates of the actual extent of this loss. Since the 1950s, many tropical and sub-tropical wetlands, such as swamp forests, have increasingly been lost or degraded. A global assessment of 227 major river basins showed that 37 percent were strongly affected by fragmentation and altered flows, 23 percent moderately affected, and 40 percent unaffected. Absolute measures of the condition of wetlands are hard to develop, given the lack of baseline information. Dams play a major role in fragmenting and modifying aquatic habitats, transforming lotic (running water) ecosystems into lentic (standing water) and semi-lentic ecosystems, altering the flow of matter and energy, and establishing barriers to migratory species movement. The degradation and loss of inland wetlands and species has been driven by infrastructure development (such as dams, dikes, and levees), land conversion, water extraction, pollution, overharvesting, and the introduction of invasive species. Global climate change and nutrient loading are projected to become increasingly important drivers in the next five decades (Figure 3). Agriculture has also been a major driver of wetland loss worldwide both through water use and direct conversion. Synthetic fertilizers have also caused excessive nutrient loads in some wetlands with impacts on fish and freshwater availability. Irrigation has diverted freshwater from estuaries and also reduced the capacity of rivers to transport sediments adversely affecting fisheries, reducing coastal zone protection and sediment deposition. Irrigation development and increased

water use upstream can have a devastating impact on downstream wetlands, particularly in arid and semiarid areas. The conversion of wetlands to farming use also continues relatively unabated, particularly in coastal areas. For example, in Asia, more than one-third of mangroves have been lost since the 1980s, mainly to aquaculture (38 percent to shrimp farming and 14 percent to fish farming), deforestation (about 25 percent), and to upstream water diversions (11 percent) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

Figure 3. Direct drivers of change of wetland loss and degradation

1.5 Wetland agriculture Wetlands include lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, nearshore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human- made sites that have been used for agriculture for decades such as fishponds and rice paddies. They provide a range of valuable ecosystem services, such as the provision of food and clean water, the retention of soil and the cycling of nutrients, among others. In addition, wetlands provide food and other agricultural products such as fuel and fiber directly through agricultural production activities that take place within wetlands, such as in rice paddies, coastal grazing marshes, recession agriculture, and aquaculture in large floodplains, and cropping of small seasonal wetlands. Wetlands also support agriculture indirectly, for example by providing fertile soils and reliable supplies of good quality water. Wetlands have an important role in supporting agriculture, especially since many family farming operations rely on the soils, water, plants, and animals found in wetlands to provide food security and improve their livelihoods. Thus, we can define wetland agriculture as wetlands used for agricultural production as stated in the World Wetlands Day Leaflet 2014 (https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/wwd14_leaflet_en.pdf). This can be further defined as:  Wetland ecosystems which have been converted to some degree but maintain a modified range of ecosystem services that support agricultural production. Examples include “dambos”, “bas fonds”, “inland valleys”, and other similar small seasonal wetlands in Africa; floodplains in which flood recession agriculture and seasonal aquaculture are practiced; rice paddies; and coastal grazing marshes.

4 Table 1. Ecosystem services derived from inland and coastal wetland ecosystems Inland Wetlands Coastal Wetlands Provisioning Food production of fish, wild Food production of fish, algae, and game, fruits, grains, and so invertebrates on Fresh water storage and retention of Fresh water storage and retention of water; water; provision of water for provision of water for irrigation irrigation and for drinking and for drinking Fiber and fuel production of timber, Fiber, timber, production of timber, fuelwood, fuelwood, peat, fodder, fuel peat, fodder, aggregates aggregates Biochemical extraction of materials from Biochemical extraction of materials from biota products biota products Genetic medicine; genes for Genetic medicine; genes for resistance to materials resistance to plant materials plant pathogens, ornamental pathogens, ornamental species, and so on species, and so on Regulating Climate regulation of greenhouse Climate regulation of greenhouse gases, regulation gases, temperature, regulation temperature, precipitation, and precipitation, and other other climatic processes; chemical climatic processes; chemical composition of the atmosphere composition of the atmosphere Hydrological groundwater recharge and Biological Resistance of species invasions; regimes discharge; storage of water regulation regulating interactions between for agriculture or industry different trophic levels; preserving functional diversity and interactions Pollution retention, recovery, and Hydrological groundwater recharge/discharge; control and removal of excess nutrients regimes storage of water for agriculture or detoxification and pollutants industry Erosion retention of soils and Pollution retention, recovery, and removal of protection prevention of structural control and excess nutrients and pollutants change (such as coastal detoxification erosion, bank slumping, and so on) Erosion retention of soils Natural flood control; storm protection hazards protection Natural hazards flood control; storm protection Cultural Spiritual and personal feelings and well- Spiritual and personal feelings and well-being inspirational being; religious significance inspirational Recreational recreational opportunities for Recreational recreational opportunities for tourism and recreational tourism and recreational activities activities Aesthetic appreciation of natural Aesthetic appreciation of natural features features Educational opportunities for formal and Educational opportunities for formal and informal education and informal education and training training Supporting Biodiversity habitats for resident or Biodiversity habitats for resident or transient transient species species Soil formation sediment retention and Soil formation sediment retention and accumulation of organic accumulation of organic matter matter

Nutrient storage, recycling, Nutrient cycling storage, recycling, processing, and cycling processing, and acquisition acquisition of nutrients of nutrients Pollination support for pollinators Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) 5  Wetlands that are dependent on continued agricultural activities to maintain their ecological character, such as mowing and grazing in wet grasslands. Many wet grasslands are also important for biodiversity and hydrological functions as well as for agriculture and freshwater fisheries.  Wetlands maintained in a natural state for production and harvesting of specific products, such as the Kakagon and Bad River Sloughs Ramsar Site in the USA, where wild rice beds are managed and harvested using traditional techniques.  Wetland systems constructed or managed exclusively for agricultural purposes may also have wetland biodiversity values, for example cranberry bogs, fishponds, or reservoirs originally built for irrigation, which also support migratory waterbirds and other wetland species. 1.5.1. Water quality issues related to wetland agriculture While recognizing the threats from agriculture to wetlands, which are well documented elsewhere, we must also recognize the importance of wetlands for agriculture – crop cultivation, livestock and fisheries – in developing countries, and the important role that wetland agriculture plays in providing livelihood opportunities (McCartney et al., 2010). Out of more than 500 000 km2 of Ramsar sites, an estimated 93 percent support some form of fisheries or agriculture, and 71 percent are facing threats due to these activities. The livelihoods and food security of most of the rural population are closely linked to the river systems and are extremely dependent on the river’s resources (e.g., fish, water, sediments, aquatic resources provided by the basin’s rivers and wetlands). Over 60 percent of the economically-active population having water-related occupations are vulnerable to water-related shocks and degradation, if the water or flow regime is changing as a consequence of natural (e.g., floods, droughts) or human-made factors (e.g., hydropower generation or population pressure) (FAO AQUASTAT, 2011). Conversion of wetlands to agricultural land can result in the elimination of the wetland ecosystems and species that are dependent on it. Fishes use the annual inundation of floodplains along the Mekong River and its tributaries for spawning and rearing, and have evolved to match critical stages of their life history to the timing and magnitude of seasonal floods. Salinity in parts of the Mekong River and its floodplain and tributaries can be altered in several ways. Some soils, particularly in the delta area, have high levels of acidic sulphate and, when disturbed, have potential to increase the acidity of surrounding and downstream waters. Pesticides that are commonly used in agriculture to control insects and other pests usually go beyond the place where they are intended for use, and enter receiving waters where they can cause ecological damage. Nutrients can increase in river and wetland areas as a result of fertilizers commonly used in agriculture and from other sources such as domestic waste. Irrigation works can create environments that are suitable for proliferation of parasites, by creating seasonal water at locations and times it did not previously occur. Yet experience and observations from many wetlands show that it is indeed possible to find mutual benefits for agriculture and wetlands, particularly when local solutions are implemented using local knowledge, within larger integrated planning efforts, which

include agricultural practices that reduce impacts on wetland degradation; development of multifunctional agroecosystems, which are managed to provide the broadest possible range of wetland ecosystem services; and restoration of wetlands to provide functions and services in agricultural landscapes. 1.5.2. Impacts of agriculture on wetlands The unsustainable water management and poorly managed agriculture can negatively impact wetlands. This can lead to degradation of the characteristics of wetland ecology and the possible permanent loss of its ecosystem services. These unsustainable practices can impact the following aspects of wetlands:

 Water quantity: Decreases in flows due to the building of dams and abstraction of surface water and groundwater for irrigation or other purposes, increases in river flows or water levels due to irrigation return flows or dam releases, and changes in the timing and patterns of river flows can all significantly alter and sometimes damage the ecological character of wetlands. Many coastal wetlands depend on the nutrients and sediments carried down by rivers to maintain their ecological character.  Water quality: Intensive agriculture activities including intensive aquaculture often lead to increased loads of pollutants such as pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, and disinfectants. Not only do these affect the ecological character of both inland and coastal wetlands, they also have impacts on human health and the quality of drinking water supplied from wetlands.  Wetland conversion and disturbance: Agricultural activities which can disturb wetland functions and ecosystem services include the drainage and conversion of wetlands to cultivated land or aquaculture; the introduction of invasive plant and animal species; the introduction of human and animal disease vectors; and the disturbance of breeding, migration, and feeding patterns of wetland fauna. For example, the rapid expansion of intensive shrimp farming has contributed to the loss of large areas of coastal wetlands in several countries and has resulted in soil salinization problem with an associated loss of wetland ecosystem services such as coastal storm protection, fisheries, and mangrove forest products. Thus, wetlands and the ecosystem services they offer should be wisely used in the context of agricultural production, finding a balance between the interaction of wetland ecosystem services and agricultural practices.

1.6 Water management policy, incentives and technical tools Water resources management directly affects ecosystem health, and, in many cases, ecosystem health underpins critical services for clean and stable water resources. Finding effective solutions to balance the interaction between wetland and agriculture considering the immense role of wetlands in maintaining and enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security is of paramount importance. Few management solutions addressing the negative impacts of unsustainable wetland agriculture need to consider the prevailing climate, available wetlands, current agricultural practices and communities in the region. 1.6.1. Water management policy Integrated water resources management: Combining an ecosystem services approach with Integrated water resources management would help achieve social equity, economic efficiency, and ecosystem sustainability. Adopting an integrated approach to water management that considers the whole catchment, its land use, water sources (rainwater,

surface water, and groundwater) and sinks (enhancing infiltration and percolation with trees), and wetland ecosystems is important in order to balance water requirements among different ecological processes of wetland ecosystem services. A whole-of-catchment approach is critical for preventing or managing changes to water regimes, salinity, excess nutrient runoff, sedimentation, and rising water tables that may result from catchment-wide practices such as land clearing, irrigation, stock management, and use of fertilizers.

Ecosystem approach: The ecosystem approach, as articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention, has been developed as an overall strategy for integrated environmental management promoting conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It focuses on managing environmental resources and human needs across landscapes and is a response to the tendency of managing ecosystems for a single good or services, trying to balance tradeoffs to both human well- being and ecosystem services. The ecosystem approach has been applied to health issues, recognizing the complex link between humans and their biophysical, social, and economic environments as well as the link to groundwater management. Sustainable agricultural practices: Practices that use wetlands more wisely for sustainable production while at the same time enhancing the natural resource base such as the application of integrated pest management to reduce pesticides dependency, conservation tillage, and organic farming to reduce pollutant loads entering waterways. Promoting agricultural practices that reduce the need to use water from wetlands: Examples include the planting of drought tolerant crop varieties, reusing water including wastewater, and implementing more efficient irrigation. There are many water management technologies and practices that could increase the productivity and resilience of agroecosystems while enhancing other ecosystem services, such as rainwater harvesting, soil management to facilitate rainfall infiltration and conserve nutrients, drip irrigation, cultivation of water-conserving resilient multipurpose (e.g., food/feed) tree-crop mixtures, maintaining year-round soil cover, as well as hedges, tree rows and other vegetation corridors.

1.6.2. Payment for ecosystem services Wetland ecosystem services other than agricultural production also have economic value, for example in reducing peak flood flows or protecting the quality of drinking water supplies. In many countries, farmers are paid by downstream beneficiaries to provide these services. In the Tualatin watershed (USA), a local water utility pays farmers to restore riparian vegetation in order to generate shade over the river – this cools the water and offsets the temperature impact of the water treatment plant’s discharge as well as improving stream habitat for salmon. This in turn helps farmers keep their lands in production while also diversifying their revenues. Payment for ecosystem services (PES) is a new approach that has seen growing interest in conservation. PES is defined by Wunder (2005) as “a voluntary transaction where a well-defined environmental service or a land use likely to secure that service is being ‘bought’ by a minimum of one service buyer from a minimum of one service provider if and only if the service provider secures service provision (conditionality). There is a growing interest in using the PES approach in conservation, especially in the classical case of watershed protection. It emerged when it was becoming obvious that, as a result of budget constraints in many jurisdictions, the common approach (e.g., command-and- control measures) could not provide enough funds for conservation from government sources. PES can provide a new source of funding, especially if the private sector and

service-providing communities can improve their livelihoods from investing their funds in this way (Wunder et al., 2008).

1.6.3. Tools for ecosystem management Water accounting in river basin scale can reveal opportunities for real water savings, free up water for ecosystems and ensure that initiatives to improve water use efficiency in agriculture, which reduce the amount of water returning to the system, do not end up hurting downstream users (Boelee et al., 2011). Environmental flows need to be assessed at the river basin level and maintained for important ecosystems. In addition, resource users such as farmers, pastoralists, environmentalists, fishers, and domestic users need to be brought together in a common management arrangement to resolve conflicts between competing users and promote greater social and gender equity.

Other important tools in managing water for ecosystems and ecosystems for water include: economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis of ecosystem services, assessment of environmental flows, risk and vulnerability assessment, strategic and environmental impact assessment, and probability-based modeling. It is important to consider the different impacts on men and women, particularly when carrying out a cost-benefit analysis of ecosystem services.

1.7 Background of the baseline study Wetlands, such as marshes, rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, and other coastal and inland habitats, have many important functions. Wetlands provide productive environments for rice cultivation and fisheries as well as for other forms of agriculture, aquaculture, and tourism. They regulate water flows, support fisheries, provide clean water, store carbon, and reduce disaster risk by acting as natural buffers against erosion and the impact of floods, tsunamis, and landslides. Wetlands also provide habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna (IUCN, 2017). The problem of wetland loss was indicated by SDG6 2018 monitoring report, which highlighted that 70 percent of global natural wetlands have been lost in the last century, with profound impacts on economic development and social and environmental stability. The MRC report (2016) indicated that, according to estimates made in 2003, Cambodia has lost 45 percent, Lao People’s Democratic Republic 30 percent, Viet Nam 99 percent, and Thailand 96 percent of their original natural wetland areas. The Mekong Countries have been experiencing rapid development and sharing the common problems, which result from this development – natural resource degradation, ecosystem deterioration, and biodiversity loss, damaging the agricultural production, and people’s well-being. Wood and van Halsema (2008) collected 90 cases globally on agriculture-wetland interactions, which indicated agriculture (notably the unsustainable water management) as one of the major causes of the pressure on wetland. However, agriculture could still be a part of a water-saving solution. With the initiative on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture, FAO is well positioned to take agriculture as the entry point. The scope of the wetland agriculture for this study is defined to cover different categories, which are classified by the nature of wetlands, such as natural wetlands, artificial wetlands, or semi artificial wetlands. The Ramsar Convention (wetland convention) uses a broad definition of wetlands, which includes lakes, rivers, swamps, peatlands, estuaries, rice paddies, coral reefs, mudflats, water reservoirs, and constructed wetlands. Wetlands do not need to be permanently inundated. The mentioned categories of wetland agriculture could indicate that agriculture was built within/attach the natural wetland, or it’s the artificial paddy field/aquaculture, both of them are based on wetland landscape.

The eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture could be the starting point for the wetland agriculture interface. The eco-friendly water management is targeting the water ecosystem integrity, which includes water quality, hydrologic regime, habitat, biotic composition, and connectivity. Apart from water saving, the eco-friendly water management covers more managerial aspects, such as water security, water ecology, water quality, water administration, water culture, and education. The baseline study on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture under the FAO initiative, with AIT as a service provider, is going to provide the baseline information for further program formulation. The expected outcome of the overall initiative is sustainable use of wetland to stress both productive and ecological functions of agriculture. The outputs are aiming to provide the solution as a win-win strategy for wetland and agriculture through eco-friendly water management, which will contribute to the ecological health, function and integrity of the Mekong Wetland Agriculture Ecosystems. 1.7.1 Objectives of the baseline study a) Identify good practices and experiences of water management with a win-win situation for agriculture production and wetland protection. b) Analyze the policy, the institutional setting, the stakeholders, the gaps, and the problems of water management for sustainable wetland agriculture in Mekong. c) Provide recommendations for program formulation on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture as well as for institutional and policy advice.

1.7.2 Design and methodology The report focuses on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture in Mekong. With a heuristic research design, this report uses content analyses of identifying impacts, scope, policy, stakeholder analysis, and good practices of water management for both wetland and agriculture through review of secondary data from existing national reports, surveys, and online database, and by way of consultation for interview and focus group discussion. The analysis includes the overall assessment and provision of policy recommendations for sustainable wetland agriculture in the Lower Mekong Region. Four country consultations were conducted in Bangkok, Thailand; Hanoi, Viet Nam; Phnom Penh, Cambodia; and, Vientiane, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The objectives of the consultation workshop were to (i) share FAO initiative and present the on-going baseline study on eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture with the stakeholders, (ii) share the country’s experiences, good practices and identify the gaps, needs, and the priorities for program formulation, (iii) present and review the legislation, the policy, and the institutional setting (iv) provide recommendations. The consultation workshop included presentations from different line agencies concerned with agriculture, water, and wetland management. An interactive focus group discussion was done to come up with a win-win solution to eco-friendly water management for sustainable wetland agriculture.

2. WETLAND AGRICULTURE AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN THAILAND

Banky45 ©

Figure 4. A vast lake full of pink water lilies inTalay Noi Wetlands, Phatthalung, Thailand

2.1 Introduction Thailand is centrally located in mainland Southeast Asia between 5°37’ and 20°30’ latitude N and 97°20’ and 105°39’ longitude E. The country’s total area is 514 100 km2. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2 590 m on Doi Inthanon near the northwestern boundary with Myanmar. The country has large tracts of cultivated lands covering over 50 percent of total land area (Land Development Department, 2001). Over the last four decades, Thailand has made remarkable progress in social and economic development, moving from a low-income country to an upper-income country in less than a generation. As such, Thailand has been one of the widely cited development success stories, with sustained strong growth and impressive poverty reduction, particularly in the 1980s. Thailand’s economy grew at an average annual rate of 7.5 percent in the boom years of 1960 to 1996 and 5 percent following the Asian Financial Crisis during 1999–2005, creating millions of jobs that helped pull millions of people out of poverty. Gains along multiple dimensions of welfare have been impressive: more children are now getting more years of education and virtually everyone is now covered by health insurance, while other forms of social security have expanded. After average growth slowed to 3.5 percent over 2005–2015, with a dip to 2.3 percent in 2014–2016, Thailand is now on the path to recovery. The Thai economy posted the highest growth rate in six years, at 4.1 percent in 2018, despite external shocks to trade and tourism (World Bank, 2019). Poverty declined substantially over the last 30 years from 67 percent in 1986 to 7.8 percent in 2017 (as measured by the upper-middle income class poverty line of USD 5.5/day) during periods of high growth and rising agricultural prices. However, in recent years, progress in poverty and inequality reduction has slowed down, mainly due to falling agricultural prices and slower wage growth. This led to low and negative growth in household consumption among the poorer segments of the population and caused a small increase in inequality. As of 2014, over 80 percent of the country’s 7.1 million poor live in rural areas. Moreover, an additional 6.7 million were living within 20 percent above the national poverty line and remain vulnerable to falling back into poverty. There was a 1 percent increase in forest area in 2018 from 162 500 km2 in 2010. Total water withdrawal as of 2007 was 57 302 million m3, with agriculture accounting for almost 90 percent of

water withdrawals (Table 2).

Table 2. Socioeconomic, environment and water use, and agriculture data of Thailand

2010 2018 GDP (current billons, USD) 341.11 504.99 GDP growth (annual %) 7.5 4.1 Agriculture, forestry and fishing, value added (% of GDP) 11 8 Total population (millions) 67.20 69.43

Population growth (annual %) 0.5 0.3 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of 16.4 8.6 population) GNI per capita, Atlas method (current USD) 4 580 6 610 Urban population growth (annual %) 3.5 1.8 ** SOCIOECONOMIC Rural population (% of total) Forest area (sq. km) (thousands) 162.5 164.3 Terrestrial and marine protected areas (% of total territorial 12.5 area) Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (% of internal resources) 25.5 - Total water withdrawal, annual (million cu. m)* as of 2007 57 302 Agriculture 51 786 Municipalities 2 739 Industry 2 777 Per inhabitant 845 Surface water and groundwater withdrawal, annual (million cu. 57 302 m)*

ENVIRONMENT AND WATER USE WATER AND ENVIRONMENT as % of total renewable resources 13.1 Per capita cultivated land (ha)** 0.309 (2014) Area equipped for irrigation (ha)** 645 000 (2016)

Value of agriculture production (current million, USD) ** 30 209.8 (2014) Area harvested for cereals, total (ha)** 11 950 772 (2016) Yield for cereals, total (hg/ha)** 32 397 (2016) Production of cereal, total (hg/ha)** 38 717 417 (2016) # AGRICULTURE Total aquaculture production (tonnes) 889 891 (2017)

Source: World Bank, *FAO AQUASTAT, **FAOSTAT, #FAO FISHSTAT

2.2 Overview of wetland in Thailand Wetlands are an important part of Thailand’s environment. Wetlands not only support a great biodiversity, but also perform all kinds of useful functions such as protection from flooding and water purification. It is estimated that there are 10 000 wetland sites throughout the country, ranging from small neighborhood ponds to marshes to the mighty Mekong River. Wetlands in Thailand today are a mix of public or private resources. When talking about wetlands, most people think about marshes, swamps, and the lake, which in general are public. But, based on the existing classification, the focus needs to be broader than that. In reality, the largest type of wetland that exists in Thailand is rice fields/fish farms, and these are actually privately owned. Whether wetlands are public or private property directly influences their management. Since 1993, following the Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR Convention) commitment, Thailand has been an active contracting party for the past 26 years. Milestones included the completion of the inventory of Thailand’s wetland and setting up of the Technical Working Group in 1999; nominated 9 Ramsar sites in 2001 to 2005; nominated another 4 Ramsar sites between 2006 and 2010, and revised the inventory of wetlands; synergized the Wetland Management Plan with the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2013– 2016 and updated the Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS) for 14 Ramsar sites in 2015; and from 2016 to present, the Wetland Management Plan is incorporated in the NBSAP, with revised conservation measures for wetlands and improve effectiveness of wetland management in Thailand (ONEP, 2019). 2.2.1 Definition of wetland The RAMSAR Convention defined wetlands as “areas where water is primary factor controlling the environment and associated plants and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by water”. Under the text of the Convention, Article 1.1, wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters” (Ramsar, 2009). Thailand uses this definition for classifying wetlands. 2.2.2 Function of wetlands Wetlands generate both direct and indirect benefits. For centuries, wetlands have played a critical role in Thai history and culture. Today, people in rural Thailand (and even many in urbanized areas) still directly and indirectly depend on wetlands for food, income generation, and livelihoods. Nevertheless, the values of wetlands are still seldom recognized. Important wetlands in many parts of the country have been overexploited, cleared for agriculture, or filled in for the development of residential and industrial estates. While people often recall that wetlands are public lands, in Thailand a large proportion of wetlands are privately owned, such as rice fields and fish farms (Veeravaitaya et al., 2005). According to Choowaew (2003), the followings are some of the important wetland functions: (i) Source of water supply – Wetlands are major source of water supply for consumption in domestic, agricultural, livestock, aquaculture, recreational, and industrial sectors. Water from wetlands move down to recharge the underground aquifer; thus, can be used up through surface water withdrawals, especially during the dry season. For example, in northeastern Thailand, aquifers with depths ranging from 1–10 m below ground level are on the borders of the main river channels. Seepage from rainwater will then recharge the groundwater resources to reach the aquifers (up to 5–6 percent) under the Korat Plateau. This groundwater is mostly utilized for domestic use, with small quantities used for irrigation and food processing factories. In Huai Nam Un wetland, Songkhram River Basin, more than 75 percent of the water obtained

13 from shallow wells is consumed for drinking and domestic use. (ii) Alternative energy supply – Riverine wetlands, the Mekong mainstream and its major tributaries, are important for development of hydroelectric energy. For example, Pak Mun Dam on the Mun River, a major branch of the Mekong River, produces 290 GWh/year of electricity (on an average during 1995–1999) (World Commission on Dams, 2000). (iii) Flood control – Wetland composed of marshes and swamps may reduce water flow as a combined result of their storage capacity and the resistance that flood waters encounter while flowing through marshes and marginal vegetation of swamps. By serving as a reservoir for rainfall and runoff, wetlands are natural storage and decrease the destructive flooding impacts downstream, avoiding the costly construction of dams, reservoirs, and flood control structures, as well as the socioeconomic loss. (iv) Prevent saltwater intrusion – Wetlands have the ability to prevent inland saltwater intrusion through its balance runoff, groundwater recharge, and discharge. (v) Control erosion, stabilize shorelines, and retain sediments – The vegetation on wetlands reduces the energy of waves, currents, storms, and other erosive forces, holding the sediments in place, and preventing soil displacement along the shorelines. Wetland vegetation slows down the water flow and increases sediment settling. Retaining sediment in upstream wetlands help lengthen the lifespan of downstream reservoirs and waterways and reduce adverse effects on coastal water quality and ecosystems. (vi) Trap nutrient from animal waste and toxic substances from chemical sources – Wetlands may serve as pools where excess fertilizer, nutrients in wastewater and other nonpoint source pollutants (e.g., effluents from livestock) can be trapped. Wetland vegetation can filter nutrients from water passing through to improve water quality and prevent eutrophication. Toxic substances as well may adhere to the sediment accumulation in the pools, minimizing the harmful effect of these substances to nearby ecosystems. (vii) Support fish and macro-vegetation – Biomass and nutrients can be transported to nearby wetlands along with water and runoff, especially during annual flooding. In the process, nutrients from the soil, vegetation, and inundated organic debris make the water nutrient enriched. This supports a bloom of plankton, fish, and macro-vegetation. Fish populations utilize inundated habitats like flooded forest for reproduction and replenishment of fish stocks. The nutrient rich sediments are also transported downstream to inundation plains where they are deposited in fields and swamps. (viii) Serves as gene pool – Wetlands are genetic reservoir for certain native plant and animal species, important source of new genetic material used in developing disease resistance and other desirable commercial traits. (ix) Promote biological diversity – Many endemic, rare, and endangered species depend on wetlands to complete their life cycle. Many species can only live in wetlands and the loss of wetland ecosystems will also eliminate wetland dependent species. Wetlands of the Mekong River Basin are unique ecosystems, exceptionally rich in biodiversity and are habitats for a wide range of globally threatened species, providing water and primary productivity upon which numerous species of plants and animals depend for survival. Wetland ecosystems support high concentrations of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrate species. Wetlands are an important storehouse of plant genetic materials. A wide range of floral species are found in wetlands. Wild rice in wetlands is an important source of new genetic materials in developing disease-resistant and higher-yielding strains. The flooded forests of the middle Mun River have a diversity of over 100 species of flora, which are not only important

food sources of communities but also refuges, breeding, spawning grounds for fish and aquatic animals. The Mekong River has important riverine habitats for birds. Many sites along the Mekong River are considered to be Important Bird Areas (IBAs) by the Bird Conservation Society of Thailand - BirdLife Thailand and BirdLife International (Round, 2002). (x) Provide socioeconomic resources – Most wetlands are important in augmenting the diet and, through the harvest and sale of wetland produce, the income of rural inhabitants and households in the Mekong River Basin. Among the products derived from wetlands with great socioeconomic value are: a) forest resources such as timber and non-timber products, fibers, resins, dyes; b) wildlife resources such as wild foods with local nutritional status and supplementary nutrition; c) flora resources such as aquatic plants and vegetables; d) medicinal resources, where over 100 species of medicinal plants found in flooded forests of the middle Mun River Basin; e) agricultural resources, such as rice and other cash crops (e.g., vegetables, chili, and tobacco); f) forage, such as grasslands and tress for grazing and fodder; g) fisheries; h) clay/sand/mineral resources (xi) Promotes recreation and tourism – Rivers and streams especially ones with rapids, waterfalls, and beaches, such as Kaeng Sa Phue and Kaeng Ta Na (Ubon Ratchathani), and Kang Kud Ku (Loei), are prime tourism spots. At least 140 000 tourists visited Kaeng Sa Phue in 1999 (World Commission on Dams, 2000). Wetland recreation and tourism include water sports, swimming, diving, canoeing, fishing, birdwatching, nature photography, sailing, etc. (xii) Preserve history and culture – Wetlands are involved with Thai history, legends, culture, traditions, national identity, religion, and way of life. Settlements, floating markets, temples, and religious establishments can be seen along waterways and on riverbanks. Many wetlands are religious sites or highly respected or have spiritual values according to the local beliefs (e.g., Don Pu Ta). Some wetlands are archaeological sites. Many Thai traditions, culture, and festivals in the north and northeast are centered on wetlands, such as Loy Kratong (Festival of Lights), Illuminated Boats Procession, Rockets Festival, and Boat Racing. (xiii) Climate change resilience – Wetlands and their ecosystem services directly and indirectly play a key role in climate change resilience. Giving notable examples in the protection of extreme climate events such as typhoons, flood, and drought disasters.

2.2.3 Classification and types of wetlands The national inventory of wetlands conducted between 1996 to1999 found that the total area of wetlands was the highest in southern Thailand with 28 465.88 km2. Further compilation of information on wetlands adjacent to the Gulf of Thailand under the project focused on four groups of wetlands: coastal areas (including rocky shores, sand beaches, and mudflats), swamp forests, estuaries; and freshwater reservoirs, such as lakes and ponds. The compilation, which excluded mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds, found that wetlands in the Gulf of Thailand cover a total area of not less than 2 909.70 km2 and could extend to another 12 477.37 km2 if areas up to a depth of 10 m along the shoreline are taken into account. Wetlands can be categorized into three: (i) marine coastal wetlands, (ii) inland wetlands, and (iii) manmade wetlands. There is also a category for protected area in the country (Box 1). Currently, Thailand has 14 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), with a surface area of 399 714 ha (RAMSAR Secretariat). For the 69 sites of wetlands of international importance, 7 sites can be found in the northern region, 15 sites in the eastern region, 14 sites in the northeastern region, and 33 sites in the southern region. The largest of

15 these protected wetlands is the Kaper and Kraburi estuaries in the Laemson Marine National Park. It covers an area of 1 220 km2 and was protected as a Ramsar site in 2002 and home to an extensive mangrove forest, which is the largest in the country and in the entire Indo-Pacific region. The roots of these trees provide a unique habitat for a wide variety of fish, approximately 82 recorded species. Interestingly, this site is also home to communities of Buddhist, Muslim, and Chao Lae followers. Researchers come here to study the intricate ecosystem, which is also used as an environmental training site (Pariona, 2017). Results of the National Wetlands Inventory revealed that Thailand has at least 42 653 wetland sites, covering an area of 36 616.16 km2, which is approximately 7.5 percent of the total area of the country (Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, 2002). According to the Cabinet Resolution on 03 November 2009, the total wetland area of Thailand is 3 608 816 ha equivalent to around 7.5 percent of the total area of the country. Around 45 percent of this area is inland wetlands (Nabangchang et al., 2016). In April 1993, a “Wetland Classification System of the Lower Mekong Basin” was adopted and Thailand, as a member country, has been adopting and using this classification since 1993 and has been revised in 2000 (Choowaew, 2003). The structure of Thailand’s wetland classification system is hierarchical (Table 3). The highest level of classification is composed of five major systems: Marine/Coastal, Estuarine, Riverine, Lacustrine, and Palustrine. Each major system was further subdivided into subsystems, and within each subsystem, classes were identified based on the detailed units, which can be used at local levels.

Box 1. Categories of Protected Area in Thailand i. National parks ii. Forest parks iii. Wildlife sanctuaries iv. Non-hunting zones v. Environmental protection zones vi. Forest reserves vii. Restricted areas to protect herbal plants

Table 3. Wetland classification system in Thailand

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Level V Salt water (S) Marine/Coastal (SM) Subtidal (SMS) non-vegetated (SMS1) rocky beds (SMS1a) unconsolidated beds (SMS1b) vegetated/coral (SMS2) natural coral reefs (SMS2a) artificial coral reefs (SMS2am) natural seagrass beds (SMS2b) natural seaweed beds (SMS2c) seaweed farms (SMS2cm) mariculture (SMS2dm) Intertidal (SMI) non-vegetated (SMI1) coastal beaches (SMI1a) artificial coastal salt works (SMI1am) coastal mudflats (SMI1b) coastal culture (SMI1bm) coastal cliffs (SMI1c) coastal saltflats (SMI1d) coastal tide pools (SMI1e) vegetated/coral (SMI2) intertidal coral reefsSMI2a) coral farms (SMI2am) intertidal seagrass beds (SMI2b) intertidal seaweed beds (SMI2c) seaweed farms (SMI2cm) coastal mangroves (SMI2d) coastal mangrove plantation (SMI2dm) Nontidal (SMN) non-vegetated (SMN1) nontidal mariculture (SMN1am) nontidal salt works (SMN1bm) Estuarine (SE) Subtidal (SES) non-vegetated (SES1) rocky beds (SES1a) unconsolidated beds (SES1b) vegetated/coral (SES2) estuarine subtidal corals (SES2a) estuarine subtidal coral farms (SES2am) estuarine subtidal seagrass beds (SES2b) estuarine subtidal seaweed beds (SES2c) estuarine subtidal seaweed farms (SES2cm) estuarine subtidal mariculture (SES2dm) Intertidal (SEI) non-vegetated (SEI1) estuarine beaches (SEI1a)

estuarine mudflats (SEI1b) estuarine cliffs (SEI1c) estuarine salt flats (SEI1d) vegetated/coral (SEI2) vegetated/coral (SEI2) estuarine intertidal corals (SEI2a) estuarine intertidal coral farms (SEI2am) estuarine intertidal seagrass beds (SEI2b) estuarine intertidal seaweed beds (SEI2c) estuarine mangrove swamp (SEI2d) estuarine intertidal mangrove plantations (SEI2dm) estuarine salt marshes (SEI2e) Coastal lagoon(SC) coastal saline/brackish/fresh lagoons Inland saltlake(SI) inland saline lakes/ponds/marshes/swamps Fresh water (F) Riverine (FR) River (FRR) perennial rivers (FRR1) pools in perennial rivers (FRR1a) channels in perennial rivers (FRR1b) artificial perennial canals (FRR1bm) perennial rapids (FRR1c) perennial waterfalls (FRR1d) perennial hot springs/streams (FRR1e) perennial underground/subterrain streams (FRR1f) seasonal rivers (FRR2) pools in seasonal rivers (FRR2a) channels in seasonal rivers (FRR2b) artificial seasonal canals (FRR2bm) seasonal rapids (FRR2c) seasonal waterfalls (FRR2d) seasonal hot springs/streams (FRR2e) seasonal underground/subterrain streams (FRR2f) River Banks/Beaches/Bars (FRB)

Riverine floodplain grassland natural floodplain grassland (FRF1a) Floodplains (FRF) (FRF1) floodplain wet rice (FRF1am) floodplain crops, other than rice (FRF1bm) floodplains trees/shrubs seasonally flooded trees/shrubs/forest (FRF2) (FRF2a)

(artificially) seasonally flooded plantations (FRF2am) seasonal floodplain lakes (FRF3) seasonal floodplain ponds (FRF4) seasonal natural seasonal backswamp/marshes backswamp/marshes (FRF5a) (FRF5) artificial seasonal wet rice (FRF5am) artificial seasonal wet plantations (FRF5bm) Lacustrine (FL) Lakes (>8 ha) (FLL) permanent lakes (FLL1) natural permanent freshwater lakes (FLL1a) artificial permanent freshwater lakes (FLL1am) seasonal lakes (FLL2) natural seasonal freshwater lakes (FLL2a) artificial seasonal freshwater lakes (FLL2am) Ponds (<8 ha) (FLP) permanent ponds (FLP1) natural permanent freshwater ponds (FLP1a) freshwater aquaculture ponds (FLP1am) sewage treatment ponds (FLP1bm) farm ponds (FLP1cm) cooling ponds (FLP1dm) borrow pits, excavated ponds (FLP1em) others (FLP1fm) seasonal ponds (FLP2) natural seasonal freshwater ponds (FLP2a) artificial seasonal ponds (FLP2am) Palustrine (FP) Permanent (FPP) (grass) permanent flooded grassland (FPPa) (sedges) permanent freshwater marshes (FPPb) (trees/shrubs) permanent swamps (FPPc) Seasonal (FPS) (grass) seasonal flooded grassland (FPSa) (grass) artificially seasonally flooded plantation (FPSam) (sedges) seasonal flooded marshes (FPSb) (trees/shrubs) seasonal flooded swamps (FPSc) (trees/shrubs) artificially seasonally flooded plantation (FPScm) Source: Department of Land Development (1994, 2000)

2.3 Current wetland management in Thailand The global conceptual framework on wetland management is anchored on the Ramsar Convention for the wise use of wetlands, and on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) to ensure sustainability. Thailand’s National Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the National Biodiversity Management Action Plan 2017–2021 is influenced by the SDG 6 and 14, and on the Convention on Biological Diversity (ONEP, 2019). According to Dr. Aree Suwanmanee, a Senior Professional Environmentalist from ONEP, currently, “there is no standing-alone wetland policy in Thailand. Wetland policies are often inserted in other policies”. Different government agencies have different roles related to wetland management. The Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) acts for biodiversity habitat, for promoting wetlands to be included in the Ramsar sites. Land agency acts for protecting area from encroachment and public use. Irrigation Department acts for supply water to farmer/people. Agricultural agency acts for farming and increasing agricultural produce. The Office of National Water Resources acts for water retention and use. Fisheries Department acts for aquaculture or fishery purpose. Wildlife agency acts for non-hunting areas. The Master Plan for Integrated Biodiversity Management (MPBD) B.E. 2558–2564 (2015– 2021) is the principal wetlands and biological diversity plan of Thailand. Thailand has developed the national policies, measures, and plans for conservation and wise use of wetlands and biodiversity and this Master Plan is the fourth one. This Master Plan was formulated to address the underlying causes of wetlands and biodiversity loss by aiming at conserving, restoring, and protecting wetlands and ecosystem services, as well as enhancing the benefits from them, along with raising public awareness and understanding the roles and importance of wetlands and biodiversity to human well-being, and collaborating with all relevant sectors in integrated management (Box 2). Box 2. An overview of Thailand’s National Strategy promoting sustainable water management

Source: Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Planning (ONEP)

Thailand has been an active contracting party for the past 27 years since 1993. Milestones included the completion of the inventory of Thailand’s wetland and setting up of the Technical Working Group in 1999; nominated 9 Ramsar sites in 2001 to 2005; nominated another 4 Ramsar sites between 2006 and 2010, and revised the inventory of wetlands; synergized the Wetland Management Plan with NBSAP 2013–2016 and updated the RIS for 14 Ramsar sites in 2015; and from 2016 to present, the Wetland Management Plan is incorporated in the

NBSAP, with revised conservation measures for wetlands and improved effectiveness of wetland management in Thailand. With this, the National mechanism on Wetlands Management starts with the National Environmental Board with the National Committee on Wetland Management under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), and below it, the Technical Working Group on Wetlands, which includes the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP). In 2009, the Cabinet endorsed wetlands conservation measures for their conservation on 03 November 2009. The Cabinet endorsed to improve some measures for wetlands operational efficiency on 12 May 2015. Measures on surveying the wetlands that are registered as locally important include monitoring, controlling and encroachment regulation, CEPA, Protected area, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), research and designating zoning. The Master Plan for Integrated Biodiversity Management (MPBD) B.E. 2558–2564 (2015–2021) is the principal wetlands and biological diversity plan of Thailand (Figure 5). Thailand has developed the national policies, measures, and plans for conservation and wise use of wetlands and biodiversity and this Master Plan is the fourth one. This Plan was formulated to address the underlying causes of wetlands and biodiversity loss aiming at conserving, restoring and protecting wetlands and ecosystem services, as well as enhancing the benefits from them, along with raising public awareness and understanding the roles and importance of wetlands and biodiversity to human well-being, and collaborating with all relevant sectors in integrated management. The National Committee on Wetlands Management is responsible for overseeing the implementation of conservation and wise use of wetlands. The Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) as a national focal point of wetlands has conducted monitoring of the wetlands status every year to improve policies and measures in the management of wetland.

Figure 5. Master Plan for Integrated Biodiversity Management 2017–2021 with its national targets (Source: ONEP)

2.3.1 Indo-Burma Ramsar Regional Initiative (IBRRI) for Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Repubic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, with 169 contracting parties worldwide, is one of the first of the modern intergovernmental environmental treaties adopted on 02 February 1971 in the Iranian coastal town of Ramsar. Its mission is conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. Currently, there are 35 total Ramsar sites in the IBRRI: Cambodia – 5, Lao People’s Democratic Republic – 2, Myanmar – 5, Thailand – 14, and Viet Nam – 9. There is high diversity of wetlands in the Region, with high biodiversity value, providing livelihoods and ecosystem services. According to the report of the IUCN Asia Regional Office Program Officer, Ms. Kathryn Bimson, encroachment for agriculture and development, hydropower and development in the mainstream, overharvesting of local natural resources, climate change impact, and lack of effective/technical transboundary cooperation were few of the challenges the region is facing. Thus, the Ramsar Regional Initiatives (RRIs) were formally recognized by the Convention are operational means of support for the effective implementation of the Convention and its Strategic Plan. As appropriate, RRIs can either be physically established centers that have a regional training or capacity building programme, regional cooperation networks with no physical center, or a combination of both. To date, there are 19 Ramsar Regional Initiatives globally. The Ramsar Regional Initiatives in Asia includes the East Asian Australasian Flyway Partnership for conservation of migratory water birds and their habitats; designation of Flyway Network Sites; and, research, training. Another is Ramsar Regional Centre – East Asia for capacity building, training; awareness raising; and, financial support for projects at wetland sites. The last one is the Indo-Burma Ramsar Regional Initiative (IBRRI), endorsed by the Ramsar SC 52 in June 2016 as one of the four new RRIs (Figure 6). The IBRRI aims to support the effective implementation of the Ramsar Convention among the five Contracting Parties (CPs) by supporting the coordinated implementation of the objectives of the Strategic Plan of the Ramsar Convention. The target groups are National planners and policy makers (greater understanding of the value of wetlands, e.g., as natural infrastructure), Ramsar site management staff (certificate course, trainings), Academia, Wetlands communities in and around the Ramsar sites (involved in, and benefit from activities), and Mass media professionals (greater opportunities to develop detailed reporting on critical issues of wetland management, climate change adaptation, and mitigation). In developing the Strategic Plan, IBRRI would like to mutually support Ramsar and wider initiatives. As to future plans, for agriculture and wetlands, IBRRI would like to share knowledge of wetland agriculture interactions across the Indo-Burma region by (i) Organizing a wetland agriculture regional symposium, and (ii) Producing an IBRRI report on wetland-agriculture interactions and recommendations for wise use in multiple languages.

Figure 6. IBRRI governance (Source: IUCN Asia Regional Office)

2.4 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture The stakeholders analysis conducted reviewed the needs and gaps in the sustainable wetland agriculture management in the country. Strategic plans and priorities were also suggested based on the identified gaps and needs. Further, threats to wetlands were also identified (Box 3). According to Birdlife International, the conversion of freshwater wetlands to agricultural land, leading to the extinction of the national breeding populations of most large water birds, including threatened species such as Giant Ibis and Sarus Crane. Several threatened species occur on the remaining freshwater wetlands, including on reservoirs, and in the coastal wetlands on the Gulf of Thailand. However, they are under pressure from habitat loss and degradation, disturbance, pesticide use, and other threats. Most natural wetlands in Thailand have already been converted to agricultural land, and many remaining sites are under pressure. The numerous irrigation projects divert river water away from wetlands, leaving them shallower, overgrown, and more easily drained. Reedbeds are encroached by settlements and crops, such that very few are left in the country; the most important reedbed in Thailand (which supports a large wintering population of Manchurian Reed-warbler), within Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, is being replaced by plantations of casuarinas, eucalyptus, and coconut palms. The changes in land use in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park have proved difficult to oppose, and the laws protecting habitat within reserves, therefore, need to be tightened and strictly enforced. Inland wetlands are converted to lotus production and fish farms, with associated vegetation clearance, infrastructural development, and disturbance. Coastal areas are threatened by industrial and urban growth. Inland, lakes, and rivers are affected by new roads, dams, and tourist facilities. Pesticides use and pollution are widespread in Thailand and are probably affecting threatened water birds populations.

Box 3. Threats to wetlands

 Ponds and lakes are turned into wastelands due to dredging, landfill and pond reclamation, converting the waterbodies through infill and compaction of land for the construction of institutes and government offices  Encroachment of river banks and dikes along the river  Peat swamps are converted to agricultural land by draining, landfill, and compaction of swamps for construction of factories, fire forest  Encroachment for tourism developments that are beyond the carrying

capacity of the local islands and beaches, pollution  Agricultural chemical and sediment load in seagrass and coral reefs, marine debris  Irresponsible tourism such as tourist boats anchoring in sensitive areas, tourists standing on corals and in sea grass-bed

Source: Mr. Wanlop Preechamart Senior Professional Environmentalist ONEP, MONRE

2.4.1 Gaps There is ambiguity in the definition of wetlands in the country. Although the Ramsar definition is adapted, this needs to be more comprehensive and Definition of clearer. Wetlands have different meaning to different agencies/departments wetland and a holistic definition could be very helpful to formulate a management strategy for wetlands. The available data of wetlands in the country have not been updated. Wetland sites, officially recognized as Ramsar sites, are comparatively Inventory and protected, but other sites of national and international importance are at risk

maps of different activities. Maps of the important wetland sites are either not available or not accessible. The maps already available are old and have not been recently updated. The policy of restructuring the government is to group the organizations with similar work functions into the same Ministry. However, no specific agency is Relationship responsible for managing wetlands, rather different agencies and ministries between are taking care of wetlands within their jurisdiction. This has resulted to agency and duplication of work and overlapping power with the newly established stakeholders government organization, caused by poor communication among government agencies and ministries. Most natural wetlands in Thailand have already been converted to Farming agricultural land, and many remaining sites are under pressure. The

practices numerous irrigation projects divert river water away from wetlands, leaving them shallower, overgrown, and more easily drained.

Lack of environment-friendly farming practices is one of the identified causes of wetland degradation. For better management of wetlands, environment- friendly farming practices are of crucial importance to maintain water quality and environmental safety. However, no formal system of environment- friendly farming practices was found during the discussion. Some forms of environment-friendly practices are available at local level, but wider adoption of these practices is very low. Also, no data are available on agricultural drainage, which is a key factor for better management of wetland. These data are also helpful in monitoring the quality of water in wetlands. There is no standing-alone wetland policy in Thailand. Wetland policies are Regulation, often inserted in other policies. Different government agencies have different policy and law roles related to wetland management. Proper regulations dealing with enforcement wetland management are mostly lacking at national level. Community level regulations are available with very limited practical implications. Constitutionally, the management of coastal wetlands is the responsibility of the government and should be governed by laws and regulations of various governmental agencies. Basically, wetlands within the protected area system Awareness on are protected by laws and managed by government. However, wetlands ecological outside protected areas are normally managed by communities or private

impacts of enterprises. wetlands Public awareness is a key factor for managing wetlands and wetland agriculture. However, common farmers’ have no idea about the ecological impacts of water quality deterioration, and they are more concerned about their income rather than caring about the environment. Incentives and Providing incentives to the common farmers to change their farming trade-off for practices and to adopt eco-friendly farming practices could be a adoption of eco- breakthrough for better wetland management. However, no such incentives

friendly are available at national level. If the farmers are offered with a trade-off management option for replacing unhealthy farming practice with eco-friendly practices, practices the chances of success would be more and could be a win-win situation. 2.4.2 Needs Strengthening local community participation in managing and conserving coastal wetland and the establishment of community-based management could contribute to the effective coastal wetland management. Creation of awareness and Awareness among common people, concerned government agencies, and capacity NGOs about the importance of wetlands for maintaining biodiversity and building, ecosystem services should be created through various ways such as better

community training, pay and equipment for reserve staff, and by the preparation of participation, management plans, which incorporate ecological management with the and end-user needs of local people. Moreover, such topics should be a regular part of the awareness academic curricula from the elementary level to create awareness among the young generation. No policy is successful without the effective involvement of the end-users. In case of wetlands, farmers and other end-users whose livelihood is associated with the wetlands should be involved in decision-

making process. The end-users are the ultimate implementer of the policy and involving them in decision making give them the confidence of ownership, which is a key factor for the success of any policy. A recent inventory and mapping of wetlands is required, especially for the sites of national and international importance. Ramsar sites are comparatively protected and demarcated, but other sites are at the risk of Update of encroachment. inventory and A recent mapping of permanent wetlands is largely missing, and mapping of maps of water these water bodies will help save these places from destruction. In addition, bodies it would also be helpful in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in these sites. For this purpose, sites of national and international importance, which are not recognized as Ramsar sites, needs special focus as they are prone to encroachment. To protect the wetlands and ecosystem services, a better monitoring and data collection system is needed, which will not only help in protecting the Strengthen wetlands but is also required for formulating policies and regulations monitoring and governing the wetlands sites. data collection The impacts of agriculture and other activities on water quality of wetland is system on mostly ignored causing various environmental issues and threats to water quality ecosystem services. A mechanism and guideline is needed to monitor all kinds of activities including agriculture, fishing, and other activities in the wetlands to maintain water quality and to sustain the ecosystem services. Specific laws and regulations are largely missing at the national level making it easy for the people to encroach the wetlands, which was identified as a serious concern. Wetlands related laws and regulations are needed to better manage wetlands. Some community level unofficial rules are available in Review of legal some areas, which are also needed to be revisited and make them in framework and accordance with the national policy of the country. policy Within the legal framework, the government should speed up its review and make any necessary changes in the legal framework to accommodate the implementation of wetland management and law enforcement by various government agencies.

Review of water No documentary policy is available dealing with allocation of water to policy, different sectors and to wetland agriculture. The changing pattern of water especially use and increasing competition among different economic sectors allocation of necessitate the revival of water policy and allocation of suitable amount of water for water to wetland agriculture. This will help maintain agricultural activities and wetland sustain ecosystem services in the wetlands. agriculture Some case studies involving sustainable wetland management practices are Collection of needed to be demonstrated to the common people. For this purpose, good information can be collected at country level and any such practices could be agricultural demonstrated as case studies. If such cases are not available at the national practices level, success stories available at the global level could be demonstrated.

Moreover, environment-friendly water management and nutrient management farming practices such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD), aerobic rice cultivation, system of rice intensification (SRI), etc., should be encouraged, which are not only helpful in water saving but are also environment-friendly. Managing wetlands has always been a point of misunderstanding among different government agencies because of ambiguity in their jurisdiction. Formulate Many of the agencies are usually involved in managing different aspects of active national wetlands. In Thailand, ONEP is more relevant agency dealing with wetlands,

wetland but it would be of great help if a committee composed of stakeholders from committee different departments is constituted with a clear mandate. This will also help in coordinating different departments and ultimately better management of the wetlands.

2.5 Recommendations and moving forward There is a need to strengthen the monitoring and data collection of wetland services and valuation through updated inventory as well as demarcations of wetland boundaries and mapping, and check of water quality. The current legislations and policy should be revisited to integrate sustainable management of wetland in agriculture. Community awareness and involvement of end-users are crucial to maintain good practices in wetland agriculture. The Office of the Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) should be mandated and given the authority for wetland management and coordination. With these, the following strategies should be undertaken towards sustainable wetland agriculture. 1. Define and conserve boundaries of buffer zones. Buffer zones are the first target of encroachment due to lack of clear demarcations and unavailability of proper management plans. It is very important to conserve the buffer zones as these zones act as feeding sites for the wetlands and maintain ecosystem services. Sustainable use of these zones would be helpful for conservation of biodiversity. Buffer zones are not clear in most of the wetlands and defining boundaries of these zones should be an important strategy in the future to better manage the wetlands. These buffer zones should be conserved and sustainably used. 2. Support common understanding and joint action and participation. Conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands is a collective approach and all relevant stakeholders should have a proper communication and knowledge sharing. Moreover, the jurisdiction of each stakeholder should be clearly defined and for this purpose, a wetland management committee would be greatly helpful. This national committee would be responsible to redefine wetlands, to mark the boundaries of wetlands and buffer zones, and to establish an updated inventory along with recent maps. GIS and satellite images can be used for this purpose. 3. Launch pilot project for update and inventory. A pilot project where focus is directed on a regional basis for making inventory and maps of the wetland sites can be supported by the Ramsar Regional Center by providing a seed money. Upon successful completion of this project, the results can be utilized for making a national inventory and mapping of the wetlands including Ramsar sites and other sites of national and international interests.

4. Promote environment-friendly agricultural practices. Extensive agriculture and excessive use of agrochemicals is a major cause of water quality deterioration in wetlands. More than required amount of synthetic chemicals are generally applied due to lack of awareness and the Department of Agriculture can play a vital role in creating awareness among farmers regarding the harmful impacts of these chemicals to the groundwater and other surface water bodies.

2.6 Case studies and lessons learned 2.6.1 Water Management Plan for low-lying area in Bang Rakam, Phitsanulok Province The Royal Irrigation Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) presented a notable example of water management plan for the low-lying area in the Bang Rakam. A senior expert on Civil Engineering of the Royal Irrigation Department, Dr. Phattaporn Mekpruksawong, discussed that the said water management plan entails shifting the cropping calendar of paddy rice one month ahead. The dry-season (DS) paddy is planted from December to March, and the wet-season (WS) paddy shifted to April until July from the previous cropping of May to August (Figure 7). MOAC has appointed a working group to promote farmers’ occupation in the lowland area of Bang Rakam. The working group is consisted of representatives from 11 agencies within the MOAC. It began operations from August 2018 to January 2019.

Figure 7. The main activities of farmers in the lowland area of Bang Rakam

Benefits derived from this water retarding in lowland area includes flood mitigation, saving agricultural investment cost, farmers can harvest before flood season and get an extra income from fishery cultivation, water storage in retarding basin for the next dry season crop, saving government budget in helping people who suffer from flood and flood prevention investment for community area, and there are other career promotion from the by-products such as processing of fishery products, home stay. Still, there are factors that lead to the success of these activities, such as the willingness of the people to participate, integration of different agencies, availability of water for shifting crop calendar, ensuring that the control of water levels in lowland area should not affect their living conditions, existing laws, regulations, compensation, measures and policies from the government, public relations from the government agencies, and efficient irrigation system.

2.6.2 Cropping system model in wetland research area and community area in Phatthalung, Trang, and Surathani The Trang Agricultural Research and Development Center of the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) has been serving as a farmer learning center in cropping cultivation, increasing farmer’s income, and wetland ecological conservation in southern Thailand, and strengthening the sustainability of the community. Based from the research and development on cropping system model in wetland research area and community area in Phatthalung, Trang, and Surathani, Dr. Sukon Wongchana, Director of Trang Agricultural Research and Development Center, showed three identified zones: economic plant area, border area, and water area. Economic plant area includes oil palm, fruit trees, and some vegetables. Buffer plants in the borders composed of forage-cane, sago palm, and bamboo, while aquatic plants like lotus, water mimosa, and water morning glory can be found in the water area zone (Figure 8).

Figure 8. The cropping system model showing the integrated cropping pattern and integration of wetland plants (Source: MOAC)

In a case study in Phanangtung Subdistrict, Khuankhanon District in Phattalung Province, the community people were able to integrate crop management in wetland area as part of their sustainable agricultural crop management practices. Cultural practices in temporary flooding area include growing vegetables in hydroponics and using lifting trays to prevent waterlogging. Cement blocks were also used, and upper filling of soil was provided for growing trees (Box 4).

Box 4. For the lotus production in the wetland area, farmers

gained a net income of THB 8 600 (around USD 279) for 10 900 kg of lotus flower

TrangAgricultural Research andDevelopment Center ©

2.6.3 Management of saline water intrusion for coastal agricultural production A research on orchid production by the Agricultural Chemistry Research Group, Agricultural Production Sciences Research and Development Division, MOAC presented the management of saline water intrusion. Thailand is currently the world’s number one orchid flower exporter, with its top selling species being Dendrobium, Aranda, Arachnis, Oncidium, and Vanda. Thailand earns about USD 80 million from orchid exports each year with a production of around 48 000 t/year. Approximately 40 percent of Thai cut orchid production is for export and the rest of 60 percent is for domestic use. There are about 100 Thai orchid exporters and 3 000 growers in the country. Major markets include the United States, Japan, Viet Nam, and China. However, there was a decline of export value of both orchid plant and flower in the years 2015 and 2016 because of the saline water intrusion problems. According to Dr. Charirat Kusonwiriyawong, a scientist from the Agricultural Chemistry Research Group, the production area of orchid was 20 781 rai (~ 3 325 ha). Main production areas were in Nakhon Pathom, Samut Sakhon, Ratchaburi, Bangkok, and Kanchanaburi. The largest growing area was Nakhon Pathom with 8 370 rai (~ 1 340 ha) followed by Samut Sakhon with 5 250 rai (~ 840 ha). The Chin River is a distributary of Thailand’s Chao Phraya River, branching off the Chao Phraya River in Chai Nat Province. It then flows through Suphan Buri, Nakhon Pathom, and Samut Sakhon before flowing into the Gulf of Thailand. Samut Sakhon is a seaside Province. In the summer, seawater intrudes inland from the Gulf of Thailand because of high tides and the long drought. On 08 January 2015, more than 3 000 rai (~ 480 ha) of orchid farms in Nakhon Pathom Province were under threat of being damaged by saltwater. The salinity tests showed 6 g salt/L water in the Nakhon Chaisi River. The amount of salt found is higher than the standard of 2 g/L. This River is connected to the Chinda canal, where the orchid farms were located.

Again, on 26 April 2016, 47 orchid farms in Samut Sakhon Province were under threat of being destroyed by saltwater. The Royal Irrigation Department has attempted to tackle this problem by diverting fresh water from nearby waterways to the farms. Thus, monitoring water quality/salinity, and source for fresh water were considered possible solutions. Based on Dr. Kusonwiriyawong, the research conducted to find out the effect of saline water on the quality of Dendrobium orchid concluded that in coastal areas (especially in Nakhon Pathom, Samut Sakhon), sustainable management of saline water could be a viable option for orchid

farming (Figure 9).

AgriculturalProduction Sciences Research andDevelopment Division

Figure 9. Results of the research conducted on the quality of Dendrobium orchid applied with different levels of water salinity

2.6.4 Ecological restoration of agricultural non-point source pollution control in Poyang Lake, Jiangxi, China The Poyang Lake located in Jiangxi and downstream of Yangtze is the most important wintering habitat for huge populations of water birds in the East Asia Australian Flyway. Bird species inhabiting the lake include the critically endangered Siberian Crane, most of the remaining endangered Oriental Storks, and five species of wild geese. Poyang Lake is threatened from the impacts of the Three Gorges Dam, ten thousand dams on the five rivers feeding into Poyang Lake, in the forms of sand dredging, declining water quality, encroachment around shallow edges, and more frequent droughts and floods. Water quality monitoring data in 2011 also indicated that the TN > 1.389 mg/L and TP > 0.067 mg/L far exceeds the eutrophication thresholds of N and P. Multiple factors have exacerbated eutrophication and non-point source pollution, as pointed out by Dr. Dong Bin from the Wuhan University in China, including the predominantly rice-paddy- based agricultural system, excessive consumption of drainage basin water from inefficient water use, presence of large amounts of fertilizer discharge, and the direct drainage of farmlands into rivers. Thus, a research project was initiated to answer the following objectives: (i) the theory and

practice of farmland-wetland system to agricultural non-point source pollution control, (ii) the integrated water and fertilizer regulation strategies and techniques taking basin water resource and efficient fertilizer and nutrient utilization into account, and (iii) the scale effect and mechanism of the loss of N and P and its regulation pattern at different scales. Results showed that through optimization of water and fertilizer management in fields, and ecological transformation of channels and ponds, the purification effects were evident. Management of agricultural non-point source pollution at the Poyang Lake basin requires the organic combination of agronomic and engineering measures. Technical supports from other disciplines such as environment, biology, and ecology are needed. Training and dissemination is imperative, as well as international cooperation for exchange and learning (Figure 10).

WuhanUniversity/Dr. Dong Bin ©

Figure 10. Results of the ecological restoration of agricultural non-point source pollution control research project conducted in Poyang Lake

2.6.5 Sustainable agriculture practices in wetlands within the context of Ramsar Convention Agriculture focuses on managing and enhancing provisioning ecosystem services at the expense of regulating and cultural services. Balance between agriculture and wetland conservation is needed. It can be done by (i) reducing impacts of agriculture on wetlands, (ii) managing land and water for multifunctional agroecosystems, (iii) restoring wetlands in agricultural landscapes (Ramsar Regional Center – East Asia). Case studies in rice paddies at the Kabukuri-numa wetland in Japan showed that maintenance of ecological character of wetlands as investments in the natural infrastructure that wetlands provide for agriculture. Wetlands on agricultural land can help manage flood waters in the wet season, improve soil moisture conditions, provide more local water storage for irrigation in the dry season, and provide water for ecosystems downstream. Payments for farmers to restore ecosystem services were also done. Another case showed a direct involvement of farmers in the wetland management – Ownership (Suncheon Bay, Republic of Korea) resulted in all the success from Suncheon Bay (Ramsar Site) began from careful consideration on “how to make local communities involved in the wetland conservation and management”. This was done by sharing the benefits from Suncheon Bay with local communities, as shared by Mr. Suh Seung Oh, Executive Director of Ramsar Regional Center for East Asia (Figure 11).

EastAsia - Ramsar Regional Center ©

Figure 11. Local community sharing in the benefits in wetlands of Suncheon Bay, South Korea

3 WETLAND AGRICULTURE AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN VIET NAM

VietnamNational Administration Tourism of

© Figure 12. Ecosystem services derived from Van Long wetland conservation area in Viet Nam, which includes food, fish and fiber, water supply, water purification, climate regulation, flood regulation, coastal protection, recreational opportunities, and tourism

3.1 Introduction Over the past 30 years, Viet Nam has had a remarkable development record. Economic and political reforms under Đổi Mới, launched in 1986, have spurred rapid economic growth and development and transformed Viet Nam from one of the world’s poorest nations to a lower middle-income country. According to the World Bank (2019), Viet Nam’s economy continues to show fundamental strength, supported by robust domestic demand and export-oriented manufacturing. The extreme poverty rate is estimated to have declined to below 3 percent. Following 6.8 percent growth in 2017, preliminary data indicate that GDP growth accelerated to 7.1 percent in 2018, underpinned by a broad-based pickup in economic activity (Table 4). Viet Nam is experiencing a rapid demographic and social change. Its population reached about 97 million in 2018 (up from about 60 million in 1986) and is expected to expand to 120 million before moderating around 2050. Currently, 70 percent of the population is under 35 years of age, with a life expectancy of nearly 73 years (World Bank, 2019).

Table 4. Socioeconomic, environment and water use, agriculture data of Viet Nam 2018 GDP (current billons, USD) 244.948 GDP growth (annual %) 7.076 Agriculture, forestry and fishing, value added (% of GDP) 14.6 Total population (millions) 95.54

Population growth (annual %) 1.0 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of 9.8 (2016) population) GNI per capita, Atlas method (current USD) 2400 Urban population growth (annual %) 3.0

SOCIOECONOMIC Rural population (% of total) 64% Land area (sq. km) 310 070 Agricultural land (% of land area) 39.3 (2016) Forest area (sq. km) (thousands) 149 020 (2016) Terrestrial and marine protected areas (% of total territorial area) 7.6

AND WATER WATER AND Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (% of internal resources) 23 (2007) Annual freshwater withdrawal, total (billion cu. m) 81.9 (2007)

USE Total freshwater withdrawal, annual (% of freshwater withdrawals) Agriculture 95 (2005) Industry 4 (2005)

ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT Domestic 1 (2005) Agricultural land (sq. km) 121 780 (2016) Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) - Area harvested for cereals, total (ha)* 8 809 968 (2017) Yield for cereals, total (kg/ha) * 5 434 (2017) Production of cereal, total (metric tons)* 47 877 218 (2017)

AGRICULTURE Total aquaculture production (metric tons) 3 634 531 (2016) Total fisheries production (metric tons) 6 420 471 (2016)

Source: World Bank, *FAOSTAT

3.2 Overview of wetland in Viet Nam Viet Nam has an area of more than 10 million ha where wetlands can be found in almost all ecological regions of the country. The great diversity of wetlands in the country possesses ranges of different resources, biodiversity, functions and important social, economic, and cultural values. These wetlands play a vital role in the livelihoods of the local people and the socioeconomic development of the country. Hills and mountains cover two thirds of the total natural area of Viet Nam, with a general downward slope from west to east. The northern and southern plains are river basins, which form two of the typical wetlands in the country known as the Red River Delta (northern Viet Nam) and the Mekong River Delta (southern Viet Nam).

The Mekong Delta is a large area, accounting for 12 percent of Viet Nam’s natural land area and 19 percent of the country’s population, and presents a dense network of rivers, canals, and ditches; has an advantage in agricultural development, food processing industry, tourism, renewable energy; is the largest agricultural hub in Viet Nam, accounting for 50 percent of the rice crop (Figure 13), 65 percent of aquaculture, 70 percent of fruit, 95 percent of exported rice, and 60 percent of exported fish; and is conveniently located, thereby offering convenient trade with ASEAN countries and Greater Mekong Subregion (Resolution No. 120/NQ-CP). In the context of globalization and international integration, the Mekong Delta has a great opportunity for development, but also faces a great challenge because it is vulnerable to natural changes. Climate change and sea level rise are occurring much faster than expected, causing extreme weather events and affecting peoples’ livelihoods and life. The extraction of water from upstream of the delta, especially the construction of hydroelectric power plants causes a change in flow, reduction in sediments and fisheries resources, deeper salinization, which exert negative impacts on the region’s socioeconomic development. The intra-regional economic development in high intensity has led to harmful consequences such as environmental pollution, serious ecological imbalance, land subsidence, groundwater level decline, coastal encroachment, and reduction in area of natural forests, especially mangrove forests, cajuput forests, and protection forests due to cutting or repurposing or severe degradation. Besides, the over-extraction of silt and construction of houses and infrastructure along river, canals, and ditches increase the risk of erosion. 3.2.1 Definition of wetland Following its membership to the Ramsar Convention, Viet Nam has officially applied the definition of wetlands stated in Article 1 of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands for all activities relating to wetlands: “Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) has used this definition in the newest Decree 66/2019/NĐ-CP on conservation and sustainable use of wetlands, which states that under this definition, factors like geomorphology, hydrology, pedology, flora and fauna, and land use status are important criteria in the identification of wetlands.

Christopher Johnson M. ©

Figure 13. A typical rice cultivation in Mekong Delta

3.2.2 Function of wetlands Wetlands serve as recharge and discharge of groundwater, trapping of sediment and toxic substances, nutrient retention, microclimate regulation, flood control, biomass production, maintenance of biodiversity, wave and storm protection, shoreline stabilization, and coastline erosion control. Wetland environment is beneficial for economic activities in many sectors: agriculture, fisheries, forestry, water transportation, tourism, and mineral exploitation, with 80 percent of Viet Nam’s population settled within wetlands.

For its economic values, more than 50 percent of the total area of Viet Nam’s wetlands has been used for cultivation (mainly wet rice) with a very high land use rotation rate (2–3 cropping seasons per year), 25 percent of the total area of Viet Nam’s wetlands has been used for aquaculture, 10 percent are rivers and streams, and 10 prcent are artificial lakes and reservoirs for hydroelectricity and hydraulic purposes. In 2016, wetlands contributed USD 10 billion from food production for domestic demand and export (Tables 5 and 6) (MONRE, 2019).

Many wetland sites are for tourism purposes (Figure 14) such as Ha Long Bay, Cat Ba, Phu Quoc, Con Dao, Phong Nha-Ke Bang, Ca Mau Cape, and the Mekong Delta.

VietnamNational Administration Tourism of

Figure 14. Rich biodiversity found inTram Chim National Park, a tourism site in wetlands of Viet Nam

3.2.3 Classification and types of wetland Several efforts to create an inventory of wetlands have been conducted. The first was in 1989 by Le Dien Duc (Duc, 1989). (Box 5). In 2001, the National Environment Agency (now the Viet Nam Environment Administration) recommended 68 wetland sites as having environmental and biodiversity values, serving as the foundation for the identification of wetlands of national and international importance. Viet Nam does not yet has an official classification system that can be applied for the various wetlands management related sectors. Several classification systems have been developed by scientists and governmental agencies, e.g., Le Dien Duc (1989), Phan Nguyen Hong (1996), Nguyen Chu Hoi (1999), Nguyen Huy Thang (1999), Nguyen Chi Thanh et al. (1999, 2002), Hoang Van Thang (2002), and Vu Trung Tang (1994–2004) (Nhuan et al., 2008). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) issued a Sector Standard Classification System of Viet Nam Wetlands in 2004 along with the wetlands map at a scale of 1:1 000 000. To date, there are five most important categories of wetlands in Viet Nam: 1. Estuarine wetlands of the Red River Delta 2. Lagoon system in central Viet Nam 3. Wetlands in the Mekong Delta 4. Lakes and reservoirs 5. Other unique and important wetland types

3.3 Current wetland management in Viet Nam Prior to 2003, no central institution was solely responsible for wetland management in Viet Nam. Each sector or ministry was mandated by the government on sector-based management, which included wetlands: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), and Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE). MARD was responsible for the management of wet rice cultivation land, protected areas (wetland national parks and nature reserves), and water development works (hydraulic systems, reservoirs). MONRE was responsible for the management of river basins and served as a national focal point for coordinating activities related to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Other agencies involved are: Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI) - responsible for the management of wetlands within the category of aquaculture surface waters and coastal areas; and some other sectors were closely associated to wetlands, such as water transportation, tourism, and hydroelectricity However, a system of integrated technical tools is lacking:  The agricultural sector has issued technical procedures on the production of plants and on livestock and agro-extension techniques  The forestry sector has issued technical procedures on forest management, including forests related to wetlands, especially special use forests  The water resources sector has issued technical procedures on the management of water development work, on the calculation of water balances, on flood control and on water supply for agriculture and aquaculture  The fisheries sector has issued technical procedures on the management of fisheries resources and aquaculture practices  The health sector has issued technical procedures on hygiene and public health

Wetlands in Viet Nam have been resettlement areas for communities for generations, and for this reason wetland management cannot be separated on a sectoral basis, nor can it be separated from community development. Decree No. 109/2003/ND-CP stipulates the mandates and functions of ministries, sectors, and localities on wetland conservation and the sustainable development of wetlands. This is the main document regulating the protection and use of wetlands in Viet Nam. MONRE serves as the focal point of wetlands conservation and use. However, it is not appropriated with current situation. Thus, this decree has recently been replaced by Decree No. 66/2019/NĐ-CP, effective since 15 September 2019. Viet Nam has passed more than 500 regulations on environmental protection and nature conservation since 1976. However, only 10 refer directly to wetlands. Some key documents:  Decree No. 109/2003/ND-CP and Circular No. 18/2004/TT-BTNMT on the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands (now replaced by Decree 66/2019/NĐ-CP)  Circular 42/2015/TT-BTNMT on Technical Regulations on Water Resources Planning, water resources protection section (amended in 2019)  Management strategy to the year 2010 of the protected area system in Viet Nam  Decision No. 04/2004/QD-BTNMT on the approval of the Action Plan on Conservation and Sustainable Development of Wetlands for the 2004–2010 period  Circular No. 64/2017/TT-BTNMT on determination of minimum flow on rivers and downstream of reservoirs and weirs. The minimum flow is to ensure both ecosystem

services and minimum water demands for essential needs  Circular No. 65/2017/TT-BTNMT on technical regulation on determination of minimum flow on rivers and development of inter-reservoirs operational procedures  Circular No. 42/2015/TT-BTNMT on technical regulation on water resources planning (amended by the National Center for Water Resources Planning and Investigation [NAWAPI] in 2019, first draft has been submitted to MONRE for approval), which has a section regarding wetlands protection  Viet Nam Biodiversity Action Plan to the year 2015 and vision to the year 2020

3.3.1 National Center for Water Resources Planning and Investigation The National Center for Water Resources Planning and Investigation (NAWAPI), a career institution belonging to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, functioning water resources investigations, monitoring, planning, and protection at the nationwide scale. NAWAPI consists of 3 divisions and 4 sub-ordinate centers with more than 30 years of experience and approximately 1 000 employees, including manegers, experts, officials, high qualified, competent engineers, and workers who have been well trained in Viet Nam and abroad. With a modern system of various equipment and good financial sources, NAWAPI has embarked many important big projects in water resources investigation, monitoring, planning and protection; establishment of water resources databse and information, water resources mapping, in progress and with high quality. Some of the ongoing projects of NAWAPI involves groundwater protetion in some of the largest cities in Viet Nam (Figure 15).

Figure 15. On-going projects on groundwater protection implemented by NAWAPI (Source: NAWAPI)

3.3.2 Activities undertaken and trends in wetland conservation Priorities have been set for the conservation of natural wetlands that have high biodiversity value and unique ecosystems. There are two protected area systems in Viet Nam: a system of special use forests which belongs under the management mandate of MARD, and a marine protected area system under the management of MOFI. Most of the current wetland protected areas are special use forests. As of March 2004, there were 126 special use forests approved by the Prime Minister, among which 28 were national parks, 59 were nature reserves, and 39 were landscape protected areas. Viet Nam has four wetland biosphere reserves declared by UNESCO, including Can Gio Mangrove, Cat Tien, Cat Ba Islands, and the coastal wetlands of the Red River Delta. In 2001, MONRE proposed 68 wetland sites of high biodiversity and environmental value in Viet Nam, including natural and artificial lakes and reservoirs, marshes, lagoons, estuaries, bird colonies, mangrove forests, and seasonally inundated grasslands. Of these wetlands, 17 belong to the special use forest systems, which have been approved for establishment by the Prime Minister. In August 2005, Bau Sau and the seasonal wetlands of Cat Tien National Park were designated as Viet Nam’s second Ramsar site. Substantial effort has been put into the rehabilitation of selected degraded wetlands in Viet Nam, including the reforestation of mangroves in aquaculture ponds in Tien Hai, Giao Thuy, and Ca Mau, among others.

3.4 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture The stakeholders analysis reviewed the needs and gaps in the sustainable wetland agriculture management in the country, from inventory to legislative system. The wetlands of the Mekong Delta were once extensive and varied. Today, much of the delta has lost its natural habitat, although remnants of the one extensive peat swamp forest, freshwater forests, and flooded grasslands are represented in these wetlands (Baltzer et al., 2001). The seasonally inundated grasslands of the Ha Tien Plain, Kien Giang Province are being threatened by agricultural intensification (Buckton et al., 1999). Agricultural intensification to increase rice production and aquaculture are among the major causes of physical changes in the wetland environment in the delta. Unsustainable economic development goals, global demands, poverty, and shortcomings of current institutional arrangements are causing as much damage in the wetland environment as agricultural intensification and aquaculture (Torell and Salamanca, 2003). Strategic plans and priorities were also suggested based on the identified gaps and needs. 3.4.1 Gaps Viet Nam possesses a wide diversity of wetland types, from inland depressions to coastal areas. However, it is clear that existing terminology has not been Inventory consistently applied in official documents. The most recent classification,

and maps although comprehensive and based strongly on ecology, has not been very useful in local management because it was not accompanied by appropriate guidelines. Such guidelines would have demonstrated how to develop measures

for wise use and sustainable management of different types of wetlands. Latest update on wetland maps was in 2004 when MARD issued a Sector Standard Classification System of Wetlands and have not been updated since then. Wetland sites, officially recognized as Ramsar sites, are comparatively protected, but other sites of national and international importance are at risk of different activities. Maps of the important wetland sites are either not available or not accessible. There is no specific agency responsible for managing wetlands, rather it remains to be sector-based, with different agencies and ministries are taking care of Coordination wetlands within their jurisdiction, creating a disfuction in the coordination mechanism mechnisms among stakeholders regarding activities pertaining to between wetlands.There is overlapping of functions, which result to miscommunication, ministries, scattering, and incoordination among agencies. Conflicts in wetland utilization sectors, and and degradation of wetlands resources have resulted from a lack of a master locals plan. Also, no documents were found on the role of community in the preservation and management of wetlands. Monetary fines for violations are low and do not reflect current socioeconomic conditions of the country. The system of policies and regulations on wetland Enforcement management has not been completed or synchronized. Specific provisions in measures for legal documents related to wetlands often overlap, and are also often scattered penalty and within different pieces of legislation. They lack scientific detail and do not take violations into account a number of socioeconomic factors, which prevents their effective implementation. Investment in human resources for conservation and sustainable development Investment in of wetlands has not corresponded to the values and potentials of wetlands. capacity Research and integrated surveys on wetlands have not been carried out in a building synchronized and systematic manner. There is a lack of awareness on the value of wetlands and on its conservation. Wetlands of high value have not been conserved and managed effectively. Wetland Managers and beneficiaries do not yet fully understand the social, economic, valuation and and ecological functions and values of wetlands. Communication and conservation awareness-raising activities have not received proper attention and have not always been suitable to the various target groups. Market For better water management, it is required to replace rice-rice-rice cropping volatility for system with rice-rice-lotus or rice-lotus cropping system. Lotus could be a good alternate replacement of rice, but the market for lotus is volatile and a stable market for crops lotus could be a good motive for the farmers to replace rice with lotus. Existing legal documents directly related to the conservation and management Policy and of wetlands are issued primarily by ministries and provincial authorities, while regulations documents promulgated at a higher level, such as Government Decrees, are still and legal limited. framework Current legislation does not yet meet the requirements of conservation and

sustainable development of wetlands. Documents issued by Provincial People’s Committees have mainly focused on administrative measures, and there has been a lack of sanctions to mobilize community participation in wetland exploitation. There is no specific and strict regulations for groundwater extraction and excessive amount of groundwater is extracted in different areas. This not only creates water quality and quantity problems but also causes land subsidence at an alarming rate of 2–4 cm/year, which is far higher than sea level rise and Regulation needs immediate attention. Possible causes of this problem are (a) excessive on groundwater extraction for shrimp farming as farmers usually try to avoid surface groundwater water for this purpose due to fear of diseases, (b) construction of water bodies use (dams) at upstream level causing low downward flow and consequently a need for extraction of groundwater for farming activities, (c) sand mining in lower stream causes a drop in ground water table, which lead towards land subsidence and saline water intrusion. Forecast Accurate information about water availability and flood forecasting is of utmost information importance for designing cropping patterns. A gap in forecast information about for seasonal inflow/outflow of water and flood forecasting was identified as a major constraint water for better and sustainable productivity and water management. availablity Water Storing rainwater and using for irrigation in the dry season could be a feasible retention and sustainable option. However, in Viet Nam, no efficient mechanism exists to system in the store rainwater and use it for the next crop. field Benefit sharing mechanism is a key factor determining the success of any policy Benefit and/or regulation. It was identified that various stakeholders involved in wetlands sharing agriculture and management are not properly coordinated and a gap exists mechanism among them for sharing the benefits of implementing a water management policy. Specific regulations pertaining to biodiversity management and ecosystems Regulations services are largely missing. New decree supports ecosystem aspect of water supporting management and encourages the involvement of private sector in wetland biodiversity management. The effective implementation of the recent decree (66/2019) conservation would be helpful in this regard. 3.4.2 Needs Awareness among local community, concerned government agencies, and NGOs about the value of wetlands should be created to maintain biodiversity Creation of and ecosystem services. Trainings, workshops, benchmarking field visits should awareness be done for capacity building of wetland stakeholders. Research and extension and capacity outreach should also be part of the mandate of different government agencies. building Moreover, such topics should be a regular part of the academic curricula from the elementary level to create awareness among the young generation. Update of A recent inventory and mapping of wetlands is required, especially for the sites inventory, of national and international importance. Ramsar sites are comparatively maps and

demarcations protected and demarcated, but other sites are at the risk of encroachment. A recent map of wetlands for Greater Mekong Region is needed for better management and at least first version of this map should be given a priority for further improvement. The state management of some fields between local and central government Strengthen has shown overlapping issues and lacks close cooperation. The mechanisms for monitoring coordination in the development of the Mekong Delta are yet to demonstrate activities on their effectiveness.To protect the wetlands and ecosystem services, a better important monitoring and data collection system is needed, which will not only help in wetlands protecting the wetlands but is also required for formulating policies and regulations governing the wetlands sites. Improvement Timely and accurate forecast information regarding water flow, flood, and of forecasting drought events are very helpful in designing cropping patterns. Improvement in

information forecast information about these events is needed for better management of the for farmers wetlands and agricultural activities in these areas. Rice-rice-rice or rice-rice is the common cropping pattern in many wetlands in Promote Viet Nam. Being a water intensive crop, rice cultivation is becoming increasingly alternative difficult in the changing climate scenarios and alternative crops are needed to crop species replace at least one rice crop. For this purpose, more technical support for to replace recommending alternative crops to the farmers is needed to maintain rice productivity and to conserve ecosystem. cultivation

3.5 Recommendations and moving forward The challenges faced by the wetlands in Viet Nam, particularly in the Mekong Delta, require synchronous and effective implementation of solutions for control coastal protection of forests, and develop technology that combine wetlands, forestry, agriculture, and aquaculture to achieve sustainable development. Thus, the followings are recommended strategies: 1. A pilot appropriate model for crop selection. As alternative crops to replace rice was identified as a major need and for this purpose priority should be given to identify some crops as a potential alternative to rice. Al least some pilot projects should be prioritized to identify such crops, which could be later adopted at a larger scale. 2. Launching of International Water Week as a side event. An international water week will be organized in March 2020, which could be a suitable event to utilize for gathering experts from the region. This event will be attended by professionals from all over the world and would provide a good platform for such type of discussion including wetland management, map of wetland for greater Mekong, and sustainable water management for agricultural purposes in wetlands. 3. Benefit sharing mechanism for environmentally sustainable livelihoods and eco-tourism. It is important to direct special attention on the role of communities in conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. Communities have right to access to natural resources and information, equipped with knowledge and skills through trainings. Promoting community participation and community-based sustainable management models into wetland management will be a win-win situation.

4. Conduct investigation and evaluation of wetlands and propose a list of important wetlands. Determine criteria of important wetlands (national and provincial levels) and create inventory of important wetlands (as a mandate of MONRE). Important wetlands become part of biodiversity conservation planning and provincial planning. Establish wetland conservation areas. 5. Development of integrated river basin planning. This will create an inventory of wetlands with water sources regulation function; high value of biodiversity and culture conservation; importance to socioeconomic development and environmental protection in planning region. It also aims at determining wetlands, which have been deteriorated, encroached, and filled up, and propose solutions to restore and protect such wetlands. 6. Increase awareness regarding use of agrochemicals. Excessive use of agrochemicals creates many environmental and water quality issues. Farmers usually apply more than required fertilizers and pesticides to increase productivity and ignore the associated problems. For this purpose, awareness creation is needed to adjust the use of agrochemicals as per actual demand and to avoid water quality deterioration. 7. Capacity building of farmers for growing alternative crops. Most of the farmers are expert in growing rice and skills for growing other potential alternative crops are generally missing. Capacity building of the farmers to grow other crops should be prioritized to maintain diversity and to better manage water quality. 8. Better link products with the market. Capacity building is requited to introduce better products needed in the market. If rice is needed to be replaced with some other crops, other crops and/or products should be better in line with the market demand to attract the farmers. 9. Promote good practices. Case studies and lessons learned from other wetland management, such as in Poyang Lake, can be duplicated as a means of monitoring of wetlands in Viet Nam.

3.6 Case studies and lessons learned

3.6.1 Rice intensification and high dikes in Mekong Delta – the Viet Nam Experience Viet Nam as the country to first (mid 1980s) introduce major agricultural reforms to increase overall rice production including production for export has suffered the most loss of its floating rice areas with 0.1 percent remaining. In Viet Nam’s Mekong River Delta provincial governments have invested in a massive network of dikes and irrigation systems in the last two decades to promote rice production for export (Thủ Tướng Chính Phủ [Prime Minister], 1996). Paddy production in the Mekong Delta increased from 7 Mt in 1986 to 25 Mt in 2013 due to an increase in rice yields and the number of rice crops a year. The Mekong Delta as a large flat alluvial plain is uniquely suitable for rice cultivation. The delta is flooded each year from July to November by flow from the Mekong River system. The Mekong rises in the Tibetan Plateau flows through southern China, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and exits to the sea through the Mekong River Delta in Viet Nam. Prior to the 1980s, the majority of the delta was farmed for one crop of long-duration [floating] rice a year grown over the wet season from April to December. Since the introduction of high yielding variety (HYV) rice some sections of the Vietnamese Mekong River Delta have been modified to provide year-round flood protection

by the construction of high dikes exceeding known peak flood levels. These dikes are then joined to form compartments with sluice gates installed to exclude floodwater, but allow water in and out of the compartment as required. Once the dike compartments are constructed, water management inside the compartment becomes part of overall farming management rather than part of the natural flood cycle driven by seasonal river levels. Large scale pumping equipment (often electrically powered) has to be installed to control water levels inside the compartment. Pumping is required both for dry season irrigation and for the removal of internal compartment floodwater, especially during the rainy season. Both the timing and level of water within a compartment becomes a matter of collective agreement for all farmers within that compartment as all will receive the same level and timing of water. As farm size tends to be less than 5 ha, the agreement of many farmers (> 50 on average) is needed for any particular water regime to be instituted in a compartment. Individual farmers within a compartment cannot choose to grow floating rice, while others grow HYV rice requiring different levels and timings of water. For example, An Giang Province had 629 dike compartments, which range in area from 12 to 3 486 ha of agricultural land, averaging 384 ha, with a median value of 250 ha/compartment. Three crops of HYV rice are usually cultivated annually inside a compartment. Each crop lasts from 100 to 110 days. The average yield is 6–7 t/ha. Source: Nguyen et al. (2016)

3.6.2 Wetlands in Viet Nam under threat from natural and human factors

According to Associate Prof. Nguyen Thị Thu Ha, the degradation and reduction of wetland areas has been occurring more rapidly than other ecosystems due to major changes in land use and construction, as well as the impact of climate change. The area of seagrass has shrunk by up to half due to human activities including destructive fishing, aquaculture, and tourism. Natural calamities, abnormal changes in the flow of water, and transport of alluvium and sediment in rivers in flooding seasons were also severe threats to the seagrass. Over the past five years, the coastal Province of Khanh Hoa has lost 30 percent of its seagrass area. In the waters of Quang Ninh and Hai Phòng, seagrass areas have completely disappeared due to coastal construction projects. A study by the Oceanology Institute mentioned that coral reefs have also been affected by overfishing, sediment accumulation, and pollution. The reduction in natural wetland areas is also down to rice production, aquaculture, reservoir construction, and mineral exploitation.

Along with shrinking areas, the wetlands face serious degradation caused by industrial waste, oil, and chemical substances used in agriculture and aquaculture production. Conservation work. Wetlands are in danger but conservation work is not yet effective due to lack of investment. Insufficient regulations cannot stop wetlands from shrinking. Viet Nam has issued more than 500 legal documents on environment protection and preservation. But there are just 10 documents about wetland management and conservation. Management of wetlands still has shortcomings. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) was not the only authority controlling activities in the wetlands. In fact, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) was assigned to manage the wetlands in terms of rice cultivation, salt production, aquaculture, forest preservation areas, irrigation works, and reservoirs. The management and conservation work has not yet progressed due to lack of cooperation among the concerned units. To achieve effective management and

conservation, it was necessary to set up policies and development strategies for the wetland areas. Source: Viet Nam News, 12 November 2018 3.6.3 Integrated rice-fish farming and pest management practices for rice farming in Mekong Delta, Viet Nam The Mekong Delta is the most important region for rice production in Viet Nam and supplies some 50 percent of the national rice production (Sebesvari et al., 2012). Increased rice yields have been achieved through more intensive farming methods, with two or three crops per year, and increased use of pesticides and fertilizers. There is a need to develop and adopt more sustainable rice farming practices in the region, which can maintain a high production and well-functioning ecosystem services for the benefit of people’s livelihoods and wellbeing. Integrated systems with rice and fish in combination with integrated pest management (IPM) strategies have been suggested to provide economically, ecologically, and socially sustainable alternatives to rice monoculture, since these systems require less pesticides and fertilizers, and provide a diversified income from both fish and rice, and have less negative impacts on the environment and people’s health. An increased mixture of rice and aquaculture systems could also increase farmers’ income and their adaptability to climate change and changes in river flows, linked to up-streams dams. Ecosystem services from rice fields and related wetlands in the Mekong Delta have been elucidated in this study, comparing rice-producing areas in Cai Be and Lang Sen Wetland Reserve (LSWR). Comparison of integrated system with intensive rice monocropping. Both farmers used almost the same amount of rice seeds, and the rice yields did not differ. The slightly lower yields among the rice-fish farmers could be explained by the fact that part of the field was used for the fish canal. Majority of the farmers had shifted from only rice farming to rice-fish farming due to an increase in income. The decrease in fish yield for all rice-fish farmers was due to an overuse of pesticides, use of illegal fishing gear, and loss of breeding habitat for aquatic animals. Rice-fish farmers used less amounts of fertilizer than the rice farmers, also applied a significantly lower dose of insecticides compared with the rice farmers. Overall, the financial analysis shows that integrated rice-fish farming is a financially competitive alternative to rice monoculture, and that it uses less pesticides and fertilizers, which is likely to have positive effects on the environment and the farmers’ health, with additional positive long-term economic effects. Ecosystem services status and trends. Rice has a large and direct impact on farmers’ income and all farmers said that rice yield was the most important service gained from the rice field ecosystem. Provisioning services included, in addition to rice, clean water, aquatic animals, wild vegetables, and fuels. Among supporting services, habitats for wildlife and soil structure were identified as important. Regulating services such as pollinators and natural enemies to control insect pests and diseases were identified as important. Cultural services such as aesthetic values and festivals were not so commonly mentioned by the farmers, but still seen as important. Trends in rice farming. Increased rice yields have provided export earnings and help reduce poverty; however, this has come at the expense of other ecosystem services of importance to peoples’ livelihoods and wellbeing. Many farmers felt that the high use of

pesticides and three crops per year had led to a decline in most of the identified key ecosystem services, and the economic rationale of having three crops per year is increasingly being questioned. Lessons learned in Cai Be. None of the farmers used river water for household consumption anymore, and the majority relied on water from water treatment plants. The rice-fish farmers also said that the low water quality had impacted negatively on their fish. Pesticides used on rice fields spread easily to other areas, and some farmers did not start with rice-fish farming because of the high use of pesticides on neighboring rice fields. This clearly illustrates how the services of clean water (and fish) have been compromised for increased production of rice, and where water is increasingly seen as a ‘‘dis’’-service impacting on peoples’ health and the environment. It must be made clearer how these activities depend and impact on the Delta’s ecosystem services, to avoid unwanted tradeoffs, where long-term benefits from multiple ecosystem services are lost for short-term financial gains from single crops. Benefit of rice-fish farming. Rice-fish farmers had increased their income, had a more selective use of pesticides and used less numbers of different pesticides and lower doses of pesticides compared with the intensive rice farmers. However, there are also other less obvious benefits, which, in the long-run, may be important arguments for the farmer to continue with rice-fish farming. Some farmers mentioned, for example, that a decreased use of pesticides would help improve the water quality and the farmers’ health. Another benefit with rice-fish farming, mentioned by several farmers, was that the more diversified and less intensive production improved the status of habitats for wild species and the overall biodiversity of the rice field ecosystems. An improved awareness of the multiple benefits delivered by ecosystem services among different stakeholders, and education and training are keys to move society toward sustainable rice farming strategies. Thus, the benefits derived from ecosystem services must be increasingly recognized and considered in the development of future agricultural systems of the Mekong Delta. Source: Berg et al. (2017) 3.6.4 Improving wetland management in Viet Nam Based on the collected questionnaire from a Mekong Delta Field Program Officer – IUCN Viet Nam, several practices are being done to conserve wetlands in the Mekong Delta: 1. Agricultural fields in Viet Nam have studied and introduced agriculture cultivation systems that can save irrigation water. These systems are mainly applied in vegetable cultivation and fruit gardens, which are high value products, but have less use in rice crop. These practices are mainly applied in the Mekong Delta and Central Highland. 2. Practice of dry season water storage and fish refuge:  In natural conservation areas in Mekong Delta, the managers will pump water in last months of rainy season to prevent forest fire and keep suitable habitats for aquatic species. Examples include U Minh Thuong Ramsar site, Tram Chim Ramsar site, Lang Sen Ramsar site  In An Giang Province, the government built big water reservoirs to supply water for crop lands during the dry reason 3. Regulate the water level: In coastal areas of the Mekong Delta, the government builds sluice gates to control water quality and quantity. When flood arrives, the sluice gates

are opened to flush water out, and sluice gates are closed when the flood season ends to keep water for irrigation. When the water level inside sluice gates is lower than standard level, the sluice gates will be opened again to get water in. If water quality of cannels near the sluice gates is polluted, sluice gates will be opened to push polluted water out to the sea. 4. Reduce the chemicals use: There are lists of chemicals that are not allowed using in agricultural fields. Agricultural material suppliers will be fined if they sell those chemicals. Besides, the government also encourages farmers to reduce using chemical in cultivation, and replace it with clean product. This policy is applied for all agricultural products including aquaculture, vegetable, fruit, and rice. 5. Change the cropping pattern and varieties: Depending on land characteristics and market situation, the government guides them to use appropriate crops and varieties. For example, they train farmer’s regarding new knowledge and new techniques to get better products, and issue market information weekly such as coconut price market, or lotus market. In coastal areas, shrimp farm is promoted, while fruit garden receives incentive inland, and saline tolerant rice variety is used for brackish water area. 6. Diversify appropriate crops to adapt with climate change: Due to climate change impacts, natural conditions change year by year, especially on hydrology scheme. Therefore, the government encourages farmers to diversify crop to adapt with climate change conditions. For example, if flood arrives early, farmers can cultivate aquatic species. Otherwise, they can start cultivating rice. Another good point from this policy is that farmers are less depending on mono-market and their incomes are diversified among different sources. 7. Collaborate in water use for crop between Provinces: In the Mekong Delta, the Provinces have collaborated in water use between upper delta and lower delta in water management. For example, An Giang and Kien Giang Provinces sign an agreement letter in water sharing management for crops because they use the same flows and this works very well. 8. Zoning: Nearly a half of rice production area in the Mekong Delta is covered by high dyke. This dyke system is built to prevent flood in the rainy season so that farmers can cultivate three crops of rice. The good point on this system is that farmers can produce more rice in flood season. The bad point on this system is that sediment will be limited entering farms resulting in more pollution and disease, and spaces for aquatic species will be reduced. 9. Co-management including empowerment, joint decision, benefit sharing with the local community, alternative livelihoods, etc.:  In the upper delta, the government encourages farmers to join group in cultivation such as cooperatives or production groups so that the scale of crop production will be larger and farmers can raise their voices in the market. They can be in the lotus production group, or rice, or fish group/cooperative.  In coastal areas, shrimp farmers are also encouraged to join group in production, especially for landless people who depend on natural resources exploitation such as in mangroves, NGOs promote them to establish co- management so that they can get better income and more sustainable livelihoods.

4 WETLAND AGRICULTURE AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN CAMBODIA

GlobalNature Fund ©

Figure 16. The Tonle Sap Lake is seasonally inundated freshwater lake, which provides livelihoods for most of the inhabitants through fishing

4.1 Introduction Over the past two decades, Cambodia has undergone a significant transition, reaching lower middle- income status in 2015. Wetlands in Cambodia represent over 20 percent of the total land area, with more than 50 percent of the total wetlands being utilized for rainfed rice paddy systems. Cambodia’s economy has sustained an average growth rate of 7.7 percent between 1995 and 2018, making it among the fastest-growing economies in the world (World Bank, 2019). As global demand peaked in 2018, economic growth is estimated at 7.5 percent compared with 7 percent in 2017, and is expected to remain robust over the medium term (Table 7). 4.2 Overview of wetland in Cambodia Wetlands cover about one-third of Cambodian territory, with the majority having been identified as globally important, due to the ecosystem services they provide and the populations of threatened species they support (Figure 17). In addition to streams, ponds, freshwater swamps and marshes, Cambodia has five internationally significant wetland areas: the middle stretches of the Mekong River in the north of Stung Treng Province; the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) and its floodplain; the Stung Sen River; the coastal estuaries of Stung Koh Pao and Stung Kep; and, the latest addition, the seasonally-flooded freshwater swamp Stung Sen wetland. The Mekong River is the longest river in Southeast Asia, and about 468 km of its length is in Cambodia (Kosal, 2004). Most Cambodian people live in the central plain of the country, where wetlands are located, and depend heavily on wetlands and wetland resources for their livelihoods, making most of their income economy relying on agriculture.

Table 7. Socioeconomic, environment and water use, and agriculture data of Cambodia

2018 GDP (current millons, USD) 24 571.75 GDP growth (annual %) 7.5

Agriculture, forestry and fishing, value added (% of GDP) 22 Total population (thousands) 16 249.80 Urban population growth (% of total population) 23 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of 17.7 (2012)

ECONOMIC population) GNI per capita, Atlas method (current USD) 1 380

SOCIO Rural population growth (annual %) 27 Land area (sq. km) 176 520.0

Agricultural land (% of land area) 30.9 (2016) USE Forest area (sq. km) (thousands) 52.9 (2016) Terrestrial and marine protected areas (% of total territorial 20.6 area) Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (% of internal 2.0 (2007) resources) Annual freshwater withdrawal, total (billion cu. m) 2.2 (2006) Total freshwater withdrawal, annual (% of freshwater withdrawals) Agriculture 7.0 (2006)

ENVIRONMENT WATERENVIRONMENT AND Industry 94.0 (2006) Domestic 4.0 (2006) Agricultural land (sq. km) 30.9 (2016)

Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) - Area harvested for cereals, total (ha)* Yield for cereals, total (kg/ha)* 3 569 (2017) Production of cereal, total (metric tons)* 11 100 000 (2017)

AGRICULTURE Total aquaculture production (metric tons) 172 500 (2016) Total fisheries production (metric tons) 802 450 (2016)

Source: World Bank, *FAOSTAT

FishBio

4.2.1 Definition of wetlands The concept of wetland in Cambodia remained relatively unfamiliar to sectorial agencies and stakeholders until the early 1990s. At first, the lack of a local word for the concept greatly hindered communication. When the first two documents related to wetlands were translated from English to Khmer (Rees, 1990; Davies and Claridge, 1993), the term ‘wetlands’ was translated into ‘floodplains’ (‘tumneap lich toek’). This perception of wetlands as floodplains is understandable, given that 90 percent of Cambodia lies within the Mekong basin and is subject to annual flooding from the Mekong (MoE, 1999). To broaden the meaning of wetland, the term ‘tamban dei saeum’ (wet zone) was agreed upon on 1994, to include more than just a small area of wet soil. This Khmer term has been increasingly used in written materials and was formalized by a Khram (a piece of legislation issued by the head of state) in 1996. Wetland is defined as lakes, rivers, swamps, peat lands, rice paddies, coral reef, mudflats, water reservoirs, and constructed wetlands. It is further classified to be saltwater or freshwater wetland. The country has 36 500 km2 of wetland area, composed of 53.9 percent rainfed paddy field and 0.6 percent receding rice field (MAFF, 2019) (Figure 18a,b).

MAFF ©

Figure 18a. Assessment classes of the Lower Figure 18b. Map of Cambodia’s waterbodies Mekong Basin Wetland Layer in Cambodia and wetlands

4.2.2 Function of wetlands Although wetlands and their resources provide significant goods and services to the people and to the national and local economy, many of these goods are collected for self-consumption, and do not enter into the market economy. Consequently, wetland use and functions are difficult to define and value in the context of Cambodia. Cambodian wetlands provide a rich resource base for the national and local economy. Wetlands

support a range of different uses: water supply, irrigation, hydropower, fisheries, agriculture, wildlife hunting, wood energy, navigation, recreation, and human settlement (Boxes 6 and 7). Wetlands are culturally and economically important to the large populations they support, especially to rural communities. Because of their diverse economic values, wetlands are not only a source of wealth but also create conflict among resource users and managers at local, national, and regional levels.

Box 7. Contribution of wetland to agriculture

There are 3.78 million ha of cultivated land in Cambodia, roughly equivalent to 20 percent of the country. Rice farming is the major economic and livelihood activity. Most of the rice fields are located on denuded or cleared wetlands. The total area of rice fields in the country increased substantially from 1.735 million ha in 1988 to 1.929 million ha in 1997 (FAOSTAT, 1998) and to 2.158 million ha in 1999 (RGC, 2001). More than half of the rice fields are found in Battambang, Takeo, Kandal, Kampong Speu, and Prey Veng Provinces.

Rice is generally grown under rainfed conditions, with only limited areas receiving some irrigation. Generally, rice farming in wetlands is practiced in four different forms: wet season rice, flood recession rice, dry season rice, and floating rice.

Income from agriculture is very low and even farmers with 2 ha lands typically obtain a gross margin of only about USD 250-500/year (RGC, 2001). This represents only 30–60 percent of the income required to meet a family’s basic needs. The per capita consumption of rice is estimated at 165 kg/year (438 g/day) of milled rice (CIAP, 1993); rice only contributes 75 percent of total calories consumed (FAO, 1994), with the remaining coming from maize, root crops, fruits, and vegetables.

Cash crop farming is normally conducted along the silted stretch of levees on the Mekong riverbank, on islands, and in the floodplain of the Tonle Sap, particularly in Kampong Thom and Siem Reap Provinces. Many small areas of cleared flooded forest elsewhere in the Tonle Sap and Mekong floodplain are also used for cash crops and vegetable gardens.

Relatively few chemicals are applied in the wet season rice fields compared with those used in the dry season rice and crop production, where synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are used to enhance production. Shams and Ahmed (1996) observed that minimal use of chemicals in the wet season rice crops in Pursat Province allowed for many fish, crab, snails, mollusks, and frogs to reside in rice fields. Although no incidences of pollution arising from fertilizer and/or pesticide application have generally been reported, a few cases of fish poisoning have occurred that may be linked to the inappropriate use of agricultural chemicals.

4.2.3 Classification of wetlands In 2000, Cambodia developed a system that provides classification based on a number of characteristics. It follows the following criteria in order to be classified as wetland: (i) plants are able to tolerate inundation by water for a period of greater than 6 weeks (hydrophilic plants), (ii) soils are classified as hydric soils, and (iii) area is inundated by water for a period on an annual and periodic basis. The system of classification is based on hierarchical approach, with systems, categories, sub- category, and modifiers that describe the wetland sites (Figure 19). The system also considers the wetlands in terms of water regime, substrate, vegetation type, etc. In combination, these definable characteristics provide a clear categorization of each wetland type. The sub-categories in the system of classification provide detailed characteristics of the wetland site (i.e., plants and substrates). Three main sub-categories based on plant dominance are: (i) non- vegetated, (ii) aquatic bed, and (iii) emergent vegetation and inundated forest. The non-vegetated sub-

category refers to those areas that are not covered by vegetation, which includes areas in open water. The aquatic bed includes a range of plants that spend a high proportions, if not all the time, submerged in water (e.g., seagrass) and very common in lakes, slow moving water bodies, and on the edges of rivers. Plants in the aquatic bed can be those identified as: submerged and attached; submerged and unattached; rooted, but floating on water surface; and, free-floating on water surface. Emergent vegetation refers to plants that are rooted in the substrate and whose stems, flowers, and leaves extend above the surface (e.g., reed beds), which may be persistent and non-persistent. Inundated forest includes areas that are inundated for a period of the year, ranging from few weeks to 11 months. All plants in inundated forest can withstand over 6 weeks of flooding.

Figure 19. System of wetland classification in Cambodia 4.3 Current wetland management in Cambodia All wetland resources are considered to be state property, and are managed according to the Supreme Law, the Cambodian Constitution. There is no single ministry specifically responsible for the management of wetlands. Wetlands involve several sectors – agriculture, forestry, fisheries, water management, environment, navigation, tourism, and recreation. Several ministries are responsible for sectors relevant to wetlands. The role of Ministry of Environment (MOE) encompasses general environmental management for all sectors, while the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) manages and controls the exploitation of the productive natural resource-base of the country, which includes productive lands, livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forests. The complex institutional arrangements governing wetlands management has impeded coordination between the various agencies responsible for different aspects of wetlands management. The resulting lack of effective regulation and enforcement has given rise to conflict among resource users, between managing agencies, and even between countries.

There are 10 line institutions identified as important government stakeholders for wetlands management and environment, with their summarized role and responsibilities (Figure 20): 1. The Ministry of Environment (MoE) 2. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) 3. The Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (MLMUPC) 4. The Ministry of Industry, Mining and Energy (MIME) 5. The Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) 6. The Ministry of Planning (MoP) 7. The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) 8. The Ministry of Tourism (MoT) 9. The Ministry of Public Work and Transport (MPWT) 10. The Cambodian National Mekong Committee (CNMC)

Figure 20. The 10 line agencies and their degree of roles and responsibility in wetland management (Source: Koeut, MAFF) 4.3.1 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) is responsible for managing and controlling the exploitation of the productive natural resource on productive lands, livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forests. It is mandated to improve people’s livelihood through: * Directing and planning agricultural development; * Coordinating, monitoring, and evaluating policy implementation and farming development; * Monitoring agricultural resources and facilitating;

* Establishing regulations in management, preservation, protection, and monitoring of natural resources; evaluating and developing human resources as a part of development of agriculture and effectively use those resources; * Technical support and guide farmers to improve production; * Establishing guidelines, monitoring the implementation, and improving training associations in relation to agriculture; * Research and dissemination on science and economics in farming; * Guiding land development and improving soil quality for farming, seeds production, fauna species, fertilizer, and pesticide suitable with geography and climate to ensure high yield and maintain the balance of nature; and * Collaborate with other line ministries and cooperate with NGOs and donors to develop agriculture; consistent with the mandates of the ministry. MAFF has five main technical general directorates and administrations, which have a role in wetlands management: Administration of Fisheries, Administration of Forestry, General Directorate of Agriculture, General Directorate of Animal Health and Production, and General Directorate of Rubber. The General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA) boosts agricultural productivity through agricultural diversification (10 departments):  Preparation of policy, plans, programme, projects and measures for development of agricultural production;  Compilation of land inventory and land classification, land resources management;  Monitoring of the production of crops and analyzing of technical factors relevant to the use of materials in production or in commercialization affected to the revolution of agricultural production;  Coordination public operators and privates and farmers to improve services production such as technical advice, credit and the provision of production and commercialization factors;  Development of agricultural engineering (irrigation and mechanization);  Dissemination of information, technologies and agricultural economy to the farmers and agriculture cooperative and industrial and commercial partners in cooperation with public technical institutions;  Monitoring of the status of crop health to determine protection measures and preparation of pest prevention and mitigation measures;  Monitoring and implementation research on seed productions;  Monitoring on agricultural production quality from the use of production factors for maintenance and protection of phytosanitation and preparation of legislatives related to cropping production and exports;  Setting up principles and legislatives for soil maintenance, agricultural land uses, and soil improvement and erosion prevention;  National agriculture laboratory; and

 Implementation of other duties provided by the Ministry. Meanwhile, the Administration of Fisheries is concerned with the following:  Preparation of fisheries resources inventory, fisheries potential assessment, fisheries classification and monitoring of the evolution of fisheries resources and aquaculture;  Development of projects, laws, legal instruments, directions for protection, conservation, improvement and strengthen order, fisheries domain and for the management of fisheries resources exploitation both for inland and marine fisheries and monitoring of implementation;  Participation in setting up of the environmental conservation and protection measures and development planning for the management of fisheries domain, fisheries reserves, and define development and conservation policy for fisheries resources;  Implementation of studies and research on fisheries sciences and aquaculture; and  Provision of support and encouragement to the protection initiatives and rehabilitate fisheries resources and putting high consideration on aquaculture. The Administration of Forestry also has the following roles:  Develop forest maps for plans and zoning for short and long-term development of forestry sector;  Divide forest for exploitation, reserve forests, protected forests, and forests for wildlife;  Develop forestry policy to ensure exploitation, production, and trade;  Develop legal tools to ensure the protection of forest resources and wildlife;  Study and collect data of the state forest related to scientific, economic, social and environment;  Develop and implement the programme of research, protection and maintenance of forest resources and wildlife;  Setting up proper measures to search for, to prevent and to suppress all forest destruction, forest fire and forest clearing by ensuring effective law enforcement;  Enhance the education to the people and public on management, protection and conservation of forest resources;  Enhance international cooperation to strengthen the capacity for the protection and development of forest resources;  Ensure complete and timely evaluation of all forest activities causing negative impact to society and environment prior the consent to all those activities.

4.3.2 Non-government stakeholder There were few non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in relation to wetlands mentioned: * Wetland International (WI) is an International NGO supported the Overview of Cambodian Wetlands project, on policies, protection and management. * Wetlands management, IUCN is executing a project, “The Mekong River Basin Wetland Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use Program”. * The physical and chemical conditions of the land: there are some data such watershed classes, contour lines, soil, climates, catchment’s areas, geology, landform, hydrogeology and landscape condition.

* These data were produced from the MRC, FAO, and JICA in collaboration with the national institutions such as MAFF, MOE, Ministry of Land Management and Ministry of Public Works and Transports. * Land use, Land cover and Forest covers: these data came from different sources and times. These data came from the FAO, UNEP, for MAFF, MRC data were found in 1971 for vegetation, then 1992–93, 1996–97, 2000–01 for forest and land cover of Cambodia. * Transport with collaboration of JICA. This included also the topographic map production across the whole country.

4.4 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture

To date, Cambodia’s agricultural resources consist of 3.7 million ha, with rice farming accounting for 3.0 million ha producing 10 million tons, and other crops such as maize, sugarcane, cashew nut, rubber, cassava, banana, and pepper accounting for 770 000 ha with a production of 30 million tons. Agriculture has a direct impact on wetlands activities upstream, downstream or around and its ecosystem services. Rice production is very important for local livelihoods to achieve a balance between agricultural development and the maintenance of wetland ecosystem service. There are few challenges faced by MAFF in relation to wetland management and conservation. This includes the knowledge base and awareness of wetland benefits; capacity building for both at national and local levels; lack of up-to-date data on hydrological regime, biodiversity and components of the wetland ecosystem and the economic value of all wetland resources; lack of an integrated policy and legal framework for sustainable wetland management; weak management structure; complex institutional structures and overlapping responsibilities; lack of funding from the central government; poor cooperation and ineffective coordination; lack of clarity in the legal framework caused by different and inconsistent laws and policies; and, problems of transparency and poor governance in relation to wetlands management. In the Administration of Forestry, problems in deforestation factors are logging, firewood collection, expansion of cultivated land and shrimp farming, forest cutting and burning during civil war, forest clearing for mining, forest clearing for land speculation. The consequence of deforestation includes erosion and sedimentation; erosion and sedimentation of riverbeds and lakes are threatening agricultural production in Cambodia. Forest resources traditionally utilized by the local communities for their daily needs have been taken away or degraded. Deforestation by commercial logging has increased run-off erosion and siltation of water bodies. Flood pattern has changed; flooding becomes unpredictable and more frequent. Consequently, agricultural production in many parts of the country has decreased and is unstable since 1994. It has caused food shortage in some areas. Sand carried from the uplands has accumulated on the soil surface of deep-water rice area.

4.4.1 Gaps Updated inventory along with recent maps are generally lacking in the country. The country has a policy for freshwater and marine wetlands management, but updating and modifying that policy to make it in line with ASEAN standards is a major gap. Mapping of wetlands can be done to distinguish wetland types. It is important to strengthen the department of environmental data management and GIS, within MOE to extend its scope to cover wetland database management, Inventory and maps since it will potentially support and enable wetland management agencies to effectively fulfill their responsibilities. The priority wetland sites in Cambodia should be identified and the assessment of their use, hydrology, ecosystems, biodiversity, habitats, and socioeconomic value should be further conducted to support decision-making, policies and legal development and planning. Crucial and threatened areas, especially those sites recently identified, should be incorporated in Cambodia’s wetland system. Monitoring system Monitoring systems for the use of wetlands and payment ecosystem services and payment are generally lacking in the country making it difficult to implement even the ecosystem services existing regulations. A comprehensive regulatory policy for wetland management is largely lacking and the implementation of the existing policy is also constrained by the lack of resources. No follow up mechanism is available for policy implementation. Crop production systems also lack behind due to lack of resources and non- Comprehensive availability of subsidies for the marginal farmers. policy on wetland management The legal framework governing wetlands management is founded upon various pieces of legislations. This fragmented approach reflects the complex institutional framework and does not provide a clear legal basis for the holistic and integrated management of wetlands. This has led to conflicts about resource use and to a decline in the resource base itself. Investment in human resources for conservation and sustainable development Investment in of wetlands has not corresponded to the values and potential of wetlands.

capacity building Research and integrated surveys on wetlands have not been carried out in a synchronized and systematic manner. Wetlands of high value have not been conserved and managed effectively. Awareness in Managers and beneficiaries do not yet fully understand the social, economic, wetland value and and ecological functions and values of wetlands. Communication and conservation awareness-raising activities have not received proper attention and have not always been suitable to the various target groups. Infrastructure, especially roads and water channels, need special attention. Water channels either does not exist or in very poor condition and need to be built and/or improved to reduce water losses and to maximize water use efficiency. Due to poor irrigation facilities, more than 50 percent of rice is grown Infrastructure under rainfed conditions where the yield is highly variable. Similarly, road infrastructure is very poor making the transportation very difficult. Farmers are generally smallholders (average of 2 ha of land) and poor, thus, the inputs should be subsidized to increase profit margin of the farmers.

Farmers usually face problems in deciding follow up crops after rice harvest due to volatility of the market. Better water management requires a decrease in the input of synthetic fertilizers and other chemical inputs, which could be replaced Market related with organic inputs; however, there is very limited market for organic inputs in issues the country and the farmers face difficulty in finding these inputs. Middleman creates multiple issues for agricultural products, especially for organic products, which already has a very limited available market. A strong coordination among different ministries and departments is of utmost importance to implement a policy. The mandate of different stakeholders is not Coordination clear and often overlapping making it difficult to manage the wetland agriculture. among Due to this lack of coordination and lack of quality checks for the agricultural stakeholders products, it is very difficult to find export market due to high quality demands at international level. Urbanization causes labor scarcity in the rural areas. Trend towards urbanization is a global phenomenon and Cambodia is no exception, but this Urbanization and trend creates problems for rural agriculture as efficient workforce is hard to find. labor force This problem not only disturbs the farming operations but also is a major cause of postharvest losses. Quality research is very limited and even the available research has limited practical impact as it is not properly translated at the field level. Climate resilient Quality research on seeds and crop varieties are largely lacking. Similarly, value addition to the climate change products to compete at global market is also lacking, thus, capacity building of the people is needed to compete at global level. Nonpoint source pollution is among the major causes for deteriorating water quality on a global scale. Excessive use of agrochemicals is one of the many causes for this menace and needs strict check and balance to reduce nonpoint source pollution, which is missing in Cambodia. Pesticides can cause high risks to the environment and public health. Farmers usually use 4 000 to 34 000 tons Nonpoint source of pesticide in powder formulation and 11 000 to 50 000 liters in liquid pollution control formulation on 1.4 to 1.9 m ha/yr. Fertilizer use was 300,000 tons in 2015. Synthetic fertilizers are applied to flood recession and irrigated rice crops, commercial vegetables and other cash crops. The application rate is 200–300 kg/ha.

4.4.2 Needs Awareness among local community, concerned government agencies, and NGOs about the value of wetlands should be created to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services. Trainings, workshops, benchmarking field visits should be done for capacity building of wetland stakeholders in both national and local Capacity building levels. Research and extension outreach should also be part of the mandate of and awareness different government agencies. Moreover, such topics should be a regular part campaign of the academic curricula from the elementary level to create awareness among the young generation. Committee and all its members need to have sufficient capacity to carry out effective and efficient management practices such as livelihood skills, community organization functions, and resolving fisheries

resource conflict. In 2013, growing crops other than rice or growing other crops alongside rice, helped farmers increase their incomes. It is important to note that training and access to seeds may be required to teach farmers the techniques necessary to grow different crops. A recent inventory and mapping of wetlands with demarcations is required, Update inventory especially for the sites of national and international importance. Boundary

and maps markers should be used where appropriate so that local communities and other stakeholders have a clear idea of where the different land use zones are. Strengthen In order to protect the wetlands and ecosystem services, a better monitoring monitoring of and data collection system is needed, which will not only help in protecting the activities wetlands but is also required for formulating policies and regulations governing concerning the wetlands sites. A strong legal framework at national level, which is in line wetlands with ASEAN guidelines, is needed. The requirements of different ecosystems with regard to the cropping patterns Develop cropping are not uniform and thus specific cropping systems well suited for an ecosystem systems driven by are highly needed. In such case, specific local policies to govern each local ecosystems ecosystem would be needed. Zoning on the basis of soil and weather conditions would also be required to design the cropping pattern for each area. As labor scarcity is getting worse, especially in the rural areas, mechanization Mechanization of of the farming practices at large scale would help compensate the increasing farming and labor scarcity. Building and improving the irrigation infrastructure should be irrigation facilities specifically focused, which is the backbone of farming systems. Market facilities should be given a special attention to facilitate the poor farmers. Market information is also required so that farmers can sell their produces and improve their livelihoods. Pilot projects should be initiated to Establish demonstrate to the farmers for maximizing profit, especially in aquaculture, appropriate market which has more capacity of growth. Good practices from research findings facilities could be demonstrated to the farmers in the form of small pilot projects for their understanding, which could be adapted at large scale after successful demonstration. 4.5 Recommendations and moving forward There is a rise in competition for resource use as population increases and the balance use of wetland ecosystems is hindered by poor knowledge, lack of coherent policy and integrated approach, and low public participation. Thus, the need to invest in capacity building and researches to prevent wetland degradation and strengthen the awareness of wetland valuation and conservation is imperative. Improved cropping patterns, appropriate market facilities, and irrigation techniques may also be a way for sustainable wetland agriculture. Additional strategies that can be done may include the following: 1. Update inventory and classification of wetlands. The starting point could be the

development of an updated inventory along with recent maps to analyze the important wetland sites. 2. Enhance the legal framework/master plan to manage wetlands. After mapping and updated inventory, a comprehensive legal framework with a master plan should be designed to manage and protect the important wetlands in the country. 3. Set-up a management system and define mandate of each stakeholder. Once the master plan is ready, the role of different stakeholders in the management plan should be clearly

defined and each stakeholder should be held answerable for any mismanagement. 4. Capacity building of the relevant stakeholders. After defining the roles of each stakeholder, they should be properly equipped with all capabilities to perform their role. For this purpose, they should be provided with trainings, workshops and field visits along with a close collaboration with other stakeholders. 5. Recommend market driven crops. Cropping pattern should be carefully checked and redesigned keeping in view the market trends and demands. The crops with more market demands should be given special priorities to maximize profit margin. The government might need to subsidize the inputs of such crops as most of the farmers are poor and hold a very small piece of land. 6. Construction/improvement of irrigation facilities. Water productivity and water use efficiency could be maximized with an efficient irrigation infrastructure. A country with a very weak irrigation infrastructure and climate change challenges, should focus on development of irrigation network and upgradation of the existing network where available to reduce water loss and maximize water productivity and profit margin.

4.6 Case studies and lessons learned The Cambodian Government plans to expand infrastructure-based irrigated agriculture to increase rice cropping from one to two or three crops per year, increasingly to supply to export markets. By 2010, there were 773 188 ha under crop reported for the wet season and a further 347 048 ha of irrigated crop in the dry season. The National Strategic Development Plan proposes expanding the irrigated rice area to 867 000 ha and increasing yields from 2.5 t/ha in 2007 to 3.0 t/ha in 2020 for production of 7.5 mt/yr by 2020 (Yu and Diao, 2011). The proportion of irrigated land is projected to increase 20 percent by 2020 (Yu and Diao, 2011). There only remains some 46 759 ha of floating rice areas in Cambodia under potential threat for replacement by HYV rice (ECOLAND Research Center, 2016).

4.6.1 The fate of floating rice cultivation in Cambodia In the recent past, floating rice was distributed in most Provinces around Tonle Sap and in the Cambodian Mekong Delta. In 2010, the country had 95 858 ha of floating rice, which was reduced to 46 759 ha by 2015. Although floating rice remains in 9 out of 26 Provinces, primarily cultivation is limited to six Provinces near Tonle Sap, being Siem Reap, Kampong Thom, Kampong Chhnang, Pursat, and Banteay Meanchey. In 2015, Kampong Thom had the largest area of 12 165 ha (26 percent of Cambodia’s floating rice crop). Decline of floating rice. This rapid reduction in floating rice areas can be seen to be due to the Cambodian Government’s promotion of short-term, high yielding rice cultivation aimed at producing a domestic rice surplus enabling rice exports to develop. The government plans to expand infrastructure-

based irrigated agriculture to enable at least two or three rice crops per year in many areas. In 2010, there were 773 188 ha under crop reported for the wet season and a further 347 048 ha of irrigated crop in the dry season (De Silva et al., 2014). The National Strategic Development Plan proposes expanding the irrigated rice area to 867 000 ha and increasing yields to 3.25 t/ha for production of 10.85 mt/yr and the rice surplus of 6 mt/year (Royal Government of Cambodia). Aquaculture in floating rice fields. Inland fisheries contributed 65 to 75 percent of animal protein for rural households in rice farming areas of Svay Rieng (Guttman, 1999). It was estimated that a hectare of rice fields can provide 80 kg/year of edible fish (catch range of 30 to 86 kg of fish/year/household) (Guttman, 1999). It is further estimated that 70 percent of the Cambodian population depend directly

for food or livelihoods on the wild fish catch from the Mekong River and the annual flooded rice fields (ICEM, 2010). Biodiversity protection in the floating rice fields. The agroecosystems around Tonle Sap are divided into three zones, each providing its own particular combination of ecosystem services and assemblages of fauna and flora. Biodiversity conservation and protection is strongly allied to this zoning system and its impact on agricultural activity. Zone 3, at the lower levels, is flooded early in the rainy season and remains flooded from July to November. This is the Zone most associated with the growing of receding and floating rice. It is also the wildest zone and is characterized by the presence of Roneam (clear flooded forest) and a combination of flooded shrub lands, grassland, and paddy fields. Floating rice is often planted under the Roneam - the flooded forest. Such rice cropping precludes the use of machinery and limits the use of synthetic inputs such as fertilizers and other agrochemicals. This zone is seen as having the highest biodiversity value. Ecosystem services for agriculture. Rice fields provide a range of ecosystems services and considerable work has been done in detailing these services and their accompanying dis-services for the three different rice growing systems. These are the 1 to 3 crops of short duration HYV rice per year; secondly, comes the medium to long duration rainy season rice (non-floating rice); and thirdly, floating rice systems. In particular, the Provisioning Services include not only rice but fish, other aquatic animals and medicinal materials for local people (Halwart, 2006; Halwart, 2008). The Mekong flood plain provides the principal fishing and aquatic animal hunting grounds for the local people. These combine to provide the principal protein sources for local people who have limited access to market food because of the distance to market and/or are too poor to buy food. Rice field agro- ecosystem is also source of green manure as well as compost composition for organic and other traditional rainfed seasonal rice cropping system. Cambodian rice fields also provide a commercial supply of aquatic animals such as frog, snake, eels, rats/mice, and insects to neighboring counties such as Thailand and Viet Nam. Consumers outside Cambodia strongly believe that Cambodian farmers use less chemical inputs than their own farmers and thus Cambodian wild products are free from contamination. In Cambodia, it is well recognized that if floating rice farmers continue to produce on existing rice fields and keep traditional vegetation such as Roneam trees in their rice fields, floating rice systems can contribute to fishery natural resources management, i.e., these management systems are mutually supporting.

Source: Nguyen and Pittock (2016)

WETLAND AGRICULTURE AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN LAO 5 PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Figure 21. Landscape overview of Beung Kiat Nong Ramsar site in Champasak province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic

5.1 Introduction Lao People’s Democratic Republic is a landlocked country bordering Myanmar, Cambodia, China, Thailand, and Viet Nam. About 7.06 million people live in its 18 Provinces, with most people (65 percent) still living in rural areas. However, urbanization is occurring at a rate of 3.4 percent each year. The country is largely mountainous, with the most fertile land found along the Mekong plains. The river flows Table 8 from north to south, forming the border with Thailand for more than 60 percent of its length ( ). Lao People’s Democratic Republic, a lower-middle income economy with a GNI per capita of USD 2 577 in 2018, is one of the fastest growing economies in the Southeast Asia and Pacific region. GDP growth averaged 7.7 percent over the last decade, with income per capita reaching USD 2 460 in 2018 (World Bank, 2019).

5.2 Overview of wetland in Lao People’s Democratic Republic Lao People’s Democratic Republic is closely associated with one of the world’s major wetlands, the Mekong River system, which covers 88 percent of the country, forming much of the country’s western border with Thailand and Myanmar. Wetlands in Lao People’s Democratic Republic extend across the floodplains of the Mekong River to highland areas in the north and east of the country. Most of Lao people rely on wetlands for their daily subsistence, being used intensively and extensively by local inhabitants. It also serves as an important wildlife habitat area, making conservation for sustainable use of these wetlands a contentious issue in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. In Lao People’s Democratic Republic, river, water and other natural and constructed wetlands are estimated to cover about 945 000 ha of land, which is 4 percent of the total land area of the country. More specifically, the major wetland

types in Lao People’s Democratic Republic include: 254 000 ha around the Mekong and other major rivers, 57 000 ha of large reservoirs, 96 000 ha of swamps and wetland, 480 000 ha of rice fields, 10 500 ha of fish ponds, and 47 500 ha of small reservoirs, ponds and weirs (IUCN, 2004). Lao People’s Democratic Republic has stepped up the protection of its wetlands by joining the Ramsar Convention in 20 September 2010. It designated two of its wetlands as of international importance, namely, Xe Champhone Wetland at Savannakhet Province and Beung Kiat Ngong Wetland located at Champasak Province (Figure 22). The commitment from the Lao government to protect its vital natural wetland resources comes at a crucial point in the nation’s rapid and transformative economic development.

Table 8. Socioeconomic, environment and water use, agriculture data of Lao People’s Democratic Republic

2018 GDP (current millons, USD) 18 130.72 GDP growth (annual %) 6.5 Agriculture, forestry and fishing, value added (% of GDP) 15.7 Total population (thousands) 7 061.51 Urban population growth (% of total population) 35 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of 23.4 (2012) population) GNI per capita, Atlas method (current USD) 2 460

SOCIOECONOMIC Rural population growth (annual %) 0.6 Land area (sq. km) 230 800.0 Agricultural land (% of land area) 10.3 (2016) Forest area (sq. km) (thousands) 82.1 (2016) Terrestrial and marine protected areas (% of total territorial 16.7 area)

Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (% of internal 2.0 (2007) resources) USE Annual freshwater withdrawal, total (billion cu. m) 3.5 (2005) Total freshwater withdrawal, annual (% of freshwater withdrawals) Agriculture 5.0 (2005) Industry 91.0 (2005) ENVIRONMENT AND WATERENVIRONMENT Domestic 3.0 (2006)

Agricultural land (sq. km) 30.9 (2016) Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) 11.5 (2014) Area harvested for cereals, total (ha)* Yield for cereals, total (kg/ha)* 4 498 (2017) Production of cereal, total (metric tons)* 5 232 304 (2017) Total aquaculture production (metric tons) 109 835 (2016)

AGRICULTURE Total fisheries production (metric tons) 180 750(2016)

Source: World Bank, *FAOSTAT

Figure 22. The two wetlands of national importance, Xe Champhone and Beung Kiat Ngong 5.2.1 Definition of wetlands The term wetland in Lao People’s Democratic Republic is Din Boliven Nam, with literal meaning “land where there is water”. This defines wetland as “lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land covered by shallow water” (Department of Livestock and Fisheries, 2004). This definition has been influential in the Water and Water Resources Law, which defines water resources as comprising all living and nonliving resources in the aquatic environment (GoL, 1996). Water sources that come under the definition of wetlands include rivers, tributaries, ponds, canals, swamps, bogs, and springs. The Water and Water Resources Law recognizes the interconnectedness of these water sources within river catchments.

5.2.2 Function of wetlands The majority of Lao rural households’ fish in rivers, floodplains, reservoirs, aquaculture ponds and rice- fields covering an area of over 1.2 million ha (Martin et al., 2013; Phonvisay, 2013). Individual fishing in small water bodies such as wetlands accounts for at least 70 percent of the fish acquired by Lao rural households (Garaway, 2005). Freshwater wetland commons in Lao provide food and income security for people living on the Mekong River floodplains (Martin et al., 2013). The extensive network of floodplains and wetlands that connect to the Mekong River produce year-round fish protein for households, especially after regular flooding and fish migration events (Mollot et al., 2005; Baumgartner et al., 2012). There are 409 wetland commons in Lao People’s Democratic Republic of which two are internationally recognized Ramsar sites (Phonvisay, 2013).

5.2.3 Classification and types of wetlands Despite the recognition given to the diversity of wetlands, agreement over a national classification system has proven difficult. First, there are a variety of local terms for wetland habitats that are not compatible with the hierarchical classifications offered by IUCN and the Mekong River Commission (Claridge, 1996; MRC, 1997). Secondly, local terms for wetlands vary between different parts of the country, and also between government line agencies, which has also made agreement on a common system difficult. A preliminary classification was developed by the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (Tables 9 and 10). Further development of the classification is still needed, specifically to delineate sub-categories with examples. The wetland types of International classification with corresponding codes are as follows, according to Phittayaphone (2003): 1. Permanent and seasonal flooded forest (swamp) 2. Large pools in river (RR1a) 3. Mangrove swamps (M12d + M12dm + E12d + E12dm) 4. Perennial River (RR1) 5. Seasonal River (RR2) 6. Permanent Lakes (LL1n) 7. Permanent dam/Reservoir (LL1m) 8. Permanent Ponds (PL1n) 9. Pasture/Grass Marsh 10. Rice Fields 11. Aquaculture

Table 9. Wetland classification in Lao People’s Democratic Republic Wetland Sub-categories Lao Terms River and floodplain Pools Vung leuk Channels Khong Nam Lai Irrigation canal Khong Solapataan Grassland Thong nya nam tuam Seasonal backswamps Nong nam tuam bung ruduu Shallow lake Permanent lake Taleesap Seasonal lake Ang nam tuam bung ruduu Reservoir Ang Nam Marsh Natural pond Nong thamasaat Man-made pond Nong Sa Permanent Beung Seasonal Beung mii nam bung ruduu Peat swamp Beuam Swamp forest Flooded forest Paa nam tuam Source: Roger (2002)

Table 10. Five priority wetland sites with their level of economic, ecological, and social importance Importance No. Wetland type Economic Ecology Social 1 Permanent and seasonal flooded forest Low High Medium (swamp)

2 Large pools in river (RR1a) High High Medium

3 Perennial river (RR1) High Medium Medium

4 Permanent dam/Reservoir (LL1m) High Medium Medium

5 Rice fields High Medium High Source: Phittayaphone (2003)

5.3 Current wetland management in Lao People’s Democratic Republic There are two departments under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) responsible for wetland management: (i) Department of Water Resources (DWR), which is responsible for wetland management in the country; and (ii) Department of Environmental Quality Promotion (DEQP), which is responsible for the two wetland Ramsar sites. Lao officially joined to the Ramsar Convention on September 2010 as 160th Contracting Party and designated two Wetlands of International Importance: Xe Champhone Wetland (Savannakhet Province) and Beung Kiat Ngong Wetland (Champasak Province). Xe Champhone Ramsar site (XCP) Xe Champhone has a total area of 12 400 ha, designated as a Ramsar site in September 2010, which includes 12 core villages, and classified as perennial and seasonal river channels, freshwater marsh, swamp forest, lake, ponds, reservoirs, seasonally flooded woodlands, and rice field. Fauna found in this site are Siamese crocodile, waterbirds, turtles, and fish (Figures 23 and 24). It serves as a wildlife corridors, fish breeding, sources of fish, and groundwater supply function for human. For its conservation status, local community regulations (customary law) are still being followed. The area is used for agriculture, fishing, and being converted to reservoirs, settlement, and salt production. Management XCP is under the Ramsar Provincial Committee of Savannakhet Province. Habitats found include mosaic of different wetland types, comprising perennial and seasonal rivers, freshwater lakes, ponds, oxbows, marshes, rice paddy fields. Beung Kiat Ngong Ramsar site (BKN) BKN has a total area 6 000 ha with main area of 2 360 ha. It was designated as a Ramsar site in 2010 and lies partly within the Xe Pian National Protected Area (NPA). It includes 8 core villages and the management is under the Xe Pian NPA authority and the Ramsar Provincial Committee of Champasak Province. It has rivers, freshwater lakes and ponds, freshwater marsh, seasonally flooded grasslands, biggest peatland in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Siamese crocodile, woolly-necked storks, Greater adjutant can be found in the wetlands. It serves as wildlife habitats and corridors that include breeding and feeding site for fish, and local communities are highly dependent on its resources. Its hydrological values include groundwater recharge and maintenance of dry-season flows, and this

wetland is being used in agriculture, grazing, fishing and settlement. Habitats include complex of peatlands, freshwater marsh, permanent ponds, flooded forests and seasonally flooded grasslands (Figure 24).

Figure 23. Map of Xe Champhone wetland (left); endangered: Soft shell turtle, Siamese crocodile, balloon frog,

Wallago catfish (nearly threatened) (right)

Figure 24. Map of Beung Kiat Ngong (left); Malayan box turtle, yellow breasted bunting, small clawed otter, Mekong snail eating turtle (right). Eight species of turtle and tortoise. All species identified are listed on the IUCN Red List as globally ‘vulnerable’ or ‘endangered’ 5.3.1 National law and local regulation related to wetland management There are no laws directly related to wetland resources. Instead, a number of laws focus on related sectors such as land and water resources, fisheries and environmental protection. There are several laws applicable to wetlands ensconced within the laws dealing with forestry, water and water resources, and agriculture. However, effective law enforcement has been hampered to a large extent by the absence of regulations and frameworks for such enforcement (Liemphrachanch, 2005). Each law establishes the rights and responsibilities of the Lao citizens to both use and protect these resources. The laws directly support the policies as outlined above, including the sustainable use of resources in pursuit of economic development and poverty alleviation. Laws and regulations on wetland management includes the following:  Land Law  Forestry Law  Water and Water Resources Law (2017)  Environment Protection Law (2012)  Fishery Law  Urban Planning Law

 National Land Use Master Plan 2030 (2018)  Beung Kiat Ngong Management Plan  Customary Law  Agriculture Law  Local Fisheries Regulation  Wetland Management Agreement (drafting)  National Water and Water Resources Management Strategy 2030 (drafting) Key legislation within Lao People’s Democratic Republic. that relates to water resources and/or water management is presently undergoing updating and redrafting processes. These are the laws for Land, Forests and Water Resources. The original Water and Water Resources Law, for example, dates back to 1996. The current revision includes two articles on wetlands and another article on establishing “water resource reserves”. National Land Use Master Plan 2030 (2018): proposed 8 land use types, including wetland protection, conservation and sustainable use. Water and Water Resources Law: includes Article 34; Wetland Definition; and, Article 35. Use, Protection and Development of Wetlands. Wetland Management Agreement: aims to protect the high-value river basins, wetlands and aquifers of Lao People’s Democratic Republic; Wetland inventory; and, 3 levels wetland management: National, Province and District.

Figure 25. National and Provincial Steering Committee on Ramsar Site Management (Source: DEQP, MONRE) 5.4 Issues and challenges for sustainable wetland agriculture The continuous development has adverse impact on wetland use and management. Wetlands are now being used for urban development, water storage for hydropower/water supply, irrigation for agriculture. Overfishing, alteration of flow regime, reduction of fish migration, decline in habitat and loss of large fish species are also the effects of changing the wetland conditions. Wetlands are being changed by various factors, which cause loss of important functions. Typical problems encountered are: deforestation within watershed altering hydrological flows; flooding and landslides during wet season; drought during the dry season and decreased flow rates; biodiversity loss; communities located in remote areas hard to reach places; and, inhabitants characterized by poverty. Some notable issues working against the implementation of Ramsar Convention in Lao People’s Democratic Republic pertain to the lack of legislation and regulations on wetland management. Conversion of wetlands to agriculture and gardening, overfishing/overgrazing, use of chemicals and

pesticides, increased soil salinity, drought and flood all adds up to wetland loss and degradation. Additionally, Climate Adaptation in Wetland Areas of Lao People’s Democratic Republic (CAWA) identified key factors that may affect sustainable wetland agriculture, particularly, rice-wetland system:  Land use planning: No land cover unit for natural wetlands (only rice, open water and forest); differences on planning process between national and province levels; and limited integration of water resource planning  Disaster risk management: Limited awareness and analysis of flood risk; rice production and development policy not considering risk; less focus on risk avoidance - more on post-disaster relief  Water infrastructure development: limited Summary Environmental Impact Assessment (SEIA) and Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (CRVA) application; limited focus on native fishery impact or fish pass development  Water and river basin policy: Little consideration of value of/working with flood patterns; little awareness of flood retention and aquifer recharge value of wetlands  Agricultural policy: More focus on rice production than diversified and profitable livelihood options; more focus on aquaculture than native fisheries – volume over quality  Agricultural water use: Limited dry season water and control of dry season water use; irrigation schemes flood damaged and lack maintenance; storage dams valued greater than groundwater storage From the consultation workshop of key wetland stakeholders, these are the identified gaps and needs to be addressed to achieve sustainable wetland agriculture. 5.4.1 Gaps Limited literature is available about the existing status of wetlands in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. A few studies highlighted the importance of wetlands to Lao culture, food security, rural livelihoods, and living aquatic resources management. Inventory and The lack of appreciation of the importance and integrated nature of wetlands maps resources is yet another challenge. Inventory of wetlands and additional surveys are needed to identify in detail the benefit and valuation of wetland areas and potential threats to set priorities for effective sustainable management action. A comprehensive regulatory policy for wetland management is largely lacking. A draft of legislation for wetland management is ready and will be effective soon. This draft is Policy and also focusing on different levels of management and the role of different legislation on stakeholders. However, there is still an ambiguity among ministries and departments wetland use for water management. There is no connectivity in policies and regulations; rather a and project type of approach is employed depending on the availability of the resources. management An effective legislation and guidelines for land use is very crucial to manage wetlands as these two are linked and inseparable. Land use plan is generally lacking in the country and thus needs special attention. Buffer zones are as important as core zones to manage wetlands, but in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, buffer zones are not very clear making it difficult to Understanding demarcate a wetland and subsequently create problems in managing these wetland on buffer sites. Encroachment of the wetlands was also identified as a major issue because of zones no clear boundaries and lack of strict regulations to protect such sites.

Excessive use of agrochemicals and the growing construction industry contribute to nonpoint source pollution in wetlands. Water quality is at risk due to excessive and more than required application of agrochemicals. This practice not only pollutes the Use of surface water but also poses a serious risk for underground water resources. agrochemicals Regulations in use of agrochemicals is largely lacking at national level. Similarly, and alarming growth of construction industry is a risk for the existence of wetlands itself construction and for the biodiversity in these wetlands. Trend towards urbanization and population industry growth are among the major threats to wetlands on a global scale, though this risk is currently not very severe in Lao People’s Democratic Republic context but could be a problem in the near future. Local people are the actual stakeholders and their involvement is the key to success Awareness for any policy. The involvement of common people in policy making is lacking, which and public might be the cause of less effectiveness of the existing policies regarding wetlands involvement and wetland agriculture. Lack of resources is also a hurdle in wetlands management. A strong coordination among different ministries and departments is of utmost Coordination importance to implement a policy. The mandate of different stakeholders is not clear among and often overlapping making it difficult to manage the wetland agriculture. Even the different international agencies working in the same area have less coordination and many stakeholders times their objectives are overlapping. A coordination committee consisting of different stakeholders would be a great step for better results. There is a lack of local experts in the area. Most of the wetland projects and activities are run by the international agency, which is a basic need, but capacity building of the local people to create local experts would be a sustainable and long-lasting Local experts solution. With this approach, locals will be equipped with technical knowledge for managing wetlands and wetland agriculture. Many relevant departments could be focused for such trainings, but the department of irrigation should be at the top as it is directly dealing with the wetlands. Any management plan which could be a potential threat for the livelihood of the Conflict of public is rarely effective. Being poor and dependent on these wetlands, the local interest population usually ignores the instructions from the concerned departments, which could cause a reduction in their outputs. It was noted that there is no integrated water and nutrient management plans to increase water and nutrient use efficiencies. Changing climate and increasing global Integrated population necessitate the importance of increased water and nutrient use water and efficiencies. Many water efficient cultivation techniques such as alternate wetting and nutrient drying (AWD), system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice culture are getting management attentions at global scale to combat climate change and to feed the growing global plans population. In Lao People’s Democratic Republic, such practices are rare and needs to be encouraged. Water flow There is no formal mechanism to monitor the flow of water into the irrigation channels data from from the Mekong River. Such system is of crucial importance and will help in water Mekong River flow regulation, which would in turn reduce water losses. Site Although all wetland sites are important for conservation, yet priority could be given prioritization to some sites which are at more risk or where the biodiversity is more threatened. For

this purpose, state of the art research activities should be accompanied with legislation and management plans. 5.4.2 Needs Latest A recent inventory and mapping of wetlands is required, especially for the sites of inventory and national and international importance. update of maps A comprehensive plan for wetland management is needed highlighting the role and Enact wetland domain of all stakeholders. The policy governing wetlands should also be a part of management this management plan to avoid overlapping roles of different departments and plan ministries. A monitoring system for hydrological regimes and biodiversity in the wetlands should also be a focus point in the management plan. Research focusing different dimensions of the wetlands such as agriculture, aquaculture, biodiversity, hydrological regimes and water flow should be a regular Prioritize activity for better management plans. This would also help in modifying the plans with research the changing scenarios. For this purpose, an initial brief survey could be the entry point to prioritize the sites followed by a detailed survey and research activities. These activities should also focus on catchment areas of the wetlands. Currently there is no land use plan in practice. An efficient land use plan will not only Provide help in regulating agricultural activities but also help in maintaining ecosystem efficient land services at these sites. Land use plan will also help in designing better cropping use plan patterns in these sites depending on the soil and weather conditions. Conduct To determine the current status of different wetland sites and the possible threats, a stratified hierarchical survey should be conducted followed by a detailed survey for hierarchical management purpose. survey Establish To manage wetland and wetland agriculture, all relevant sector and stakeholders national should be involved with a holistic approach. The national strategy for wetland strategy with management should focus on all aspects of these sites to maximize the benefits and multisectoral to conserve the biodiversity. This approach also requires the active involvement of all approach stakeholders and an effective coordination among them. Socioeconomic plans at district and provincial levels with the involvement of local Use bottom up people are more effective and long lasting rather than top to bottom management approach in approach where policies are made at national level and then implemented planning everywhere without considering the demographic and socioeconomic conditions of each ecosystem. Sufficient resources would be needed for this purpose. For better management of wetlands and wetland agriculture and improved Appoint a coordination among different stakeholders, a monitoring committee represented by all leading stakeholders at national level could be very helpful to run the projects and monitor government the activities. Relevant technical people should also be included in such a committee. agency at Moreover, sharing of information among the project implementation agencies and national level technical people should be a mandate of this committee.

Optimize the In order to make the research findings really fruitful, these findings should be use of data disseminated to the public in the local language. To do so, the local people should be and properly equipped with all the capabilities to undertake this responsibility in an dissemination effective way. of research outputs

5.5 Recommendations and moving forward One of the most significant factors is that the value of wetland ecosystems is poorly understood by policy makers, economists, and local communities. Converting or developing wetlands may have significant adverse impacts on wetland resources and livelihood; therefore, such development in wetlands needs to be considered more carefully before reaching a decision. Nature-based solutions in agriculture is being promoted by IUCN to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address challenges effectively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). The nature-based solutions typology includes sustainable practices, green infrastructure, bioremediation, and conservation. It is therefore important for conventional agriculture to shift to sustainable agricultural wetland practices. The lack of comprehensive policy, absence of public awareness, and discoordination among stakeholders are just few of the factors that should be addressed. There is a need to have updated inventory and mapping on wetlands, and a wetland management plan encompassing multisectoral and bottom-up approach. Moving forward, plans on capacity building, establishment of updated inventory and database is on the process. A formation of national monitoring agency will strengthen coordination among stakeholders and improve monitoring and management wetlands for sustainable use. In summary, here are some of the strategic plans that may be employed for better wetland management that may lead to sustainability: 1. Update inventory. The starting point could be the development of an updated inventory along with recent maps to analyze the important wetland sites. For this purpose, a national

preliminary survey followed by a detailed survey with all relevant details could be a starting point. 2. Conduct wetland planning and capacity building. After mapping and updated inventory, a comprehensive planning for wetland management should be prioritized with all details highlighting the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders. 3. Procure equipment and facilities needed for inventory. To make the inventory more reliable and updated, all relevant equipment should be provided. 4. Establishment of national database. When updated inventory is complete then there should be a national database where all the data are accessible and safe. 5. Appoint a national monitoring agency. A national monitoring agency comprising of all relevant stakeholders should be formed to run the projects smoothly. This proposed committee should have coordination with project implementing agencies and international agencies for better results. 6. Prepare a regulation and management plan. A detailed monitoring and management plan for wetlands focusing on different aspects of wetland management and regulations should be in place.

5.6 Case studies and lessons learned

5.6.1 Nature-based solutions (NbS) in Agriculture IUCN defined Nature-based solutions (NbS) as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address challenges effectively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). NbS typology includes sustainable practices, green infrastructure, bioremediation, and conservation, as quoted by the Water and Wetlands Programme Advisor, IUCN, Dr. Natalia Pervushina.

Between 2000 and 2011, the total flood storage volume in the upper Viet Namese Mekong Delta has halved, from 9 200 billion m3 to 4 700 billion m3 as a result of the third rice crop (ICEM, 2015). This resulted to (i) increasing crop and property losses, and dike maintenance cost, (ii) between USD 3 and 11 million in additional flood damages in Can Tho City in 2011 flood compared with 2000, (iii) subsidence of 5–10 mm/year.

IUCN/NataliaPervushina © Some NBS options that could be applicable for Lao People’s Democratic Republic wetlands is the use of non-timber forest products, agroforestry, promote reforestation (tree barriers, integrated systems, sloping agricultural land technology (SALT), practice fodder production, and develop community forest management schemes. Example of Flood-based agriculture as Nature-based solution – profiting from the floods (Mekong Delta Viet Nam):

5.6.2 Key program’s outputs related to eco-friendly water management in Beung Kiat Ngong Ramsar Site – the Mekong WET project Beung Kiat Ngong Ramsar Site hosts the largest peatland area in Lao People’s Democratic Republic and its habitats are highly vulnerable to climate change. At Xe Champhone Ramsar Site riverine habitats, which are susceptible to erosion and sedimentation impacts, and open wetlands, are increasingly threatened by higher temperatures warming the shallow waters, and increased water extraction during the dry season. The species vulnerability assessment analyzed five species at each site to determine how changes in climatic patterns will affect their survival. Turtles at the Bueng Kiat Ngong site are the most vulnerable to future changes. The projected increase in temperature skewing hatchling gender ratio through ‘environmental sex determination’ will compromise reproductive success of two species, Giant Asian pond turtle (Heosemys grandis) and Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis). High temperatures will also affect the eggs of the critically endangered Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) at Xe Champhone Ramsar Site. Evaporation and sedimentation at Xe Champhone may also fragment the migration routes of the Wallago catfish (Wallago attu), which requires a large connected habitat area and deep pool refuge to sustain the population. Community livelihood vulnerability assessments conducted at both sites revealed similar results. Men and women mentioned that fish and snails are the top two wetland resources used mostly for food. According to the local communities, damage to rice crops from floods and drought because of climate change is threatening livelihoods. The results from the vulnerability assessments are currently being used to develop climate change adaptation plans that will support community members and local and national managers in minimizing the impacts of climate change through ecosystem restoration and promoting the benefits of healthy wetlands. A Beung Kiat Ngong Management Plan (2019–2023) was developed as a result of an inclusive consultation process to update BKN management plan, with three technical working group meetings. This plan aims to: identify the objectives of site management; identify what factors affect your site’s key features; identify management actions; define monitoring; maintain continuity in the management; ensure compliance with local, national and international policies; provide a dialogue platform and support communication within and between sites;resolve conflicts; help obtain financial resources; and, demonstrate that management is efficient. In March 2019, IUCN hosted a study tour that brought members of the seven communities together in the village of Palath in Vientiane Province to foster networking among village fish conservation zone (FCZ) enforcement teams and exchange lessons learned. There is a collaborative monitoring practice according to the collaborative management of the Beung Kiat Ngong Wetland; therefore, it requires the local monitoring team to implement most of the monitoring activities.

5.6.3 Lessons on Integrated Wetland Livelihood and Conservation Practice – FAO-MONRE CAWA Project The Climate Adaptation in Wetland Areas in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (CAWA) Project of FAO-MONRE is a five-year GEF-funded project (May 2016 to March 2021) being led by FAO and MONRE DEQP, with technical support from IUCN, IWMI, and Tetraktys. The target wetland sites are

Xe Champhone (Savannakhet) and Beung Kiat Ngong (Champasak). The project’s objective is to reduce climate change vulnerability of communities and wetland ecosystems upon which they depend.

The CAWA site strategy  Ecosystem/landscape-based approach is adopted to balance conservation and development  Conservation and environmental management sustains wetland landscape and ecosystem services in face of site threats  The climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk management (DRM) landscape functions and services support CCA and DRM adapted livelihoods  Development assists further with flood and drought adapted (CCA) livelihood options  Supported by improved: natural resource management and site planning and management; direct CCA investments; livelihood management, techniques and material inputs; and, hydro- metric data collection as early warning system to understand and avoid disaster  Field lessons on CCA and DRM are scaled-up into national and local policy and planning processes Expectations on climate change In the context of climate change, a temperature increase of +1.6–2.0°C is expected by 2100. Rainfall shifts will be experienced, with timing of yearly rainfall and seasons less reliable; increased, more thunder storms and stronger typhoons; and, spatially variable increase and decrease in average annual rainfall. Most impact water-related – direct impact on water supply, floods and evaporation (focus of direct action) while less impact temperature-related - indirect ecological impacts (evaporation loss, crop and livestock stress, diseases and insect pests) (focus of monitoring and research). The answer then is climate change adaptation and disaster risk management, according to Dr. Kevin Jeanes, Chief Technical Advisor on Climate Change Adaptation Areas in Lao People’s Democratic Republic of UN-FAO. The objectives of CAWA and climate risk suggest lowland rice crop expansion into wetland presents several problems: (i) main current lowland threat to wetland landscape, landscape functions, ecosystem services, CCA and DRM; (ii) negative shift in conservation and development balance, CCA and DRM adapted livelihoods, rice crops are least adapted and most risky, flood and drought adaptation, natural resource management and wetland site planning and management; and, (iii) CCA and DRM field lesson for planning and policy is - best be avoided and at least not encouraged. Rice-wetland impact context Climate risk and vulnerability assessment (CRVA) and summary environmental impact assessment (SEIA) lessons on the wet season rice showed that: extensive and directly replaces natural wetland and fishery habitat; reduces wetland function, ecological diversity, flood retention and groundwater recharge with small dykes that disrupt natural floodplain hydrology, flood pattern and fish migration, and water storages and irrigation infrastructure which disturb natural hydrology and flood pattern and fish migration; and may use chemicals and invasive aquaculture fish species which degrade wetland environment, ecology and native fishery. On the other hand, CRVA and SEIA on the dry season rice resulted to: water extraction which endangers wetland existence, ecology and native fish refuges; may encourage water storages and irrigation infrastructure development which disturbs wetland hydrology, flood pattern and fish migration, and reduces wetland function, ecological diversity, flood retention and groundwater recharge; needs no dykes that disrupt natural floodplain hydrology and flood pattern; little impact on wetland function and no impact on flood retention and groundwater recharge; less extensive and less disturbance of natural wetland and fishery habitat; and, less chemical use to degrade wetland environment, ecology and native fish refuges. There is a need to shift risk and diversify to reduce

wetland impact.

FAO FAO Lao

CTA,CAWA, UN ©

5.6.1 Cultural and scientific co-management of wetland commons in Lao People’s Democratic Republic: Elder perspectives from Pak Peung wetland Wetland use, management, and governance have changed dramatically over the last 50 years in response to population increase, irrigation and hydropower development, and institutional influences. In the past, there were more vegetation and habitat for fish breeding, lower water levels make fish easier to catch, and more wildlife can be found. Many fish species moving from the Mekong River were available. People practice fishing in addition to many other livelihood activities such as agriculture, trading, laboring, and professional occupations (Martin et al., 2013). Changes in wetland condition. With the construction of weir for irrigation, rice and vegetable production increased; however, there was a decrease in population of big fish species as fish cannot migrate past the weir wall. Also, the use of modern fishing gear (e.g., gillnet, cast net), illegal fishing methods (e.g., electrofishing) and the increase of demand for fish in the market are among several causes of wetland and fish decline in the area. Traditional wetland conservation practices. Looking back, management of wetland was governed by village regulations; fishing is mainly for household consumption. Access to wetland commons was not a problem. Fishing schedule is dictated by certain Buddhist edicts (i.e., no fishing on Buddhist holiday), and no fish breeding was allowed. Local people used rudimentary fishing gear and fished nearby the village in local commons zones to catch enough for daily subsistence or small cash income (Choulamany, 2004). Cultural and scientific co-management. Combining traditional management with the government- implemented water and fishery laws and policies can be a good way of conserving wetlands. Elders from the community suggests “building relationships within the local population to create an understanding . . . and it will enhance knowledge and understanding of the wetland”. Stronger policy against illegal fishing method and logging is needed, besides the support from district and provincial governments. Roles of elders, youth, and monks should also be taken into consideration. The long- term local knowledge held by elders could help decide where to carry out habitat restoration, protect spawning areas, and report illegal activities. The monastic community could play a role in encouraging people to refrain from fishing on significant days in the Buddhist calendar, in fish conservation zones, and taking breeding fish. In this way, traditional and scientific management will require careful community facilitation and engagement with all wetland users. Maintaining cultural beliefs and practices that reinforce fish conservation efforts based on science and

policy. Greater involvement of elders, monks, women, and youth could reestablish stronger cultural commitment to Pak Peung wetland as a common resource in decline. However, the process of engaging communities requires careful facilitation, appreciation of local knowledge and gender roles, and ongoing technical support. Source: Millar et al. (2017) 5.6.2 Impact of irrigation on aquatic wetland resources in That Luang Marsh That Luang Marsh (TLM) covers an area of around 16 km2, and collects water that drains from Vientiane and its surrounding suburban areas wetland system. It is a combination of freshwater, marsh, seasonally flooded grasslands, and shrub lands. It serves as a natural breeding ground for fish and other edible animals, source of food for local residents, and provides valuable ecosystem services to Vientiane, including wastewater purification and flood protection. Development pressure from the increasing population in the area, land conversion, and water extraction for irrigation caused drastic change to the social and physical environments of TLM. Impact of irrigation for rice cultivation. The total rice-growing area in TLM is 1 434 ha. During the dry season, demand for water exceeds the available water supply from the marsh leading to lower water levels, adversely affecting fish stock and ecology causing conflict between rice farmers and fishermen. Value of rice versus fish. The main source of income for the sampled households in TLM is catching fish during the rainy season and rice cultivation during the dry season. Overall, the study finds that the marsh is the most important source of income (89.3 percent) in TLM. Resources harvested from TLM are more critical than rice cultivation to the livelihoods where catching fish and non-fish animal accounts for 59.24 percent, aquaculture for 21.13 percent, rice cultivation for 10.7 percent, and vegetation collection for 8.93 percent.

Challenges in water conservation. A minimum water level requirement of 0.5 m in TLM will allow the main fish species in the area to live and breed. This will lead to reducing the amount of water for rice cultivation extracted from the marsh, causing a 20.3 percent reduction of total rice outputs during the dry season, with a loss of USD 21 720. On the other hand, the revenue from resource collection in the marsh would increase by 10 percent with a worth of USD 48 560. Making conservation work. In economic perspective, returning water levels in the marsh to an ecologically sustainable level makes good economic sense. Thus, implementing a program to conserve TLM by reducing the amount of water available for irrigation would have an overall positive financial impact on local peoples’ livelihoods. Policymakers should give priority to the conservation of TLM’s aquatic environment in their water distribution decisions. There must be clear water allocation rules and regulations for conservation and rice cultivation in TLM. In order to maintain both, policy makers should consider setting a minimum water level for TLM, set at the basic threshold level recommended by fishery experts. Training on water use and alternative crops should be provided to the rice farmers. Improvement of main and small irrigation canals and more equitable distribution system of irrigation water should be developed. This should ensure the conservation of TLM’s precious wetland ecosystem. Excerpts from EEPSEA Policy Brief No. 2008 PB6

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