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INDEX

1. Introduction...... 01-01

2. Pre-Historic ...... 02-05

3. Harappan Culture...... 05-07

4. Vedic Culture...... 07-12

5. and Rise of ...... 12-13

6. Persian and Macedonian Invasions...... 13-14

7. and ...... 14-18

8. Mauryan ...... 18-21

9. Post-Mauryan India...... 22-25

10. Gupta Age...... 25-28

11. Post-Gupta Period...... 29-35

12. Miscellaneous ...... 35-36

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1. INTRODUCTION For our convenience, Indian History can be divided into three periods. Africa was the original homeland of humans. For this reason Africa is called ‘the cradle of Humankind’. The Ancient India From beginning to 647 AD i.e following two theories are prevalent in connection with from Lithic (Stone) Period to human evolution and development. death of 647 AD to 1757 i.e. from death of Unitary Origin Theory: Humans evolved originally from Harsha to homo erectus in Africa and migrated to different regions Modern India 1757 to till date i.e. from Battle of of the earth. Plassey to till date

Parallel Origin Theory: Modern human evolved in parallel Understanding Dates- from several dispersed homo erectus population of the  BC stands for ‘Before Christ’. world at the same time.  AD stands for two Latin words, ‘’, Hominid (human like species) activity in the Indian sub- meaning ‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e. Christ). So continent can be traced back to 250,000 years ago and it 2012 can also be written as AD 2012.  is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the Sometimes CE is used instead of AD and BCE planet. However, the earliest known human remains in instead of BC. The letters CE stand for ‘Common India date to 30,000 years ago. Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’. We use these terms because the Christian Era is now used Earlier India was called as Bharatavarsha or the land of in most countries of the world. In India we began , after the name of an ancient tribe called the using this form of dating from about two hundred . The foreigners came into contact with the years ago. people living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they  And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before named the whole country after this river. The word Hind Present’ are used. is derived from the term Sindhu, and in course of time the country came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, Understanding Historical Evidneces- and ‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages Important Eras  Manuscript-this comes from the Latin word in Indian history can be classified as follows. ‘manu’, meaning hand. So, manuscript means Era Timeline Remarks written by hands. Kali 3101 BC Started 20 years after the end of  Inscriptions- These are writings on relatively hard war surfaces such as stone or metal. Vikrama 58/57 BC Commenced by  Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. 78 AD Started by Kanishka. Government  Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual of India adopted Saka era along elements such as scripts and images, metallurgical with as National Calendar on 22 March analysis and the contexts in which they have been 1957 found.  Gupta 319-20 Started by Chandragupta-1 Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious AD leader.Hagiographies often praise the saint’s achievements, and may not always be literally Harsha 606 AD Founded by Harshavardhana of accurate. They are important because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that Ilahi 1556 AD Started by Akbar. In 1658 AD particular tradition. Aurangzeb abolished it. Raj 1673 AD Started by Chhatrapati Shivaji. Saka

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2. PRE-HISTORIC INDIA Lower Age

Archaeological sources form the bedrock of information  The first Paleolithic tools were identified at the site of for us to understand this period in Indian history. They near by Robert Bruce Foote in include archaeological sites, geological sediments, animal 1863. bones and fossils, stone tools, bone tools, rock paintings  Paleolithic people used stone tools, hand-sized and and artefacts. flaked-off large pebbles for hunting, butchering and skinning the animals, and to recover tubers and plant In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the foods, and for processing food. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), (Middle Stone Age),  As time passed they made attempts to domesticate (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age. animals, make crude pots and grow some plants.  A few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found Lithic Age/ Stone Age is divided into three periods as on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. follows.  Lower Paleolithic tools are found in most parts of Period Timeline Life style Tools and India, except in a few regions of the valley, weapons southern and in the hilly areas of the Paleolithic 3,00,000 Hunters Hand axe, blade Western Ghats. BC- and food tools and  10,000 BC gatherers chopper The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley. Kurnool in Mesolithic 10,000 Hunters Microlithic tools . Athiramapakkam, Pallavaram and BC-6,000 and Gudiyam near Chennai. Hunsgi valley and Isampur in BC Herders , and Bhimbetka in are Neolithic 6,000 BC- Food- Polished tools 4,000 BC Producer some important Palaeolithic sites in India.  We have little knowledge about their language and Paleolithic Age communication.  They may have expressed a few sounds or words and  Paleo (old) and lithic (stone)=old stone age. used a sign language.  Robert Bruce Foote is known as ‘father of Pre-historic in India’. Middle Paleolithic Age  On the basis of differences in stone-implements, the In India, the Middle Paleolithic phase was first Paleolithic period is divided into three ages identified by H.D. Sankalia on the Pravara River at Nevasa (). Name of Age Time Period Tools and weapons  Indian Middle probably may be as old as Lower/Earlier 3,00,000 BC- Chopper the African Middle Paleolithic culture. Paleolithic 1,00,000 BC &Chopping; Hand  Flake industry was predominant in the Middle Age axe & cleaver Middle 1,00,000 BC – Implements made Paleolithic period and tools such as scrapers, points Paleolithic 40,000 BC of Flake and borers were made. Age  Scrapers were used for wood and skin working. Upper/Later 40,000 BC- Implements made  The tools became smaller. Paleolithic 10,000 of Flake and Blade  Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw Age materials gained currency.  Middle Paleolithic sites are found in Narmada, Godavari, , and other river valleys.

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Upper Paleolithic Age  The animal bones from this period suggest a dry deciduous type of forest during the Mesolithic  This period is marked by innovation in tool technology period. and increased cognitive capability of humans.  Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Paleolithic Period and these tools were made using different varieties of silica-rich raw materials. Neolithic Age  Bone tools and faunal remains have been found in  Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh. Neo(new) and Lithic(stone)= New Stone Age  The people of this period used caves as well as the  In India, the credit of the discovery of Neolithic site open air space for living. goes to Dr. Primrose.   Meralbhavi in Karnataka, Kurnool caves and Neolithic sites in India include the valley, Godavarikhani in , Baghor I and Baghor III of Chirand in , Belan valley in . Maski, Son Valley in Madhya Pradesh and Patne in Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka. Maharashtra are some of the Upper Paleolithic sites Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra of India. Pradesh.  The significant characteristics of Neolithic period are Mesolithic Age agriculture, animal domestication, fixed abode and manufacturing of wheel made pottery.  Meso(Middle) and Lithic (Stone)= Middle Stone Age  Emergence of village communities based on  In India, the credit of discovery of Mesolithic sedentary life led to construction of mud brick houses archaeological materials goes to John Evans. instead of grass huts.  Mesolithic people used different type of stone tools  The fertile soil deposited by the rivers enhanced the which are tiny stone artefacts, often not more than growth of agriculture. Surplus food production played five centimeters in size, and therefore called a major role in the rise of early civilisations. microliths  Permanent residences were built. Hence, the cultural  Shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting developments of this period are called Neolithic and fishing due to Microlithic tools and bow and revolution. The term Neolithic Revolution was given arrow. by V. Gorden Childe.  The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent and  In this age, men started growing cotton and learnt temporary settlements. Therefore, domestication of about clothes. animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started.  In the north-western part of India and Pakistan,  Occasionally they buried the dead. Neolithic culture began very early compared to north  They had artistic skill which can be seen in the bone eastern India. handled tools.  During Neolithic times, extensive knowledge of  Mesolithic sites in India include Langhanj in , metallurgy was not developed. In fact it was called as Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, Bagore in metal less culture. etc. Important Pre Historic Sites Climate change and Mesolithic Age  After the Ice Age, with the advent of global  Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock warming, human groups became highly mobile and Shelters (Mharashtra) began to occupy various ecozones.  Patne- Evidence of Ostrich egg ( Maharashtra)  The monsoon pattern had already emerged. Some regions witnessed higher rainfall.

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 Hunsgi- Factory cum habitation site of Paleolithic  These cultures were not urban culture like Indus period (Karnataka) civilisation but rural cultures.  Mirzapur – shows that goats and sheeps were  These cultures are named on the basis of their exploited during Paleolithic phase(UP) type sites.  Atranjikheda - Textile printing(UP) Important Sites:  Wild Sugarcane(UP) Hastinapur -  Daimabad-large number of bronze goods  Statue of mother Goddess (MH) Inamgaon -  Inamgaon- largest site, Big House with granary  - Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled near-by shows that it may be the Chiefs house.. life , evidence of Dentistry (Baluchistan)  Gungeria- largest hoard of copper tools and  Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice(UP) weapons.  Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of  Ganeshwar- extensive copper objects as site close Domestication of animal (Rajasthan) to Khetri mines.  Chirand - Serpant cult (Bihar)  Burzahom- Pit-dwelling and domestic dog was buried (1,000 BC- 500 BC) with their masters in grave (J&K)  The ‘Iron Age’ in the world context began about 1,300  Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling (J&K) BC. Its use in India also began around this period.  Neolithic sites of - Unique feature to have  of Early (Rigvedic Period) had no ash mound on many sites like Piklihal, Maski, Hallur. knowledge of iron.  Chalco-lithic Age (3,500 BC-1,000 BC) Dense forest of Gangetic valley had been cleared and crops of paddy, cane, cotton, wheat, barley etc Chalco-lithic age is divided into three stages were cultivated at large scale during Iron age.  In the 6th century BC, there were 16 Mahajanapadas Age Timeline Pre-Harappan Age 3,500 BC-2,500 BC in Northern India in which 10 were inside Gangetic Harappan Age 2,500 BC- 1,750 BC valley and only 6 were outside of the Gangetic valley. Post Harappan Age 1,750 BC- 1,000 BC  Iron technology played a central role in urban revolution of Gangetic valley. Pre-Harappan Age  The names of culture associated with Iron Age are Painted Grey Ware-PGW Culture  This is a transition phase between Neolithic Age o Northern Black Polished Ware-NBPW Culture and Harappan Age. o Culture (South India)  Technology of smelting metal ore and crafting o metal artifacts is the important development of Painted Grey Ware-PGW Culture (Neelalohita) this period.  Timeline- 1,000 BC-600 BC  People began to travel for a long distances to  Painted pottery of grey colour. obtain metal ores. This led to contact between  Found in- Upper Gangetic valley with (, different Chalcolithic cultures. , Uttar Pradesh and Northern Rajasthan). Northern Black Polished Ware-NBPW Culture Harappan Age  Timeline 600 BC-300 BC  Harappan Civilisation was part of Chalcolithic  Polished pottery of black colour culture. (detailed explanation in next section).  This culture is extended from Northern plain to Mid Post Harappan Age India (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar and West ) and in Deccan (Andhra Pradesh) etc.

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Megalith Culture (South India) Early Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.  Megalith means Large Stone. The burial pits were  The early Harappan phase saw the development of covered with these stones. Such graves are villages and towns in the entire region. extensively found in South India.  In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged.  Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and The excavations at with its elaborate town Maski in Karnataka, in Andhra planning and urban features prove this phase of Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. evolution.  In megalith culture, there were two types of burial  In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus practices- Fractional/ Partial and Complete/ Extensive culture started. The excavations at reveal this burial practices. stage of evolution.  The earthenware vessel, iron-implements, ornaments,  Lothal in Gujarat is the port city of IVC. weapons etc were also buried with the dead body.

3. HARAPPAN CULTURE Salient Features of the Harappan Culture  The civilisation that appeared in the north-western part of India and Pakistan in third millennium BCE is Planned Towns collectively called the Indus Civilisation.  (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-Daro (,  It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley civilization’. Pakistan), , Lothal, and Surkotada (Gujarat, But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus India), Kalibangan and Banawali (Rajasthan, India), Civilization’ due to the discovery of more and more and (Haryana, India) are the major cities in sites far away from the Indus valley. the Harappan period.  Since Harappa was the first site to be identified in this  Grid system of planning – that is streets and lanes civilisation, it is also known as Harappan Civilisation. cutting across one another almost at right angles thus  This civilisation did not appear all of a sudden. The dividing the city into several rectangular blocks. beginnings of which can be found in the Neolithic  Each city was divided into upper and lower town. villages of this region around 7000 BCE at the  The large-scale use of burnt bricks and the absence of Neolithic site of Mehrgarh. Cotton was probably stone buildings. grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.  Another remarkable feature was the underground  Harappan culture is divided into various phases: drainage system connecting all houses to the street o Early Harappan 3000–2600 BCE drains. o Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE  Some houses had stairs indicating the existence of an o Late Harappan 1900–1700 BCE upper floor. The houses had multiple rooms. Many of  The Indus Civilisation and the contemporary cultures the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and around. Pakistan.  Great bath at Mohenjodaro exhibits their impeccable  Boundaries of this civilisation covers- architectural acumen. o Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan border; Economic Life Shortugai () in the north; o  Economic activity prospered in all spheres. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east o  Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south. o sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in  The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the granaries. northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of

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 Pastoralism was also practised by the Harappans. needles, fishhooks, razors, weighing pans, mirror and They domesticated sheep, goat and fowl. antimony rods were made of copper.  They had knowledge of various other animals  The chert blades made out of Rohri chert was used by including buffalo, pig and elephant. But horse and lion the Harappans. were not known to them.  They did not have the knowledge of iron.  The Harappan cattle are called Zebu. It is a large breed, often represented in their seals. Rohri chert  Evidence of boar, deer and gharial has also been The chert, a fine grained sedimentary rock, was found at the Harappan sites. found in the region of Rohri in Pakistan.It was used Craft Production by the Harappans for making stone blades and tools.

 Craft production was an important part of the Harappan economy. Bead and ornament making, shell Trade bangle making and metalworking were the major  Internal as well as foreign trade flourished during this crafts. time.  They made beads and ornaments out of carnelian,  Foreign trade was mainly conducted with jasper, crystal, steatite and from metals like copper, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran. Gold, copper, tin bronze, gold and shell, faience and terracotta (burnt and several semi-precious stones were imported. clay).  Main exports were several agricultural products such  They were exported to Mesopotamia and the as wheat, barley, peas, oil seeds and a variety of evidence for such exported artefacts have been found finished products including cotton goods, pottery, from the excavations in Mesopotamian sites. beads, terracotta figures and ivory products.  Trade with Sumerian people also flourished. Certain Harappan sites specialised in the production  Trade was of the barter type. of certain craft materials. The following table presents the major centres of craft production. Script

Material Site or Source  The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. Shell Nageshwar and Balakot.  The script was mostly written from right to left. In a Lapis lazuli Shortughai few long seals the boustrophedon method – writing in Carnelian Lothal the reverse direction in alternative lines – was Steatite South Rajasthan adopted. Copper Rajasthan and Oman  Many historians argue that language of Harappan was Gold Kolar (Karnataka) Dravidian while some argue that it is of Brahmi. Hence Silver Afghanistan, Iran and South India Tin Afghanistan the mystery of Harappan script still continues. Metal, Tools and Weapons  The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva)  The Harappan civilisation belongs to the represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with civilisation and Harappans knew how to make copper three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four and bronze tools. animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each  The Harappans used chert blades, copper objects, and facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his bone and ivory tools. The tools of points, chisels, feet.

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 The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess  Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and represented in terracotta figurines. bull fighting were other pastimes.  The Harappan people did not worship their gods in temple. No temple has been unearthed. Decline  In later times, Linga worship was prevalent. A linga is  The Indus Valley Civilisation declined from about 1900 a polished stone that is worshipped as a symbol of BCE. .  Changes in climate, decline of the trade with the  Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Mesopotamia, and the drying of the river and water Harappans. resources due to continuous drought are some of the  They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used reasons attributed for the decline. amulets as protection against them.  Invasions, floods and shifting of the river course are Burial Methods also cited as reasons for the ruin of Indus civilisation.  Decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive  Complete burial and post-cremation burial were exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have popular at Mohenjodaro. caused the decline of the Harappan cities  At Lothal the burial pit was used, indicating the use of  In course of time, the people shifted to the southern coffins. Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. and eastern directions from the Indus region.  The practice of pot burials is found sometimes with  According to some scholars the final blow was pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear delivered by the invasion of Aryans.(widely discarded evidence for the practice of . theory)  The Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments,  The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. jewellery, copper mirrors and beads. These suggest Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled their belief in an afterlife together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was Polity invaded by foreigners.  The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift  Uniformity in pottery, seals, weights and bricks horses which might have enabled them to become reveals the existence of a polity. Labour mobilisation masters of this region. also suggests the existence of a political system.  Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro might have had a city- 4. VEDIC CULTURE state like polity. The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500  The uniformity in the cultural materials and B.C. Consequently, their economic and administrative measurement units point to a central authority during system had slowly declined. Around this period, the the Harappan times. speakers of Indo- language, Sanskrit, entered the Society north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.

 Both men and women wore jewelleries. By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North  Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, India, which was referred to as Aryavarta. This period anklets, ear-rings and finger rings were worn by women. between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the  The use of cosmetics was common. Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C)  Harappans gave priority to hygiene and cleanliness and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C). was a matter of great importance.  Marbles, balls and dice were used for games.

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The Aryans  Concluding portions of Brahmanas.  Consider as the link between Brahmana and  The home of Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is still a Upanisad. matter of debate. Many scholars are of the view that the Aryans came to India as migrants from Central Upanishads:  Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and Asia. sitting near’.  It is also believed that several waves of Indo- Aryan  108 in number also known as Vedantas. migration might have happened.  Deals with metaphysics  Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came Some important Upanisads- from the Arctic region. Katho Dailogue between Nachiketa  However, the theory of southern Russia appears to be Upanishad and yama on concept of more probable and widely accepted by historians. death. Eso Upanishad Deals with creation From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Jabala ashrama Asia and Europe. Upanishad  They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be Brihadaranyko Yannavalkya author known as Indo-Aryans. Upanishad Deals with transmigration of souls. Vedic Literature Mundako Satyameva Jayate adopted  The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which Upanishad from this Chandoga Childhood of Krishna in means to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ Upanishad detail. signifies ‘superior knowledge’. The Vedic literature Keno Upanishad Talks about uma or consists of the four Swetas swataro Defines shiva for first time.  Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like Upanishad the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics and Mahabharata.

Work Deals with Veda Consists of_ Rig Veda It consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns Brahmanas prayer and sacrificial ceremony were sung in praise of various gods. Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be Upanishads Philosophy (Soul, origin of the world, mysteries of nature) observed at the time of sacrifice Sama It is set to tune for the purpose of Aranyakas mysticism, rites, rituals and Veda chanting during sacrifice. It is called the sacrifices. book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. Brahmanas: Atharva Contains details of rituals.  Related to conduct of various ceremonies Veda  108 in number, Satapatha Brahmana most famous dealing with rituals connected with Agricultural production. Vedangas:  Gopada Brahmana- most voluminous. Nirukta/ Study of origin of words.  Aateraya Brahmana- about Viswamitra and non- Etymology aryan tribes. Shiksha/ Oldest deals with Aranyakas: Phonetics pronunciation.  Forest texts written mainly for hermits and Chehendus/ Related to recitation students living in jungle. Metre

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Vyakarna/ Written by Panini Polity Grammar  The basic unit of political organization was kula or /Rituals Basis of Indian law. family.  Dharmashastras- deals  Several families joined together to form a village or with household grama. ceremonies.   Sulvasutras- deals with A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. rekhaganita( Geometry  The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. ). Unit Head  Srutasutras-deals with Kula kulapati social ceremonies Grama Gramani (marriage, birth). Visu Vishayapati Jyotisha/ Study of movement of planets Jana Rajan Astronomy and understanding events in life.  The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. Upavedas:  The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army. Upavedas Associated with Dhanurveda (Warfare). Rig Veda  There were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Gandhavra Veda (Music) Sama Veda Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of Sthapatyaveda Yajur Veda elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire (Architecture) people. Ayurveda (Medicine) Atharva Veda  The battles were fought more for cattle and material wealth and the war booty acquired was shared. EARLY VEDIC CULTURE/RIG VEDIC AGE  They not only fought with the non-Aryans, but also  During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly fought among themselves. confined to the Indus region  The Bharatas and Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans  Rig Veda is the primary source to understand the life who were supported by Vasishta, the priest. of early Vedic period.  The Bharata clan was opposed by ten chiefs and five  The Rig Veda refers to 'Sapthasindhu' or the land of out of them were Aryans. This battle was known as seven rivers. the Battle of Ten Kings. The battle took place on the  These seven rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and banks of the river Parushni, identified with the river Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi. Ravi.  The Rig Vedas speak about not only the Aryans, but Social organisation also about the non-Aryan people, whom the Aryans encountered in India.  The basic unit of society was family or gruham and  When the Rig Vedic people moved into India they the head of the family was known as gruhapathi. And came into conflict with people whom they referred to the family at that point of time was a joint family. as Dasyus or Dasas.  Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy  Evidently the Aryans differentiated themselves from was prevalent among the royal and noble families. the dark native people who had different cultural  Though society was patriarchal, women were given practices, and sought to maintain their distinction. equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development.

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 There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara,  They had knowledge of different seasons, sowing, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. harvesting and thrashing.  There was no child marriage and the practice of sati  They cultivated barley (yavam) and wheat (godhuma). was absent. Trade, Exchange and Redistribution  The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal  Trade was another important economic activity and  The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic rivers served as important means of transport. period as it was in the later Vedic period.  Trading activities were limited, though traders were  Varna was the term used by Aryans to refer to colour present during the Early Vedic period. and category.  Panis are referred to as traders and they were  The Rig Veda refers to Arya varna and Dasa varna. The perhaps caravan traders. The word pan means barter, Dasas and Dasyus were conquered and treated as which was a mode of exchange. slaves. They came to be considered sudras in the later  Nishka was a gold or silver ornament used in barter. period.  The danas and dakshinas offered to people were  Social classes were classified as warriors, priests and means of redistributing resources. The dakshina was common people. Sudras as a category of people both a fee for a specific service and also a means of appeared at the end of the Rig Vedic period. distributing wealth.  Slavery was common and slaves were given as gifts to  The distribution of cows helped spread pastoral the priests, but there is no reference to wage labour. activities and economic production.  Kinship was the basis of the social structure of Rig Vedic society. People were identified with specific Religion clans and the clans formed the tribe or jana.  Early Vedic religion was simple and nature  Social divisions did not take deep root, although the worshipping. concept of varna and Aryan identities existed.  The important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth),  Pastoralism was predominant and cattle centred (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and clashes were common, although agriculture did play (Thunder). an important role.  Indra was the most popular among them, next in Economy importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people.  The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their  Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the main occupation was cattle rearing. Hence, cattle was natural order. considered as wealth.  There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas.  When they permanently settled in they  There were no temples and no idol worship during began to practice agriculture. the early Vedic period.  The ploughshare is mentioned in the Rig Vedas. The field was known as kshetra and the term krishi LATER VEDIC CULTURE (1000 – 600 B.C.) referred to ploughing.  The terms langla and sura referred to plough and the  The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later term sita meant the furrow created by ploughing. Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the  Water for irrigation was probably drawn from wells by expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. cattle driven water-lifts using pulleys.  Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature.

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 One important development during this period is the Family growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and  The household became more structured and kingdoms flourished in the beginning. organised.  After the fall of Kurus and , kingdoms like  The family was patriarchal with patrilineal descent. , Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The The relations within the family were hierarchical. famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent.  The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions  Varnashrama system came into practice, which is the of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa division of life into 4 stages. They are Brahmacharya, (central India) and (southern India). Gruhasta, Vanaprasta and Sanyasin

Political Organization Women  Historian Romila Thapar characterises the  developments in the first millennium BCE as the The status of women declined as the society became movement from to state. more structured and the patriarchal family became more important.  Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic  period. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to Though women had participated in rituals in the Rig form or rashtras in the later Vedic period. Vedic period, they were excluded in the later Vedic Hence the royal power had increased along with the period.  increase in the size of kingdom. Women also lost their political rights of attending  The legitimization of kingship became important with assemblies. Child marriages had become common.  the performance of various sacrifices such as- According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. o Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), o Asvamedha() and Economic Condition o Vajpeya ( race).  The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan,  Iron was used extensively in this period and this Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more Samrat (sole ruler). land under cultivation.  The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had  Agriculture became the chief occupation. diminished during the later Vedic period.  Improved types of implements were used for Society cultivation.  Knowledge of manure was another improvement.  The social divisions of varna became more established. Industrial activity became more varied and there was The system of four Varnas (, , greater specialization. Vaisyas and Sudras) had taken deep root and became  Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery rigid in the course of time. made great progress.  Many sub- on the basis of their occupation  In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became appeared in this period. extensive.  There was an increase in the privileges of the two  Taxes like Bali and Bhoga came into practice. higher classes, the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas at  The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras. they traded with countries like Babylon.  A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and

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commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas.  Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.

Religion

 Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance.  Prajapathi (the creator), (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period.  The Buddhist literature gives a list  Trimurthy cult started in later Vedic times. of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen  The importance of prayers declined and that of Mahajanapadas’ or Shodasa Mahajanapadas. sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession  They were , Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, , , and a hereditary one. Chedi, , Kuru, Panchala, , ,  Sacrifices and rituals became more elaborate. , , and Kambhoja.  Towards the end of this period there was a strong  While there was a concentration of on reaction against priestly domination and against the Gangetic plain, the were scattered in the sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and foothills of the and in northwestern India. Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate  Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these sacrifices. monarchies. While In the republics, the power of decision was vested with the Public Assembly, where 5. MAHAJANAPADAS AND RISE OF MAGADHA all decisions were made by a majority vote.   The Later Vedic period (900–600 BCE) witnessed the The priestly class enjoyed a pre-eminent status in the transition from a tribal polity based on lineage to a mahajanapadas. territorial state.  The kingdoms were governed by kings and the  The loyalty of the people shifted from jana (tribe or administration was centralised.  clan) to (territory). Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable Bhaga  Janapada literally meant ‘the place where the tribe land. was obtained as a share of the produce. Kara Shulka sets its foot upon.’ The janapadas fought with one and were some of the other taxes another for resources and political dominance. collected during this period.   Some janapadas extended their territories and Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible brought various janas within their jurisdiction. Such from people who gave a variety of things, more or janapadas grew into mahajanapadas. less willingly.

Rise of Magadha

 Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous.

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 Magadha's strategic position between the upper and  The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great He laid the foundation of the new capital at advantage. situated at the confluence of the two  Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. rivers, the Ganges and the Son.  Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Reasons for Magadha’s success- Mauryas.  Richest iron deposits could be used for making  Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence weapons and implements. Magadha was captured by Sisunagas.  Fertile soil of Gangetic plain flourished the agricultural Sisunagas productions.  Large scale availability of elephants.  Kalashoka was the greatest king of Sisunagas.  Location at the centre of the highways of trade of  He annexed Vajji and Avanti into Magadha. those days contributed to her wealth.  During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held  During the reign of and Ajatasatru, the at Vaisali. prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith. Nandas Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)  The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the  When members of the same family become rulers Nanda dynasty. one after another, the family is often called a dynasty.   Bimbisara belonged to the . He Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances. Gangetic basin and in North India they carved a well-  He was given Kasi region as dowry which yielded large knit and vast empire.  revenue. was a powerful ruler of the  Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Nanda dynasty. He uprooted the dynasties and . However, both in north India and assumed the title ekarat.  claim him as their supporter and devotee. He The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet . Mamulanar.  The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)  The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of this,  The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military and Kautilya initiated a popular conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. movement against the Nanda rule.  He won a great success against a formidable  It was during this time that Alexander invaded India. confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali.  Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the 6. PERSIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra) and laid foundations for its development. The period from the 6th century BC witnessed close  According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several cultural contact of the north-west of India with Persia and and viharas. .  He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha Several rulers from Achaemenian Empire such as Cyrus soon after the death of the Buddha. (558 – 530 B.C) , Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.), Xerxes (465-456 B.C.) invaded India.

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Impact of Persian Contact  The two armies met in the battle of Hydaspes in which Porus was imprisoned.  The most significant impact was the development of  Although Alexander wanted to conquer the world. His the Kharosthi script, used in the north-western part of battle-weary soldiers refused to march further. India.  During his return, Alexander died of typhoid in  It was used by in his inscriptions in the Babylon. Gandhara region. The Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic, used widely in the Impact of Alexander's invasion of Persia.  The very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the  Smaller kingdoms were destroyed which led to wording used in the edicts are traced to Iranian political unification of north India under the Mauryas. influence.  Established direct contact between India and Greece.  The Ashokan edicts use the term lipi instead of the  The routes opened by him and his naval explorations Iranian term dipi. increased trade between India and West Asia.  The Persian invasion improved Indo-Iranian  Greek culture was introduced to India. commerce.  Indian history received its chronolization.  The Indian word for coin karsa is of Persian origin. The coins might have been inspired by the Persian coins. 7. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM  The Mauryan art and architecture show traces of Persian influence. Ex: Mauryan monolithic pillars. The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century  The bell-shaped capital of the columns, especially the in history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, lion capital of pillar and the bell capital of Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and Rampurval pillar, show resemblance to designs found preached their ideas in this century. In India, the in the Achaemenid columns. republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C.  In short, the Iranian connection with India proved This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the orthodox more fruitful than the short-lived Indo-macedonian religion dominated by rites and rituals. contact. Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

Alexander’s Invasion  Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity.  Vedic religion had become very complex and had  During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander from degenerated into superstitions, dogmas and rituals. Macedonia invaded north-west of India (327–325  BCE). Supremacy of the created unrest in the society and Kashtriyas reacted against the  In many ways, the invasion by Alexander is a Brahmanical domination. It should be noted that both watershed in Indian history. It marked the beginning Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. of the interaction between India and the West, which  spanned many centuries to follow. The sacrificial ceremonies of Vedic religion were found to be too expensive.  Greek historians began to write about India, and  Greek governors and kings ruled in the north-western The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the region of India, which introduced new styles of art system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in and governance. nature and therefore not easily understood by all.   The most famous of Alexander’s encounters was with People needed simple, short and intelligible way to Porus, ruler of the region between Jhelum and Beas. salvation.

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 The rigid system prevalent in India generated  He vehemently advocated Ahimsa. tensions in the society.  Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful  Desire of to improve their social status as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals. So, because of their improved economic condition. But, this religion was widely embraced by traders. orthodox Varna system denied this.  He rejected the authority of vedas and vedic rituals.  Therefore, Vaishyas began to extend support to  He did not believe in the existence of the god. But, . It was this merchant class that believed in the and transmigration of soul. extended the chief support to these new religions.  Laid great emphasis on equality. JAINISM Spread of Jainism The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning  Mahavira organised the Sangha(organisation or conqueror. According to Jaina tradition there were 24 association) to spread his teachings. Thirthankaras. The first being Rishabhadeva/ Adinatha  and last being Mahavira. It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya, of and the Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.) royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas Vardhamana was born around 540 BCE in Kundagrama, a patronized Jainism. suburb of . He was a member of the ruling family  Chandragupta Maurya performed in of a gana-sangha and his father Siddhartha was the chief . of the Jnatrika clan. His mother was a Lichchavi  The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by princess. He was married to Yasoda. At the age of thirty , the leader of the , in the he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. In beginning of the 3rd century B.C. the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest  spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called century A.D. The final compilation of Jains and his religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines called Twelve was completed in this council. for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha. Sects of Jainism  In 298 BC, there was a serious famine in Magadha Teachings of Mahavira leading to great exodus of many Jain monks to the Deccan and South India (Sharvanabelagola) along Teaching Deals with_ with the and Chandragupta Maurya. Right faith It is the belief in the teachings and  The leader of the group which stayed back at wisdom of Mahavira. Magadha was Sthulabhadra. Right It is the acceptance of the theory that  Knowledge there is no God and that the world has This led to the division of Jainism into two sects been existing without a creator and that Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or all objects possess a soul. Naked). Right refers to the observance of the five great  Followers of Bhadrabahu came to be known as conduct vows: Digambaras and those of Sthulabhadra are called - not to injure life Swetambara. - not to lie - not to steal - not to acquire property - not to lead immoral life.

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Important terms related to Jainism- The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta,  Asrav- Asrav means inflow and according Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. to defined as the inflow of  Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and to the soul. The influx of karmas occurs at every Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and second in life. It is this process that keeps our became his disciples.  Buddha in his lifetime spread his message far and souls wandering in this universe and prevents it wide in north India and visited places like Benares, from being free. Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, and Pataligrama.  - It means stoppage—the stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul Symbols Events of Buddha’s life Lotus and Bull Janma (birth) consciousness. Horse Mahabhinishkramana (renunciation)  is one of the seven fundamental principles, Bodhi tree /Sambodhi (Enlightenment) or in Jain philosophy, and refers to the Wheel pravartana (First sermon) shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from Mahaparinirvana (death) the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and , by Teachings of Buddha.

achieving , liberation. The of Buddha are:  Kaivalya, also known as Kevala , means 1. The world is full of suffering. omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated 2. The cause of suffering is desire. as complete understanding or supreme wisdom. 3. If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.  Sallekhana- also known as santhara. It is the 4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path. religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by  The Eightfold Path (Astangamarga) consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids. livelihood, right effort, right and right concentration. BUDDHISM  Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the existence of god. Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)  He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was  He argued that the condition of man in this life born in 567 B.C. in Garden near Kapilavastu. His depends upon his own deeds. father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother  His religion emphasized purity of thought, word and Mayadevi. The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a deed. corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life  He taught that the soul does not exist. However, he and left home at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. emphasized Ahimsa. At the age of thirty five he got enlightenment (Nirvana) Tripitaka: Pitaka literally means ‘basket’ and it is called so under a bodhi tree at . Since then he became because the original texts were written on Palm-leaves known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He and kept in baskets. delivered his first sermon at Sarnath and died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara.

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Pitaka Contains Pitaka Monastic code Sutta Pitaka Buddha’s sayings  Its followers believed that salvation could be best Abhidhamma Pitaka Religious discourses of attained by acquiring the magical power, which they Buddha attained called Vajra.  Chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras. Spread of Buddhism  Popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

 Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) Bodhisattavas- and lay worshippers (upasikas). These were supposed to be persons who had attained  The monks were organized into the Sangha for the enlightenment.  Vajrapani: like Indra, he holds a thunderbolt, foe of purpose of spreading his teachings. sin and evil.  Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the  Avalokitesvara: (the lord who looks down) also called famous monks. Padmapani (the lotus bearer): kind-hearted.  Buddhism made rapid progress in North India during  : The future Buddha the lifetime of Buddha itself.  Kshitigriha: guardian of purgatories  Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican  states of North India embraced this religion. Amitabha/Amitayusha: Buddha of heaven   The famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced (stimulator of understanding) : He holds a Buddhism. Through his missionary effort, Asoka book describing 10 paramitas (spiritual perfections). spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Budd Year Venue Chair Patron Result hist man Sects of Buddhism Counc il st 1 483 BC Rajigriha Mahak Compilation assapa of Sutta-  Believed in original teachings of Buddha. pitika and Vinaya  Did not believe in idol-worship. Pitaka by  Favoured language. Ananda and  It is known as ‘Southern Buddhist Religion’, because it Upali prevailed in the South of India e.g. Sri , Burma, respectively 2nd 383 BC Vaishali Sabba Kalashoka Monks of Syam (Thailand), Java kami Vaishali  Two sub-sects-Vaibhasika and Sautantrika wanted some change in rites. 3rd 250 BC Pataliput Mogali Ashoka Compilation  Believed in heavenliness of Buddha. ra putta of  Believed in idol-worship. Tissa Abhidamma  Favoured Sanskrit language. Pitaka Decision to  It is known as ‘Northern Buddhist Religion’, because it send prevailed in the North of India e.g. China, Korea, missionaries Japan etc. to different parts of the world 4th 98 AD Kashmir Vasum Kanishka Compilation itra of Vice Mahavibha

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chair sha candidate, if deemed acceptable, enters the man- (Sanskrit Ashva comment on community as upasampadān (ordained) and gosha Tripitaka) authorised to undertake ascetic life. Division of Buddhists  - The Vassa is the three-month annual into Hinayanists retreat observed by practitioners. and Taking place during the wet season, Vassa lasts Mahayanists. for three lunar months, usually from July to Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India October.   The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Upostha- The (Sanskrit: Upavasatha) is Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism. a Buddhist day of observance, The Buddha taught  The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the st language of Buddhism was given up from the 1 defiled mind," resulting in inner calm and joy. century A.D.  Pavarana- assembly at the end of Vassa  The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language  of the elite. Posadha-restoration of vows  -Sometimes, even if we get what we want,  After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of Tanha we are not satisfied, and want even more (or idol worship and making offerings led to the want other things). The Buddha described this as deterioration of moral standards. thirst or tanha.  Attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the Jainism and Buddhism Comparison monasteries. Jainism Buddhism Other Important terms related to Buddhism-  Non-violence  Violence is  - liberated beings,  Gnana Marga inevitable. for Salvation.  Karma Marga for  Nirvana- State of Supreme Bliss  Accepted God Salvation.  Sheel- Good Conduct but was  Remained silent on  Pravrajya- eans "to go forth" and refers to when considered God. lower than  Does not accepted a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Jina the idea of soul Buddhist renunciate among  Accepted idea of soul a community of  Śramaṇa- one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious 8. MAURYAN EMPIRE purpose) or "seeker, one who performs acts of In 321 BC by dethroning Dhanananda, Chandragupta austerity, ascetic. Maurya establshed Mauryan empire. For the first time,  (Pali) literally denotes "approaching Upasampadā the political unity was achieved in India. Moreover, the or nearing the ascetic tradition." In more common history writing has also become clear from this period due parlance it specifically refers to the rite and ritual to accuracy in chronology and sources. Mauryan Empire of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a marked a distinct phase in Indian history with significant

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advances in technology and economic and social  In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who development, and created the framework for a large, was Alexander’s General and defeated him. centrally administered, state.  Selukas Niketar ceded trans-Indus region to Chandragupta Maurya and appointed Megasthanes as Sources Greek ambassador in Mauryan court. Source Deals with  Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of Kautilya's Administration under his life and stepped down from the throne in favour Mauryas of his son Bindusara. Vishakadutta's Socio economic situation  Then he went to Sravanabelagola (Karnataka) and Mudrarakshasa of society under Mauryas performed Sallekhana(Fasting to death). Megasthane's Indica Urban administration and military organisation Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)

Archaeological Sources  Bindusara was called by the as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to .  The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by  , the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara James Princep. conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between  They are written in Pali language and in some places the two seas’. was used with .  The Sangam also confirms the  In the northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were Mauryan invasion of the far south. Therefore, it can found in Karoshti script. be said that the Mauryan Empire under Bindusara  There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts, Fourteen Minor extended up to Mysore. rock Edicts, Seven pillar Edicts and Four separate  Bindusara patronized Ajivika religious sect. Edicts. Ashoka (273 – 232 B.C.).  These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials.  There is little information regarding the early life of  Thus the Asokan inscriptions remain valuable sources Asoka. He acted as Governor of and also for the study of Asoka and the Mauryan Empire. suppressed a revolt in during his father Bindusara’s reign. Political History of Mauryans  Ashoka fought Kalinga war in 261 BC. He was moved The three notable Mauryan rulers, Chandragupta, by the massacre in this war and abandoned the policy Bindusara and Ashoka, established a centralised state. of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. Chandragupta (322 – 298 B.C.)  Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was  Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence Mauryan Empire. He captured Pataliputra from the of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda. In this Ashoka and Buddhism task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as or Vishnugupta.  Ashoka appointed special officers called  One of his great achievements, was that he waged Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. war against the Greek prefects (military officials) left  He visited holy places of Buddhism like Lumbini behind by Alexander and destroyed them. Garden, Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.

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 He sent a mission to under his son o Kosha- treasure Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra to spread o Sena- Army Buddhism . o Mitra- friend  Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at  Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was Pataliputra in 240 B.C which was presided over by in charge of the collection of all revenues of the Moggaliputta Tissa. empire.  The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of Ashoka’s Dhamma. the produce. Army  Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith.  The Mauryan army was well organized and it was  His policy of Dhamma was a way of life, a code of under the control of Senapati. conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and  Maintained both army and navy. practiced by the people at large.  The salaries was paid in cash  Its objective was to preserve the social order.  Gudhapurushas (detectives), Sansthan (stationary)  It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay and Sanchari (wandering) respect to Brahmins and Buddhist monks, show mercy Economy to slaves and servants, practice of ahimsa, avoid expensive and meaningless rituals, tolerance among  State controlled most of the economic activities all the religious sects, conquest through Dhamma  Tax collection from peasants vary from ¼ to 1/6 of the instead of war. produce.  His Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to  State provided irrigation facilities (Setubandha) and humanity even today. charged water-tax.  Tolls were levied at gates on goods brought from The Mauryan Administration towns.  Relief measures were adopted during famine Central Administration mentioned in Sohgaura (UP) and Mahasthana  Chandragupta Maurya laid down "Paternal (Bangladesh) inscriptions. despotism" as state policy of Mauryas.  Punch-marked coins (mostly silver) were common  King had a council of ministers called Mantriparishad units of transactions. who assisted him in administrative matters.  Adyakshas controlled the retail and wholesale prices  It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply Yuvaraja.  There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after Guilds- the day-to-day administration. Different Names- Shreni, Puga, Nigama, Sangha,  These officers were similar to the IAS officers of Gana, Head- Jyastha, Shresthi independent India. Term for mobile Guild- Sartha, Head of mobile guild-  The government was centralised with king as a head. Sarthavaha  There are 7 elements of states Shrenidharma- o -king  Rules and regulations of guilds o Amatya- secretaries  Recognised by Dharmasastra Janapada- territory o  It had force of law o Durg- fort

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Judicial and Police Departments Gopa Responsible for accounts  Both civil and criminal courts existed. Nagaraka Incharge of city administration.  The chief justice at the capital was called Akshapla Account general Dharmathikarin. Sitaadhyaksha Supervised Agriculture Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce  There were also subordinate courts at the provincial Samsthaadhyaksha Superintendent of market capitals and districts under Amatyas. Potwadhyaksha Superintendent of weights and  The Dhamma Mahamatras were asked to take steps measures against unjust imprisonment. Navaadhyaksha Superintendent of ships Sulkaadhyaksha Collector of tolls Census Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of iron  The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.  They also counted the animals in each house. Society  The Census appears to be a permanent institution in  Women occupied high position and freedom. Women the Mauryan administration. were permitted to have divorce or remarry. Women were employed as personal body-guards of the king. Provincial and Local Administration  Slavery was a recognised institution.  The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces they are Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas  The provincial governors were responsible for the  There are multiple causes for the decline of the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes. Mauryan empire such as weak successors, Asoka's  The district administration was under the charge of policies(partly), Asoka's pro Buddhist policy Rajjukas, whose position and functions are similar to antagonized the Brahmins, partition of empire and modern collectors. administrative abuses after Asoka’s reign. The  Rajjuka was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. combination of these factors speeded up the breakup  Village administration was in the hands of Gramani of the Mauryan empire and facilitated Pushyamitra and his official superior was called Gopa who was in Sunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish charge of ten or fifteen villages. the Sunga dynasty.  Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to How are different from kingdoms? maintain law and order.  speaks about establishment of  Emperors need more resources than kings because committees for administration of Pataliputra. empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. Important officials in Mauryan Bureaucracy:  So, also they need a larger number of officials who Sannidhata Chief treasury officer collect taxes. Samaharta Chief tax collector Vyavharika/ Chief justice of civil court Dharmastha Pradeshta Chief justice of criminal court Prsdesika Chief revenue officer Rajuka Revenue settlement officer 9. POST-MAURYAN INDIA Yukta Tax collector Sthanika Head of local administration

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After the decline of Mauryas many provinces declared  Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along their independence. The northwest India slipped out of with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya control and experienced a series of foreign invasions. sacrifices. They also patronized the Prakrit language Further south the Satavahanas established their and literature. independent rule. As a result, the Mauryan rule was  Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon replaced dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to by the Sunga dynasty. the south.

Economic Condition under Satavahanas Native successors of Mauryas  Trade and commerce flourished during the times of Sunga Dynasty. Satavahanas.  Merchants guilds and craft guilds came into  Established by- Pushyamitra Sunga existence.  Pushyamitra patronised . During his reign  Silver coins called were used for trade. the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and were  mentions many ports in the Deccan. The renovated. greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the  Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the west coast. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east hero of Kalidasa’s ‘Malavikagnimitra. coast.  The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. Foreign successors of Mauryas  In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted Indo-Greeks the growth of and the Sanskrit language.  Indo-Greeks were (Bactrian Greeks) were first foreign rulers of North-western India in the Post-Mauryan . period.  Simuka established Satavahana dunasty.  Famous ruler was Menander(Milinda). He was  The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was converted to Buddhism by , his dialogues Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements were with Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). Gautami Balasri.  He repaired the Sudarshana lake, built by Mauryas, to  The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was irrigate the dry region of . Hala. He became famous for his book Gathasaptasati,  The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit India because they introduced large number of coins. language.  They were first to issue gold coins.  Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son  They introduced Hellenic i.e. Greek features in art Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. giving rise to Gandhara School.  He issued coins on which the image of ships was Parthians inscribed. This reveals the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.  The most famous Parthian king was Gondaphernes in  The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India Satakarni. for the propagation of Christianity.  The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and or Brahmanism.

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 Maues established Saka kingdom by conquering Indo- Post-Mauryan Greeks. School Timeline By  His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered School 150 BC- 400 AD Satavahanas to be the founder of the Vikrama era. Gandhara School 50 BC- 5th Saka- Kushanas  There were two different groups of Sakas –the (Greek influence) Century AD Northern ruling from Taxila and the Western School 150 AD- 300 AD Saka- Kushanas (indigenous form) satraps ruling over Maharashtra. SANGAM AGE Kushanas The Sangam Age is an important chapter in the history of  The Kushanas came from . South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed  The founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula three Sangams (Assembly of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Kadphises or Kadphises I. Nadu popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams  His son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II issued gold flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas. The coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the first Sangam, held at then , but no literary work Whole World’. He was a devotee of Lord Siva. of this Sangam was available. The second Sangam was  Kushanas were the first rulers to issue gold coins in held at Kapadapuram but all the literary works has wide scale. perished except Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at  Kushanas controlled the famous silk route. Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran, which produced voluminous literature but only a few had Kanishka survived.

 The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending Sangam Literature from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and  The most probable date of the Sangam literature has from Kashmir in the north to in the south. been fixed between the third century B.C. to third  His capital was Purushapura or modern day . century A.D.  He is also known as ‘Second Ashoka’  The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam,  He started an era in 78 AD which is known as the Saka Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the era and is used by . two epics – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.   Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Tolkappiyam a work on Tamil grammar by Tolkappiyar  Though he embraced Buddhism, his coins exhibit the is the earliest of the Tamil literature.  images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu The main elements of these works are Aham (love) gods. and Puram (valour).   Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and The most important work related to ethics and morals China for the propagation of Mahayana Buddhism and is Tirukkural by . built numerous chaityas and viharas.  Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and  He also convened the Fourth Buddhist council in Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides Kundalavana, Kashmir under the presidentship of valuable information on the Sangam polity and Vasumitra. society.  He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and . The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him. Political History of Sangam Age

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 Hereditary was the form of government The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely during the . The king used to take the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. advice from his minister, court-poet and the imperial Cheras court or avai.  The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their  The imperial court or avai was attended by a number capital was Vanji and their important seaports were of chiefs and officials. Tondi and Musiri.  The king was assisted by a large body of officials who  Cheran Senguttuvan was the famous rulers of this were divided into five councils. dynasty. His younger brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Council Called as  Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the Council of Ministers Amaichar worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. Council of Priests Anthanar Council of Military Commanders Senapathi Council of Envoys Thuthar Cholas Council of Spies Orrar Their capital was first located at and then shifted to Puhar.  Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. chola  Booty captured in wars was also a major income to  Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. the royal treasury.  In the Battle of Venni, Karikala defeated the mighty  Sangam poems mention the muvendar. This is a Tamil confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of chieftains. three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas ,  Vahaipparandalai was another important battle who became powerful insouth India around 2300 fought by him. years ago.  Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil country. Sangam Society  Trade and commerce flourished during his reign.  Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands -  He also built dam across the river Kaveri and also Kurinji(hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam constructed many irrigation tanks. (agricultural), Neydal(coastal) and Palai (desert).  The people living in these five divisions had their Pandyas respective chief occupations as well as gods for  The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern worship. Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai. Division Chief Deity Chief Occupation Kurinji Murgan Hunting & Honey  The famous king was Aryappadai Kadantha collection Neduncheliyan. He was responsible for the execution Mullai Mayon(Vishnu) Cattle Rearing of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai, which is Marudam Indra Agriculture the story of Silappadhigaram. Neydal Varunan Fishing & Salt  Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar Manufacturing. describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya Palai Korravai Robbery country including the flourishing seaport of Korkai.  The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to  Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras. anthanar, vanigar and vellalar. Sangam Polity Arasar Ruling Class

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Anthanars Priestly Class  The port city of Puhar became an emporium of Vanigars Trade & Commerce foreign trade. Vellalas Agriculturists  Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi,  Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. Vedars lived in this period.  Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors found in many parts of Tamil Nadu, Religion especially Arikkamedu.  The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or  The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,  Lord Murugan was honoured with six abodes known cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and as Arupadai Veedu. precious stones.  Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period  Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports. were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai. End of the Sangam Age  The or Nadu Kal worship was significant in Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Position of Women Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out  Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and of theTamil country and established their rule. Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature. 10. GUPTA AGE  Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. After the Mauryan empire, many small kingdoms rose and  Love marriage was a common practice. fell. In the period from c. 300 to 700 CE, a classical pattern  Women were allowed to choose their life partners. of an imperial rule evolved, paving the way for state  However, the life of widows was miserable. The formation in many regions. During this period, the Gupta practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata kingdom emerged as a great power and achieved the of society. political unification of a large part of the Indian  The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and subcontinent. nobles. Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

 Economy of the Sangam Age The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He  Agriculture was the chief occupation. was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. These two were  The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular called . The next ruler was Chandragupta I and had a great demand. and he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings).  Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes  attained high quality. He married princess Kumaradevi, which strengthened his position.  There was a great demand in the western world for  the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur. The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to  Both internal and foreign trade was well organized be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age. accession in A.D. 320.  Trade was mostly based on the barter system.

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Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)  The main purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts from  was the greatest of the rulers of the India. Gupta dynasty. The Pillar inscription/ Prashasti provides a detailed account of his reign  Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, which is written by . Prashasti, a Sanskrit social and economic condition of the . word, meaning ‘in praise of’.  According to him, Buddhism was in a flourishing  Samudragupta’s military campaigns justify description condition in the northwestern India but , he refers to of him as the ‘ Indian Napolean’. the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’.  Samudragupta performed the asvamedha sacrifice. He issued gold and silver coins with the legend Kumaragupta I: (415-455 AD) ‘restorer of the asvamedha’.  Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son  His greatest achievements was the political unification Kumaragupta I of most of India.  He laid the foundation for the Nalanda University.  Samudragupta was a ardent follower of Vaishnavism.  A branch of the Huns from Central Asia made  He was called Kaviaraja because of his ability to attempts to invade India during his reign. compose verses and promoted sanskrit literature.  He was a Veena player and issued coins 'King playing (455- 467 AD) Veena'.  Last ruler of Gupta dynasty  During his reign the Gupta empire was invaded by the Chadragupta II ‘Vikramaditya’: (380- 414 AD) Huns. He succeeded in defeating the Huns.  Samudragupta was succeeded by his son  The continuous attacks of the Huns weakened the Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. empire and adversely affected its economy. The gold  Chandragupta II inherited the military genius of his coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to this. father and extended the Gupta Empire by his own  The decline of empire began soon after his death. conquests. Gupta Administration  Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated the confederacy of Vangas and Vahilkas.  Gupta administration was highly decentralised.  Fahien visited India during his reign.  It comprised a network of self-governing tribes and  He patronised Navaratna poets and scholars, one tributary kingdoms and their chiefs often served as among them is Kalidasa. representatives of imperial powers.  He earned the title Sakari meaning 'Destroyer of  A high official called Sandivigraha who was minister Sakas' by ending western Saka rule. for foreign affairs.  As a result of dethroning Sakas the western boundary  Provincial administration was looked after by officials of the Empire reached to the Arabian Sea gaining called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. access to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports.  Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city  This enabled the Gupta empire to control trade with administration. the western countries.  The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kumara)  The western traders poured Roman gold into India in came in vogue. return for Indian products.  The great wealth of the Gupta Empire manifest in the Administrate Unit Head variety of gold coins issued by Chandragupta II. Bhukti (Province) Uparika/Bhogapati Vishya (District) Vishyapati/Ayukta Fahien’s Visit Vithika/Nagar(City) Nagarapati/Purapala

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Gram(Village) Gramika were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis,  The villagers were subjected to forced labour called most of whom were smaller landowners. And then vishti. there were men and women such as the dasa .  karmakara, who did not own land, and had to  Fahien describes Gupta administration as mild and earn a living working on the fields owned by others. benevolent.  On the whole the administration was more liberal Economy than that of the Mauryas.  Nitisara, written by Kamandaka, is a text like Arthasastra. It emphasises the importance of the Society royal treasury and mentions various sources of  During the Gupta period, the caste system became revenue. rigid.  Agriculture flourished in the Gupta period due to  The practice of untouchability had slowly begun establishment of irrigation works. during this period.  During the Gupta period, the land was classified as  The position of women deteriorated further. Polygamy below. was common, patriarchy took deep roots. Name of land Contains  Women were prohibited from studying the religious Kshetra Cultivatable land texts like the . Khila Waste land  The practice of Swayamvara was given up and the Aprahata Jungle or waste land Vasti Habitable land suggested the early marriage for girls. Gapata Saraha Pastoral land  The first example of Sati appears in Gupta time in 510  Guptas issued good number of silver coins for local AD in Eran inscription in Madhya Pradesh. exchange.  In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned Tax name Contains supreme during the Gupta period. It had two Bhaga King’s customary share of the produce branches - Vaishnavism and Saivism. normally amounting to 1/6th of the  The worship of images and celebration of religious produce, paid by cultivators. festivals with elaborate rituals made these two Bhoga Periodic supplies of fruits, fire wood, religions popular. flowers etc., which the villagers had to furnish to king.  Religious literature like the Puranas was composed Bali Originally it was a voluntary by during this period. the people to the king, but later it  The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of became compulsory. During the Gupta Buddhism and Jainism. period, it seems to be an additional and  In western and southern India Jainism flourished. oppressive tax.  A gahapati was the owner, master or head of a Uparikara An extra tax levied on all subjects. household, who exercised control over the women  children, slaves and workers who shared a common Gupta period witnessed decline in long distance trade.  rd residence. He was also the owner of the resources – Trade with declined after 3 century land, animals and other things – that belonged to the AD. household. Sometimes the term was used as a marker  Indian merchants began to rely more heavily on the of status for men belonging to the urban elite, South-East Asian trade. including wealthy merchants. Art and Culture  In north India, the village headman was known as the  The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in grama bhojaka. Apart from the gramabhojaka, there the field of art, science and literature and on account

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of this it has been called as “golden age”. A few Dandin  Kavyadarsha scholars even call this period a period of renaissance.  Dasakumaracharita  Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved Subhandhu  Vasavadatta during this period. But most of the architecture of this Vishnusharma  Panchatantra period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that Amarasimha  of Huns.  The Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was unique Science  piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the Skandagupta is also remarkable. sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine.  Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress  during the Gupta period Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book Aryabhatiya. Which  The Gupta coinage was also remarkable. explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and  Chandragupta II and his successors had also issued lunar eclipses. gold, silver and copper coins of different varieties.  Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was  The mural paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, spherical in shape and that it rotates on its own axis. Bagh, and other places.  Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five  For the first time we get image of Vishnu, Shiva and astronomical systems. His work Brihadsamhita is a other gods. great work in Sanskrit literature. Literature  Varahamihira's Brihadjataka is considered to be a  The Sanskrit language became prominent during the standard work on astrology Gupta period.  In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this  Samudragupta patronized a number of scholars period. He was the last of the great medical trio of including Harisena. ancient India. The other two are Charaka and Susruta  The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the who lived before the Gupta age. celebrated Navratnas.  Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha  Kalidasa remain the foremost among them. His (Summary of the eight branches of medicine). master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala. It is considered one among the ‘hundred best books of Decline of the Gupta Empire the world’.  Weak rulers along with incessant invasions from  He wrote two other plays - Malavikagnimitra and foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline of Vikramorvasi. the Gupta Empire.  His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and  By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had Kumarasambhava. Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are disintegrated and was ruled by many regional his two lyrics. chieftains.  The Mahabharatha and the Ramayana were given 11. POST-GUPTA PERIOD final touches and written in the present form during Post Gupta period witnessed powerful dynasties coming this period. to power in different regions of our country. Author Book/Books Visakadatta  Mudrarakshasa  -Pushyabhutis  Devichandraguptam  Dakshinapatha-Western Chalukyas  Sudraka Mrichchakatika  Dakshina Desha-Pallavas.  Kiratarjuniya Pushyabhuti/Vardhana Dynasty www.laexias.com https://elearn.laex.in NCERT GIST OF ANCIENT HISTORY |29|

 The founder of the Vardhana dynasty was Pushyabhuti  The administration of Harsha was organized on the who ruled from Thaneswar. Pushyabhutis were same lines as the Guptas did. feudatories of the Guptas. After the Huns invasion  Taxation was light and forced labour was rare. they assumed independence.  One sixth of the produce was collected as land tax.  The first important king of was  Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued . in the times of Harsha.  After Prabhakaravardhana’s death, his elder son  Harsha’s army consisted of the traditional four came to the throne. He ruled for a divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant. very short period of time.  The maintenance of public records was the salient  Rajyavardhana was succeeded by his younger brother feature of Harsha’s administration. The archive of the Harshavardhana. Harsha period was known as nilopitu.

Harshavardhana (606 – 647 A.D.) Society and Economy under Harsha  In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from  The fourfold division of the society – , Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent and many  Harsha fought against Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi and subcastes existed. defeated him.  The Brahmins were the privileged section of the  The most important military campaign of Harsha was society and they were given land grants by the kings. against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.  Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced  inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat agriculture. of Harsha by Pulakesin.  The position of women was not satisfactory.  Harsha established his control over Kashmir and he  The institution of Swyamvara had declined. also maintained cordial relations with Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly , the ruler of . among the higher castes.  Harsha’s last military campaign was against the  The system of dowry had developed. The practice of kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success. sati was also prevalent.  Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of  Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of disposal of the north India and assumed the title 'Sakala dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the uttarapathadinatha'. woods.  The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha and Buddhism Harsha’s period.  In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later  This is evident from the decline of trade centres, less he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. number of coins, and slow activities of merchant  Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. guilds.  He constructed many , chaityas and viharas all  Since there was no large scale demand for goods, the over his kingdom. farmers began to produce only in a limited way. This  Once in five years he convened a gathering of led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy. representatives of all religions and honoured them.  In short, there was a sharp economic decline as  He brought the Buddhist monks together frequently compared to the economy of the Gupta period. to discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrine. Literature Harsha’s Administration  Harsha was a great patron of learning.

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 Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments. It attained international PALLAVAS reputation as a centre of learning during his reign. By driving out Kalabhraa after the decline of Sangam age, Author Book/Books the Pallavas established their kingdom in Banabhatta  Harshacharita with its capital at . Their rule continued till it  Kadambari was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the Harshavardhana  beginning of the tenth century A.D.  Priyadarshika  Nagananda (600 – 630 A.D.) Nalanda University  The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began  The Chinese travelers of ancient India mentioned a during his period. number of educational institutions. The most famous  Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and among them were the Hinayana University of Vallabhi captured the northern part of their kingdom during and the Mahayana University of Nalanda. his reign.  Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the  Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the Nalanda University. early part of his life. He was converted to Saivism by  The term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. Thirunavukkarasar alias .  It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta  He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara, period. Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples)  It was patronised by his successors and later by Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa. Harsha.  His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting.  The professors of the University were called panditas. He has writtena a commentary on painting called  Nalanda University was a residential university and Dakshinachitra. He is also regarded as an expert in education was free including boarding and lodging. music.  It was maintained with the revenue derived from 100  He was a great builder of cave temples. to 200 villages endowed by different rulers.  His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places  Though it was a Mahayana University, different like , Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Mandagappattu and . Sankhya and philosophies were also taught.  He also authored a Sanskrit work called Mattavilasa  In addition to that, general subjects like logic, Prahasanam. grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus.  It attracted students from different countries of the east.  Admission was made by means of an entrance (630-668 A.D.)  examination. The entrance test was so difficult that Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, not more than thirty percent of the candidates were which means ‘great wrestler’. successful.  He wanted to avenge the defeat of his father  The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. (Mahendravarman I) at the hands of Chalukyan ruler  It had an observatory and a great library. Pulakesin II.   It was an institution of advanced learning and He defeated Pulakesin II in the Battle of research. Manimangalam.

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 He captured and destroyed the of Vatapi  Village assemblies existed and were called as sabhas, and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. who looked after local affairs and managed temples.  Another notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka. Society under the Pallavas  During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava  The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the capital Kanchipuram. Pallava period.  Narasimhavarman I was the founder of  The caste system became rigid. and the monolithic rathas were  The Brahmins were given land-grants by the kings and erected during his reign. nobles called Agraharam/Agrahara. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples. Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.) Hence, became very powerful in the society.  He was also known as Rajasimha.  The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism  His regime was peaceful and he showed more interest and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism in developing the art and architecture. and Jainism.  The at Mamallapuram and the  The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. during his reign. They sowed the seeds of Bakthi Movement in South  He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade India. flourished during this period.  The construction of temples by the Pallava kings  Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, paved the way for the spread of these two religions. Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya.  The Chola king defeated the last Pallava ruler Education and Literature . With this, the rule of came  The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their to an end. capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning. The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted Administration of the Pallavas students from all parts of India and abroad.  The Pallava state was divided into Kottams.  The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayura  The king was at the centre of administration who was Sharman studied Vedas at Kanchi. assisted by able ministers.  Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the  He provided land-grants to the temples known as Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi. Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as  Tamil literature developed during this period. .  The Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious  A number of irrigation tanks were built by the Pallava hymns in Tamil. kings.  The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the  The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars Mamandoor were built by Mahendravarman I. represent the religious literature of the Pallava period.  Land tax was the primary source of the government  Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were he translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in exempted from tax. Tamil.  Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths,  Music and dance also developed during this period. washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to  The Sittannavasal painting belonged to this period. the government.  The commentary called Dakshinachitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

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Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.) CHALUKYAS (543 – 755 A.D.)  The Rashtrakutas were of origin and Pulakesin I was the founder of the . He Kannada language was their mother tongue. established a small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its was the founder of the Rashtrakuta capital. The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots dynasty. like the of and the Chalukyas of  He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa from Kalyani. them.  He annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.) Kirtivarman II. Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a  The most important ruler of this dynasty was paramount power in the Deccan. Pulakesin II.  Dantidurga was succeeded by who was also  The Aihole inscription(Composed by Ravikeerthi) a great conqueror. issued by him gives the details of his reign.  He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa  He fought with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the temple at Ellora. Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.  The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda  Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II was III. defeating Harshavardhana on the banks of the river  Govinda III was succeeded by I (815- Narmada. 880 A.D.) who ruled for a long period of 64 years.  But he suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of  He was a follower of Jainism. Narasimhavarman I.  He was also a patron of letters and he himself wrote  Hiuen Tsang visited his court. the famous Kannada work, Kavirajamarga.  Vikramaditya son of Pulakesin II plundered the Pallava  He also built the Rashtrakuta capital, the city of capital, Kanchi and avenged his father’s defeat and Malkhed or Manyakheda. death at the hands of the Pallavas.  Among the successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III  Kirtivarman II was the last ruler who was defeated by (936-968 A.D.) was famous for his expeditions. Dantidurga, the founder of the .  He marched against the Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam. He marched further south and captured Administration and Social Life under the Chalukyas Tanjore.  The Chalukya administration was highly centralized  He built Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram. unlike that of the Pallavas and the Cholas.  After his death, the power of the Rashtrakutas  Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas. declined. Division Headed by Rashtras (Provinces) Rashtrapatis Administration Vishayas (Districts) Vishayapatis  The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several parts. Bhukti (Group of Villages) Bhogapathis  The village assemblies played a significant role in the  The Chalukyas had a great maritime power. village administration.  The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical and importance was given to Vedic rites and rituals. Society and Economy  A number of temples in honour of Vishnu, Siva and  Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during the period other gods were also built during this period. of Rashtrakutas.  Buddhism declined in Western Deccan. But Jainism  But the progress of Jainism was not disturbed due to progressed in this region. patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers. Almost one third of the population of the Deccan were Jains.

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 There was harmony among various religions. Ceylon. But, suffered a defeat at the hands of the  The economy was also in a flourishing condition. Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam. There was an active commerce between the Deccan  After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their and the Arabs. supremacy under .  The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them. Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)  It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Cultural Contributions Chola power reached its highest point of glory.  The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit  Rajaraja I defeated the Chera ruler Bhaskara literature. Ravivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai .  Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya  He annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka. was composed by Halayudha.  He extended Chola power up to the river  The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of Tungabadhra. the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain  His last military achievement was a naval expedition patronized many Jain scholars. against the Maldive Islands which he conquered.  His teacher composed Parsvabhudaya, a  Rajaraja assumed number of titles like Mummidi biography of Parsva in verses. Chola, Jayamkonda and Sivapadasekara.  wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of  He was a devout follower of Saivism. various Jain saints.  He completed the construction of the famous  Sakatayana wrote the grammar work called Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Amogavritti. Tanjore in 1010 A.D.  The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram. Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)  The Kannada literature witnessed Golden age during  He defeated Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka, and the period of the Rashtrakutas. made whole Sri Lanka part of the Chola Empire.  Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets. His  He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king famous work was Vikramarjunavijaya. and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the  Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas. wrote Santipurana.  His most famous military expedition was to north India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by CHOLAS defeating number of rulers on its way like Mahipala I  After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas of Bengal. became feudatories in Uraiyur. They became  To commemorate this successful north-Indian prominent in the ninth century AD and established an campaign Rajendra founded the city of empire from Tanjore as capital. Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous  They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Rajesvaram temple in that city. Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as the  He also constructed a large irrigation tank called Imperial Cholas. Cholagangam on the western side of the city.  The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya.  Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval  His son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by expedition to Kadaram(Malaysia) or Sri Vijaya. defeating Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam.  He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.  was one of the important early Chola rulers who defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of www.laexias.com https://elearn.laex.in NCERT GIST OF ANCIENT HISTORY |34|

 Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, such as Kaikkolaperumpadai Royal troops Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and Velaikkarar Personal troop to defend Pandita Cholan. king  Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a Kadagams Military Cantonement  temple for Shiva at the new capital The Cholas paid special attention to their navy and Gangaikondacholapuram. had a superior navy.   Under Kulottunga III the central authority became The naval achievements of the reached its weak. The rise of the feudatories like the Kadavarayas climax under the Cholas. and the emergence of the Pandya contributed to the  They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. ultimate downfall of the Chola Empire.  Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated Provincial Administration by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. The Chola country Territorial Division Headed By (Provinces) Royal Prince was annexed into the Pandya Empire. Valanadu Periyanattar Nadu (Group of Villages) Nattar Chola Administration Nagaram(Town) Nagarattar  Cholas had a elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and  The system of village autonomy was practiced with sirudanam. sabhas and their committees.  The land revenue department was well organized. It  Cholas are famous for their autonomous local self was called as puravuvarithinaikkalam. Governments.  All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for  Uttaramerur inscription provide details of the assessment of revenue. formation and functions of village councils.  The residential portion of the village was called ur  Village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nattam. nominate its members to the village council.  Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs  Qualifications were prescribed to become a ward duty, professional taxes, dues were levied on member like ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.  Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land,  During the hard times, there were remission of taxes Own residence. and became famous by abolishing tolls  Above thirty years and below seventy years of and earned the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan. age.  The sabha, which was an assembly of brahmin land  Knowledge of Vedas.etc owners.This assembly functioned through  Members of the village council were divided into six subcommittees, which looked after irrigation, variyams such as samvatsaravariyam, agricultural operations, making roads, local erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon  temples, etc. variyam and puravuvari variyam to take up six  The ur was a village assembly found in areas where different functions of the village administration. the land owners were not brahmins.  The committee members were called  The nagaram was an organisation of merchants. variyapperumakkal.

Military Administration Socio-economic Life  The Cholas maintained a regular .  Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period. Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.

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 Two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and  10,000 BP-Neolithic (early agriculturists and Idangai castes emerged during later chola period. pastoralists)  The position of women did not improve. The practice  6,000 BP-Chalcolithic (first use of copper) of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families.  The Harappan cities flourished between c. 2700  The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to and 1900 BCE temples emerged during this period.  The was composed between c. 1500 and  Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish. 1000 BCE  A number of temples were built with the patronage of  1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials Chola kings and queens.  The Later Vedic Period is between c. 1000 and  The temples remained centres of economic activity 600 BCE. during this period.  Mahajanapadas and cities developed in the Ganga  Both agriculture and industry flourished. valley and new ideas associated with the  The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Upanishads, Jainism and Buddhism emerged c. Kanchi flourished. 600 BCE  The bronze statues of are world famous.  c. third century BCE- First stupas constructed.  Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or  c. second century BCE onwards- Development of peruvazhis and merchant guilds. Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, and  Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and goddess cults China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively  c. third century CE Earliest temples prevalent.  Alexander invaded the northwest c. 327-325 BCE  In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as  Chandragupta Maurya became king c. 321 BCE. vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar,  Ashoka ruled between c. 272/268 to 231 BCE and landless labourers, including slaves, were known  c. 185 BCE End of the Mauryan empire as kadaisiyar and adimai.  The composition of the Sangam texts, c. 300 BCE- Education and Literature 300 CE  Temples and Muttsfunctionedas educational  c. 200-100 BCE Indo-Greek rule in the northwest; institutions. Cholas, Cherasand Pandyas in south India;  Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like Satavahanas in the Deccan. mathematics and medicine were taught in these  c. 100 BCE-200 CE Shaka (peoples from Central institutions. Asia) rulers in the northwest; Roman trade; gold  The development of Tamil literature reached its peak coinage during the Chola period.  The reign of Kanishka, c. 78-100 CE 12. MISCELLANEOUS  The establishment of the Gupta empire, c. 320 CE  Chronology of Ancient India- The compilation of the Jaina texts at the council Palaeolithic period dates maybe mentioned in at Valabhi, c. 512/521 CE terms of millions of years ago, written as mya  The rule of Harshavardhana, 606-647 CE  Xuan Zang comes to India, 630-643 CE  2 million BP(BEFORE PRESENT)-LowerPalaeolithic  The rule of Pulakeshin II( Famous Chalukya King),  80,000 BP -MiddlPalaeolithic 609-642 CE.  35,000 BP- UppePalaeolithic In some cases, for example, the date from when Ashoka  12,000 BP-Mesolithic began to rule, you may find that more than one date is shown. This is because historians have not been able to

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agree on which is the correct date.Dates with question marks after them indicate that these are uncertain.

Major Textual Traditions

 c. 500 BCE Ashtadhyayi of Panini, a work on Sanskrit grammar  c. 500-200 BCE Major Dharmasutras (in Sanskrit)  c. 500-100 BCE Early including the Tripitaka (in Pali)  c. 500 BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)  c. 200 BCE-200 CE Manusmriti (in Sanskrit); composition and compilation of Tamil Sangam literature  c. 100 CE Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, works on medicine (in Sanskrit)  c. 200 CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)  c. 300 CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy (in Sanskrit)  c. 300-600 CE Other Dharmashastras (in Sanskrit)  c. 400-500 CE Sanskrit plays including the works of Kalidasa;works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata andVarahamihira (in Sanskrit); compilation of Jaina works (in Prakrit)

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