Euphorbia larica, Almishfah. © J. Herrera

16 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES , a natural Garden in danger José Herrera (Spain)

17 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Oman, a natural garden in danger

José Herrera (Spain)

For a long time, the Sultanate of Oman has been a magnificent country to visit and admire its varied and unique flora. In fact it is not the first time that Oman appears in this magazine. For some years, the intensification of fundamentalism in Islamic countries, together with social revolts, revolutions, coups d’états or civil wars, today Oman is surely the best and safest destination. The peace and tranquility that is breathed in the country has its origin in the only recipe that exists. It has been applied since 1970 with the rise to power of Sultan Qabus, oblivious to the neoliberal fashion. Part of the creation of a welfare state, with magnificent free public services, luxury infrastructures, the empowerment of a solid middle class and an enviable social coverage. Moving around the territory in search of our favorite is quite safe, with some magnificent roads, even the secondary ones. If we also add the spectacular nature of its landscapes, its pristine beaches and the friendliness of its

Boswellia Sacra. The limestone mountains of Jabal Samhan, from where the best incense in the world is obtained, the quality hojari. © Ángeles Felices 18 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Sultanate of Oman

people, this place is surely one of the best choices in this part of the world.

Oman is known primarily for the incense tree (Boswellia sacra), laden with millenary history and a multitude of legends, which it shares with and . We are also able to see many other plants, with a rich catalog of 1,239 species of vascular plants, of which 191 are of reduced distribution. Of these, 77 are endemic, in which 13 new species were recently included for science. In addition to the Boswellia sacra, a significant number of species were used for their healing properties, fulfilling an important social function when pharmaceutical products were not available. Its use was sustainable and the anthropogenic tensions in its habitats were much reduced. We want to see many of them in their habitat and it is not by chance that they have played a leading role in the last 4,500 years, some for their medicinal properties and others also for the odoriferous qualities of their resin. The modernization of the country, globalization, the implementation of current medicine versus the traditional one, together with the loss of its identity, have made many of these species useless from a pragmatic point of view. Except those with

19 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES fodder properties for cattle; we perceive this as not very sustainable and augur in their preservation a probable dark future.

North and center area As the country is too big for the time available, we have chosen to visit the Hajar mountains adjoining the capital Muscat and the southwest up to Dhofar. The route goes through where 76% of the species are found and where there is a greater concentration of interesting specimens. We have doubted if in the few hours that we were going to spend in the capital, it would be worth visiting the Oman Botanic Garden, still in construction since 2006. Pharaonic work that seems to culminate in the same way and time as the great pyramids although there is no doubt that it will rival the most outstanding gardens in the world. In our journey around the old capital Nizwa and the coastal city of Sur, we have focused on visiting towns always associated with oases, with extensive palm groves where the best dates of Oman are collected, such as the so-called Sukary, with a sticky, soft touch, almost creamy, reminiscent of the Jordanian variety Medjoul for its sweetness, texture and high price. These palm groves create a microclimate that allows the cultivation of horticultural products where temperatures can reach 50ºC in summer. The surroundings of these populations are very arid mountains. Dolomitic calcites predominate with karstic formations that act as a hydrographic basin with scarce rainfall and pour it into the ancestral sources that gave rise to these urban centers. In front of the town of Mishfah, 700 m alt., we could observe numerous colonies of very attractive specimens of larica, whose poisonous latex has been used for skin problems and in homeopathic doses as a vermifuge in dromedaries. Associated with this, one could observe some almost creeping plants of wightii and a few C. myrrha, without or fruits, with thick trunks and scanty bearing, punished for decades by cattle and drought. In the palm grove of Mishfah we could see the sophisticated use of aqueducts or falaj, inherited from the Nabatean culture. The Muslims expanded them geographically until they were introduced in Spain through Al Andalus (Andalucía, Spain) from the 8th century and, like other pre- industrial technologies, they have survived until a few decades ago.

Towards the southwest we visited the other points where the flora is concentrated. They are the ramblas or wadis. In Wadi Tanuf, W. Alshab, W. Bani Khaled, W. Shaab and W. Al Tiwi we have been able to check the variety of vegetation that is distributed along the roadside. There are traces of rains, both sporadic and torrential, the presence of some springs and the proximity of groundwater levels in which it is easy to see Ficus cordata trees. On the sides, hanging from the vertical walls we observed plants of Capparis spinosa that traditionally did not have culinary uses such as Mediterranean capers, but provided a wide range of medicinal remedies in its leaves and tender stems for headaches, ear

20 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Boswellia Sacra with one of its pollinating insects. © J. Herrera

Abandoning the incense extraction gives way to other uses of Boswellia sacra, here slaughtered by herds in Sadah and Jufa. © J. Herrera 21 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Boscia arabica, Wadi Tanuff. © J. Herrera

Commiphora habessinica whose young shoots are grazed by herds. A Cissus quadrangularis grows aside. West Jabal Al Qara © J. Herrera inflammations, childbirth, etc. In the distance we see two types of trees. One with a large trunk and thick crown that gives it some visual attraction is Boscia arabica, which seems to be adapted to all environments of this country, with its small oval leaves and dense foliage of branches. The other trees, distributed in a scattered manner, have a sparse crown with oblong leaves. They are Moringa peregrina which, like their Indian relative (Moringa oleifera), the oil of the seeds is collected for different uses in medicine and nutrition. Today there is scientific literature confirming its properties, with a high level of antioxidants, proteins, vitamins C and A, calcium, potassium and sodium. In a scattered way, on the steep walls of these environments, we found various specimens of Commiphora habessinica, always located in firm

22 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Calotropis procera, Wadi al Sahb. © J. Herrera areas. In several of them they were with almost ripe fruits, but without a single . We also found several Acacia gerrardii on the roadside. This genus is one of the most ubiquitous in the country, along those growing in the middle of the dry course of the ramblas, Calotropis procera, well adapted to all types of soil and conditions. We could already see it in the huge dunes (ergs) of the Libyan , but we also know it occuring widespread throughout India and the western Himalayas. If its adaptability is surprising enough, so are the extensive healing properties of all parts of the . Its frequent therapeutic use is recorded in Ayurvedic medicine and today they are endorsed by different scientific publications. Along the ramblas we were

Ipomoea pes-caprae, Mahout. © Ángeles Felices 23 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Tetraena (ex Zygophyllum) qatarense, Shana. © J. Herrera

Acacia is a quasi ubiquitous genus: here, Acacia tortillis, Wadi Shuwaymyah. © J.H. 24 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Although Wadi Dawkah is a UNESCO-sponsored protected nature reserve, we have seen specimens of Boswellia sacra with obvious signs of being grazed by herds. . © J. Herrera able to observe some specimens that were familiar to us. It was not even necessary to come too close to verify that they were oleander (Nerium oleander), but less flowery than in the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Near the mouth of the sea we came across several specimens of Ipomoea pes-caprae, always on the coast and in sandy soils. There we see a small succulent plant that reminded us a lot of the so-called maritime Uvilla (Zygophyllum now Tetraena fontanesii) of the . After analyzing it, we verified that it is in fact Tetraena ex Zygophyllum qatarense, very common as we will see later in the arid coast of the central zone.

We continued towards the southwest by the road following the coast. Acacia tortilis and Prosopis cineraria predominate with frequent herds of goats and camels in a very arid landscape, where it rains extremely little (50-100 mm/year). In addition to its forage use, P. cineraria also has a well-deserved fame as antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, analgesic and antipyretic in the countries where it is represented. Many of its therapeutic qualities have also been endorsed by scientific research. Southern area. Dhofar

We enter Dhofar. We are anxious because we know that more than half of the species are to be found in this area. After the village of Hasik we ascend a tortuous road, where the mountain range of Jabal al Samhan reaches the top with a stony base of limestone of sterile aspect. We observed with emotion our first Boswellia sacra, rather strong, with few leaves and half-ripe nuts, as a reminder of erratic and 25 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Above and below:Commiphora foliacea, Jabal Samhan. © J. Herrera scarce rains. Our emotion is doubled because from that place comes the best and most valued frankincense that exists: Al Hojari, whitish, almost milky, with light green tones and carrier of the largest amount of essential oil. This quality is produced nowhere else. It was disappointing to see that none of the trees had scars from the extraction of incense. Several decades ago, the closest populations migrated to the city or changed their lifestyle to more productive activities. We observed on the sides of small streams a high density of adult specimens. They are associated with Commiphora foliacea without leaves or fruits, but at a short distance, on the slopes that fall into the sea, we found several in the middle of the vegetative period, with a multitude of leaves and fruits. There, it was the only place where I have seen small specimens of B. sacra, although with attractive and thick trunks, which makes us suppose that in spite of their 20 cm high, they were many years old.

We descended from the heights and arrived on hills of broken granite and feldspar, 26 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES near the towns of Sadah and Mirbat. There, we observed the same association of Boswellias and Commiphoras, but all without leaves. The frankincense trees have a noticeably smaller size, with thicker trunks. As we approached, we observed that almost all of them had the tips of their branches eaten by dromedaries. Apparently it is the only and actual utility.

The next day we visited part of the mountain Jabal al Qara that surrounds the city of Salalah Satellite image of Salalah with the Jabal Al Qara in the shape of a half moon. For mountain range where the influence of the monsoon those who have not heard of this can be appreciated in the face of the extreme aridity area, it is necessary to say that of the northern plateau (top left). © NASA. here an almost tropical climate predominates with the influence of the monsoon that provides the area with rain during 3 months. This generates a vegetation of forest and undergrowth on the slopes in front of the capital and which are those that retain the monsoon fronts coming from the southwest. Almost three months ago it rained and we arrived at a wooded area with baobabs (Adansonia digitata). It is suspected that it was

Adansonia digitata, Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera 27 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Commiphora gileadensis, grazed by herds of goats, West Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera

In addition to its many medicinal properties, Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana was the source of gum arabic. © J. Herrera 28 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Adenium obesum, Jabal al Qamar. © J. Herrera introduced a few centuries ago. Right there we found for the first time, specimens of Commiphora gileadensis of about 2-3 m high in vegetative rest. This tree had great importance in antiquity because from it, the Balsam of Judea was obtained. Nowadays, many of its properties are scientifically corroborated: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, healing and antibacterial, properties that it shares with frankincense. Both appear in the Bible and both were used in ancient Egypt for mummification, for their antibacterial properties. Next to them we saw Cissus quadrangularis everywhere, as well as some specimens of Ficus vasta, numerous trees of Delonix elata full of beautiful flowers, Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana, or gum arabic tree, with wide medicinal uses and Tamarindus indica of different sizes. Jatropha dhofarica, Jabal al Qamar. © J. Herrera 29 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Euphorbia balsamifera subsp. adenensis, Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera Later we ascended to plateaus north of Taqah. There we saw hundreds of specimens of Adenium obesum, mostly without leaves, although with flowers. Many of them were damaged by the hooves of the large cattle herds. They are associated with Cissus quadrangularis, Jatropha dhofarica and Commiphora habessinica, this last is eaten by the cattle. We found many specimens of Euphorbia balsamifera subsp. adenensis, some in and a single plant of Caralluma flava protected under a Commiphora habessinica.

We thought we had seen Caralluma flava, Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera the most relevant, but our visit to the western mountains, Jabal al Qamar, fascinated us. Here is the greatest biodiversity of Oman flora, with 515 species of vascular plants. The massif penetrates into Yemen, to whose border we have approached passing a second military control. At the beginning, in the most arid areas we came across some Sansevieria ehrenbergii together with Aloe praetermissa. The high hills form impressive cliffs to 30 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Cissus quadrangularis et Euphorbia cactus clinging to the cliffs of Jabal al Qamar overlooking the sea, a few kilometers from the border with Yemen. © J. Herrera

Aloe praetermissa, Jabal al Qamar. Caralluma quadrangula, Jabal al Qamar. © J. Herrera © J. Herrera 31 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Dracaena serrulata, Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera the sea. It is easily perceived that they are also under the influence of the monsoon. On the roadside, after Mughsayl, numerous trees of B. sacra appeared. The influence of the monsoon produces a low quality of incense called Asha’bi. Not far away are specimens of Dracaena serrulata of all ages, with leaves stained with black remains of foliar fungi. We found young plants, which indicates a natural renewal of the species, unlike what is observed with this genus in Socotra (D. cinnabari) or in the Canary Islands (D. draco, D. tamaranae). We stopped at different places to check the dominance of Jatropha dhufarensis, Cissus quadrangularis and Adenium obesum trampled by cattle, also a few specimens of Caralluma quadrangula and some Euphorbia cactus. In the cliffs we have verified the incidence of developed specimens of Commiphora gileadensis and C. myrrha; no scar on its trunk denoted any recent ethnobotanical use.

We wanted to see, even in one day, one of the largest and hardest deserts in the world, the Rub al Khali, which it shared with . We left Salalah, after several hours of road we passed by Shisr, an old stop of the caravans that transported frankincense to Lebanon, Palestine and the Mediterranean coast. We crossed many kilometres of barren plain, with only shrubs of Calotropis procera, some suffering Acacia sp. and Prosopis cineraria. We arrived at the small town of Al Hashman, with its oasis in the middle of the desert, and we continued towards a sea of dunes that seemed infinite to us. There, they hardly receive 35 mm of rainfall per year, although

32 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Dracaena serrulata, Jabal Al Qamar. © J. Herrera

Haloxilon persicum, Rub Al Khali. © J. Herrera 33 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES several successive years without any rainfall are common. On the side of a dune we saw a couple of plants. We climbed painfully, almost breathlessly and observed: they had thin leaves but succulent stems: Haloxylon persicum. The plants seemed healthy and we had a good time wondering where the water comes from, with such dry air and soil.

The Frankincense land Few products in ancient times have been as legendary for their uses, properties and value as frankincense. In the archaeological surveys carried out in Salalah and surroundings, export centers have been dated from 2,500 years B.C., but there is evidence of their use from 4,000 years B.C. both in Mesopotamia and in ancient Egypt. Later on it is found as far as China, Greece, Imperial Rome; even in Poland! Its use has been associated with ceremonies or religious rites in Egypt, India and China, but without forgetting its medicinal properties. Later was continuously employed in the Christian and Orthodox liturgy. Currently it is abundantly used in the numerous

The four main qualities of Boswellia sacra incense resin (from left to right) : Al Hojari; Ashazri; Annajdi; Asha'bi. © P. Rodríguez-J. Herrera 34 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES processions of Holy Week in Spain and especially in Andalusia, although different personalized mixtures of incense and from other origins are used, such as Somalia, or , ground into small grains, because frankincense can also be obtained, although of lower quality, from Boswellia papyrifera, B. serrata and B. frereana.

The high increase in the cost of living and wages in Oman works against domestic production compared to other neighboring countries. Currently we have only seen signs of its collection in the cultivated area of the Wadi Dokah Natural Park north of Salalah, funded by UNESCO, where 600 specimens of B. sacra were planted with drip irrigation thus obtaining the second quality Nadji. Our perception makes us doubt whether the quantities of incense that are offered in the city are mostly of national origin. The tree of B. sacra is very wild. Both in this crop and in the Land of the Incense Museum in Salalah, most of the trees were sick with cottony mealybugs or fruit-bearing larvae, as opposed to the rest of wild plants in the surroundings, less vigorous but healthy. Those of us who cultivate this plant for years know that it is not easy to adapt it to pot or soil cultivation, for its irregular and sometimes erratic behavior; their development and survival depend not only on the humidity of the air, soil, or nutrients. Three years ago they were able to isolate up to 43 endophytic fungi in leaves and trunk, their permanence not depending on the seasons. It is suspected that some of these endophytes could promote the growth and ecological adaptability of the host by increasing the tolerance of plants to environmental stress and resistance to phytopathogens.

The demand for frankincense has been falling over the years. From being one of the most luxurious products in antiquity, which almost compared in value with that of gold or silk, it is now suffering a severe deflation. This has caused the loss of profitability of the crop and harvesting, in a country with other more tempting alternatives. However, we have observed a growing interest in the perfume industry. In Salalah we located three companies that distill important amounts of frankincense to obtain the essential oil. In contact with the Omani company Gold Essential Oil, its director Muhamad Ali showed us in photos the process and confirmed the growing demand for essential oil, which in part assures the future of millenary cultivation. With many other species that were once key in traditional medicine, something similar happened. The loss of their ethnobotanical uses, except as fodder in those non-toxic species, together with the invasion of their fragile ecosystems, has generated and generates a damage and regression of their populations. Oman, as a nation that has developed rapidly, does not seem to be an exception to the collateral damage suffered in the environment. Only a policy of valuing its flora through the creation of new natural reserves in fact and not only by law, will be able to stop the negative influence of the Anthropocene era.

35 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES Adenium obesum, West Jabal Al Qara. © J. Herrera

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES: AL SHEKALLI, S.N. Oman Flora [en línea]. Available on the web: https://www.flickr.com/people/54915149@N06/ [Consulta julio 2017] DURADO, A. FARACH, A. et al. Times of Oman [en línea]. Muscat Media Group 2016. Disponible en web: http://timesofoman.com/extra/frankincense/credits.html [Consulta septiembre 2017]. GHAZANFAR S.A.: Handbook of Arabian Medicinal Plants. CRC Press. 1994. ISBN:084930539X, 9780849305399. GHAZANFAR S.A.; FISHER, M.: Vegetation of the . Springer Science & Business Media, 2013. ISBN: 9401736375, 9789401736374. PICKERING H., PATZELT A.: Wild Plants of Oman. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2008. ISBN: 978 1 84246177 8. PATZELT, A.: Sypnosis of the Flora and Vegetation of Oman, with Special Enphasis on Patterns of Plant Endemism. [en línea] http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00060240. [Consulta noviembre 2017] RAFFAELLI, M.; MOSTI, S.; TARDELLI, M.: Boswellia sacra Flueck. () in the Hasik area (Eastern Dhofar, Oman)and a list of the surrounding flora. Journal of Plant and Geography, vol. 61, 2006, issue 2.[en línea] https://doi.org/10.1080/00837792.2006.10670804. [Consulta noviembre 2017] RAFFAELLI, M.: The Frankincense Tree (Boswellia sacra Flueck.,Burseraceae)in Dhofar, southern Oman:Field investigation on the natural population.[en línea] 36 CACTUS-AVENTURES International N° 2-2018 International CACTUS-ADVENTURES