1. Historical Overview of the Congregation1 on 1 October 1840
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1. Historical Overview of the Congregation1 On 1 October 1840, the Bishop of Bruges, Frans René Boussen2 issued an edict granting approval for the foundation of a new congregation of lay religious. It would become known as the Congregation of the Brothers of St. Francis Xavier (Congregatio Fratum Xaverianorum: CFX). The founder of the congregation, the Dutchman Theodore James Rijken, was born on 30 August 1797 in Elshout, a small village in the Dutch province of North Brabant. The premature death of his father and the poverty of his family meant that the talented young Theodore James could get trained only as a shoemaker. Rijken grew up in the Batavian Republic (1795-1806), the Kingdom of Holland (1806-1810) and the French Empire (1810- 1815). He led, in his own words, a "worldly" life and showed little interest in theological ideals or in the religious and political problems of his time. From 1816 on he adopted a completely opposite course. Rijken immersed himself in reading all sorts of Catholic writings. Through the publications of Joachim George Le Sage ten Broek (1775-1847) he learned about the life story of the Flemish missionary, Karel Nerinckx (1761-1824). Nerinckx had made various efforts to found a congregation of brothers with a dual mission: evangelizing North American Indian tribes and providing education for poor white settlers. Rijken clearly was inspired by Nerinckx's plan. He collected dozens of references during his trips to Rome and North America. Rijken tested out his ideas on the Belgian missionary in America, Leo Fidelis Van Den Poel, the Dutch priest Martinus Van Beek and the Belgian Jesuit, Isidore Van de Kerckhove. Finally, he wrote up his plans in three detailed "foundation documents." Rijken came to Bruges as a co-worker of Van Den Poel. The Kingdom of Belgium, independent since 1830 and offering constitutional rights to freedom of religion, education and association, provided a favorable climate for the foundation of a new congregation. After the local bishop, acting on the advice of the Redemptorists of Sint-Truiden, had approved his plans, Rijken moved into a house on the Ezelstraat in Bruges on 15 June 1839, traditionally considered to be the date of the founding of the congregation. Bishop Boussen would also give financial support to the new congregation. The founding of the Congregation of the Xaverian Brothers was not a unique or single event. It must be seen in the context of the growing popularity of lay congregations in the late 18th and 19th century. Given the importance attached to education in the ministry, the goals of the Xaverians closely resembled those of other congregations, such as for example the Brothers of the Christian Schools or the Marist Brothers. What was unique, however, was that Rijken explicitly coupled this educational mission with a missionary objective. The (difficult but logical) choice in 1840-1841 of St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) as patron saint of the Congregation would make this objective even more obvious. Still, several years would elapse before the Brothers would expand into any definite ventures outside Flanders. 1 This survey is based principally on Harold Boyle and Jan Devadder, De broeders xaverianen 1839- 1989 (Bruges 1989) and on Jan Devadder, Rooted in History (2 parts, Bruges, 1986, 1987). 2 Frans René Boussen (1771-1848) was Bishop of Bruges from 1834 to 1848. Xaverian Brothers, 3 3 On 10 July 1854 Rijken together with six colleagues travelled from Le Havre to Louisville (Kentucky). The local Bishop, Martin J. Spalding (1810-1872), entrusted him with the management of various parish schools. In 1864 the Brothers opened their own educational institution (St. Xavier's College) in Louisville; by 1910 it would have about 500 students. Back in 1864, when Spalding became Archbishop of Baltimore, he had invited the congregation to take on the running of the local St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys. Baltimore became the base of operations for the congregation in the whole of the United States. In 1876, a novitiate was started there. In 1882, the Xaverians established themselves in the Archdiocese of Boston, where again they would open several schools. They did the same in the Dioceses of Richmond and Wheeling. All these schools flourished, but their audiences clearly veered far from those sections of the population that Rijken had originally targeted for his missions in the United States, namely Indians, white settlers and poor tradesmen. Very gradually, and largely on the margins of their educational activities, the Brothers in the United States undertook social initiatives, such as adult education, agricultural development and youth work. Some years before Rijken's arrival in Louisville, the Xaverians had also established themselves in England. Their activities must be understood in the context of the general blossoming of English Catholicism in the wake of the Emancipation Bill of 1829. Here the Xaverians were supported by wealthy Roman Catholic nobles and converts from Anglicanism. A college, a normal school and a novitiate were opened in Hammersmith (1861). The Duchess of Leeds asked the congregation to take on the management of an orphanage in Hastings (Sussex). This institution would later be moved to Mayfield, where it developed into a successful boarding school. Other Xaverian educational institutions also, such as Clapham College and the Catholic Collegiate Institute (Manchester), were among the most outstanding Catholic colleges for young men in Great Britain. A network of schools was also developed in the Diocese of Bruges, the cradle of the congregation. In the 19th century, the St. Francis Xavier Institute in Bruges grew to be a highly respected educational institution. Gradually, the Xaverians took on pedagogical tasks outside the city, for example in Wervik (1866), Houthulst (1874), Zedelgem (1905), Heist (1906) and Knokke (1926). The relatively rapid expansion of the Xaverians cannot conceal the fact that the congregation had to endure severe growing pains in its early years. Before 1880 the membership grew extremely slowly. The professional and spiritual training of the novices often left much to be desired; this accounted for the relatively high numbers of those who left the order in the early years. Moreover, for years the Brothers had severe financial problems resulting from the purchase of a property ("Het Walletje”) in Bruges. Rijken's headstrong and autocratic behavior also attracted a lot of criticism. The tensions in the congregation reached such a pitch that in December 1859 a complaint about Rijken's behavior was lodged with the Bishop of Bruges, Jean-Baptiste Malou3 . Following a thorough investigation, the founder was asked to resign. During his final years Rijken devoted himself to promoting a prayer action on behalf of Pope Pius IX's struggle to retain the Papal States. He died in Bruges on 26 November 1871. In the meantime Brother Vincent Terhoeven was chosen in 1860 to be the new Superior General. He saved the congregation from bankruptcy and gave it a workable structure. But, just like Rijken, he couldn't find a lasting solution for the poor quality of the Brothers' formation either. Granted, the quality of their professional training as educators was gradually improving, but their religious formation still left much to be desired. Terhoeven tried to give shape to a Xaverian form of spirituality by compiling a Handboek voor gebruiken en raadgevingen (Handbook of 3 Jean-Baptiste Malou (1809-1864) was the successor of F.R. Boussen and was Bishop of Bruges from 1848 to 1864. Xaverian Brothers, 4 4 Customs and Advice) and a prayer-book. While Rijken had regarded the development of a network of educational institutions in Belgium, Great Britain and the United States largely as a lever for the realization of his missionary ideal, Terhoeven emphasized this ideal much less. On the level of administration, Terhoeven's policies can be said to have been far-reaching. In 1875 the congregation was divided into three provinces, a Belgian, an English and an American. That structure has remained virtually unchanged since then. Only as late as 1960 was the American province split into the North-East American Province (or St. Joseph Province) and the American Central Province (or Sacred Heart Province). In l976 the English province was given the status of a region, directly under the authority of the generalate. Vincent Terhoeven died on 2 May 1899. He was succeeded as Superior General by the English brother, John Chrysostom McDermott, who had been chosen in 1895 as coadjutor to the Superior General, Vincent Terhoeven. The election mirrored the growing importance of the English-speaking provinces in the congregation. When McDermott in turn died in 1915, a serious statutory problem emerged. The Belgian Provincial, Theophile Verschaete (coadjutor to McDermott since 1913), decided that the war made it impossible to convene a General Chapter and to organize an election. Verschaete took on the leadership of the congregation as acting Superior General. This plan provoked strong protest from many including the Bishop of Southwark, whose diocese housed three of the congregation's schools. The dispute centered on the question of which clerical authority should pronounce judgment on the correct procedure, the Pope or the Bishop of Bruges. The discussion stimulated the congregation, which until then had been under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Bruges, to take steps towards obtaining papal recognition. This was one of the most important policy issues during the administrations of the Superiors General Bernard Gregson (1919-1928) and Paul Scanlan (1928-1937). The endeavor proceeded alongside the editing of a new constitution in accordance with the 1917 Code of Canon Law. The Decretum Laudis (10 December 1927) signalled a first breakthrough. On 12 January 1931 the Congregation of the Xaverian Brothers was recognized as a papal congregation.