THE GUITAR IN LEXI CA: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUITAR AS REFLECTED IN GENERAL AND MUSICAL DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS, 1611-1890.

A Thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

by

Sean W. Ferguson, B.A., M.L.S.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University

1992

Master's Examination Committee: Approved by

Thomas F. Heck Martha Maas Burdette Green ' fZ4-_ -/)l_L-- Adviser School of Music ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express sincere appreciation to Dr. Thomas Heck for his expertise, encouragement, and insight. His guidance has been invaluable not only during the preparation of this thesis, but throughout my undergraduate and graduate studies at The Ohio State University. Special thanks go also to Drs. Martha Maas and Burdette Green for their helpful comments and assistance. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to express sincere gratitude to my family, especially my parents, William and Cornelia Ferguson, for their unfailing support.

ii VITA

July 21, 1965 ...... Born - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

1988 ...... B.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1989 ...... Library Media Techpical Assistant, Ohio State University Music /Dance Library, Columbus, Ohio

1991 ...... Master of Library Science, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio

1991- 1992 ...... Assistant to the Coordinator, Kent State University School of Library and Information Science, Columbus Program, Columbus, Ohio

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Studies in: Music History and Literature, Music Bibliography

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii

VITA ...... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Seventeenth Century General Dictionaries: The Four and Five-Course Guitars...... 9

II. Eighteenth Century Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: The Five-Course Guitar and the "English" Guitar...... 16

III. Nineteenth Century Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: The Six-String Guitar ...... 42

CONCLUSION ...... 94

APPENDIXES

A. Check.list of Principal Sources ...... 98

B. Facsimiles of Non-English Language Sources ...... 104

REFERENCES ...... ; ...... 139

I iv l LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE

1. Illustration of the guitar's fingerboard and tablature notation from Diderot and d' Alembert's Encyclopedie...... 27

2. Illustrations of plucked string instruments from the Recueil de Planches (vol. 4, Plate III), published as part of Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedie ...... 30

3. Illustration of the guitar's fingerboard and tuning from Tans'ur's Elements of Musick...... 35

4. Illustration of a guitar from the first edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians ...... 93

v INTRODUCTION

The history of the guitar . . . is intricate and filled with many unresolved questions. Historians of the early decades of the twentieth century made pioneering efforts to investigate a large body of music and eady source material without the benefits of previous research. . .. Recent scholarship has contributed notably to the development of a more accurate and well-documented representation of the history of the guitar and the vihuela. Investigations of musical, theoretical, literary, and iconographical sources offer new evidence which has eliminated lacunae and corrected inaccuracies.1

The goal of this thesis is to further expand the body of knowledge concerning the history of the guitar by drawing upon a class of literary sources still largely unexplored by scholars of the instrument: historical dictionaries and encyclopedias. Information provided by these publications can serve to complement and supplement that found in other sources within the spectrum of documentary evidence, be they literary (monographs, periodicals, etc.), theoretical (methods, treatises), pictorial (paintings, etchings, photographs) or musical (scores, manuscripts). It is hoped that this study will enable the guitar's history to be more fully represented, by providing an historical record of contemporary views and perspectives on the technical, physical, and social aspects of its development. The small number of lexicographical sources previously examined in the guitar's literature have almost always been presented

1Meredith Mccutcheon, Guitar and Vihuela: An Annotated Bibliography of the Literature on Their Histozy (New York: Pendragon Press, 1985), xxi.

1 2 incompletely and in isolation, and it is thought that bringing dictionary and encyclopedia entries for the guitar together in the context of a chronological and more comprehensive study will provide a valuable resource. This survey was inspired by and expands work in Thomas F. Beck's dissertation "The Birth of the Classic Guitar and Its Cultivation in Vienna, Reflected in the Career and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829)" (Yale University, 1970). In concluding his opening chapter, Heck presented several entries for the guitar from eighteenth and nineteenth century music dictionaries as "testimonies" which "reaffirm and reinforce the various concepts that serve usefully to articulate the emergence of the classical guitar."2 The present paper builds on Beck's work, surveying entries for the guitar in over thirty dictionaries and encyclopedias, both general and music­ specific, spanning the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries. Regarding the potential value of these sources for musicological research, Vincent Duckies wrote:

Music dictionaries and encyclopedias ... exist in a wide variety of types and are subject to as many different interpretations. A dictionary may emphasize some particular sub-division of the field: church music, theater music, musical instruments, etc. It may be directed toward a particular level of musical interest, projecting a reader image of the research scholar, of the untrained "listener"; or it may attempt to satisfy both. It may be designed to serve as a handbook of musical facts for ready reference, or as a multi-volume repository of musical knowledge. Whatever its intended scope or format may be, every musical dictionary represents some kind of adjustment to the totality of musical information existing within a cultural

2Thomas F. Heck, "The Birth of the Classic Guitar and Its Cultivation in Vienna, Reflected in the Career and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829)" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1970), 57.

- I 3 epoch. This is why music dictionaries furnish prime evidence of the musical mentality of a past era.3

In an article focusing on the musical entries in an early French/English dictionary, Thurston Dart explored the use of general lexicographical sources in studying musical topics. He observed:

As sources of information about music and musical instruments, early dictionaries deserve more attention than they have yet to my knowledge received. We must not expect their compilers to have been expert musicians, of course, though it is evident that the more responsible dictionary-makers called upon well-qualified experts for advice. We have to be on our guard, too, against men like Rousseau ... whose built-in prejudices sometimes steered their thoughts well away from the targets they had in mind. But an alert reader can soon catch the special turns of phrase that imply the writer knows what he is writing about; he will also find it worth making a note of what is missed out, as well as of what is included or misunderstood.4

For the researcher examining these sources, Dart's insightful comments frequently ring true. As more than a few of the entries presented in this paper demonstrate, authors of dictionary and encyclopedia entries have not always displayed the standards of expertise, objectivity, and critical thought expected of today's scholars, even if their intentions were of the utmost integrity. Nevertheless, each writer's work represents a part of the historical record which influenced, for better or for worse, the perceptions of their readers and, often, those of the writers who followed them. In a more recent article, which builds on Dart's study by surveying a handful of early French sources, Albert Cohen observes: "What an intriguing

3Vincent Duckles, "Some Observations on Music Lexicography," College Music Symposium 11 (1971) : 115. 4Thurston Dart, "Music and Musical Instruments in Cotgrave's Dictionarie (1611)," Galpin Society Journal 21 (1968) : 70. 4 sourcebook is a dictionary! There, between the covers of a single reference work, one seeks to trace meaning and understanding of the most complex ideas capable of being expressed in language."5 In his conclusion, Cohen notes that "... there is a large literature of untapped source material for the study of music history residing in general dictionaries of language."6 The same could surely be said for historical music dictionaries and encyclopedias as well, as these sources have often been overlooked by modern scholars. Together, the vast trove of general and music-specific lexicographical sources provide a wealth of information on musical styles, theoretical concepts, technical terms, persons, and instruments. Like Dart, Cohen points out that these sources, just like many other historical documents, must be read with a critical eye: "... the student of this material must carefully evaluate his sources for knowledge of their relative worth to his own immediate needs. In any event, the intense historical perspective that one gains in such interdisciplinary study is, of itself, an ultimate gift for the student of history."7 The main body of this thesis consists of a chronological study of entries for the guitar found in thirty five dictionaries and encyclopedias published during the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries, specifically the period 1611-1890. While it is by no means comprehensive, this survey presents entries from a large number of the most important and widely known lexicographical sources, as well as several more obscure publications.

SAlbert Cohen, "Early French Dictionaries as Musical Sources," in A Musical Offering: Essays in Honor of Martin Bernstein. ed. Edward H. Clinkscale and Claire Brook (New York: Pendragon Press, 1977), 97. 6Ibid., 108. 7Ibid. 5 In collecting entries from as many sources as possible, four principal resources were consulted:

1. Coover, James B. Music Lexicography. Carlisle, PA: Carlisle Books, 1971. Coover lists over 1800 publications presenting information on music in dictionary format, including terminological as well as biographical sources.

2. . "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music." In New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. In this article, Coover provided updated information on sources listed in the above publication, newly discovered sources, and a chronological discussion of dictionaries and encyclopedias, including general sources important for their coverage of music.

3. A listing of music dictionaries and encyclopedias in the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) union catalog, obtained through an online search via the FirstSearch system. A total of 332 records was retrieved with this search.

4. A check.list of music dictionaries and encyclopedias in the collection of the Ohio State University Music/Dance Library, as compiled by Head Librarian Thomas F. Heck and Judith Smith. This list of approximately 500 sources includes a microfiche collection of some 75 music lexica held by the Library of Congress.

In considering which of the titles provided by these sources to examine for possible inclusion in this study, the following basic criteria were used:

1) The date of publication was to fall no later than 1890, a cutoff date chosen in an effort to maintain a manageable scope for the project. The proliferation of music dictionaries after that year makes it difficult to include a representation of later sources in a study of this size.

2) Strictly biographical dictionaries were not considered, the focus of this study being entries for the guitar itself, and not those for persons associated with the instrument.

3) Sources in English or any Wes tern European language were considered. 6 Keeping these guidelines in mind, an attempt was made to gain access to as many sources as possible, either in the OSU Libraries collections or through interlibrary loan, checking each for entries on the guitar, chitarra, guitare, etc.s Happily, the resulting group of acquired materials provided a diverse and representative sample of sources published in several countries over a span of almost three centuries. Chronological and alphabetical listings of these principal sources are presented in Appendix A. Translations of non-English language entries were made with the assistance of Dr. Thomas Heck, and facsimiles of these sources are included in Appendix B. Before launching into the survey of sources themselves, a few words should be said concerning the development of music lexicography, particularly in its earliest stages. Coover notes:

The Terminorum musicae diffinitorium of Johannes Tinctoris, generally considered the first dictionary of music, was published about 1495; Janovka's Clavis ad thesarum and Brossard's Dictionaire [sic] de music in 1701. So far as is known, in the two hundred and six years separating those dates, no comparable work appeared. Why this was so remains one of the most perplexing questions in the field of music lexicography.9

Coover does note that "dictionaries and glossaries became frequent appendages to books on music theory and introductory tutors, starting with Praetorius's Syntagma musicum, iii (1618) .... [and including the work of]

8Jt should be noted that, except in a few cases, entries for other related instruments, such as the lute, vihuela, mandolin, etc., and those for terms related to the guitar, such as tablature, were not included in this study. Although such entries may be referred to in those on the guitar, and while they may provide information of interest to guitar historians, their inclusion here would have enlarged this project beyond its intended scope. 9James B. Coover, Music Lexicography (Carlisle, PA: Carlisle Books, 1971), xi. 7 Marin Mersenne and Athanasius Kircher in their two massive encyclopedic music treatises ... [which] were widely accepted [by later writers] as authorities for definitions, and Janovka [and] Brossard ... indicated their dependence on

them. "10 But these appended dictionaries did not include entries for musical instruments, which the authors usually covered in the bodies of their treatises. Although some might consider the treatises themselves to be music dictionaries or encyclopedias in their own right, they were not originally conceived as such:

While it is true that early theorists, such as Glareanus, Zarlino, Zacconi et al, provide detailed explanations of important terms and that many of their works (e.g., Mersenne's Harmonie Universelle) present encyclopedic purviews within which each subject and idea is treated exhaustively, to label them "encyclopedias" is incorrect. Though incontrovertibly encyclopedic, they are not strictly encyclopedias because of their format and, more importantly, because of their authors' central purpose. The general purpose of Mersenne and others was not the publication of a work which in some continuous but loosely arranged, topical format managed to define essential terms with which the musician of that day had to deal . . . but rather, instead, to present a system of music composition, analysis or esthetics, or a set of theories in support of some new or already­ current system. The dictionary format was ignored by them because it did not suit their purpose. To the student today who wishes to understand the terms and ideas of those periods, such treatises are invaluable, but they are not strictly encyclopedias; lexicographical method and approach--the "dictionary" idea--if

lOJames B. Coover, "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music," in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (New York: Macmillan, 1980), 433. Coover is referring to Mersenne's Harmonie Universelle (Paris, 1636) and Kircher's Musurgia Universalis (Rome, 1650). Janovka's Clavis ad Thesaurum Magnae Artis Musicae (Prague, 1701), which shared with Brossard's work the distinction of being the earliest modern music dictionary, did not cover musical instruments, and thus is not included in this study. 8 manifested in them to any appreciable degree, is incidental and peripheral to their authors' intentions.11 Thus, because it is the purpose of this study to focus on lexicographical sources, and because the coverage of the guitar in such treatises has been previously explored in the literature (though not exhaustively), they were not included here. As we have seen in articles previously cited, the void of sources resulting from a great "lacuna" in music lexicography during the 16th and 17th centuries can be at least partially filled by using general sources which include musical terms. As Coover notes: "... In lieu of terminological music dictionaries from 1500 to 1700, musicians have found usefulness in substitutes educed from among the numerous general dictionaries of that period. "12 Because Tinctoris provided no organological information in his dictionary,13 these general sources represent the starting point for any lexicographical study of musical instruments.

llcoover, Music Lexicography. xiii-xiv. 12Ibid., xvi. 13'finctoris did, of course, provide information on instruments in his De Inventione et Usu Musicae (c. 1487), but this work, like the treatises of Praetorius, Mersenne, and others, does not fall into the scope of this survey. CHAPTER I.

Seventeenth Century General Dictionaries: The Four-Course and Five-Course Guitar

The descriptions of the guitar provided by general dictionary writers of the 17th century represent the earliest known lexicographical sources concerning the instrument. They provide facts, judgements, and perceptions that many later music dictionary writers were influenced by, directly or indirectly, in compiling their works. Sebastian Covarrubias Orosco's Tesoro de la Lengua Castellana o Espanola (Madrid, 1611) includes perhaps the earliest substantial entry for the guitar in any dictionary, general or musical.· Diana Poulton published the following translation of the entries for guitarra and vihuela14 from this source, observing that "Although some of the statements are incorrect nevertheless the definitions are interesting since they appear to reveal contemporary ideas about the instruments, their function and history" and noting that the work "is considered to be one of the finest of its time." As can be seen from these passages, the vihuela was fading fast from the musical scene in the early 17th century, and it was not to receive more than occasional passing mention in any of the early music dictionaries from the 18th and early nineteenth centuries. Thus, this dictionary provides not only perhaps the only comparison of the two instruments in a contemporary

14Diana Poulton, "Notes on the Guitarra, Laud and Vihuela," Lute Society Journal (1976): 46- 48. 9 10 lexicographical work, but also certainly one of the few substantial dictionary entries for the vihuela prior to the twentieth century:

Guitarra. A well-known instrument, played much to the detriment of the music which was previously played on the vihuela, an instrument of six, and sometimes more courses. The guitar is a vihuela, small in size and also of less strings, since it has no more than five, and sometimes only four. These strings are requintadas, not in unisons as are those of the vihuela, but they are tuned in fifths, except for the first, which in both instruments is single. If you change the accent of the penultimate syllable in guitdrra to guftarra, and change the letter g to c this will give you citara, in Greek the name cithara. Guitarrero means a maker of guitars, or one who plays a guitar. Guitarrillo is the small guitar of four courses.

Vihuela. The musical instrument commonly of six courses of strings. Latine dicitur Lira, & barbitus, sive Barbiton, the invention of which is attributed to Mercury, but the authors do not agree on whether Mercury's Lira had this shape or another. It was called vihuela a vigore because of the power that the music had to charm the spirits of men and give them so much that, authors of antiquity affirm, in past times musicians flourished who, with the harmony of this instrument, or another such, cured those that were ill, changing the modes until they met with one that was in sympathy with the temperament of the invalid and with its sound reduced the humours to their natural state and temperament. That Orpheus could attract to himself with music the stones, the trees, the animals, makes us understand the power of music, although for my part I understand how the rough men were attracted by the gentleness of its eloquence. Until our times this instrument has been highly esteemed and had most excellent musicians, but since the invention of the guitar there have been very few who have devoted themselves to the study of the vihuela. It has been a great loss, because all kinds of notated music was played on it, and now the guitar is nothing more than a cow-bell, so easy to play, especially in rasgado, that there is not a stable boy who is not a musician of the guitar. (Orosco, 1611. Original Spanish in Appendix B, 1.) 11 This early unfavorable judgement of the guitar is typical of the opinions which were to persist among writers for centuries to come, as will be evidenced in this study, even during periods when the guitar flourished as a solo instrument with a repertoire of "serious" compositions. Perhaps because the guitar's earliest popularity began with the instrument functioning i predominantly as a strumming accompaniment to popular songs, an image l of the guitar as a simple step-child of the noble lute and vihuela was born, I ' which persisted in the minds of generations of musicians. The guitar's simpler technique, playing style and fewer number of strings were precisely the factors which led to its widespread use, quickly causing it to displace the vihuela and rival the lute in popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries. But the guitar was capable of being more than just a "cow-bell," as Orosco referred to it, and would eventually gain recognition, if not always acceptance, as a serious instrument from at least some important musical writers. The next source considered here appeared in the same year as Orosco's dictionary. Referring to the article by Thurston Dart mentioned in the introduction to this study, Albert Cohen notes: "One of the few early French dictionaries that has received notice as a musical source in recent literature is Randle Cotgrave's A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, published ... in 1611. ...Cotgrave's dictionary was compiled principally as a guide for the English-speaking people wishing to learn French."15

15Albert Cohen, "Early French Dictionaries as Musical Sources," in A Musical Offering: Essays in Honor of Martin Bernstein. ed. Edward H. Clinkscale and Claire Brook (New York: Pendragon Press, 1977), 101. 12 In his notes on Cotgrave's coverage of musical terms, Dart observed that "No mention is made of cittern, guitar or pandora."16 But Cotgrave does provide the following entry:

Guiterne; or Guiterre: A Gitterne.

Apparently Dart is assuming that this entry refers to the medieval gittern, a small lute-like instrument with a rounded back. But it is important to remember that the early history of the guitar is complicated by a lack of standardized terminology. As Evans observes: "the same name could be applied to several instruments, or one type of instrument could be known by several names. . . . During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . . . instruments of the guitar family began to be referred to throughout Europe by such names as guitarra, guiterne, gittern, and chitarra."17 Evidence from other contemporary sources suggests that all three of the terms in Cotgrave's entry did in fact refer to the four-course guitar, and that this is the instrument the author had in mind. In his discussion concerning the four-course guitar, James Tyler states: "The Spanish called it guitarra; the Italians, chitarra da sette corde, or chitarrino; the French, guiterre, or guiterne; and the English called it the gittern, from the French term. "18 In a footnote, Tyler observes: "The sixteenth-century gittern is not to be confused with the earlier instrument of the same name which, in fact, is a

16'fhurston Dart, "Music and Musical Instruments in Cotgrave's Dictionarie (1611)," Galpin Society Journal 21 (1968) : 79. 17 Tom and Mary Anne Evans, Guitars: Music. History, Construction, and Players from the Renaissance to Rock (New York: Facts on File, 1977), 16. 18James Tyler, The Early Guitar: A History and Handbook (London: Oxford University Press, 1980), 25. 13 small treble lute."19 This information is based primarily on music publications of the period, in particular the famous guitar books of Guillaume Morlaye (Tablature de guiteme .. ., 1550), Simon Gorlier (Le Troysieme Livre . . . de Guiterne, 1551) and Adrian Le Roy (Premier Livre de Tablature de Guiterre .... 1551). Tyler also reports that among contemporary English sources is "a keyboard manuscript compiled by Thomas Mulliner, [which] contains some cittern and 'gitterne' tablature from about 1570.... All the guitar music in [this manuscript] requires a four-course guitar and is notated, as was the fashion in England, in French tablature."20 Thus, we see the exact three spellings given by Cotgrave being applied to guitar music in sources appearing before his dictionary was compiled. Moreover, the later French theorist Marin Mersenne used the forms guiterne and guiterre in describing the four and five-course guitars in his Harmonie Universelle (1636). If

Cotgrave did have the medieval gittern in mind when giving his English equivalent for these terms, as Dart seems to assume, he would have been misleading his readers in contemporary French usage. It appears instead that for the English, "gittern" had come to be used as the early name for the guitar, and that Cotgrave, along with Orosco, thus provided one of the earliest dictionary entries for the instrument. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the French were in the forefront of lexicography, producing several comprehensive general dictionaries. According to Cohen, "The most extensive, indeed encyclopedic, of the dictionaries of the period is Antoine Furetiere's Dictionnaire Universel, published in 1690 .... [it] opened the door to modern lexicography.

191bid. 201bid., 29. 14 .. It is the ancestor of all universal and encyclopedic dictionaries that have since appeared.... In music, Furetiere's Dictionnaire provides extensive entries for almost any French term related to music of the period ..."21 Included was the following entry:

Guitarre, or Guiterre. Type of instrument with gut strings, which has a flat back. It is held in the arms like the lute. It has eight frets; one plucks and strums the strings. This instrument is simple, and came from Spain. At first, it had only four courses of strings, of which the first was a single chanterelle; now it has up to ten strings. The word comes apparently from the Greek cithara. The Arabs also said kithar or kithara, which is found in versions of the Scriptures. (Furetiere, 1690. Original French in Appendix B, 2.)

It is interesting to note that Furetiere, writing in the late seventeenth century, still includes in his entry the spelling guiterre. While this older spelling continued to be referred to by non-French lexicographers as an historical French version of the name, later French writers tended to use only the more modern forms guitarre, guittare, and, beginning in the nineteenth century, guitare. Furetiere's article includes several terms and observations which were to become stock features of guitar entries in many later dictionaries. The comparison to the lute, the plucking and strumming techniques, the instrument's Spanish origin, the early four-course version, the single chanterelle string, and the Eastern origin of the instrument's name were all to be repeated by dictionary writers as recurring themes and observations. Furetiere probably based his entry on information from Mersenne's lengthy description of the guiterre, which includes virtually all of the same

21Cohen, "Early French Dictionaries," 105-06. 15 information, except that concerning the derivation of the name itself. This etymological issue is one of which scholars cannot be sure even today. However, it is noteworthy that both the Spaniard Orosco, in the early seventeenth century, and the Frenchman Furetiere, at the end of the century, point to the apparent link to ancient Greece. In the next chapter, we turn to the eighteenth century, which featured the birth of modern music lexicography at its beginning, and witnessed the development of the modern classical guitar near its end. CHAPTER II.

Eighteenth Century Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: The Five-Course Guitar and the "English" Guitar

As James Coover observes, "Modern lexicography of music began in the 18th century, with the first large-scale dictionary of musical terms (Brossard, 1703) and the first music encyclopedia (Walther's Lexicon of 1732)."22 The earlier of these two famous works "began as a glossary of terms appended to some motets composed by Brossard (1695), then issued in expanded form as a separate work. "23 This was the Dictionaire [sic] de musique, contenant une explication des termes Grecs, Latins, Italiens & Fran£ois les Plus Usitez . . . (Paris, 1701 and .1703). Brossard's entry for the guitar is brief, mentioning only the five-course instrument, but he introduces two important issues: the use of re-entrant tuning and the early geographical spread of the instrument:

Guitarra means Guitarre. Instrument with five double courses of strings, of which the lowest [in pitch] is in the middle, a fifth lower than the fourth, unless there is a bourdon. It is often called Spanish, because the instrument came from Spain to Italy and [then] into the other countries, and because it is very common in Spain. (Brossard, 1703. Original French in Appendix B, 3.)

Thomas Heck writes: "Most lexicographers did address themselves to the adjective 'Spanish' which so often qualified the guitar, and tried to

22coover, "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music," 430. 23Guy A. Marco, Information on Music: A Handbook of Reference Sources in European Languages, Vol. I: Basic and Universal Sources (Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1975), 13. 16 17 reconcile it with the generally acknowledged fact of the guitar's emanation from Italy.... Speaking from a point on the Franco-Spanish axis, [Brossard] did something which strikes us as surprising in mentioning Italy at all. Why didn't he simply write that one often adds 'Spanish' because this instrument is very common in Spain? Why was it known in Paris as a chitarra spagnuola, and not as a guitarre espagnole? Clearly he felt, even at this early date, that his definition of the guitar would be inadequate without the deliberate mention of Italy."24 Of course, as the title of his work suggests, Brossard 's central purpose in writing his dictionary was to define musical terms (especially foreign ones) as encountered in their language of origin. Thus, because of its assumed Spanish roots, his entry for the guitar is under the Spanish form guitarra, (ironically a language not mentioned specifically in the title as being covered in the dictionary). Of special interest is Brossard's observation that the fourth and fifth courses were tuned differently according to the type of music being played (sometimes in octaves with bourdons), the result being that at times the third course contained the lowest pitched string. The exact uses of such "re-entrant" tuning practices in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are still being debated, and here Brossard provides evidence that various tunings were in use in France in the early 1700s. Johann Gottfried Walther's Musikalisches Lexicon (Leipzig, 1732) has been described as "a landmark effort that is still of great value as a guide to baroque usage."25 As if patterned after Brossard's work, it includes terms in

24Heck, "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 58. 25Marco, Information on Music. 14. 18 German, Greek, Latin, Italian, and French, placing entries alphabetically under the term of the perceived language of origin. However, unlike Brossard, Walther does not use the Spanish form of the instrument's name as his heading. In fact, he does not mention it at all:

Chitarra (Ital.) Guitarre, Guiterre (Fr.) Cithara Hispanica (Lat.) A flat, lute-like instrument with five double courses of gut strings, which is used especially by Spanish ladies (thus the word Spagnuola is often used to describe it). It came from Spain to Italy, and from there into other countries. It is, however, not to be confused with the cithara cited in the entry for Chelys. An illustration can be seen in Bonanni's Gabinetto Armonico, p. 97, and in Mersenne's Harmonie. Intrumentor book I, prop. 21. Here it is also reported that it formerly had only four courses, but would now consist of five double courses tuned in unisons, the first course, however, often having only a single string. (Walther, 1732. Original German in Appendix B, 4.)

Heck observes: "Walther does more than just mention Italy. He has only one entry for the guitar, that is, the Italian -- Chitarra. There is no listing for Guitarre or Guitarra in this German language dictionary."26 However, Walther does echo Brossard in noting the instrument's Spanish origin. He also is the first dictionary writer encountered in this study to include a reference which became very widespread in later sources: the perception of the guitar as an instrument utilized particularly by the "ladies." This notion was strongly reflected in the prints and paintings of numerous artists of the time, which present society women playing (or at least holding) a guitar. In fact, it may have been the artistic fashion of depicting such scenes which directly influenced observers such as Walther in their perception of the instrument's social role. During the last decades of the 1600s, several French

26Heck, "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 58. 19 artists created engraved portraits of so-called "Dames de qualite jouant de la guitare." German, Dutch and English painters of the time, including the master Jan Vermeer, also presented the guitar in the hands of ladies. Throughout the eighteenth century, portraits of prominent European women often included a guitar. It is thus not surprising that the illustration of the guitar in one of the sources which Walther refers to, Bonanni's Gabinetto

Armonico of 1722, "shows it in a woman's hands, because ladies are particularly fond of it."27 Concerning another German source of the period, Heck notes: "A plausible explanation of how the guitar and the art of playing it might have spread from Italy elsewhere is found a few years later, in the Kurzgefasstes Musicalisches Lexicon (Chemnitz, 1737)." This dictionary includes the archaic German spelling quinterna, used by Praetorius over a century earlier, but the entry is alphabetized under the Italian form chitarre:

Chitarre or Quinterna, is a musical instrument with four or five gut strings. It has not a round body, but an elongated one, like the violin. [Wandering] Italian comedians usually strum it with their fingernails, but some play it as they would a lute. (Original German in Appendix B, 5.)

Heck notes that the important elements in this definition are the likening of the guitar's shape to that of the violin and the description of its use by Italian performers plucking as on a lute. He points out: "The Italians were destined to popularize the "lute" style of playing increasingly in the hundred years following the publication of the Kurzgefasstes Musicalisches

27This loose translation of Bonanni's remarks is from Frederic Grunfeld's The Art and Times of the Guitar: An Illustrated History, p. 155, a source which also includes numerous other examples of the prints and paintings mentioned above. 20 Lexicon ... In fact, another entry in the same source -- this time [under the German spelling] Guitarre ... concludes with the usual nod to Spain, but equally stresses the role of Italy in the guitar's cultivation":28

Guitarre, is a flat instrument, very similar to a zither, with eight or ten strings. It is held under the arm and played with the fingers. [It] was first developed in Spain, where, along with Italy, it is used the most. (Original German in Appendix B, 5.)

In 1752, a publication now considered to be the first self-contained encyclopedia of the fine arts appeared, entitled Dictionnaire Portatif des Beaux-arts (Paris, 1752). The title page lists a certain monsieur "L." as its compiler, now known to be Jacques Lacombe. Although he does not provide new information, virtually reproducing Furetiere's 1690 description, Lacombe's brief entry for the guitar gives evidence that a number of "stock" observations had by now become standard features of writings concerning the instrument. Obviously, lexicographers tended to draw heavily from existing sources in compiling their works:

Guitare. Stringed musical instrument. The invention of the guitar is attributed to the Spanish. The first guitars had only four courses of strings. Later, five double courses of strings were employed, but many use only a single string for the chanterelle, as it carries the treble part and sings the melody. (Lacombe, 1752. Original French in Appendix B, 7.)

Turning now from this concise dictionary to one of the earliest and most extensive modern encyclopedias ever compiled, we find the first in­ depth entry for the guitar in any such work. The historic Encyclopedie, o u

28Heck,. "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 59. 21 Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, Arts et Metiers (1751-65), edited by Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, provided truly encyclopedic coverage of the five-course guittare (vol. VII, 1757) as known in France during the first half of the 18th century. Before presenting the guittare article from this source, a few words should be said regarding its authorship. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau was responsible for writing many of the articles on musical topics for the

Encyclopedie, it was Diderot who penned and signed most of the entries for musical instruments. The guittare article, however, is unsigned. One modem source lists guittare and pouls (pulse) as the only two anonymously written articles among the approximately 800 musical entries in the encyclopedia,29 and the guittare entry is not mentioned in the modern edition of Diderot's complete works, which lists his signed Encyclopedie articles, as well as those unsigned articles which were possibly written by him.30 The only clue to the authorship of this entry is found in Abraham Rees's Cyclopcedia. or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature (London, 1802-20), which, although appearing over half a century later, borrowed extensively from the Encyclopedie. The guitar article in this British publication, which will be discussed in detail later, is in large part a literal translation of information from the Encyclopedie guittare entry. In the final sentence of the Cyclopcedia article, which is taken directly from the Encyclopedie entry, the translator (assumed to be the eminent musical observer Charles Burney)

29Alfred Richard Oliver, The Encyclopedists as Critics of Music (New York: Columbia University Press, 1947). See Appendix A, pp. 173ff. 30oenis Diderot, CEuvres Completes, vol. 5, Encyclopedie I. ed. John Lough and Jacques Proust (Paris: Hermann, 1976), 131ff. 22 attributes his quote to "M. Laborde."31 This presumably refers to J. B. de la Borde (1734-1794), whose signature does appear following the guitar article in yet another source derived heavily from the Encyclopedie, Framery and Ginguene's Musique of 1791 (also discussed later). In attributing this unique quote to de la Borde, Burney seems to indicate that the authors of the Encyclopedie and Musique guitar articles was one and the same, though they appeared some thirty-four years apart. Given the fact that Burney's entry itself was published over sixty years after the Encyclopedie article, the authority of his attribution seems open to question, but it nonetheless presents a valid possibility. Regardless of its uncertain authorship, the article in Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedie article is of great value as a source of information on the guitar in eighteenth century France. Aside from very brief excerpts included in a few general histories of the guitar, it has been largely ignored by modern scholars. Included in the entry are numerous details regarding its construction, use, tuning, ornaments, and notation, and a diagram of the instrument's fingerboard (see Figure 1):

Guittare. Gut-strung instrument that is played by plucking or strumming the strings with the fingers, and that is held in the same position as the lute, theorbo, mandora, and others of this type; a pose of refined grace, especially in the hands of a woman. Its form would seem to be derived from that of half a calabash or gourd, to which is added a board of pine, and a neck at the upper end of the instrument's body.

31The passage reads" ... [the guitar] was a very sociable companion of French vaudevilles, pastorials, and brunettes, of which, says M. Laborde, it augments the charms." The corresponding sentence in the Encyclopedie article occurs just before the section concerning tablature. 23 It has ten frets arranged by semitones; they are usually of the same material as the strings, and must be [tied] very tightly around the neck, because of their mobility. The strings are attached to a bridge, fixed on the lower part of the soundboard, and are supported by a nut at the end of the neck, where they are fastened on tuning pegs [extending] behind the neck. At first the instrument had only four strings. Later, five double courses were used, of which the first three are tuned in unisons, and the fourth and fifth in octaves. Often, no bourdons are allowed on the fifth course, and in this case it is tuned at the unison. In addition, only a single string is used for the chanterelle, because of the difficulty of finding sufficiently true [matched] strings. The different ways of playing the instrument, of which we will speak below, determine how to string it. Its range is two and one-half octaves, from la up to mi. The origin of the instrument can hardly be determined. We regard it as coming from the Spanish, to whose country the Moors probably brought it. It is common opinion in Spain that it is as old as the harp. Whether out of respect for this opinion or rather because of the charm of sweet reverie that it inspires, it complements the character of a tender, galant, discreet, and melancholy nation; lastly, whether because of the silence of the beautiful nights of Spain, where it is most used, or whether it is more favorable for its harmony, it has been continuously established in that country and has acquired the title of national instrument. It has enjoyed the same success among the Portuguese and Italians, and it was strongly in vogue in France during the reign of Louis XIV. The sound of this instrument is so soft that the greatest silence is necessary in order to hear all of the subtleties of an elegant touch. In a loud place, one often hears only the attack of the fingers, and the charm is completely lost. The instrument was made to play alone, or to accompany a voice with instruments of the same type. It will not succeed in a [solo] concert; it has given way, along with the lute and theorbo, to instruments which are suitable [for solo performances], given that public taste has broadened as much as it has today. Some amateurs have given it a rebirth, and at the same time reawakened a taste for our vaudevilles, pastorales, and brunettes, which acquire a new charm from the guitar. Concerning tablature. One uses letters or numbers to notate the melodies or accompaniments. This method, though 24 old, is preserved for this instrument because of the convenience which it provides for the grace of the hand, the placement of the fingers, the beauty of the sound, the harmony, and the facility of execution; unless one intends to study this instrument at least as much as the clavecin, it is hardly possible to make the choice of hand positions instantly without a great deal of practice. In France, the first eleven letters of the alphabet, from a to 1, are used on each string for the ten frets which produce eleven semitones, starting from the open string at the nut, that is to say without stopping it, which is signified by an a; the first fret being marked by ab, and the others successively. Other symbols are used for the fingers of each hand. Those of the left hand, which execute all of the fingerings on the neck, are tirades [downward slurs] '-.__../. These are used when, with the fingers positioned, it is necessary to flow from one note down to another. Chates [upward slurs]~, are used when it is necessary to connect ascending notes, which is accomplished by letting the fingers fall on the string with some force, so that the single tap of the end of the finger produces the sound. Miaulemans ou plaintes [vibrato] * , are executed by applying the finger to the string and oscillating it in order to augment the duration of the sound. Tremblemens or cadences [trills] ) , are done by striking the string more or less quickly with the finger, using a tone or semitone above the melody note. Barres courbes [full bar fingerings] ( , signify that it is necessary to lay down the first finger on all the strings, to form, so to speak, a nut which is portable from fret to fret. The symbols for the right hand, which takes the place of the bow and which performs in the area of the guitar's soundboard, are as follows. Little straight lines I , or half­ circles I"""'\ , are placed under the letter and which must be executed by the thumb. Dots . ·. · . ·. ·, are placed under those notes which must be plucked by the first, second, and third fingers. Finally, there is the way of signalling when one must strike or use percussive effects on the chords, which is done by placing, immediately after the chord marked by letters, notes between the first and second lines of the tablature, with their stems up or down; down for strumming from top to bottom; and up, for strumming from bottom to top. One makes the duration of the strumming last longer or shorter by successively fanning the fingers according to the value of the note. As for the durations of the letters that are to be plucked, they are placed above and outside the tablature system that contains the letters. This system has five lines representing the five courses of strings 25 on the guitar. When there are several consecutive letters of the same value, it is sufficient to put a note value for the first, for example a single crochet for an entire measure, and even several measures for which the notes will be of the same value, until they are succeeded by another note of greater or lesser value. In this regard, one uses the same symbols as are usually used in music, for notes as well as rests, etc. See the books of Visee, engraved under the preceding reign. We can distinguish two ways of playing this instrument, which are strumming and plucking. Some prefer one more than the other; others use both together, and this is the best choice that one can make. The best and most common technique for performing is plucking. Strumming is more harmonious, because all the strings are involved, but it requires agility and gentleness in the right hand and firmness and accuracy in the positioning of the left hand in order to produce a good effect, because it is only too easy to make on this instrument, of which the harmony is very sweet and agreeable, a veritable kettle of sound.32 The instrument is plucked between the rose and the bridge; but the strums must be made between the rose and the last fret of the neck, that is toward the midpoint of the strings, in order to avoid the harshness which results from proximity to the bridge, and which cannot be controlled as easily as when plucking. Concerning the strings. The choice of strings demands great attention to their trueness and proportion, especially for the unisons. The spun bourdons have two disadvantages: for one, they wear down and cut the frets; the other, greater inconvenience is that they dominate the other strings too much, and cause the final sound to be lost because of their duration, especially in strums. There are chords where they can be put to good use, namely, when they produce the fundamental tone, but as that does not happen often, it is better to be content with simple [gut?] bourdons, unless one only wishes to pluck. Visee, famous master of the guitar under Louis XIV, put [no bourdon] on the fifth course, but he lost the octave A, and consequently a half-octave. The instrument is tuned in fourths, except for the second and third, which have only the interval of a third between them. The tuning is la, re, sol, si, mi, from the lowest sound up.

32Tue word used by Diderot (here translated as kettle) is chauderon, apparently borrowed from Mersenne, who also used this term to describe the sound of the guitar. 26

Observations on the following figure. [See Figure 1 below.]

The names of the notes are set on the neck at the very spot where one must place the fingers, as close to the fret as possible, but never on top of the fret. It is not necessary to place a finger near the nut, which is marked by an a, because there the sound of the five strings is determined by their position; this is what we call the sound of the open strings. This is the tuning of the guitar. In the progression of the semitones of the scale one will not find any flats marked. We decided that only sharps would be marked, so as not to cause confusion. But what is [labelled] A# will be Bb when it is necessary, because it occurs in the same place, the pitches A and B natural being equally divided by the fret. And so on with the others. As for the type face of the letters, the most usual is the bdtarde, a little more tilted than ordinary, because of the letters with tails which might overlap and interfere with the other letters and symbols which are used. The B is written like a 6; the Cs like an r, of which the right down-stroke is a little bit shortened and the circumflex stroke a little bit elongated. See the example below and the books of Visee. We give them this form to avoid having the line on which the Cs are placed close them at the top, causing them to be taken as Es. One could not be too neat in this type of notation, which is much less easy on the eye than ordinary notes of music; but this method is suitable and convenient for this instrument, with which one can hardly spend enough time to acquire extensive facility and knowledge of the fingerings.

(Diderot and d'Alembert Encyclopedie, 1757. Original French in Appendix B, 6(a).) TABLEAU DU MANCHE DE LA GUITTARE DE GIHNDEUR ORDINAIRE.

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CLnm•ll• a, (; c :;) e if tj ,f' f; J(! / S.Co.J• •• ::: ~ ·- ~ ~ ~ ~ • ~ T,.ifi•.m•.. ~~ ~ ~ i : : ;i Qu•m•m• El> (f' r ";) e .,,c . . . ~ CU.f"''m' ~ (f' c 'd e ;;;'(' ':9 /i" f; 0 ~ {' ~ : 't ! i i ; : ! i I ; ~! i ! I I : : i : ; ;:::? 1· i j ! 1 I i l 1 I i , I ; ! i • ! • ; • F! ; L~Toud1t. ! 1~ ! 1• ! .f!' !J." ; (! ; 7.• ; 8 ' !7· ' ro. c1. ... ,.,. In• ol ol lit t m.Jitl. , _ ! I ! ; ' ,,-.,--;:;:;;, ltf, ,,, J ur•1 r,. i rr:, a '"' l -Z1 I Ca'f~ .rrl l .J~>Tit!T----," ,, ; h I ~ i ~ ; ! ; I ~ ,JQI• ' .r,· ,.,. II Troi1i•·~,, ,,,. "' ..;..:~ "*' '"' r;;- ·• - "' '" "'I ! I I I i I ta ' .fnl , ' ...... f.·• .... , ...... la r::;sr_, ... ~ ;: r~ ~· '' • '".., Ji ~ ~ -: 1 ; j ! ~ j ! ~, ...4'11/a. /ullll'.1 .r• ur ., .. rr ,.,. ... ,. ,,.,....1 h..i*Y• ·,,, -- - 1." .

Figure 1. Illustration of the guitar's fingerboard and tablature notation from Diderot and d' Alembert's Encyclopedie.

N '-l 28 In this comprehensive article, the author provides a wealth of noteworthy facts and observations. There are several concepts presented by writers encountered previously in this survey: the description of the guitar's graceful position in the hands of a woman, the instrument's apparently Spanish roots, and the use of various tunings. However, this writer, being afforded greater space and scope within the domain of a large encyclopedia, expands greatly on the information given by earlier authors, providing considerable detail and covering additional topics. The fanciful and almost poetic description of the guitar's Spanish heritage was to be echoed by several later writers. This is also the first source encountered here which mentions the Moorish introduction of the instrument to Spain. Perhaps most influential were the remarks concerning the guitar's limited volume and resulting restricted role in professional music-making: that of a chamber instrument, primarily for accompanying the voice. Very similar assessments of the guitar's musical function were to be included in countless dictionary entries over the next century. It is interesting that the guitar is equated with the lute and theorbo as an instrument fading from the concert scene, presumably replaced above all by keyboard instruments of more current "public taste." To be sure, interest in the guitar had decreased since its great popularity under Louis XIV, a fact mentioned here for the first time. But guitar music and methods continued to be published throughout the 1700s, including those by Frenchmen Michel Corrette (1763) and A. Lemoine (1790), while publications for the lute family of instruments had virtually ceased to appear by mid-century. 29 The detailed discussion of guitar tablature and playing technique provide important descriptions of various notational and performance practices. It is noteworthy that in this 1757 article, no mention is yet made of using conventional staff notation for guitar music. The earliest known use of pitch notation for the guitar is found in a publication entitled Methode pour Aprendre a Iouer de la Guitarre par DON***. This anonymously authored method is undated, but was advertised for sale in the June 1758 issue of the Mercure de France, one year after the publication of the Encyclopedie article on the guitar.33 Just a decade later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in the tablature entry from his famous Dictionnaire de Music (Paris, 1768):

. . . Because the instruments for which one employed tablature are for the most part no longer in use, and because the ordinary note has been found more convenient for those which are still in use, tablature is [today] almost completely abandoned.

In the highly detailed diagram accompanying this entry, it is noteworthy that the bourdons (low octave strings) appear to be on the right­ hand side of the fourth and fifth courses. The evidence concerning the exact stringing practices of baroque guitarists is scant, and this information is thus valuable. In addition to this diagram, a full illustration of a five-course guitar is provided in the Recueil de Planches (vol. 4, 1767), published to accompany the Encyclopedie, as part of a plate with drawings of various plucked string instruments (see Figure 2).

33for further details and a facsimile example of this notation, see Matanya Ophee, "The Guitarist's Album," Soundboard 15/4 (1988-89): 313ff. /'/. Ill 30

Figure 2. Illustrations of plucked string instruments from the Recueil de Planches (vol. 4, Plate III), published as part of Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedie. Instruments: 1. Mandore 2. Cistre 3. Guitare 4. Guitare simple 5. Cistre lure 6. Colachon 7. Thtorbe 8. Luth 9. Pandore en luth 10. Harpe 31 The supplement to Diderot and d'Alembert's encyclopedia, published in 1776-77, contains the first descriptions encountered in this survey of special types of guitars. Such entries, covering experimental instruments, modified or "improved" guitars, or those associated with a particular country or ethnic group, were to become frequent inclusions in nineteenth century music dictionaries, with some writers providing descriptions of as many as ten or fifteen different historical and contemporary versions of the guitar. The 1777 Supplement volume includes entries for guitar-like instruments of apparently African origins (signed "F.D.C.", identified as "M. de Castilhon, fils") and a unique twelve-string "theorboed" guitar with re-entrant tuning:

Guittare. The negros also have their guitar; it is a large gourd covered with a board on which are stretched four or six strings. See fig. 4, plate [III] under Lutherie. [This refers to the guitare simple in Figure 2 above.] They also have a sort of guitar or lute composed of a piece of hollowed out wood, covered with skin, with two or three horsehair strings. This instrument is adorned with rings and small plates of iron.

M. Wanhecke, of the Royal Academy of Music in Paris, has recently invented a new guitar, which can be described as follows: This instrument, when viewed from the front, closely resembles a lute. When viewed from the back, it displays the shape of the ordinary guitar, except that it is convex and doesn't have the sharp edges capable of injuring the chests of persons who hold it. This guitar features twelve strings, which encompass three and one-half octaves. The strings are positioned in the middle [of the instrument], within a smaller space than that of one octave on the clavecin, so as not to hinder the right hand by giving it too large an area to cover. The strings are nevertheless spaced far enough apart that they cannot interfere with each other when they are played. On the end of the instrument occupied by the left hand, the first five strings are situated over the neck, which is the same width as on ordinary guitars, but much shorter, so that the distances between the frets 32 are shorter, giving more facility to the left hand. The seven other strings are played as open, unfingered strings, and are situated off the neck; because the neck is located somewhat to the [right?] side of the instrument, this [string] arrangement, far from detracting from the pleasing form of the instrument, gives the left hand the ability to move up the neck as far as the rosette. There are twenty frets, not counting the nut, which give this guitar a range as considerable as the most complete instrument. However, as M. Wanhecke observed, instruments to which one attempts to give too great a range of pitches produce only shrill sounds at the extremes of their ranges. His preference was to eliminate eight frets, leaving only twelve, or the range of an octave [on each string]. Regarding the open [bass] strings, the inventor was able to make only five of them sound below the A [fifth] string; these are tuned G, F, E, D, C. The two strings which remained produced, because of their thickness, only a feeble and dull tone, similar to that of the lowest strings of the harp. This caused M. Wanhecke to remove them, and to substitute for them two thinner strings, the next to last tuned up to C at the octave above that of the string which precedes it, and the last tuned [up] to B flat. As a result, all the open strings sound equally well. There are thus nine bass strings which [descend] diatonically, commencing with the fourth string on the neck, the D string, and ending with the C string over one octave lower. (Supplement a L'Encyclopedie, 1777. Original French in Appendix B, 6(b).)

It is interesting that the description of this unusual guitar does not indicate whether it was single or double-strung. The usual references to rangs or courses of double strings are absent, suggesting the possibility that this guitar was one of the earliest in history with single strings. The instrument was, in effect, a theorbo-guitar hybrid, with a body apparently incorporating both lute and guitar features, and a stringing combining the five courses of the guitar with extra unfingered bass strings tuned re-entrantly, as were some earlier archlutes and theorboes. 33 We next encounter the first of several British sources in this survey which provide entries not for the five-course guitar as played on the continent, but for the so-called "English guitar." Tyler observes:

This instrument is vastly different from the gut-strung guitar, and was actually a revival of the cittern. [There is a] large amount of music for it from the mid-eighteenth century, the title pages of which all say, either for 'guitar' or 'guittar'. Hence, unless one is able to distinguish which music is for the 'English' guitar and which is for the Spanish guitar, much confusion can result...... The standard tuning for the instrument was to a C major chord . . . the strings were of brass and steel and were played with the right-hand fingers ... Music for the instrument continued to be published until the early nineteenth century.34 Interestingly, the very confusion between the Spanish and English instruments mentioned by Tyler is evident in dictionary entries for the guitar from contemporary British sources. John Binns, using the pseudonym John Hoyle, published his Dictionarium Muska in London in 1770. Keeping in mind Tyler's remark about the title pages of English guitar publications, the use of the spelling "guittar" for Hoyle's entry is the first clue that he is thinking of this instrument. Were it not for the mention of one other detail, however, the reader would have no real reason to think that Hoyle was describing anything other than the standard five-course baroque guitar:

Guittar, or Guitarra. A stringed instrument with a neck like that of a violin, has an oval body, is played on in the same manner as the Harp, with the fingers, and is near the same size as the Bass Viol. This instrument was first used in Spain and Italy, and is much in use among the ladies of Great Britain. (Hoyle, 1770.)

34Tyler, The Early Guitar, 108-9. 34

Although Hoyle makes no mention of tuning or stringing, it is clear that he has the cittern-like English guitar in mind when he describes the instrument as featuring an "oval" body. This observation was to be repeated in numerous English lexica during the next several decades, and, as we shall see, later erroneously found its way into entries for the traditional guitar in nineteenth century American dictionaries based on their British predecessors. Hoyle carelessly includes the familiar reference to the guitar's earliest use in Spain and Italy, which is misleading here because the heritage of the English guitar is traceable primarily to the cittern of sixteenth and seventeenth century England, and has little if any connection with Spain. Such confusing inaccuracies were not limited to Hoyle's publication. The contradictions in William Tans'ur's The Elements of Musick (London, 1772) are even more pronounced:

Of the Guitarra Spaniola or Citern. The guitar is called a Spanish stringed instrument, having generally 4 double wire strings, and 2 single strings, from the bridge to the screws, in form like the violin; and pulled with the Fingers and Thumb of the Right Hand, and stopped or fretted at the same Time with the Fingers of the Left Hand; and mostly used by young ladies to play in Concert, or sing with, &c. it being in effect only a small Lute. The names of the open Strings, and Frets on each stand thus: [See Figure 3.] 35

!l>• . ... • . A H '1 •• 1) ·~ i' a..,""· -- . .f'.l_ .11. 0. _t_- ~_. . - - .E-!.. o. - .. ... - . . c.-fa· 0. ·~.~- ,,. - . 1, __ G.~· ·o. ~- E.. P-L--:-0. I . •:·o. )C--ft. .o. The Jowell~ String focndcth C·f111t1. in the B.tfa. :·. .. The ,;th open is E~l4mi,.·a .;d higher tban C. ·. ·The -4th open is G{olrnu, a 4th higher than C. .·T1'e 3d open is C-foifut, a 4th higher than G• .. · The 2d open is E-14, a ~th higher than C. · . . t · . The ..tft Open is G-folmtt;. .Alt, a 3d hifther th.an C. · Each of thcfc String! being ftoppcd or rretted where the Lines .aofs them, will perform thC Notes in this Seate·: . ' . .

Figure 3. Illustration of the guitar's fingerboard and tuning from Tans'ur's Elements of Musick. ·

Tans'ur does use the term "citern" in his entry, but his confusion is apparent from the beginning when he indicates that this term is interchangeable with "guitarra spaniola." Likewise, he describes the tuning and stringing of the English guitar while calling it "Spanish." Another English source, Thomas Busby's A Complete Dictionary of Music was first published in London in 1786, and later revised in 1811. In 1827, it became the first foreign music lexicon to be re-published in the United States. The following entry from the 1786 edition, like those of Hoyle and Tans'ur, curiously juxtaposes a description of the English guitar, with its "oval" shape and C major tuning, with familiar historical information on the Spanish version of the instrument: 36

Guitar, or Guitarra. A stringed instrument, the body of which is of an oval-like form, and the neck similar to that of a violin. The strings, which are distended in parallel lines from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding hole and bridge, are tuned to the C above Fiddle G, E its third, G its fifth, and their octaves. The intermediate intervals are produced by bringing the strings, by the pressure of the fingers of the left­ hand, into contact with the frets fixed on the keyboard, while those of the right agitate the strings, and mark the measure. The Spaniards, the reputed inventors of the Guitar, derived the name they give it, Guitarra, from Cithara, the Latin denomination for almost every instrument of the lute-kind. The people of Spain are so fond of music, and of the Guitar in particular, that there are few, even of the labouring class, who do not solace themselves with its practice: it is with this instrument that the Spanish gentlemen at night serenade their mistresses; and there is scarcely an artificer in any of the cities, or principal towns, who, when his work is over, does not go to some of the public places and entertain himself with his Guitar. (Busby, 1786.)

The uninformed reader of such sources is given the impression that the guitar known in Spain and England was one and the same instrument, and nothing could be farther from the truth. This misinformation apparently reflects a lack of knowledge and awareness on the part of these lexicographers; further study of these sources might reveal other similarly problematic entries. In 1791, the first of two volumes entitled Musique was prepared by Nicolas Framery and Pierre Ginguene. This source, mentioned earlier regarding the authorship of the 1757 Encyclopedie article, appeared as volume 185 of the massive Encyclopedie Methodique published by Pancoucke and Agasse from 1782 to 1832. The Encyclopedie Methodique "was essentially a recasting of the materials in Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedie, 37 alphabetically arranged, into a subject arrangement."35 The musical volumes were also based substantially on Rousseau's Dictionnaire de Musique (Paris, 1768). Rousseau's lexicon, however, did not include articles on instruments, which he apparently felt had been adequately covered in the Encyclopedie. The following article on the guitar from Framery and Ginguene's volume was signed "M. de la Borde," apparently the same author mentioned by Charles Burney as the writer of the earlier Encyclopedie entry:

Guittare. Instrument with gut strings that is played by plucking or striking the strings with the fingers and is held in the same position as the lute, theorbo, etc. Its form is flat, its neck has ten frets and five strings, of which four are double, namely two at the unison and two with octaves. The chanterelle is single. The strings are attached to a bridge raised two lignes above the soundboard, and are supported by a nut at the top of the neck, where they are fastened to turning pegs extending behind the neck. Guitars formerly had only four strings, but about one hundred years ago a fifth was added. Its tuning, beginning with the chanterelle, is mi, si, sol, re, la, and its range, from the lowest la up to the highest note of the chanterelle, is about four octaves. The instrument has a small sound, but it has many harmonic resources. What makes the fingerboard difficult to learn well and to traverse, throughout its length, is the inversion of the chords which occurs, as on the clavecin, in all keys. In addition, tablature is the key to learning the true positions and their complexity on this instrument, considering the number of possible fingerings for each pitch which could fool the beginner. He might search very far for them, when they are right under the fingers. This thus prevents the connecting of notes and results in a dryness in the sound. The characteristic strengths of the guitar are harmony and delicate figures. A beautiful sound results from the poise of the left hand and the right, which must be coordinated in the plucking, the release, and the delicacy. The instrument is to be used only to play alone, or to accompany a voice.

3Scoover, "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music," 437-38. 38 The origin of the guitar is not known. It is said that we took it from the Spanish, who took it possibly from the Moors. What we know for sure is that from time immemorial the instrument was in vogue in Spain, and was used especially in serenades, a type of nighttime concert which is very fashionable in that country, and which owes its origins to the tender and galant character of this melancholy nation, as well as the beauty of the nights which are enjoyed in that warm climate. Tablature is the method which is used to notate the music for plucked instruments. One can see in the Dictionnaire de lutherie from the Encyclopedie methodique what applies in particular to this instrument. It would be superfluous to repeat all the details here. The guitar was called guiterne around the 11th century, and has only been called guittare since the 17th century. The guitar is well used by the Turks and Persians; it came to them from Arabia, where it was known from ancient time. Gaspard Sanz, a skillful composer, said in his treatise on the guitar that he had seen a player of this instrument play a single-stringed guitar in a way that one would believe he was hearing several different instruments. That is no more believable than the alleged three-string lyre. (Framery, 1791. Original French in Appendix B, 8.)

Based loosely on the article from the Encyclopedie (1757), and thus not discounting the possibility that the two entries originated from the same author, this substantial entry includes most of the now standard references to

Spain and the instrument's physical features. It also provides much new information, however. Significantly, only one tuning of the fourth and fifth courses is mentioned--that with low octaves (or bourdons). As the eighteenth century progressed, the use of re-entrant tuning had faded, and by the time this source was published, guitars with six courses or even six single strings were already being made. The dating of the addition of the fifth course "about one hundred years ago" (c. 1690) is a curious bit of mis-information. Five course guitars were mentioned by Juan Bermuda in his Declaraci6n de 39 Instrumentos Musicales (1555), and probably first appeared somewhat earlier in the sixteenth century. De la Borde's description of the instrument's sound here features more praise and admiration than the entry in Diderot and d'Alembert's encyclopedia. The earlier remarks concerning the guitar's limited resources are tempered with positive observations on its "strengths" and "beautiful sound." If de la Borde did author both articles, his opinion of the instrument seems to have improved between 1757 and 1791. De la Borde makes an insightful observation concerning the study of the guitar. He mentions that tablature is the key for the student learning the many "possible [left hand] fingerings for each pitch which could fool the beginner." This is perhaps the greatest advantage of tablature over staff notation, as most present-day guitar students who struggle with choosing the correct left-hand fingerings would no doubt attest. It is indeed surprising, however, that in a 1791 publication, tablature is still the only notational system mentioned. Following de la Borde's main entry, the Framery volume presents M. de Castilhon's description of the guitars "des Negres" verbatim from the Supplement a L'Encyclopedie (see this entry above). The practice of providing information, albeit sometimes vague, on various types of guitars became more common in the nineteenth century, as evidenced in the next source considered here, Pietro Gianelli's Dizionario della Musica Sacra e Profana (Venice, 1801), the earliest known Italian music lexicon: 40 Chitarra. Stringed musical instrument. Its invention is attributed to the Spaniards. The first guitars had only four courses of strings. Later, five courses were used.

Chitarra francese. This instrument is quite similar to the Spanish guitar, and has a raspy sound much suited to the accompaniment of the voice. It is widely used in Italy.

Chitarra spagnuola. Guitar used in Spain, particularly by ladies. It has five courses of strings, which are usually strummed in some way with the hand or plucked with the ends of the fingers, and is very similar to the chitarra francese.

Chitarra tedesca. An instrument used in Germany. It has a large sonorous body, with a large neck. It has ten strings, and a deep sound. (Gianelli, 1801. Original Italian in Appendix B, 9.)

The guitars described here seem, at first glance, to be perceived regional variations on the same basic five-course instrument, differing somewhat in dimensions and tone quality, and it is somewhat surprising that Gianelli appears to make no explicit mention of the six-string guitar, which was already being popularized in late eighteenth century Italy. It is even more amazing that when a later edition of Gianelli's dictionary appeared in 1830, the guitar definitions were left exactly as in the 1801 version, by that time thoroughly outdated. There is, however, reason to believe that chitarra Jrancese was actually an early name for the six-string guitar.36 Thus, perhaps Gianelli was indeed aware of the new instrument after all, although one would think that if he were familiar with this type of guitar, he would have made at least brief

36See Thomas F. Heck. "The Role of Italy in the Early History of Classic Guitar," Guitar Review 34 (Winter 1971). Heck presents evidence which suggests that the terms chitarra and chitarra francese were used interchangeably to refer to the six-string classic guitar during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the adjective "French" being "tacked on" to "emphasize its novelty ...." 41 mention of the addition of the sixth (low E) string. In any event, it was not until well into the nineteenth century that most dictionary writers made specific mention of the six-string instrument which was to become established as the modern classic guitar. CHAPTER III.

Nineteenth Century Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: the Six-String Guitar

The brevity and matter-of-fact style found in Gianelli's Dizionario were soon to become exceptional in the field. As Heck notes:

In the beginning of the 19th century the trend in music lexicography apparently became twofold: to -inform in matters factual, and to advise the reader in matters esthetic or susceptible to value judgment. As the middle class grew both richer and more interested in music, large musical dictionaries comprising several volumes began to appear, tailored to their needs, filled as much with anecdotes and the latest gossip as with succinct definitions. The aspiring amateur now was told not just what a guitar was, and whence it came, but also what it was suited for, and what its place was in the current musical hierarchy, if not in polite society.37

Heinrich Christoph Koch, whose famous Musikalisches Lexicon (Frankfurt,1802) is valuable to modern scholars for its descriptions of many terms and concepts, especially various musical forms, also provided a significant entry for the guitar, "complete with value judgments and descriptions of the latest gadgetry to afflict this noble instrument."38 Koch's

entry is especially noteworthy because it is the earliest among those examined in this study to describe the six-string guitar, while noting that the five-course instrument was still in use. Curiously, however, the tunings he gives for both are misspelled. It is interesting that we find the first mention of the six-string

37Heck, "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 60. 38Jbid. 42 43 instrument in a German source. As later writers in this survey relate, it was an instrument maker from Weimar named Jakob August Otto who, in his Ueber den Bau der Bogeninstrumente ... (Weimar, 1828), gave the impression that he built the first six-string guitar (c.1798), at the request of Johann Naumann, Kappellmeister at Dresden. But Italian and French six­ string guitars from before this date survive, and as Turnbull notes: "Although [Otto's account] establishes the presence of the six-string guitar in

Germany, it is unlikely that Naumann was initially responsible for the addition; he had studied the guitar in Italy, and it is more than probable that he had met the six-string instrument there."39 In any event, Koch's entry gives us no clues which might help to clarify this still cloudy issue:

Guitarre. A stringed instrument which, in view of the way it is handled, belongs to the species of lute or zither. It differs very marked! y both from the 1ute and the usual zither in regard to the body. The guitar's body is similar to that of bowed instruments, but it has a flat resonating table, and no f-holes, but rather a sound-hole in the middle. The back is also flat, and the ribs are higher in relation to the size of the table and back than is the case with the violin family. The size of the body is approximately mid-way between that of the violin and 'cello. The neck of the guitar is wide, and the half-steps are marked on the fingerboard with so-called frets, which are of ivory inlaid into the fingerboard. At the end of the neck one finds not a pegbox, but a flat piece of wood tilted backwards, in which the pegs are set. The bridge, wide and strong, but also very low, is glued to the resonating table. The instrument is strung with six strings. The four highest are of ordinary gut; on the two basses one uses wound strings, however, which are prepared from silk filaments. The tuning of these strings is G [sic] A d g b e'. [Footnote in Koch's text: Some people string the instrument with only five strings, which they tune a d g b d (sic)]. Inasmuch

39ttarvey Turnbull, The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974), 64. For a discussion of the transition from the five-course guitar and the origins of the sixth string, see Heck, p. 39 ff., Turnbull, p. 62 ff., and Evans, p. 40 ff. 44 as the left hand determines the pitches, the fingers are plucked with the fingers of the right hand, as is the case with the lute. The instrument is held beneath the right arm, and is suspended from a strap which is slung over the shoulders. The guitar is especially suited to the harmonic accompaniment of solo song, and is employed most generally in Spain. Here in Germany it has risen to being for some time the "darling" instrument of the ladies. This instrument has been provided with a kind of keyboard, by a German musician in London. In relation to the left hand it remains as a guitar, but for the right hand it is transformed by this [invention] into a pianoforte, for which reason it has been given the name Pianoforteguitarre. (Koch, 1802. Original German in Appendix B, 10.)

In evaluating this important entry, Thomas Heck made note of several interesting points and concepts presented by Koch:

It is evident from the foregoing that Koch was a careful and thorough observer. His comments cover social, historical, musical, and physical aspects of the instrument, and include the latest gossip on the "Pianoforteguitarre" -- a travesty if there ever was one. Of particular interest is Koch's manner of noting in a comparative way the features of the guitar. By 1800 the metal fret was in common use, as was the practice of winding the three bass strings. These innovations were recent enough not to have come to Koch's attention. By the same token, the art of playing the guitar as a solo instrument was something of which Koch was apparently not aware. He would not have described the guitar as supported by a shoulder strap ..., and mentioned only its suitability to accompany the voice, if he had known better. What Koch innocently related as the guitar's musical function (i.e. voice accompaniment) out of lack of awareness of the fine role of which the solo instrument was capable, succeeding generations of lexicographers and music critics maintained with inflexibility. Their stifling mentality was one with which the coming generations of classic guitarists would have to contend, and against which few would prevaiI.40

40Heck, "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 61-62. 45 As has become evident in this study, Koch was not the first, and, as Heck emphasizes, would certainly not be the last to categorize the guitar as an accompanying instrument. In fact, his entry basically elaborates on information given by earlier writers, including the by now usual cliches concerning the guitar's lute-like playing position, and its favor among the ladies and the Spanish. Koch is however the first to mention the zither, a folk instrument quite popular in nineteenth century Germany, as a related instrument type. Using the comparative method of description mentioned by Heck, Koch also expands on the similarities between the guitar and the family of bowed string instruments first noted in the Kurz~efasstes Musikalisches Lexicon of 1737. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the English joined the French in producing extensive general encyclopedias. The first volumes of the monumental Encyclopredia Britannica were published in

1768, but it was not until later editions in the next century that this work began to cover musical topics in any significant depth, and these will be discussed later. Another important English publication was Abraham Rees's Cyclopredia (London, 1802-20), referred to earlier in connection with the authorship of the Encyclopedie guittare article. According to the title page, Rees was assisted in the compilation of this huge thirty-nine volume work by various "eminent professional gentlemen." One of these gentlemen was the famous English musician, historian, and writer Charles Burney, whose General History of Music (1776-89) was a landmark in the early development of modern musical scholarship. Coover notes that "Burney's experience, knowledge, and wit were put to good use ... by Rees .... Over two thousand 46 articles came from Burney in his final years, and although some were repetitive, some flawed, and some eccentric, they covered with great wisdom an enormous range of subjects ... He freely quoted from or summarized a number of sources and acknowledged all."41 As mentioned earlier, the bulk of Burney's entry for the guitar, published in 1819, is a fairly literal translation of the Diderot and d'Alembert Encyclopedie article published almost 70 years earlier. While this results in a treatment of the true guitar, and not just the cittern-like "English" guitar described exclusively by so many of his countrymen, Burney was, like them, apparently not well-versed in the latest developments that the guitar was undergoing. In general, he does not update the Encyclopedie's information (even to mention the addition of the sixth string which had taken place decades earlier). However, he does add some of his own "eccentric" insights, contrasting the five-course guitar with its English counterpart, described by so many other English writers as if it was the only guitar known in that country in the 18th and early 19th centuries. In addition, Burney updates the description of the guitar's musical notation and provides various anecdotes and English perspectives on the instrument:

The tablature of the guitar in Spain and Portugal is still the same as that of the lute; but in most other countries, its notation is the same as for the harp or pianoforte.

This [Spanish five-course] guitar is superior in tone, expression, and power to the common [English] guitar strung with wire. About 45 years ago, soon after the conspiracy at Lisbon, of Malagrida and others, a Portuguese gentleman, or musician, with the appearance of a gentleman, of the name of Menesis, probably involved in the plot, resided some time in

41Coover, "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music," 438. 47 London, seemingly as a man of fashion, who performed in a very superior manner on the large Spanish guitar strung with cat-gut or bowel-strings. He was so great a master of the instrument, and so able a musician, that he played voluntaries on it in the same full and learned manner of a great performer on the organ; led off subjects, pursued them in three and four parts with science and fancy through all the keys of legal modulation; and in slow movements, his taste and expression were equally admirable with the learned and masterly effusions of his allegros. This is not a traditional account, for we were so fortunate ourselves, as to hear him perform at Lord Eglington's with Lord Kelley, Bach, and Abel, all good judges and severe critics. The common guitar used in England has frequently had fits of favor in this country. About 50 years ago, its vogue was so great among all ranks of people, as to nearly break all the harpsichord and spinet makers, and indeed the harpsichord masters themselves. All the ladies disposed of their harpsichords at auctions for one-third of their price, or exchanged them for guitars; till old Kirkman, the harpsichord maker, after almost ruining himself with buying in his instruments, for better times, purchased likewise some cheap guitars and made a present of several to girls in milliners' shops, and to ballad singers, in the streets, whom he had taught to accompany themselves, with a few chords and triplets, which soon made the ladies ashamed of their frivolous and vulgar taste, and [caused them to] return to the harpsichord. But during the guitar paroxysm, not a song or ballad was printed, without its being transposed, and set for that instrument, at the bottom of the page; as in the beginning of the last century was done for the common flute. The old tablature, however, was thrown aside, and the same notation adopted for the guitar as for other instruments; but confined to the key of C natural, except by Marella, a good player on the instrument, and not a bad composer, who tuned and taught the guitar in the key of A major.

. . . [The guitar] seems to have been at all times the favourite instrument of warm climates: it is so portable, and graceful of carriage, that serenaders, nocturnal revellers, and day­ break lovers, prefer it to all other tuneful interpreters of passion. The Portuguese having lost a battle, 14,000 guitars were found on the field of battle. (Rees, Cyclopredia, 1819.) 48

Burney is the first writer encountered in this study to mention the use of staff notation for guitar music, and it is interesting that he reports the continued use of tablature on the Iberian peninsula. In the latter passages, Burney certainly provides a unique (if not always completely believable) account of the guitar's development. It is interesting to observe his social commentary on the mutual exclusivity of "gentlemen" and musicians. And one can't help wondering what it would be like to hear the sound of 14,000 guitars in the heat of battle! The "Bach" mentioned by Burney was almost certainly Johann Christian Bach (1735-1782), who settled in London in 1762 and "promoted and played in a prominent concert series with his compatriot and friend C. F. Abel. .."42 Burney's reference to J. C. Bach in connection with the guitar is interesting because there exists a work attributed to him involving the English guitar, entitled "A Sonata for the Guitar with an Accompaniment for the Violin," published in London, c. 1770. "Sig. Bach" is indicated as the composer on the work's title page, and it has been assumed that Johann Christian is the Bach in question, but some have suggested that the piece is spurious.43 While the indication that he attended and (as Burney implies) acclaimed the performance of a Portuguese guitarist offers no proof regarding the authorship of the sonata for English guitar, it does add a further bit of information regarding Bach's possible interest in and familiarity with the two types of instruments known as guitars in 18th-century England.

42"Bach, Johann Christian," Norton/Grove Concise Encyclopedia of Music, ed. Stanley Sadie (New York: W.W. Norton, 1988). 43The piece is listed under the heading "doubtful and spurious" in the works list for J.C. Bach in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 49 In the same year that Bumey's article appeared in the Rees Cyclopredia, a contrasting entry for the instrument was provided by another English source. In the British Encyclopredia, edited by William Nicholson (London, 1819) we see again a description of the English guitar. Here, however, the author provides a somewhat more informed discussion than those his countrymen had offered in the past:

The Guitar, or Cittern, is much in use among the Spaniards, and their neighbors; it was also in vogue with us many years back; when some improvements were made, particularly the addition of six keys, corresponding with the six wires; these were called boxed guitars, and by some, piano-forte-guitars. The instrument, as we see it in England, has a broad neck, on which are various frets, made of wires, fixed into the fingerboard, at right angles with the wires; these being the guides for the fingers to make the several notes, by pressing between the frets; the bridge is very low, and stands behind a circular sound-hole, covered with an ornamented and perforated plate; the body of the guitar is of an oval form, the sides perpendicular to the belly and back. This instrument is strung peculiarly: the upper open note, G, is of double steel wires, about No. 4; the second, E, is also double, No. 5; the third is of brass, double, and gives C; the fourth is double, of brass, and gives G, an octave below the upper wires; the fifth is E, an octave below the second wires; and the sixth is C, the octave below the third. The two last are single wires, covered with very fine wire as closely as possible, like the fourth strings of violins. The wires loop at the bottom to little ivory studs, moving in grooves, each of them winding up with a watch-key, so as to put them in tune respectively. The Spanish guitar is strung with cat-gut partly; but the lower notes are, like those of the harp, made of floss silk, covered very closely with fine wire. There has been a late invention of what is called a Harp Guitar, but it does not seem to merit the name of an improvement. The compass of the instrument is increased by some long strings; but it appears to us, that the simplicity, which is the characteristic of the guitar, is thus unnecessarily violated. We have few, if any, makers or performers of note in this branch; though some ladies sweep the notes with considerable grace and effect. The plectrum is out of use; the thumb and 50 fingers of the right hand touching the strings while the fingers of the left move among the frets. This genus of instruments includes an immense variety, chiefly of very remote antiquity; the name of the guitar, we are confident, was borrowed, not as some assert from the Spanish, nor from the Latin cithara; but from the very ancient Hindu word sittarah, or sittar ... @ritish Encyclopredia, 1819.) Significantly, this entry makes a distinction between the guitar as known in England and the Spanish version, although there is still room for confusion when the author fails to mention the shape and tuning of the Spanish guitar. In John Danneley's An Encyclopredia, or Dictionary of Music (London, 1825), we finally find a British source which devotes separate entries to the English and continental guitars:

Guitar English, see Guitarra.

Guitar Spanish, a musical stringed instrument of the lute species, tuned to the following intervals; viz. E third space bass clef, A D G B and E immediately following.

Guitarra, called in former days the cittern, mounted with six double rows of strings, made with wire. (Danneley, 1825.)

In making a distinction between the two instruments, Danneley reflected a new awareness of the Spanish guitar on the part of English society as a whole. Th!s development was largely the result of appearances in London by continental guitar virtuosi, especially the Spaniard Fernando Sor, who lived in that city for seven years beginning in 1815. In his biography of Sor, Brian Jeffery includes the following comments from the Harmonicon of March 1824, just one year prior to the publication of Danneley's lexicon: 51 "Amongst the once favored instruments, now for some time neglected, and coming into practice again, is the guitar. To the exquisite and wonderful performances of M. Sor this may be attributed ..."44 Even in Danneley's dictionary, however, the use of terminology is perplexing. Why does he explicitly refer to the English guitar with the

Spanish term guitarra, while at the same time calling the continental guitar "Spanish"? In the final analysis, we can only infer that such sources reflect a general state of inconsistency and confusion regarding perceptions of the guitar in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century England. Pietro Lichtenthal's Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica (1826) was the first Italian dictionary to focus on musical terminology, and included a lengthy entry describing the guitar:

Chitarra. A noted musical instrument, especially appropriate for the accompaniment of the voice. It has six strings, three of which are silk wrapped in brass, and three are gut. It is usually tuned mi, la, re, sol, si, mi. While its strings are situated almost entirely in the bass clef, one uses the violin [treble] clef to notate guitar music. The ear consequently hears its sounds an octave below the note which is represented on paper. The guitar is the last trace of the lute family, which was so popular in other times. It succeeded the lute, theorbo, cittern, angelica, mandala, pandora, colascione, mandolin, and all types of lyres. The body of the guitar resembles that of [bowed] string instruments. It lacks, however, the so-called f-holes, having instead a round resonance hole in the center. Its table and back are flat and joined with sides which are deeper than those of the violin family of instruments. The size of the body is between that of the violin and the cello. The neck of the guitar is wide. On its fingerboard are found, at various points, inlays of ivory which mark the respective reference points for the sound. At the upper end of the neck is a rather flat head piece containing the

44Brian Jeffery, Fernando Sor: Composer and Guitarist (London: Tecla, 1979), 71. 52 tuning pegs. The bridge, which serves as an anchor for the strings, is wide and strong and rather low, and is glued to the table. The guitar is particularly well suited for executing arpeggios, and it is one of those instruments for which one cannot compose without knowing in some way how to play it. Sometimes, to make the execution of certain keys easier, one uses the capotasto, writing the part in a different key with the indication of the respective positions of the capo. In this way, for example, a piece written in C, with the capo in third position, becomes an Eb piece, and written in G, it becomes Bb. A cavatina, a nocturne, a romance, a duettino accompanied with the guitar has a pleasing effect; its veiled and deep sonorities produce very favorable masses of harmony, supporting the voice without covering it. But this instrument is nearly reduced to silence when it is made to sing. Its strength lies in the multiple vibrations of several strings, plucked successively or simultaneously. The moment arpeggios are abandoned in favor of melody, thereby passing from the sonorous basses to the upper octave, consisting of tones obtained through a stopped string which no longer vibrates, then the melody is feeble and languid, deprived of its harmonic support, and is no more than a meager and dry pizzicato, lacking any kind of beauty. The guitar was recently improved by B. de Villeroy of Fremier, Dip. Coste del Norde, by Giovanni Giorgio Staufer, and by Giovanni Ertl in Vienna. The inferior right-hand part of this instrument was improved by a German artist in London, with a kind of keyboard with six keys, whose tangents come out of the soundhole, and depress the strings, making the chords speak in the way they would on a pianoforte. Such an instrument would have for this reason the name Chitarra a Pianoforte. Regarding the left hand, the neck remains like that of the guitar, but the right hand plays as on a pianoforte. The guitar, much favored by Spaniards, from whom it came to us, is also much in use in Turkey and Persia. They acquired it from Arabia, where it was known from the most remote antiquity.

Chitarra francese. This represents an improvement of the German sistro, and is somewhat similar to the Spanish guitar. It has a raspy sound which is much suited to the accompaniment of the voice. This guitar is widely used in Italy. 53

Chitarra spagnuola. Guitar used in Spain, particularly by ladies. It has five courses of strings, which are usually strummed in some way with the hand or plucked with the ends of the fingers, and is very similar to the chitarra francese.

Chitarra tedesca, or sistro had originally only four strings. The modern one is the same as the chitarra francese.

Chitarra d 'a more. Instrument invented in 1823 by the instrument maker Staufer in Vienna. It has a form larger than most guitars, with a soundboard, a vaulted back, and seven strings. The [sound of the] upper register resembles that of the oboe, and the lower resembles that of the bassett horn in such a way that, if you didn't see the guitar, you would believe you were hearing a wind instrument making a very agreeable sound. The chromatic scale and also the scale doubled at the third can be played with great ease and precision. The inventor is in the process of further perfecting his instrument.

(Lichtenthal, 1826. Original Italian in Appendix B, 11.)

Lichtenthal is the first author in this survey to mention the practice of notating guitar music an octave higher than it sounds. He also provides the earliest dictionary description of the capotasto, the little device which eliminates the need for endless full barre fingerings when playing in flat keys and has to this day made life much easier for guitarists reading from popular sheet music provided with "capo" chord transpositions. In a unique and insightful observation echoed by many to the present day, Lichtenthal points out the necessity of at least a basic playing knowledge of the instrument in order to compose successfully for it. Lichtenthal's descriptions of the various types of guitars associated with particular nationalities are taken primarily from Gianelli's Dizionario (1801). Heck noted that this "merry-go-round" of vague definitions "tells us more about what Lichtenthal [actually Gianelli] thought the situation was, 54 than about the instruments themselves" and that the description of the chitarra francese "is sheer nonsense. "45 If, as Heck demonstrates, chitarra francese was merely another name for the six-string chitarra, the additional entry in Lichtenthal's dictionary was simply a superfluous borrowing from Gianelli. Lichtenthal, obviously not knowledgeable enough to clarify the use of various confusing territorial adjectives applied to the guitar, did provide an new entry for the more recently developed chitarra d'amore, which was actually a guitar-cello hybrid played with a bow and tuned like the guitar. Also known as the arpeggi.one, it is still remembered today because of the fine sonata written for it by Franz Schubert. Lichtenthal devotes considerable space to the notion held by most observers of his time that the guitar produced an adequate volume of sound only when the player made use of full chords and open strings, thus only when it was accompanying a voice or another instrument. Not mentioned, however, was the possibility of playing both melody and harmony together, while often utilizing open bass strings for support, as was the case in much of the vast solo repertoire being composed and performed during Lichtenthal's lifetime. Of course, the quality of the instrument being played would have greatly affected its volume and projection, and even the best guitars of the early nineteenth century were quieter and more intimate in sound than today's instruments. Perhaps performances by amateurs on inferior models contributed to the less than enthusiastic perception of the guitar's potential as a solo concert instrument. Had these dictionary writers heard performances

45Heck, "Role of Italy," 2. 55 by masters such as Sor and Giuliani on fine instruments and in acoustically appropriate settings, their words might not have been so harsh. As Heck notes: "Lichtenthal did not know . . . how, in competent hands, the frets sustained the vibrations of the strings very satisfactorily. He did, however, have quite a novel theory about the 'masses of harmony' produced by 'multiple vibrations.' His theory was attractive enough to have been pirated by M. Castil-Blaze. It appeared two years later in French, in literal translation, in his Dictionnaire de Musique Moderne (Brussels,1828). But to Lichtenthal's speculation Castil-Blaze added some advice for the bourgeois reader. "46 This added advice was a further elaboration on the judgement that the guitar was unsuitable for performing solo works, despite his opinion that the guitar should not be "disdained":

Guitare. Musical instrument with six strings, of which three are silk spun in brass and three are gut. The range of the guitar is about three octaves, and begins with the first low mi on the piano. Although this range is almost entirely in the realm of the F [bass] clef, the G [treble] clef is nevertheless used to notate music written for the guitar; the ear hears, as a result, the notes sounding at the octave below that in which they are notated on paper. The guitar is the last offspring of the lute family once so numerous. It follows the lute, theorbo, cittern, angelica, mandora, pandora, chelys, colascione, mandolin, and lyres of all types. Some musicians, no doubt too harsh [in their viewpoint], seem annoyed with its longevity compared to other instruments. I do not share their opinion; I think, to the contrary, that the guitar should not be disdained. A cavatina, a nocturne, a romance, a duettino would be appropriately accompanied by this instrument. Its veiled and low sounds give very favorable masses of harmony to the voice which support it

46Heck, "Birth of the Classic Guitar," 62. 56 without covering it. The rasgado of the bolero is infinitely pleasing. It is necessary to have a perfect knowledge of the chord inversions in order to make them work with certain regularity on the guitar, and to avoid the bizarre errors that are found too often in music written for it. This instrument differs from others, in that it produces a great deal of sound when accompanying, but is almost reduced to silence when one makes it play a melody. Here is the reason: its power lies in the multiple vibrations of several strings, plucked in turn or simultaneously. As soon as one is obliged to abandon the arpeggios for the single note, and to shift from the sonorous bass notes to the shrill higher octave which is composed only of sounds obtained on a stopped string which is no longer vibrating, the feeble and languid song, deprived of the assistance of harmony, is no more than a meager pizzicato, dry and devoid of any sort of charm. We recommend to guitarists that they devote their precious talents to accompaniment, and to reserve for their practicing the supposed sonatas in which one finds runs, trills, slurs, scales, cadences, and pedal points which exist, in reality, only on paper, and which are listened to with "ears of faith," without acquiring the certainty of having actually heard them. (Blaze (Castil-Blaze), 1828. Original French in Appendix B, 12.)

In his dissertation, Heck made the following important observation concerning this entry:

The one important criticism which Castil-Blaze makes of the guitar as an instrument is to decry its weakness of tone. It is regrettable that neither he, nor most other lexicographers in the earlier 19th century, could conceive of the guitar as an intimate chamber instrument, and understand it for what it was. And yet, it is important to be aware of the cultural and musical environment in which the guitar flourished and declined in the century. Public opinion was a factor of crucial importance, and these latter-day encyclopedists were in no small way responsible for it.

Now Castil-Blaze was an astute music critic, as well as an eloquent writer. But his diminutive knowledge of the guitar 57 may be appreciated from the fact that much of his article is stolen from Lichtenthal. He apparently did take the time to examine some pieces of solo guitar music, and may have heard some second-rate guitarists in Paris in the late 1820s. But he obviously knew no artists of the caliber of Giuliani ... When it was in Giuliani's hands, no one had to listen with 'ears of faith!"'47

On this last note, it is interesting to find that Dominique Mondo, in his 1839 French translation of Lichtenthal's dictionary, while retaining in full the earlier writer's more limited assessment of the instrument, counters it by inserting a short paragraph of his own. Here Mondo acknowledges the guitar's rise to concert status in the hands of the great virtuosi:

The art of playing the guitar is carried today {1838) to a very high level of perfection; recently Mm. Sor, Aguado, Huerta and Carcassi have made it a concert instrument, and have succeeded in executing very complex music of many parts. (Lichtenthal, trans. Mondo, 1839. Original French in Appendix B, 13.)

It was precisely continental virtuosi such as those mentioned by Mondo who were responsible for popularizing the "Spanish" guitar in England and bringing the reign of the cittern-like English guitar to an end. This development is reflected in the very brief entry for the guitar in J. Jousse's A Compendious Dictionary of Italian and Other Terms Used in Music (London, 1829):

Guitar, a stringed instrument, with a neck marked with frets, and six strings, which, when tuned and struck, give the following notes: E A D G B E. The Spanish guitar is become lately very fashionable in England.

47Ibid., 63-64. 58 Here, for the first time, is an English writer who makes no mention of the English guitar, while reporting a recent surge in popularity for the continental six-string instrument. It is thus all the more surprising, eight years later, to find the following article in the London Encyclopredia (1837):

Guitar, Fr. guitarre; Ital. ghitara. A stringed instrument of music.

And as wel[l] could he play on a giterre. Chaucer. The Milleres Tale.

[S]allads, eggs, and lighter fare, Tune the Italian spark's guitar. Prior.

And there are songs and quavers, roaring, humming, Guitars, and every other sort of strumming. Byron.

Guitar, a stringed instrument, in which the strings are fastened to a bridge fixed to the lower part of the belly, and supported by a nut at the end of the neck. The strings are governed by pegs or metal pins at the back of the neck. The instrument had at first but four strings, which have since been increased to five double strings, of which the first three are tuned unisons, and the fourth and fifth octaves to each other. Sometimes the fifth string has no octave lest it should overpower the rest; and the first string is so often false that it is frequently played single. This instrument is tuned and played so many different ways, that it must be strung according to the pitch and tuning. There are two ways of tuning and performing on this instrument, either by sweeping or pinching the strings. The most extensive, and the most susceptible of execution, is the pinching of the strings. The arpeggios are more harmonious, because all the strings are in vibration; but they must be touched very lightly and delicately with the right hand, and with firmness, and correct position of the left hand, to produce a good effect. The strings are pinched or thrummed between the rose and the bridge; but the arpeggios ought to be made between the rose and the last fret of the neck, that is, about the middle of the strings, to avoid the harshness resulting from playing too near 59 the bridge, where the strings are more stubborn and unmanageable than towards the middle. (London Encyclopredia, 1837.)

For a source published in 1837 to mention only the five-course guitar is indeed surprising. Actually, this entry is merely a "third-generation" borrowing taken verbatim from Burney's 1819 translation of the 1757 Encyclopedie article. While the compilers of this source were apparently too lazy or uniformed (or both) to update this by now greatly outdated description of the guitar, they offered a unique "contribution" by introducing it with a few quotes concerning the guitar from English literature. As the nineteenth century progressed, the art of scholarly writing and publishing, including lexicography, began to change. Coover has observed a turning point in the development of music dictionaries and encyclopedias:

From 1835 the pace of publication quickened noticeably, from an average of eight new music dictionaries or revised editions each year in the 19th century to nearly 100 a year now. Further, and more significantly, changes were taking place in the nature of the dictionaries themselves, often to meet the needs of a rapidly growing and better-educated middle class and also as a result of the accelerating growth of scholarship. Although there was a large increase in the derivative abridgements of earlier lexica, compilers who sought respect for their works had to demonstrate scholarship and sound research and had to furnish new information.48

In that year of 1835, Gustav Schilling's comprehensive Encyclopadie der gesammten musikalischen Wisenschaften began publication, providing a wealth of new facts and perspectives. One of the leading nineteenth century repositories of musical knowledge, this work covered terms, topics and

48Coover, "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias of Music," 441. biographies with amazing thoroughness, considering Schilling's single­ handed and very original authorship. Coover describes it as "a careful work, full of dependable information on a wide range of topics and people, some not discussed in any other lexica ..."49 Marco notes that it is valuable for "the cross-section view it permits us of musical knowledge at a time when musicology was in its infancy. "50 Schilling's substantial article focusing on the six-string guitar rivals the 1757 Encyclopedie description of the five-course instrument in terms of length, comprehensiveness, and level of detail. Schilling echoes many of the observations and perceptions standardized by earlier writers concerning the guitar's early geographical spread, its similarities to the lute, zither and violin, and its favor among women; but he also provides much new information of his own:

Guitarre, kithara, chitarra (Ital.) can trace its origins not only to the lute but also to the old zither. It made its way from the Orient first to Spain, where it became quite popular, and from thence via Italy and France to Germany. In its construction, this instrument differs basically from the lute in that instead of being vaulted, it has a flat back and a flat top--the latter having a round sound hole. Both sides of the back and the top, as well as of the ribs, have a curved indentation, like the violin. The wide neck features sound frets that are made of ivory or metal rods and permanently attached perpendicular to the fingerboard. Instead of being raised by a bridge as on a violin, the strings run across a wider, higher fret at the end of the neck. They are attached to a nut below. At the neck end the strings are attached at the pegbox to pegs, which are turned to tune the strings. The tuning pegs are sometimes mounted on the back, but mostly on the sides like on a violin. Attempts have been made to improve the overall configuration, especially the tuning pegs--in order to prevent the loosening of the strings and to facilitate a more exact tuning.

49Ibid., 439. 50Marco, Information on Music, 24. 61 Special recognition in this regard is due to Mr. Thielemann in Berlin; one can read about his improved guitar configuration in the Leipzig allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (vol. 16 [1818] p. 756 and vol. 18 [1820] p. 717). In vol. 11, p. 481 of the same publication there is a report of a remarkable suggestion for substantial improvement of the construction of this instrument. In addition, there are lyre-guitars and guitars modelled after the lute. Musical Director Birnbach in Berlin invented a bowed guitar (chitarra con arco-- cf. vol. 26, p. 13 of the Leipzig allgemeine musikalische Zeitung: see also the article that follows it: Guitarre d'amour). The guitar was brought to Germany from Italy in 1788 by Duchess Amalia of Weimar. Her guitar had only five strings, as is the norm in Spain as well. Jacob August Otto, a builder of musical instruments in Jena, was the first to build the guitar in Germany and had no competition for ten years. It was also he who added the sixth string, in response to the encouragement of Royal Saxon Orchestra Director Naumann. The sixth string has been standard since then. The three highest strings are of gut, the lowest three are usually made of silk wound in silver wire, whereby it is important to note that each lower string necessarily must have a coating of heavier wire--not of the same gauge of wire. When tuned the guitar has four fourths and a major third in the following order: E, A, d, g, b, e. The notes are written the same as those for the violin but an octave higher. In the case of phrases of F and B-flat, one also tunes the lowest string to F, so that the thumb of the left hand does not need to reach this string. Some players also tune the low E to G and A-flat, but this can damage the instrument in that the constant turning and the increased string tension can loosen the peg. To play the guitar, one holds the neck between the thumb and the finger of the left hand, so that the fingers can move freely across the fingerboard. The player rests the lower part of the guitar on the right knee so that the resonance base is toward the floor. The little finger of the right hand is placed on the face of the guitar not far from the sound hole and the strings are strummed with the other fingers. Both hands have their specific fingerings that are taught in every guitar tutor. Unless one wishes to produce every possible sound on and indeed even distort the nature of this instrument, it is relatively easy to learn to play it, especially for piano players. For about 30 years--much longer in Spain--it has been the favorite instrument of ladies and gentlemen and for this reason has often been highly decorated. The attractive appearance, its portability, and the 62 modest price of the guitar (1 to 2 Louisd'or--5 for very fine models) have aided in the spread of its popularity. In addition, it has found frequent use in accompaniment and for small vocal groups, so that the negative comments rendered by some people about this instrument are certainly not merited. For simple amateur purposes, especially outdoors, the guitar is both practical and delightful. In its heyday, it played a leading role in adding to the entertainment of the ladies, but its popularity has decreased the most in Germany. For example, a German in London put on the cover of his guitar 6 claves, the tangents of which struck the strings from the elongated sound hole and thus saved the right hand from the effort of striking the strings. This type was called the key- or pianoforte-guitar, but its use was not extensive and it has not survived. The so-called capotasto (in German usually called capotaster, in French barre), in both interpretations, should be mentioned in connection with this. First of all, it means that one or more of the guitar strings are struck with the index finger of the left hand, when difficult passages are too difficult to play with the fingers of the right hand alone. It also refers to the bridge, more correctly called the guitar set, the transom that is slipped over the neck and then tied or clamped to it in order to quickly raise the tuning in a uniform manner; this makes it easier to play in a different key while using the same finger positions, in order to avoid the more difficult positions required by the designated key. Of course, the set is always attached close to a rib or a fret, e.g. at the position where the e-string would produce the g note. In this case one would use the same finger positions called for in F­ major (for unmodified strings) for A-flat major. The device itself is usually made of a smooth hard wood, stained black, with a leather covering glued to the surface that touches the strings and has at each end either a hole or some other feature that allows it to be tied or otherwise fastened to the guitar neck. When the player has adequate skill in harmony, the guitar can be used quite well to produce fantasias. With increased practice more different qualities can be produced than most people can imagine, without violating the nature of the instrument. To be sure, it is not possible to play trills or even double trills that are very hard to produce, unless in the hands of an extraordinary master, of whom there is not a small number as regards the guitar. For example, in 1806 Mr. Scheidler, the former court lutenist of the Prince Elector of Mainz, played in Frankfurt so masterfully on a 7-string guitar that he was considered to be the finest guitarist in Germany. On April 3, 1808 63 in Vienna, Mr. Giuliani performed a concert of his own compositions, accompanied by an entire orchestra; the concert was very popular due to its extraordinary nature and the beauty of the music. Indeed, N. Paganini is such a master at the guitar that even Lipinski could hardly decide whether he was more accomplished at the violin or on this instrument, recently maligned by Paganini. It is also remarkable what Mr. Sor can do in terms of harmony on the guitar; he can be numbered among the greatest masters. Regarding instruction books for the guitar, it is truly more a case of surplus than of lack. The best-known are by Bortolazzi, Bevilaqua, Barnhardt, Carulli, Daisy, Fiedler, Giuliani, Harder, Lehmann, Molino, Pacini, Scheidler, Sor, Spina, Stahlin, Wohlfahrt, et al. A long list can be found in Whistling's Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur, p. 420. -- The number of guitar compositions is substantial and grows with each new year, because the guitar is far more popular in other countries than here at this time. (Schilling, 1840. Original German in Appendix B, 14.)

Obviously familiar with the musical literature of his day, Schilling provides not only the substantial list of available guitar methods, but several bibliographic references to sources of information on other guitar publications and guitar construction as well. In his discussion of guitar makers, he becomes the first writer in this survey to mention August Otto and his alleged responsibility for building the earliest six-string instrument, which Schilling does not question. Schilling also accepts Otto's claim that the guitar was introduced to Germany by Duchess Amalia in 1788. While she may have helped to create a new popularity for the instrument, the guitar was certainly known in Germany long before the late eighteenth century. Among the many interesting bits of information contained in the article are the current price range of guitars, and details concerning contemporary playing technique and practices, including the use of the left­ hand thumb for some bass note fingerings (a then common practice 64 abandoned by serious guitarists as the 19th century progressed51) and various alternate tunings for the lower strings. Schilling's lengthy description of the term capotasto is unique. He applies it to the technique of articulating notes with the left hand, as well as to the transposition device mentioned by earlier writers, even describing the materials used in making the latter. On another note, it is not surprising to see that the curious pianoforte-guitar mentioned earlier by so many other authors "has not survived," according to Schilling. Perhaps the most noteworthy feature of Schilling's discussion is his generally favorable opinion of the now well-established six-string guitar. First citing its value for accompaniment purposes, he maintains that "the negative comments rendered by some people about this instrument are certainly not merited." But, significantly, he further acknowledges the guitar's potential as a solo instrument in the hands of the many accomplished and successful performers of his day, of whom he names several of the most prominent. Of special interest is the description of Giuliani's 1808 performance, which represents the first reference to a guitar concerto in this survey.52 Finally, while noting the decline of interest in the guitar among the Germans, Schilling paints a healthy picture of the guitar and its growing repertoire in other areas of Europe. In his Dictionnaire de Musique (Paris, 1844), Leon Escudier provides the earliest reference encountered in this survey to specific woods used by guitar makers, a common feature of entries in later sources. He is also

51Jn his Methode pour la Guitare (Paris, 1830) Fernando Sor discussed the merits of abandonning the use of the left-hand thumb for sixth string fingerings. S2see Heck, Birth of the Classic Guitar. pp. 94-5 for a review of the performance. As Heck notes, this concert was a landmark in Giuliani's career, probably featuring his op. 30 concerto. 65 the first to mention the instrument's mid-century decline in popularity following its period of relative prominence and prosperity in the early 1800s:

Guitare. Six-stringed instrument, which is played by plucking. It is formed by two parallel boards, one of spruce, the other of maple or mahogany, which are joined by sides varying from three to four inches in width. Attached at one end is a neck which is divided by frets on which the fingers of the left hand are placed, while the plucking is done with those of the right hand. This neck is terminated by a nut and furnished with pegs to raise or lower the strings, which are fixed to the other end of the instrument on a very low bridge. In the middle of the table, an opening called the rosace or rosette is cut. The strings are tuned in ascending perfect fourths, except the fourth and fifth, between which there is only the interval of a major third. The tuning of the instrument is thus, from the lowest, mi, la, re, sol, si, mi. Music written for the guitar is notated on the G clef. We do not know for certain the origin of this instrument. It is generally thought to be as old as the harp (see this term), and that the Moors brought it to Spain, from where it then spread to Portugal and Italy. During the time of Louis XIV, it was very fashionable in France; but it was in vogue for only a short duration. After having shined with a totally new brilliance, some years ago under the fingers of very skillful artists, it is almost completely abandoned today as the most unpleasing and monotonous of all instruments. (Escudier, 1844. Original French in Appendix B, 15.)

It is interesting that in the 1872 edition of Escudier's dictionary, this entry is reprinted unchanged, except that the surprisingly harsh tone of the last sentence was eliminated by ending it at the word "today." While this editing decision may have indeed resulted from an improvement in the guitar's relative popularity later in the century, it could also be simply a reflection of a trend toward more factual, objective writing in reference works. 66 Like Escudier in France, M. Vissian observed the guitar's waning popularity in Italy in his Dizionario della Musica (Milan, 1846). While mentioning the usual similarities between the guitar and violin, Vissian also provides a unique comparison to the lute as well:

Chitarra or guitare. A small lute which lacks both bass and soprano. This instrument is played by plucking the strings with the right hand. Of the guitar's six strings, three are of brass and three of gut. Its body is modeled on those of the bowed string instruments, and it has in its center a round hole, rather than the usual so-called f-holes. On the fingerboard, the frets are marked with little strips of ivory to indicate the different notes. The guitar is a very old instrument, whose popularity is diminishing daily. (Vissian, 1846. Original Italian in Appendix B, 16.)

This apparently common perception of the guitar's fading popularity in Europe is countered by an American source appearing about a decade later. John Moore's Complete Encyclopaedia of Music ... (1854) represents the first comprehensive American musical dictionary. Moore relied heavily on previous authors, and this is evident in his substantial entry for the guitar, which seems to have been largely borrowed from English sources. Despite giving the correct tuning for the modern six-string guitar, Moore curiously retains the mention of an "oval shape," recalling earlier British descriptions of the English guitar and evidently indicating a lack of familiarity with the instrument. His description of the instrument's Spanish ties is taken verbatim from Busby, and he repeats Burney's colorful account of Mr. Kirkman, the harpsichord maker, included in Rees's Cyclopa:?dia. But Moore also includes some very original information concerning the guitar's growing American popularity in his remarks on the wide availability of published music and the manufacture of guitars in the United States:

Guitar. The guitar, or guitarra, is a stringed instrument, the body of which is of a somewhat oval form, and the neck somewhat similar to that of a violin. The strings, six in number, are distended in parallel lines from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding hole and bridge, and are tuned by fourths, all except the third string, which is tuned a third below the second string. The three first strings, E, B, and G, are usually like the gut strings of the violin, and are called the treble; the other three, called bass strings, are either of gut or of silk, and usually wound with silver wire. These strings are, when tuned: [E, A, d, g, b, e']. The intermediate intervals are produced by bringing the strings, by the pressure of the fingers of the left hand, into contact with the frets fixed on the key board, while those of the right agitate the strings, and make the measure. To learn this instrument, it will be necessary that the pupil should possess a general knowledge of the rudiments of music, after which a few lessons from any· competent teacher will enable the student to practise the scales, with which, when once familiar, and having learned how to tune the instrument, any person will be enabled to learn tunes without difficulty. Instruction books, and guitar music, fingered, can now be purchased at any regular music store, and we need here only give the natural scale for the instrument: Gth i;tring. oth. 4th. &I.

In the above scale, 0 represents the open string; the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, the fingers of the left hand, which stop the strings to produce the several notes. The Spaniards, the reputed inventors of the guitar, derived the name they gave it, guitarra, from cithara, the Latin denomination for almost every instrument of the lute kind. The people of Spain are sc:> fond of music, and of the guitar in particular, that there are few, even of the laboring classes, who do not solace themselves with its practice; it is with this 68 instrument that the Spanish gentlemen at night serenade their mistresses; and there is scarcely an artificer in any of the cities, or principal towns, who, when his work is over, does not go to some public place, and entertain himself and his auditors with his guitar. About the middle of the last century, the guitar was so fashionable in England as to threaten the ruin of those persons engaged in the manufacture of other instruments. The use of the guitar is said to have been stopped by Kirkman, a harpsichord maker. Having bought a number of cheap guitars, he gave them to ballad singers, and persons in the lowest sphere of life, teaching them at the same time how to play a few popular songs. As soon as it became common, those who had been most interested in it as a fashionable toy threw it by in disgust, and commenced again the study of the piano-forte. Thus it is that fashion governs the inventions of the wisest, and consigns to neglect, or raises into estimation, the talents, genius, and industry of the greatest men in all ages and countries. The demand for this beautiful and graceful instrument has of late so increased, that several American houses have commenced the manufacture of them. The guitar seems to be coming into very general use. Until within a few years most of the guitars were imported from France or Germany, and some few from Spain. Those of the French and German make, though very pretty in outward appearance, were, many of them, weak in tone, and would not stand the severe changes of our climate. The Spanish instruments, though very much superior to the French and German in point of tone, were of but little use here, as they soon went to pieces. We have seen some American­ made guitars of superior tone and finish, made after the Spanish model, which we think will prove rich in tone, and being made here, will stand the severest tests of this climate. (Moore, 1854.)

Moore's positive comments concerning the increasing "demand for this beautiful and graceful instrument" represent a noteworthy contrast to the remarks of many of the mid-century European writers. His last paragraph provides unique observations on the perceived superiority of Spanish-built guitars, and suggests that the cold, dry winters of the northern United States proved too harsh for these instruments of Mediterranean origin. 69 Turning to England once again, it was not until the eighth edition (1856) that the Encyclopredia Britannica included a substantial entry for the guitar. While it provides no original information, it is noteworthy for its failure to mention the "English" version, by then apparently obsolete:

Guitar (Span. Guitarra), a musical instrument much used in Spain for accompanying songs. It is supposed to be of Arabian origin, and is the last relic of instruments of the lute kind. There are different kinds of guitars--Spanish, French and German; but the one most in use has six strings, generally tuned E, A, D, G, B, E, which chiefly belong to the bass register. Music for the guitar is written in the treble clef, though every note is an octave lower than represented. The guitar finger-board is furnished with frets, upon which the fingers of the left hand press down the strings, while these are struck by the fingers of the right hand. The Spanish and French guitars are nearly alike. (Encyclopredia Britannica. 1856.)

Despite the English guitar's fall from use, however, vestiges of its one­ time popularity were to remain in the writings of dictionary and encyclopedia authors who relied heavily on outdated British or British-derived sources for their information. An American source, John Adams' New Musical Dictionary (New York, 1865) repeats the confusing reference to an "oval" shape in a short entry paraphrased from Moore's article of over a decade earlier:

Guitar. An instrument the body of which is of an oval form, with a neck similar to that of the violin, having six strings, three of silk covered with silver wire, and three of catgut, extended in parallel lines from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding hole and bridge, and played upon with the fingers. (Adams, 1865.) 70 If this entry provides any indication of Adams' overall lexicographical effort, it is hard to imagine that there was anything terribly "new" about his work, as the title would lead us to believe. The next source in this study, however, did feature a new and unique approach to music lexicography. In his Dictionnaire de la Musiq,ue Appliq,uee a l'Amour (Paris, 1868), Albert de LaSalle presented entries on musical terms and instruments with a curious mixture of factual information, personal views, and fanciful references to the world of love and romance. LaSalle's entry for the guitar, while including several of the now familiar historical accounts and elaborating on the common negative perception of the instrument, also provides some unique information:

Guitare. This instrument seems to be nothing but a latter-day offspring of the ancient lyre. Around the beginning of the eleventh century, it entered France under the name guiterne; and everything leads us to believe that it came to us from Spain, where the Moors had introduced it. Its history is a checkered one; it presents a series of eclipses alternating with periods of sunshine. Thus the guitar, abandoned during the sixteenth century, was restored to fashion by Louis XIV, who had learned to play it from Francesco Corbetta,

This man so rare, who caused his guitar to speak the true language of love.

Once again forsaken, it enjoyed a successful revival beginning in 1813. Indeed, in that year, it was introduced at the Opera by the dancer Albert, who played it while executing a dance in Cherubini's Les Abencerrages . Today the guitar is silent. With it (oh happiness!) has gone the salon troubador, a sort of pretty boy and dandy who uttered tender stupidities in a language that would make Chloris swoon. And this troubador, for those who might wish to be on the lookout, was none other than young M. Prudhomme. 71 Would you like a sample of the guitar's poetry? Here now is a romance for guitar addressed to the guitar (it is from the right era!).

To My Guitar53

Sweet charm of my solitude, Creator of the calm in my nights, Share the secret worries of my tender yearnings! Now joyful, now plaintive, Oh guitar, echo of my sighs, Express with my attentive voice my pain and my pleasure.

Dear and faithful companion, Who alone interprets my heart! Oh sensitive and discreet friend! Confidante in my languor, Obedient to the demands of prudence, As you speak beneath my fingers You know when to fall silent When you no longer hear my voice.

To better sing of the one I love, Bring forth some new strains! In reflecting my deep distress, Convey my troubled senses! If I tremble, so too must you; Let her voice, sensitive to your sounds, Charmingly say with us, I love you! This is the reward that we sing for!

To think that there were those who yielded to these languorous plaints of which the strains were born in deep distress! ... Add, to complete the scene, that these platitudes were carried out by salon minstrels performing thrusts to the heart in the ancient Greek manner!

53While attempts to locate a copy of this particular romance have not been successful, a very similar song bearing the same title is contained in the Fryklund collection of guitar music held by the Library of the Swedish Academy of Music (Musikaliska Akademiens Bibliotek, Stockholm). This song, by A. M. Lemoine, entitled A Ma Guitare. Romance Dediee a Madame Caccia. is included in Appendix B following the text of LaSalle's entry. Special thanks go to Matanya Ophee for providing the reference to this song. 72 Something might be said in praise of the embroidered airs on these stupid scenarios. Some are very worthwhile. Actually, from the guitar's very weakness (this overgrown violin disguised as a lyre) was born, if not a melodic tradition, at least a vocal repertoire of fairly distinct character. The golden age of the guitar was the golden age of the romance, the ballade, the tyrolienne, the nocturne; and those musicians who devoted themselves to this genre of composition--the specialists of the plaintive couplet were in search of simple melodies, which burst forth in the range of amateur voices, and were moreover easy to remember. Thus it was necessary that the charm of the romance reside in the motif. It was an absolute law, a consequence of the musical nothingness of the guitar, which, held at the singer's breast by a string, was hardly more than a piece of furniture on which to place one's hands, and not an accompanying instrument at all capable of producing harmonic effects of any power. (LaSalle, 1868. Original French in Appendix B, 17.)

Among the most interesting features of LaSalle's discussion, his summary of the guitar's "checkered" history as a series of "eclipses" and "periods of sunshine" is as insightful as it is poetic. The reference to Cherubini's opera Les Abencerages is unique and noteworthy, especially because LaSalle seems to link this event with the beginning of the guitar's popularity in nineteenth century France. Interestingly, the work was premiered on April 6, 1813 at the Paris Opera,54 in the same year that Fernando Sor began a two year stay in the French capital. It is likely that Sor's presence in Paris, as with his later residency and influence in London, was a primary factor in creating the guitar's new vogue among the French, possibly even influencing Cherubini's composition. While the story of Les Abencerages itself, based on the Spanish-Moorish conflict of 1492, invites the

54"Abencerages, Les," The New Encyclopedia of the Opera, ed. David Ewen (New York: Hill and Wang, 1971). 73 use of the guitar, perhaps it was Sor's playing which at least partly inspired the composer to include the instrument in his work. As Jeffery reports, Sor and Cherubini were acquainted, and an article on Sor's life in Ledhuy and Bertini's Encyclopedie Pittoresque de la Musique (Paris, 1835) refers to Cherubini's praise for the guitarist's abilities.SS Like other writers encountered in this survey, LaSalle is harsh in his assessment of the instrument's limited value. One wonders whether his view would have been less critical had he himself experienced the playing of a true concert professional, such as Sor, rather than the strums of salon minstrels using the guitar more as a prop than as a musical instrument. The final American source in this survey is also the first to provide specific information on the guitar's dimensions. Measurements given in the entry from the New American Cyclopcedia (New York, 1871) indicate that the typical instrument had by this time reached the size of the standard modern classical guitar, whose development is now attributed to the Spanish maker Antonio Torres (1817-92). While Torres is not mentioned in this, or indeed any other source in this study, reference is made to another important name from the previous generation of Spanish lutherie:

Guitar (Gr. kithara; Span. guitarra), a stringed instrument of great antiquity, now chiefly used to accompany the voice. It is of eastern origin, having been known to the Egyptians in a form somewhat similar to that in present use for more than 15 centuries before the Christian era, and was introduced into Europe in modern times probably by the Spaniards, who derived it from the Moors. The Greek kithara was, in early times at least, a lyre, and somewhat resembled the modern guitar. The Spanish guitar of the present century, which is the kind now exclusively used, consists of a hollow wooden body of a somewhat oval

SSJeffery, Fernando Sor. see pp. 43 and 128. 74 form about 18 inches in length by 4 in depth, and of a neck of 16 inches, having a finger board with 17 frets. The strings, 6 in number, generally tuned E, A, D, G, B, E, are distended along the instrument, passing over a bridge at the lower end of the body, and being regulated by pegs at the upper end of the neck. They are set in vibration by the fingers of the right hand, while the left is employed to produce the modulations of tone by pressing against the frets on the finger board. The guitar is the favorite instrument of the Spanish people, and is well known throughout southern Europe. In France and England it was once in considerable repute as a solo instrument, but its limited capacity and monotony of tone have brought it into disfavor except as an instrument of accompaniment. The best guitars in the world were made by the Pajez family in Cadiz. An English artist invented a guitar in which the chords are touched by keys instead of immediately by the fingers; this is called the pianoforte or key guitar. Johann Georg Staufer of Vienna invented in 1823 the guitar d'amour, which is of a much larger size than the common guitar, and which is held with the bow between the knees. Hence its name of knee guitar; it is also called bow and violoncello guitar. (New American Cyclopredia, 1871.)

Instruments built by Jose and Josef Pages, members of the Cadiz family mentioned in this source, were some of the first to feature fan-strutting of the soundboard, and the writer of this Cyclopredia article gives evidence that their work was well known even in later nineteenth century America.56 As in contemporary European writings, the guitar is described in this American source as an instrument prevented from achieving solo status by its acoustical limitations and relegated to an accompanying role. Interestingly, this observation is supported by an American catalogue of music in print in 1870, just two years prior to the publication of this encyclopedia article. This

56pages guitars were recently featured as part of an exhibition of historical Spanish guitars at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The catalog from this exhibit, which provides photographs of the instruments, indicates that many Pages guitars are still in existence. See La Guitarra Espanola. [The Spanish Guitar] (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Madrid: Museo Municipal, 1991), 118ff. and 142ff. 75 comprehensive listing of music includes over fifteen pages of songs composed or arranged for voice and guitar, while solo guitar music fills just five pages.57 We now turn to the largest and most comprehensive entry encountered in this study, from Hermann Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon (Berlin, 1870-79). One of the major nineteenth century music encyclopedias, Mendel's work comprised eleven volumes. The signed article on the guitar, from the volume published in 1874, was written by a certain Mr. Billert. Some of the information seems to be drawn directly from the entry in Schilling's 1840 encyclopedia, but there is much original material as well:

Guitarre (Spanish guitarra, Italian chitarra, French guitare or guiterne) is the name of a musical instrument whose history goes back to the beginning of music and in which the various configurations over time often hardly resemble the present models. The modern guitar is a direct descendant of the Arabian El-Aud (see entry), that was in extensive use in its definitive form about AD 270. The development of this instrument was influenced to an equal degree by the Greek kithara and the older fingerboard instrument of the Assyrians and Egyptians. As is discussed in Part I, p. 323 of the present work, the fingerboard instruments were probably invented in both countries at the same time. Arguments in favor of the Assyrian origin are presented in the place mentioned above. The argument in favor of an Egyptian invention is based on the resemblance of the guitar to the hieroglyph that was likely an illustration of a monochord that served the first hierophants in determining the scale of musical spheres. Adopted into the written medium and repeated, it assumed the meaning of "yes, yes!", a confirmation of the truth of what was said. The Arabs give this instrument the form already common to their kithara, which had a resonance chamber in tortoise-shell form, from which the instrument

57Board of Music Trade of the United States of America, Complete Catalogue of Sheet Music and Musical Works. 1870. reprint ed. (New York: Da Capo, 1973), 260-79. 76 gained the name El-Aud, the known basis for our word Laute (see entry). Despite the fact that nothing is known about the place of construction of the occidental musical instrument now called the guitar, it appears from the guitar's first mention and its movement that Spain is the homeland and that the El-Aud served as the model for its inventor. The bitter racial wars in Spain from 710 to 127 4 that brought about the decrease and then total demise of Arab arts led to the invention of the modern guitar. The spread of Christianity brought with it the church's introduction and promotion of occidental music in Spain which in the trend of developments at that time (as is evident from our history of music) was incapable of adopting any elements of the spirit of the flourishing Arab arts. At most, crude copies of Arab musical instruments eventually emerged and were recognized as servants of the new spirit of music, changing appropriately and attaining their definitive forms in concert with the progress of the arts in general. Although those who built Arab musical instruments were driven out or killed by fanatics and the church publicly sanctioned only the occidental musical spirit, she was not able to expel from everyday life the memory of an important factor among the common people--the El-Aud. The mild Spanish climate that facilitated the playing of music out-of-doors year-round, the propensity of the Spanish to foster the romantic and the artistic, and the deeply-rooted popular habit of expressing one's love through music required an easily playable, easily portable musical instrument for the accompaniment of singers--an instrument that could assume the role of the El-Aud. The guitar was that instrument, although it does not appear to have taken on a standard configuration until the end of the sixteenth century. Only after this era did it become known in Italy and France. The appearance of the guitar at that time was basically the same as today's. The resonance chamber consisted of a flat base and a flat top joined by perpendicular side walls. The upper and lower surfaces of the resonance chamber--similar to the other stringed instruments taking shape at about the same time--featured indentations on the sides, between which the sound hole was located. The attachment of the strings and the condition of the fingerboard corresponded to today's most primitive models, except that the original models had fewer frets (see entry) and a smaller number of strings (see entry). Whereas the primitive El-Aud had four strings, the guitar initially had five, of which the lowest two were struck by the thumb of the right hand, the other three with the index, middle, and ring fingers. In order to establish a secure position in relation to the 77 strings, the little finger was located on the top of the resonance chamber, as is still done today. After gaining in popularity in those countries for 200 years, the guitar finally came to Germany via Duchess Amalie of Weimar in 1788. For the next ten years the only builder of this imported instrument was Jacob August Otto of Jena. Upon the recommendation of Naumann, the director of the Royal Saxon Court Orchestra, he added a sixth string. See his statements in his book entitled On the Construction of Bowed Instruments. In the first years of the nineteenth century the popularity of the guitar rose to a veritable rage that only leveled out around 1840 simultaneous with improvements in the piano and this general realization: that the great sacrifice in time required to use the guitar for creating musical works was not consistent with the spirit of the art. Even great masters in guitar playing such as Giuliani and N. Paganini were only able to achieve fame for their amazing acquired skills but not for lasting honors based on musical compositions, which led men like Paganini to eventually neglect the use of the guitar entirely. The fact that the guitar, the point of departure for many virtuosos and countless amateurs, underwent numerous improvements and modifications in the course of time, would appear to be a natural development. The guitar, currently known essentially everywhere (the six-stringed German model is even dominant in Spain) enjoys the same configuration in all places. The resonance chamber consists of two parallel thin boards, one called the resonance base (see entry), and made of varnished fir, the other, called the resonance top, of polished maple, slightly bowed to the outside, and side walls usually also of polished maple about 10 cm wide (see entry). The base and the top are of like configuration, similar to the Arabic numeral 8. The maximum width of the upper section is 23 cm. and of the lower section is 31 cm. Just above the middle of the chamber, both base and top on each side are curved inward slightly, similar to a violin. The greatest indentation thereof is 17 cm below the fingerboard, at which point the sides are only 19 cm apart. Located precisely in the greatest extent of the indentation is the sound hole, having a diameter of 9 cm. Below the sound hole, 29 cm from the upper edge of the resonance chamber, a small board (9 cm long and 1 cm wide) is glued to the resonance base; on this board the bridge (see entry) is mounted; it has six round holes that lead to string-width open grooves that run almost up to the bridge on the side facing the sound hole. These holes are for the attachment of the strings. In other words, one 78 ties a knot in the end of each string and pulls it through the hole. When the knot is drawn closer to the bridge, the string goes into the groove and the knot into the resonance chamber behind it. Any tightening of the string from the other end will pull the knot closer to the groove, but the knot must not be pulled through the groove. Attached to the resonance chamber is a neck 5 cm wide and 31 cm long, flat like the resonance base on the top and round on the bottom. The upper (usually black) side of the neck has a series of frets of inlaid ivory or metal bars that continues along the neck to a point near the sound hole. A slightly raised fret at the end of the neck serves as a nut (see entry) to which the strings are attached. Attached to the neck at an obtuse angle is the pegboard (see entry). Six holes are drilled through it for the pegs, through which the cylindrical pegs are seen, each with a hole in it, through which the corresponding string is attached for tightening. Some guitars have a peg housing (see entry) instead of a pegboard, as is the case with the stringed instruments. To prevent the pegs from reversing and thus putting the string out of tune, some guitars have iron screws inserted into the peg housing from above, with brass knobs on the outside, each knob being filed such that a string can be inserted into it; a small brass key, similar to one used to wind a large clock, is used to move the screws in and out for tuning. Some guitars also have pegboards like those of the contrabass. Another article, though not essential to the guitar, is found on most models: at the end of the pegboard there is a hole through which a wide strap can be inserted, which then is fastened at the opposite end of the guitar, i.e., on the ribbing. When laid across the back of the player's neck, this strap makes it possible for the player to more easily hold the guitar and permits more freedom in performing, an advantage enjoyed by many. Of the six strings that comprise the set, three represent the higher range. These are gut while the other three are made of silk, wound by a copper or silver wire. Other models have two such strings with a third wound in gut. These strings have a normal range of four fourths and a major third in succession, as shown in this scheme: E, A, d, g, a, e'. It is possible to tune the lowest string to F in order to play music written in F- or B-flat major; this could even work for G or A flat. When playing the guitar, the player must hold the neck between the thumb and index finger of the left hand in such a way that the fingers of that hand can be moved across the fingerboard with ease, while the fingers of the right had are used to strike the strings. The lower part of the guitar is rested on the right knee or the thigh with the 79 resonance base toward the floor, or is held against the lower right rib cage, depending upon whether the player is sitting or standing. As mentioned above, striking the strings is the work of the right hand and one does this by resting the little finger against the wood near the sound hole such that the index, middle, and ring fingers take up a position corresponding to each of the highest three strings, while the thumb activates the three lower strings. To produce the strong, arpeggio-like sounds, the thumb is used to strum across the strings from lower to higher in a perpendicular direction. Besides those described here, there are numerous methods for striking the strings of the guitar and for the positioning of the fingers of the left hand; these are called the hand positions and different ones are taught by different instructors (of which there is no insignificant number). Let us now tum to a discussion of the role played by the guitar in the performing arts where nobody can dispute the fact that it is well-suited for simple accompanying of songs featuring principally chords and extending not more than one octave above the basic range of the guitar, i.e. for soprano parts, less commonly for tenor and rarely for bass. The same role is attributed the guitar in an ensemble. The guitar has not proven itself to be a solo instrument, despite such use during its heyday. Virtuosos have attempted to compose pieces specifically for it, e.g. fantasia, sonatas, variations, etc., even with trills, double­ trills, and flageolettes performed in a most accomplished manner. The tone of the instrument--its actual soul--is cold and bare and can hardly hope to gain proponents in an age when the listener is more interested in the way the music feels. Thus it is not unfair to suggest that its characteristics do not allow it to assume a significant place in the music world, but this is compensated by its broad application in the amateur realm where its absence would be sorely felt. It is relatively easy for the player to learn to play the guitar's wide range-- from E to a". The guitar can be tuned to allow the learner to quickly learn to play songs in C-, G-, D-, A-, E-, and F-major, as well as in A-, E-, F-sharp, C-sharp, and D­ minor. However, it is more difficult to play pieces with more accidentals and this is done by using a capotasto (see entry). When one gains advanced skills with this instrument it is possible to produce more varied music than one might initially believe. In order to develop such skill it is recommended that the learner avail himself of systematic instruction available in many courses. The best known courses were developed by: Bortolazzi, Bevilaqua, Barnhardt, Carulli, Daisy, Fiedler, 80 Giuliani, Harder, Lehmann, Molino, Pacini, Scheidler, Sor, Spina, Stahlin, Wohlfahrt, et al. Whistling included a complete list in his Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur, p. 420. There are also many compositions for the guitar, though many date back some years. To be sure, many courses of instruction in the guitar are somewhat old, but this confirms their value, because currently no attempts are being made to perform the most sophisticated music on the guitar; today the guitar is appreciated for its simplicity and this above all in its homeland of Spain. In order to sustain this status, the guitar must have a simple tablature, but this is seldom produced in Germany. In the Orient the guitar has experienced a development almost opposite to that of the same instrument in the West, due to the number of the strings. First of all, the melody can be played on one string, since the Easterners do not use harmony the way we do. Secondly, the Oriental octave contains more tones than does ours. There are more different types of guitars in the Arabic world than anywhere else. They separate the guitars into two classes--those with wire strings and those with gut strings. The former are called Tanburen (see entry). Because this group has a specific designation and because the term "guitar" et al. generally refers in those countries as elsewhere to fingerboard instruments with gut strings, the various types of Tanburen (with their derivations in other Oriental music circles) will not be described in detail here. The guitar as it is known in the Arab music world has five strings. In India various types of Schikara (see entry) are known and it should be noted that this instrument shares certain characteristics of the Vina (see entry), the national musical instrument; one of the variant, the Schikara of Madras, can be either strummed or played with a bow. Most of these models have four strings. The Indic instruments, called Sitars (see entry), in contrast, have six or seven wire strings and thus, by definition, are classified as Tanburen (which we will not discuss here). The Persian Schtara (see entry) has only four strings. In recent times three types of guitar have been identified in China: Pun-gum (see entry) with four strings, Gut-komm (see entry) also with four strings, and Sam-jun (see entry), with only three strings. In Japan, a superb two-stringed model has been developed to accompany dances; a fine description of this guitar and its use is found in The Illustrated London News, no. 1807 (1874), p. 349. 81 In conclusion, we will discuss some the efforts made to improve the guitar. Thielemann, an instrument builder in Berlin, began in 1806 an impassioned effort to improve the guitar and documented the fruits of his labors in two articles (Leipziger allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 1818, p. 756 and 1820, p. 717). Another instrument builder, Arzberger, reported the results of his work in improving the guitar in the same publication in 1813. Because the guitar in its heyday was a favorite among the ladies, an unnamed German in London developed a set of keys to protect the ladies' fingers from the strings. He invented a set of tangents that emerged from an elongated sound hole and struck the strings. The determination of the key was still attributed to the left hand. The inventor called his instrument the Pianoforte- or key-guitar. The desire to invest the guitar with a romantic configuration and to simplify its usage led a Frenchman--likewise unknown to us by name--to build a guitar in the form of a lyre, having a fingerboard and a set of keys as well, like the one just described. The inventor called his instrument the Lyraguitarre and it enjoyed some popularity between 1820 and 1830. In 1823 Johann Georg Staufer of Vienna developed the so-called bow- or cello-guitar, described in more detail in its own entry. It will suffice here to say that the instrument is more of a stringed instrument than a guitar to be struck. During the 1820s and 30s a so-called guitar-harp (see entry) came into use; the entry gives the known details about this instrument. Although the guitar has almost totally disappeared from among performing artists in recent years, causing a lack of efforts in its evolution, one does hear now and then of models that feature a greater number of strings. For example, in the Musikerzeitung. 1874 no. 12, p. 95, there is an advertisement for Georg Heidegger's third-, tenor-, and bass­ guitars of a new construction that features a neck that can screwed on or off and steel struts; these models have nine, ten, and thirteen strings. Increasing the number of strings requires an adjustment in the size of the resonance chamber; this represents merely a variation in the character of the sound and does not offer the music world anything remarkable. (Mendel, 1874. Original German in Appendix B, 18.)

A complete commentary on this lengthy entry would fill a paper in itself, but some of the most noteworthy and unique points deserve mention here. Regarding one surprising bit of misinformation, Billert seems unaware 82 of the four-course Renaissance guitar when he states that the instrument began with five courses, and that it became known in France only after the end of the 16th century. It is interesting that the author places the "leveling off" in the great "rage" of popularity surrounding the guitar around 1840, and links this development with the growing status of the improved piano. Despite the now familiar comments concerning the guitar's function, limiting it to the role of accompaniment and amateur music-making, Billert does concede that the advanced player can produce "more varied music than one might initially believe." The listing of keys most natural to the instrument is an insightful observation not found in other dictionaries or encyclopedias in this survey. Also unique to this source are the very complete physical description of the instrument, including even more detailed measurements than the New American Cyclopredia, and the information on machine tuning pegs, which had been in use since at least the 1820s. The author is the first in this survey to describe the body of the guitar as having a figure-eight shape. Billert includes extensive information on the many guitar-like instruments of Asia and the Middle East in his guitar article, as well as descriptions of various novelty hybrid instruments not mentioned in earlier lexicographical sources, such as the lyre-guitar and harp-guitar. The reference to Heidegger's nine, ten, and thirteen string models is also unique among the sources considered here. 83 The ninth edition of the Encyclopredia Britannica (Edinburgh and Boston, 1875-79) featured an entry for the guitar substantially larger than the one from the previous edition discussed earlier:

Guitar, a stringed instrument of Eastern origin. The name no doubt is derived from the Greek kithara, but the instrument itself we owe to the Arabs, who introduced it into Spain. In the 16th century it became known in Italy and France, and about 1790 a German instrument-maker of the name of Cetto [sic] greatly increased its power by adding a sixth string to the five formerly in use. The genuine Spanish guitar was introduced into England after the Peninsular War by Ferdinand Sor, a Spaniard who was both a composer for and player on the instrument. About the same time the guitar was very much in fashion on the Continent, and even Paganini cultivated it. But this circumstance was due to the romantic associations rather than to the intrinsic merits of the instrument, and accordingly it soon relapsed into comparative oblivion. It is, however, occasionally employed in the orchestra and for the accompaniment of simple vocal pieces, and for these purposes it has no doubt its merits. The guitar is a flat-backed instrument, the sides of which tum inwards. The sound-board, pierced by a round sound-hole, is generally made of pine, [with] maple or cherry-wood being used for the sides and the back. The modem guitar, as already stated, has six strings, while the original El Aud of the Arabs had only four, subsequently increased to five. They are tuned to the notes E, A, D, G, B natural, and E. In the more remote keys transposition by means of a capo tasto, or nut, is effected. In this manner a basis of flat instead of natural keys may be substituted without any change of fingering. In the East, especially in Arabia, India, China, and Japan, many varieties of the guitar and its congeners are in use, the number of strings varying from two to five. For the technique of the guitar Madame Sidney Pratten's treatise, Learning the Guitar simplified, may be consulted. (Encyclopredia Britannica, 1880.)

While the majority of this article consists of material found in earlier sources, it does include a few unique pieces of information. Along with the usual comments concerning the guitar's lack of "intrinsic merits" and fall 84 into obscurity, and its role as an instrument of accompaniment, the author makes the first and only mention in this survey of the instrument's occasional use "in the orchestra." This comment seems to refer not to the guitar concerto concept, but to the use of the instrument within the orchestral ensemble texture. However, it predates any of the concert works by mainstream composers who employed the guitar in an orchestral context, such as Mahler in his Symphony no. 7 (1905). It is likely that the author was thinking primarily of the guitar's not infrequent use in the opera orchestra, as in Rossini's 11 Barbiere di Siviglia (1816). This Britannica article also makes note of two nineteenth century figures important as cultivators of the guitar in England: Fernando Sor and Madame Sidney Pratten. Whether or not Sor was responsible for actually introducing the "genuine Spanish" guitar to the English, he is certainly to be credited with furthering its popularity and contributing to the abandonment of the not-so-genuine English guitar. Madame Pratten, whose birth name was Catherine Pelzer, "had an early success as a concert guitarist both in England and on the continent, but her fame lay in her teaching of the nobility.... Her pupils included two daughters of Queen Victoria, Princess Louise, and Princess Beatrice ..."58 Hugo Riemann continued the "heroic tradition of the one-man encyclopedia" as Coover calls it, with his celebrated Musik-Lexicon (Leipzig, 1882). As in many of his dictionary articles, Riemann refers to early writers' descriptions in his entry for the guitar:

58Evans, Guitars. 158-59. 85 Guitarre (French-guitare, formerly guiterne; Italian-chitarra; Spanish-guitarra). String instrument, whose strings are plucked, belonging to the lute family, but smaller, and in recent times constructed in varying forms. Virdung (1511) spoke of the "quintern," an instrument which in all respects corresponded to the lute, except that it had smaller dimensions and only five strings. Praetorius (1618), on the other hand, described the "quinterna" or "chiterna" having a flat soundboard ("barely two or three fingers high") and four or five strings. The history of the guitar is thus as old as that of the lute; it came by way of the Moors to Spain, from there first to lower Italy, where different varieties developed (see bandola). In Germany, it does not seem to have been especially popular, although it emerged again there at the end of the previous century as something very new. The tuning of today's guitar is E, A, d, g, b, e'; by means of a so-called capotasto, the tuning of all the strings can be raised at the same time by a semitone. (Riemann, 1882. Original German in Appendix B, 19.)

It is interesting that Riemann specifies "lower" Italy as the first destination of the guitar outside Spain. His is the only entry in this survey to be so geographically precise, and this suggests that perhaps the guitar made its way to Italy by sea, rather than by land. Indeed, Naples was under Spanish rule from 1442 until well into the eighteenth century, resulting in a strong cross-current of cultural influences between Spain and that Italian city. Heck and others have found evidence that Naples played a key role in fostering the development of the six string classic guitar: gut strings from Naples were considered the best in the world from the Renaissance through the nineteenth century, and some of the oldest known extant examples of six string guitars are Neapolitan instruments.59 It is thus very possible that southern Italy was in fact not only the guitar's second home during its earlier years of development, but the birthplace of its modern form as well.

S9see Heck, Birth of the Classic Guitar, p. 42ff. 86 Albert Jacquot's Dictionnaire Pratique et Raisonne des Instruments de Musique became the first dictionary devoted to musical instruments when it appeared in 1886, and it includes a substantial article on the guitar:

Guitare. Instrument with six strings, whose very ancient origin is oriental. It was first called a guiterne and only in the seventeenth century was it given the name guitare. The Moors brought it to Spain and it appeared in France in about the eleventh century. At first it had only four courses of strings; the chanterelle being single, and the others double. The neck, thus having seven strings, was divided into eight positions or frets. Following this came the guitar with ten strings in five double courses, tuned re, sol, ut, mi, la; [sometimes] only nine strings adorned the guitar, the chanterelle was single in this case. Since the last half of the previous [18th] century, the instrument has had only six single strings, which are [tuned] mi, la, re, sol, si, mi. In 1773, Van Hecke imagined a guitar with twelve strings, called a Bissex. Guitars made of rosewood are fragile, those of lemonwood and plane-tree are the best in terms of sound. The instrument is played by plucking the strings. The tables are held parallel by sides three or four inches high; the upper one, the soundboard, is made of spruce. The neck is divided by metal frets, on which the fingers of the left hand rest, while the right hand plucks the strings. A nut, above the neck, equally divides the distance [between] the strings which, coming from a pegged bridge and placed at the end of the soundboard, terminate in pegs of wood of metal; these are called mechanical pegs. In the middle of the soundboard, an opening is cut for the sound; it is called a rosace or rosette. The six strings, of which three are silk wound in metal and three are gut, are tuned in ascending just fourths, except the fourth and fifth, between which is only the interval of a major third. The tuning of the instrument is thus: low mi grave, la, re, sol, si, mi. Music written for the guitar is notated on the G clef, but it is read an octave lower. Venetian guitars of the Stella are from the seventeenth century and are remarkable for their beautiful ivory inlays. Guitars have also been made of shell. Stradivarius also made guitars; a superb instrument by this master can be seen at the museum of the Paris Conservatory, under the number 272. Charles Jacquot (1804-1880), my grandfather, also distinguished himself in the making of artistic guitars; the rosettes, the fine lines, and the mother-of-pearl and ivory inlays are appreciated by 87 connoisseurs; he invented, for the first exposition de Nancy, a guitar with a foot, permitting the instrument to be supported and allowing it to be held in all desired positions. This attempt earned for him an award. Sor, the famous guitarist, requested several guitars from him. Aguado invented a legged support of this type, called a Tripedisono. The different forms of the guitar, before it became the instrument that we now know, gave rise to the following types: Guittere, Guiterne, Guinterne, Guittarne, Guisterne, Guistarne. Gacquot, 1882. Original French in Appendix B, 20.)

Among the pieces of information unique to this entry are the references to guitars made by Stradivarius, and to the work of the author's grandfather, which was apparently admired by no less than Fernando Sor. The twelve-string bissex mentioned by Jacquot is, presumably, the same theorbo-guitar hybrid described in the 1777 supplement to Diderot and d' Alembert's Encyclopedie. It should be pointed out that the tuning given by Jacquot for the five-course guitar is actually one of the common tunings of the sixteenth century four-course instrument, tuned a fifth higher than its successor, with an added low D for the fifth course. Such a tuning suggests a small treble guitar, not the standard five-course variety. Following this main entry, Jacquot also provided his readers with numerous entries covering the myriad of ethnic, adapted and novelty guitars known to him. Several of these are found only in his dictionary among those surveyed here, and a few surely never existed except in someone's imagination. By far the most unusual (and entertaining) entry encountered in this study, the guitare echo sounds like part of a 17th century vaudeville act!:

Guitare Allemande. Cittern with five or seven strings. 88 Guitare a Clavier. Bachmann, of Berlin, constructed this instrument in 1780. It had, at the right side of the table, an assisting mechanism from which small hammers struck the strings.

Guitare d 'Amour. A type of viol, constructed in Vienna by Staufer in 1823. The strings were played with a bow.

Guitare des Mandingues. Primitive guitar with five strings.

Guitare Echo. Alix, of Aix, built in the middle of the 17th century, a skeleton which, with the aid of a mechanism hidden from view, played on a guitar while he himself had another identical guitar. When Alix played, the skeleton repeated in echo.

Guitare Espagnole. Five string guitar, used during the 17th century, especially by ladies, in Spain and Italy.

Guitare Harmonica. Villeroy of Lille constructed, in 1820, an apparatus adapted to the neck of the guitar, which gave more clarity to the sound of harmonics on the instrument.

Guitare-Harpe. A tapering guitar with seven strings, invented by Levien in London in 1825.

Guitare Latine. Guitar of the Moorish type, but with five or six strings.

Guitare-Lyre. Name given to various guitars having the form of a lyre. The neck of these guitars affected this form; it was placed behind the strings and furnished with box-like extensions. There were lyre-guitars with six or nine strings. They were especially popular in France from the end of the last century until about 1851. Mougnet of Lyon, in 1811, Levieu, in 1825, and Ventura of London, in 1851, built different models.

Guitare Mauresque. Differed from the lute in its body, which was flat on the bottom as well as on the top, in its side indentations, and in having only three strings.

Guitare Negre. A type of gourd covered with a thin board and adorned with three, four, or six strings. Another guitar also exists among the negros: it is a piece of hollowed-out wood 89 covered with skin and ornamented with rings and metal plates. Two or three strings of woven horse hair make this primitive instrument resonate.

Guitarion. Type of guitar, imagined in 1831 by Franck. The strings were plucked or struck by the bow on demand.

Guiterne. Instrument of very ancient and oriental ongm, having developed, through a perfecting process, into the modern guitar. It was a plucked string instrument, derived from the kithara and the rote; it can thus only be designated as originating in the 11th or 12th century. The manuscript of Tristan et Yseult (1260) shows, among its numerous miniatures, a minstrel playing a guiterne with a plectrum. It has three strings, without a tailpiece, but with a bridge. The table is pierced with a soundhole and curved. Another guiterne used in the 13th century can be seen in the Roman de Troie; its form recalls somewhat that of the lute. It has six strings and a sort of tailpiece. In the 14th century, its form resembled that of the mandolin, but it had only four strings. It is presumed that the Rote was called guiterne as soon as the former instrument had been furnished with a neck.

Guiterron. Mersenne said that this instrument, a variety of guitar, had a flat bottom; other authors state that it was a variety of the Archiluth.

Gacquot, 1882. Original French in Appendix B, 20.)

The final entry to be considered in this survey appeared in the first edition of a source which has since become synonymous with music lexicography: Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, first published during the period 1878-90. The article on the guitar from this first edition, signed "A.J.H.", seems to provide evidence of somewhat more critical research and thinking than those of many earlier writers in this survey:

Guitar (Fr. Guitare, obsolete Guiterne; Ital. Chitarra; Germ. Guitarre, obsolete Gittern, Ghittern, and Gythorn; Span. Guitarra). 90 The Spanish guitar is the most generally known modern representative of the numerous family which includes also the lutes and cithers. The identity of the name with the Greek kithara is not to be mistaken, but the resemblance of the Spanish and ancient Greek instruments is too remote to imply derivation. The guitar is at once known by its flat back, the sides curving inwards after the pattern of violins and other bow instruments, and suggesting its descent from some instrument to which a bow was used. The shape has however varied according to fashion or the fancy of the maker. The woods commonly used for the sides and back are maple, ash, service, or cherry tree, not infrequently adorned with inlays of rosewood or fancy woods. Old instruments of the seventeenth century are often highly ornamented with ivory, ebony, tortoiseshell, and mother of pearl. The soundboard or face is of pine, and has a soundhole, which shares in the general decoration. Hard woods, such as ebony, beech, or pear-tree, are employed for the neck and fingerboard. The bridge should be of ebony, and has an ivory or metal 'nut' above the fastenings of the strings, similar to the nut of the fingerboard, and open strings vibrating in between. Modern guitars have six strings, three of gut and three of silk spun over with silver wire, tuned [E, A, d, g, b, e']. The lowest [string] is said to have been a German addition dating about 1790. The written notation is an octave higher. Metal screws are now used for tuning, instead of the ebony pegs of the true Spanish instrument. The intervals are marked off by metal frets upon the fingerboard, and transposition to the more remote keys is effected by a capo tasto or d 'astro. Old instruments had often ten, twelve, or more strings, arranged in sets of two, tuned in unison. The Spanish guitar is always played with the fingers. The deepest strings are made to sound by the thumb, the three highest by the first, second, and third fingers, the little finger resting upon the soundboard. The guitar and its kindred were derived from the East. In the famous Gate of Glory of Master Mateo, to the church of Santiago da Compostella in Spain, a cast of which is in South Kensington Museum, among several musical instruments may be seen one guitar-shaped, which may be assumed to represent the original Vihuela, the old Spanish viol or guitar. The sides are curved, but there is no bow held by the player; still this is no proof that a bow was not used, since the sculptor may have omitted it. The date of this masterpiece (A.D. 1188) is perhaps not more than a hundred years subsequent to the introduction of the instrument by the Moors into Spain. Mr. Engel tells us (Musical 91 Instruments, etc., 1874, p. 117) that a hundred years later than this date, there were several kinds of vihuela, to some of which the bow was certainly not used. There were instruments for the bow, the plectrum, and the fingers, all in use at the epoch of the outburst of romantic song in Southern Europe. At the close of the last century and beginning of this, the Spanish guitar became a fashionable instrument on the continent. Ferdinand Sor, a Spaniard, after the Peninsular War, brought it into great notice in England, and composing for it with success banished the English guitar or Citra (Fr. Cistre; Ital. Cetera; Germ. Zither). This was an instrument of different shape, a wire strung Cither, with six open notes, two being single spun strings, and four of iron wire in pairs tuned in unison. The scale of the English Guitar thus strung was written [c, e, g, c', e', g'] in real pitch an octave lower. The technique of the instrument was of the simplest, the thumb and first finger only being employed, if not a plectrum. Sor's most distinguished rival was an Italian, Mauro Giuliani, who composed a concerto with band accompaniment for the 'Terz chitarra' or Third-guitar, an instrument with a shorter neck, tuned a minor third higher. This concerto, published by Diabelli, Vienna, was transcribed by Hummel for the pianoforte. Other popular composers were Legnani, Kreutzer, Niiske, Regondi, and that wayward genius Leonard Schulz. Berlioz and Paganini were both guitarists. There is also an octave guitar, the little Portuguese Machete, with four strings, tuned [d, g, b, d'], or by guitar players often [d, g, b, e']. In Madeira, after the work in the vineyards is done for the day, the country people return playing the Machete, perhaps twenty together, with occasionally a larger five-stringed one accompanying. There is an English Guitar Tutor by Mme. Sidney Pratten (Boosey, London), but those who wish to know more about the instrument technically are referred to 'Learning the Guitar simplified' by the same authoress. The price of a good guitar of French make, the best for playing, is from £5 to £10. (Grove, 1890.)

Unconvinced of any direct line of development between plucked instruments of classical antiquity and the guitar, this author is the first encountered in this survey to mention the vihuela within an entry for the 92 guitar, and to discuss the guitar's modern origins in the broader context of various stringed instruments. A noteworthy feature of this article is the lack of the customary personal commentary and criticism concerning the guitar's musical value. Here, the instrument is given a straightforward treatment based on factual evidence. Indeed, there are points throughout the entry which indicate an attempt by the author to maintain a degree of objectivity and avoid blanket acceptance of information provided by various other sources. The addition of the sixth string is only "said" to have been a German contribution, and the accuracy of the iconographical evidence in the Spanish church gate is not assumed. In addition, we find here for the first time a clear distinction between the English and standard guitars, so long a point of confusion in British and American sources. It is noteworthy that Sor and Giuliani are singled out, for the first time in any such source, as the two most important guitar virtuosi and composers during the guitar's heyday in the early nineteenth century--an observation which has generally been supported by modern scholars. The reference to Giuliani's terz guitar is also unique to this source. Finally, Grove's dictionary entry provides the earliest and only full illustration of the guitar found in the sources examined for this study. It depicts an instrument with the proportions and features of the standard classical models still being built today. (See Figure 4.) Figure 4. Illustration of a guitar from the first edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. CONCLUSION

The sources presented in this thesis provide a historical continuum of perspectives on the guitar, a chronological record of the instrument's form and function as perceived over a period of nearly three centuries. In these sources, we observe the shifts from five courses to six strings, from tablature to staff notation, and from periods of popularity when the guitar flourished as a serious instrument to those of decline. While these publications tended to lag behind the contemporary pedagogical and periodical sources in reflecting specific developments and relating events, they provide fascinating mirrors of their times. Collectively, they represent a critical reception of the guitar's history as seen through the eyes of often influential and widely read writers who provide the viewpoints of a general, although often highly subjective observer. Among the sources examined there exists a noteworthy degree of consistency with regard to certain observations, issues, and perceptions. This consistency seems at least partially attributable to the frequent and often unacknowledged "borrowing" of facts and ideas on the part of dictionary and encyclopedia writers from one generation to the next. Both accurate information and subjective opinions introduced by a particular writer tended to be perpetuated and accepted as truth by those who followed. However,

94 95 many of these entries did, no doubt, reflect the relatively unchanging views of the mainstream musical establishment, by whom the guitar was generally considered to be outside the realm of serious concert instruments throughout its history. Indeed, regardless of its changing place in "art" music, the guitar, perhaps more than any other instrument, has always played an important role as an instrument of the people, from working-class citizens to musical amateurs of high society, and this fact is consistently documented in the sources examined here. Points of agreement among many of the sources include the guitar's perceived limitations in terms of volume and sound quality, its resulting relegation to the role of a strumming instrument to accompany the voice, and its popularity among the "ladies." Likewise, the guitar's eastern roots, its modern development in Spain based on Moorish models, and the subsequent spread of the instrument to Italy and then elsewhere are important concepts shared by many of the sources. The frequent comparisons to the violin, despite the guitar's inclusion within the lute family, indicate an awareness of the instrument's physical kinship with bowed string instruments. One interesting point well documented in many of the English sources is the dominance of the cittern-like "English" guitar in later eighteenth and early nineteenth century Britain, made clear by the exclusion of information on the standard five-course or six-string guitar in use on the continent. References to various persons and publications in many of the articles, especially those provided by Schilling, LaSalle, Mendel, and Jacquot, invite further research. Surprisingly, the first mention of Berlioz's involvement 96 with the guitar among these sources is found in the latest one considered here: the first edition of Grove's Dictionary. Remarks from that composer's famous orchestration treatise of 1843 provide an interesting point of comparison with many of the entries in this survey:

It is almost impossible to write well for the guitar without being a player on the instrument. The majority of composers who employ it are, however, far from knowing its powers; therefore, they frequently give it things to play of excessive difficulty, little sonority, and small effect. Since the introduction of the piano-forte into all houses where the least taste for music exists, the guitar has been little used, save in Spain and Italy. Some performers have studied it, and still study it, as a solo instrument, in such a way as to derive from it effects no less original than delightful. Composers employ it but little, whether in the church, theatre or concert room. Its feeble sonority, which does not allow its union with other instruments, or with many voices possessed even of ordinary brilliancy, is doubtless the cause of this. Nevertheless, its melancholy and dreamy character might more frequently be made available; it has a real charm of its own, and there would be no impossibility in so writing for it as to make this manifest.60

Berlioz's comments, like those of many of the dictionary and encyclopedia writers presented here, point perhaps to an underlying theme in the development of the guitar: While it has been relegated to the realm of amateur music-making in the minds of many throughout its existence (first overshadowed by the lute and, later, the piano) and has experienced notable shifts in popularity, this instrument, with its unique qualities and capabilities, has enjoyed a long and often rich history spanning five centuries. Of course, the past fifty or so years have witnessed yet another golden age of the guitar.

60Hector Berlioz, Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (1843), trans. by Mary Clarke (London: Novello, 1904), 67-70. As we near the 21st century, the instrument, in all its various forms, continues to challenge lexicographers and to defy definition, while its enduring popularity seems more assured than ever. APPENDIX A.

Checklist of Principal Sources

Chronological Listing

For multi-volume works published over a period of years, the date at the left represents the publication date of the volume containing the entry for the guitar, if known.

1611 Orosco, Covarrubias. Tesoro de la lengua Castellana o Espanola. Madrid, 1611.

1611 Cotgrave, Randle. A Dictionarie of the French and En~lish Tongues. London: Islip, 1611.

1690 Furetiere, Antoine. Dictionnaire Universe!. La Haye: Arnout & Renier Leers, 1690.

1703 Brossard, Sebastien de. Dictionaire [sic] de musique. Paris: Ballard, 1703.

1732 Walther, Johann Gottfried. Musikalisches Lexicon. Leipzig: Deer, 1732.

1737 Kurzgefasstes Musicalisches Lexicon. Chemnitz: Christoph and St6beln, 1737.

1752 [Lacombe, Jacques]. Dictionnaire Portatif des Beaux-arts. Paris: Estienne, 1752.

1757 Diderot, Denis and Jean d'Alembert. Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. Paris: Lausanne et Berne, 1751-65.

1767 Recueil de Planches, sur Les Sciences, Les Arts Liberaux, et Les Arts Mechaniques, avec Leur Explication. Paris: Briasson, David, Le Breton, Durand, 1762-69.

98 99 1770 Hoyle, John. Dictionarium musica. London: Printed for the author, 1770.

1772 Tans'ur, William. The Elements of Musick. London: Crowder, 1772.

1777 Supplement a L'Encyclopedie. OU Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. Amsterdam: Rey, 1776-77.

1786 Busby, Thomas. Complete Dictionary of Music. London: Phillips, 1786.

1791 Framery, Nicolas Etienne and Pierre Ginguene. Musique. (vol. 185 of Encyclopedie Methodique ...) Paris: Chez Panckouke, 1791.

1801 Gianelli, Pietro. Dizionario della Musica Sacra e Profana. Venezia: Santini, 1801.

1802 Koch, Heinrich Christoph. Musikalisches Lexicon. Frankfurt: Hermann, 1802.

1819 Nicholson, William. British Encyclopedia. American ed. Philadelphia: Mitchell, Amos and White, 1819.

1819 Rees, Abraham. The Cyclopredia, or Universal Dictionary of the Arts. Sciences. and Literature. London: Longman, et al, 1802-20.

1825 Danneley, John Feltham. An Encyclopredia, or Dictionary of Music. London: Preston, 1825.

1826 Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica. Milan: Fontana, 1826.

1828 Blaze (Castil-Blaze), Francois Henri Joseph. Dictionnaire de Musique Modeme. Bruxelles: l'Academie de Musique, 1828.

1829 Jousse, J. A Compendious Dictionary of Italian and Other Terms Used in Music. London: Clementi & Co., 1829.

1837 London Encyclopredia. London: Tegg, 1829-44.

1839 Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dictionnaire de Musique ... traduit et augmente par Dominique Mondo. Paris: Troupenas, 1839. 100

1840 Schilling, Gustav. Encyclopadie der gesammten musikalischen Wisenschaften. Stuttgart: Kohler, 1835-42.

1844 Escudier, Leon. Dictionnaire de Musique. Paris: Bureau Central de Musique, 1844.

1846 Vissian, M. Dizionario della Musica. Milano, 1846.

1854 Moore, John Weeks. Complete Encyclopedia of Music. Boston: Jewett, 1854.

1856 Encyclopredia Britannica. 8th ed. Edinburgh: A. and C. Black; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1852-60.

1865 Adams, John Stowell. Adams' New Musical Dictionary. New York: Gordon, 1865.

1868 LaSalle, Albert de. Dictionnaire de la Musique Appliquee a l'Amour. Paris: Lacroix, 1868.

1871 New American Cyclopredia. New York: Appleton, 1871.

1874 Mendel, Hermann. Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon. Berlin: Heimann, 1870-79.

1880 Encyclopredia Britannica. 9th ed. Edinburgh: A. and C. Black; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1875-89.

1882 Riemann, Hugo. Musik-Lexicon. Leipzig: Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, 1882.

1886 Jacquot, Albert. Dictionnaire Pratique et Raisonne des Instruments de Musique. Paris: Fischbacher, 1886.

1890 Grove, Sir George. Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 1878-90. 101 Alphabetical Listing

Adams, John Stowell. Adams' New Musical Dictionary. New York: Gordon, 1865.

Blaze (Castil-Blaze), Francois Henri Joseph. Dictionnaire de Musiq,ue Moderne. Bruxelles: l'Academie de Musique, 1828.

Brossard, Sebastien de. Dictionaire [sic] de musiq,ue. Paris: Ballard, 1703.

Busby, Thomas. Complete Dictionary of Music. London: Phillips, 1786.

Cotgrave, Randle. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. London: Islip, 1611.

Danneley, John Feltham. An Encyclopredia, or Dictionar.y of Music. London: Preston, 1825.

Diderot, Denis and Jean d'Alembert. Encyclopedie. ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. Paris: Lausanne et Berne, 1751-65.

Encyclopredia Britannica. 8th ed. Edinburgh: A. and C. Black; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1852-60.

Encyclopredia Britannica. 9th ed. Edinburgh: A. and C. Black; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1875-89.

Escudier, Leon. Dictionnaire de Musiq,ue. Paris: Bureau Central de Musique, 1844.

Framery, Nicolas Etienne and Pierre Ginguene. Musiq,ue. (vol. 185 of Encyclopedie Methodiq,ue ... ) Paris: Chez Panckouke, 1791.

Furetiere, Antoine. Dictionnaire Universe!. La Haye: Arnout & Renier Leers, 1690.

Gianelli, Pietro. Dizionario della Musica Sacra e Profana. Venezia: Santini, 1801.

Grove, Sir George. Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 1878-90.

Hoyle, John. Dictionarium musica. London: Printed for the author, 1770. 102 Jacquot, Albert. Dictionnaire Pratique et Raisonne des Instruments de Musique. Paris: Fischbacher, 1886.

Jousse, J. A Compendious Dictionary of Italian and Other Terms Used in Music. London: Clementi & Co., 1829.

Koch, Heinrich Christoph. Musikalisches Lexicon. Frankfurt: Hermann, 1802.

Kurzgefasstes Musicalisches Lexicon. Chemnitz: Christoph and Stobeln, 1737.

[Lacombe, Jacques]. Dictionnaire Portatif des Beaux-arts. Paris: Estienne, 1752.

LaSalle, Albert de. Dictionnaire de la Musique Appliquee a l'Amour. Paris: Lacroix, 1868.

Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dictionnaire de Musique ... traduit et au~ente par Dominique Mondo. Paris: Troupenas, 1839.

Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica. Milan: Fontana, 1826.

London Encyclopcedia. London: Tegg, 1829-44.

Mendel, Hermann. Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon. Berlin: Heimann, 1870-79.

Moore, John Weeks. Complete Encyclopedia of Music. Boston: Jewett, 1854.

New American Cyclopcedia. New York: Appleton, 1871.

Nicholson, William. British Encyclopedia. American ed. Philadelphia: Mitchell, Amos and White, 1819.

Orosco, Covarrubias. Tesoro de la lengua Castellana o Espanola. Madrid, 1611.

Recueil de Planches, sur Les Sciences, Les Arts Liberaux, et Les Arts Mechaniques, avec Leur Explication. Paris: Briasson, David, Le Breton, Durand, 1762-69.

Rees, Abraham. The Cyclopcedia, or Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, and Literature. London: Longman, et al, 1802-20. 103 Riemann, Hugo. Musik-Lexicon. Leipzig: Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, 1882.

Schilling, Gustav. Encyclopadie der gesammten musikalischen Wisenschaften. Stuttgart: Kohler, 1835-42.

Supplement a L'Encyclopedie, OU Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. Amsterdam: Rey, 1776-77.

Tans'ur, William. The Elements of Musick. London: Crowder, 1772.

Vissian, M. Dizionario della Musica. Milano, 1846.

Walther, Johann Gottfried. Musikalisches Lexicon. Leipzig: Deer, 1732. APPENDIX B.

Facsimiles of Non-English Language Principal Sources

1. Orosco, Covarrubias. Tesoro de la lengua Castellana o Espanola. Madrid, 1611.

OU_ITARRA. Instrumento bien conocido y exercita.do muy en perjuyzio de la musica; que antes se t~fiia en la vigiiela, instrumen­ to de seis y algunas vezes tj.e mas 6rdene;. Es la guitarra, vigiiela pequefia en el tama"". fio, · y tambien en las cuerdas, porque no tic- · ne mas· que cinco cuerdas, y algunas son dr: solas las quatro 6rdenes. Tienen estas cuer­ das requintadas, que no son unisonas, como las ·de vigiiela, sino templadas en quintali; fuera de· la prima que esta en ambos in;­ trumentos, · es una . cuerda sola. Si mudai~ a guitarra el acento de· la penultima. y. se fa poneis en la antepenidtima dira guitara, mu­ dada la g en c dira dtara, del nombre t;Tie­ go Y.l9apa, cithara. \iuitarrero, el· que haze gi.titarras o el qt.le tafie guitarra. Guitarrill:i, la guitarra pequefia de quatro· 6rdenes.

104 105

2. Furetiere, Antoine. Dictionnaire Universe!. La Haye: Arnout & Renier Leers, 1690.

GU IT ARRE, ou G11i1trr1. f. f. Sort~d'in.ltru­ mcnt ~ corces de boy2u , dont Je dos en pl:it. II fe tient dans lcs bras com me le luth. Ila huit tou. ches,on en pince k on en b-.it Jes cordes. Cet in­ firumcnc eft fimple , ~ ell vcnu d'Efp:igne. II n'avoit cl'abord quc qn:i.tre r:i.ngs de cordcs, dont le premier dloit unc limplc ch:intercllc : maintc­ n:int·il 2 jufqu'~ dix cordes. Ce mot vicnt =ipp:t­ rcmmenc du Gree cithArA. Les Ar-.ibes difcnt auffi k.f 1h1tr, ou k.f1h1tr1C, qu'on trouvc clans lcs V crfions de l'E{criture. 106

3. Brossard, Sebastien de. Dictionaire [sic] de musique. Paris: Ballard, 1703.

G'VJT.ARRA. ,.~ut- dire, GUITTARE.·Efpccc: d~Inll_rumcnt a cinq r:m~s tloublcs de cortlcs. dont, b plus .b.•Jficn :a~milicu. ~ moins qu'il n'y :iit un llourdon unc ~·plus b3s quc fa '4 •. On y ajourc fouvcnt Sp.rgn110/., , p:ircc quc ccc Inltrumcnc . cfi venu d' EJP.•.'{ne en hllic:, & d~ms lcs :iutrcs PJys, & qu'il .cJl ucs-commun en .Ejf.r:;nt. 107

4. Walther, Johann Gottfried. Musikalisches Lexicon. Leipzig: Deer, 1732.

Chitarra (ital.) Guirarre, Gu~crre . (g'1!1.) ·cithara Hifpanica (Int.) "'· 'ap1~ unb XJSC:p" (gr.) ein mit; boppef: tcn~arm:(.~faitcn;[borm beJogc1Jd plat:: td fautcn:mijigd ~ntlrut11cnt, mdd;)c6 foitberlidJ vom ff: tern auq, nur eine ®aite. 5. Kurzgefasstes Musicalisches Lexicon. Chemnitz: Christoph and Stobeln, 1737.

Chirarn: obcr Quintcrn:a, iil tin mufic41ifcltt~ :lnffru. mcnt. mit 4· Ober 5· ~bot l)arm1 6ciitcn UbCl]OQCn: ~t f cincn runben, fot1btrn eincn lci~elict>ttn 23auct, roie tic Q>eincn: barauf v~iacn ble :Jtalianifctlt ~o. m6b1.anUn mit bcn ffiafl•:l11 JU f~11rren; riniac 4l'C~ cu¢. als 4~1f eintr 2autt au fpide:•.

Guirarrc, i!i \in rtattc~, tintr jitter fe~r AfricQtttbe!, ntit amt cbtr aZl)n 6(littrt bt~OfJ(rtfi :Jnflrumtnt. rotott nimmt c~ unt~r ben 2Irm unb fpidct mit vcn ~inACl'n ba.rauf. :1fl ~unfl in €.panicn tr~mb~n rocrs bl'tl, dlt11o unb in :Jtalic't cs 5um n~ciflcn gcbrauctt tt'irb. 109

6.(a) Diderot, Denis and Jean d'Alembert. Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts. et des Metiers. Paris: Lausanne et Berne, 1751-65.

GUITTARE, f. f. (Mvjiquc.) inllmment a cor­ II cfi fiiit pour joiier Ccul, ou accompagner unc dcs de boyau, que !'on JOUC en pin~ant ou en battant voix Cur des 1nfirumcns du mcme genre. II ne rcuf­ Jes cordes avcc les doigts, & que l'on tient dans la firoit pas dans un concert; ;mffi a - r - ii fair pl.ice, mcme pofition que le lu1h, le 1heorbe' la m3ndore ainli que le luth & le thcorbe, aux inflmm.:ns ~ui y & autrcs de cc genre; attitude qui a tres-bonne gra­ font propres, dcpuis que le.: gout s'cn ell :m{li ct en. ce, fur-tout dans. les mains d'une femme. du qu'il l'etl alluellement. · Sa forme femble avoir etc prife d'aprcs celle d'u­ Quclqucs amateurs l'ont fa it rcnaitrc, & ont ert ne moitie de cnlebalfe ou gourde,;\ laquclle ell ajuf­ mcme terns reveille nOtrC goi1t pour nos \'JUdeviJ­ tee une table de pin, & un mane he au bout de la Jes, pallorales & bmnettcs, qui en acqucrrent un partie fupcrieure du corps de l'inllrumcnt. nouvel agrcment. II a dix touches dillribuees par Cerni-tons; elles font ordinairemcnt de mcme narure que les cord cs, & doivent ~tre extrcmement ferrces autour du man. D1 /4 u&l111ur1. On re fort de )cures OU de chilfrcs che, a caufe de leur mobilite. pour noter Jes airs·ou accompagncmcns. Ccue mc­ Les cordes font auachces ;\ un chevalet, lixe fur rhode, quoiquc ancicnne, s ell confcryce pour ccc la table de la partic infcrieure, & font fupportces inllrument par la co111rnodite dont clle ell pour );l par un fillet au bout dn mane he, ou ellcs font arre­ bonne grace de la main , !'arrangement des Joigts, tecs par des chevillcs tournantes dell"ous le man­ la beaure du Con, !'harmonic, & la facilite dans I' e­ che. xecution; a-mains c111'on ne {c propofc de faire pour II n'avoit d'abord que quatre conics. Dcpuis nn le moins autant d'etude de cer inllrument , que du l'a mis a cinq doubles, dont !cs trois prc:micrcs font clavecin, ii n'ell ~ucrc polliblc de faire fur le champ al'unilfon, & !es quatrieme & cinquicmc a l'olbvc; le choix des pofiuons de la main fans unc gra ndc ha­ fouvent meme on ne foulfre point de bourdon ;\ la birude. cinquieme, & dans cc c:is on Jes met~ l'unilTon. On En F ranee on fc (ert des onze premieres !cures de ne met aulli qu'une fctrle chanterc:llc, par l;i ilitli­ !'alphabet, depuis l'a jufqu'l I, fur ch.:aque cor

lcs cordes, pour former, pour ainfi dire, un fillet :igrcablemcnt des rc­ produifent un bon cffct: car ricn n'cfi fi facile que micr lc, un vrai chaudcron. les accords en batteric qui fc fait, en pla~anr immc­ Les pinccs Cc font entrc la rofc & le chcvalet ; diatcmcnt a pres I 'accord marque par ks !cures, Jes mais Jes batteries

0 BS ER Y.A TI 0 NS SUR LA FIG l/ R E S l/ I Y •./ NT E.

Le nom des notes dl pofe fur le manchc a l'cn­ batar

6.(b) Supplement a L'Encyclopedie. OU Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences. des Arts. et des Metiers. Amsterdam: Rey, 1776-77.

§GUITTAR E, ( Lmh.) Les Negres ont auffi leur guiuare; c'e!l ur.e grande gourde recouverte d'une planche , fur laquelle font tendues quatre ou fix cordes. Poyt{.fig. 4 ,plancht II de luth. Suppl. lls ont encore une forte de guittarc ou Luth, com­ pofe d'une piece de bois creufe , couverte de cuir, avec deux ou trois cordes de crin: cet in!lmment ell orn~ de petites plaques de fer, & d'anneaux. ( F. D. C.) • :\I. Wanhecke, de \'academic royale de muli­ que de Paris, a in\·ente depuis peu une nouvelle guirt~rt, dont voici la defcription : cet in!lrument, qui J \'U de facet prefente a•peu·pres )a forme d'un luth, a le dos de l'epaiffeur de la guittare ordinaire, avec cette difference qu'il e!l convexe, & n'admet point de cotes tranchans' capables de bletrer la poi­ trine des pcrfonnes qui le foutiennent; douze cordes qui font en tout trois ollaves & demie, compofent cctte guirrare; elles en occupent le milieu, clans un moindre efpace que l'ollave du clavecin, pour ne pas gener la main clroite par un trop grand ccart; elks font ncanmoins alfcz cloignces l'une de l'autrc' & ne peuvent le nuire clans I' execution. Du cote de la main gauche , les cinq premieres cordes fe trou­ vent fur le manche, qui ell auffi large que clans !es guiwzru orclinaires, mais bean coup plus court, a6n que lcs touches de l'inllrument foicnt moins lo11- i;11rs , & q11\·lles dounent pl11~ de facilitc ;\ la main gauche. Les fcpt aurrcs coreU de cote, cet arrnngemcnt, loin de ricn uter a a forme agreable

Gu1TAI.!. Inlhumcnt de Muli~ue acordcs. On :attri­ buc 1'1nvcntion des Gnita­ rts· aux Ef1>2gnols. Les pre·. micrcs Guirarts n'avo1cnt que q02trc rangs de cordEs •. Dcpuis on ya cmploye daq r:an$s de c:ordcs doubles ; ma1s pluli~rs ne mcttent qu'unc cordc a la chante­ rcllc, d'auunt qu'cllc feet a Ia p2nie du dcffus, & qu'cllc chante J~ fi1jcr. 113

8. Framery, Nicolas Etienne and Pierre Ginguene. Musique. (vol. 185 of Encyclopedie Methodique ... ) Paris: Chez Panckouke, 1791.

GUITT~RE. f. f. Iollrumcnt a coida de boyau On ignore l'ori~inc de la gu[ttart. On· dir qoe nous quc l'on joue en piniant ou en bamnc lcs cordcs a~cc la tenons des Efragr.ols. qui_ la tenoicnc peuc·ctre des Jes cfoigrs, & que l'on ticnt cfans la mcmc J>Ohrion qnc Maure~. Ce qu'il y a cle ftir, c'cll qce de wr.ps im­ Jdurh, le 1beorbe, &c. Sa formedl: aplaue; Con man­ m~morial cer infirumer.t cfi en vogue en Efpagne , e he a dix touches & cinq corJcs , done quauc dou­ ~ ferr furrout d:ins lcs ferer.adc:s, cfpc.:e .le: conccrc bles ; Cavoir: deo:d l'uoitfon& deux avcc o~l:avcs. La nca:urnc fort a la mode dans cc pays J &. qui a Jii chanrerclle ell fcule; Jes Cordes font attachees a lln fon origir.e :in caraa:orc rcndrc: & galanr de ceue na­ chcvalec elcve de den:r lignes fur la table, & font tion m~lanco!ique' & a la beaut~ des nuits dent on fuppotlccs par un lillcc au bom du manchc, otl cites jouit Jans cc cl!mac .G chaud ••.•• fonc arr~tees par des chc:villes rournanres delTous La tablarure ell la mechode done on fe fcrc rovr I: mJnche. ecrire la muliquc des iullrumens que l'on pince. ( v. Les ancienncs guittares n'avoi~nt quc qoatre cor­ Tabl.itu!'"e, ) On peuc voir aulli dan, le Diaionnairc dcs; mais depuis ceoc ans environ, on en a ;ijouc~ cle lutheri~ de I' En,ycloptdie mltlrotiique, ce ·qui rc­ une cinqui~me. Son accord , a commencer par la goirdc plus par_ticuliem11enr cct infirumcnc. 11 fcroit d1anrerellc I dl: mi. Ji> Joi, re J la j & Con eccoduc t luper.8u d'en rt!phct ici cous !cs di!cails. • depuis le la J'en ~as, jufqu'au plus haur con de !J ~ guittare s'appeloir g.uiternt' vcrs le omibnc Ii~ chantcrcll.!. en J'cnviron quacrc otlaves. de, &: n'efi nom1uec guittare quc drpuis le dix-fep­ Cec infirument a /eu de Con, mais ii a bcaucoup rieme. de rc:lfources Ju cot de !'harmonic. Cc qui rend le La guiwire ell: fort en ufage chez Jes T Jrcs &: chu: manchc difficile a bien connoicre "' a parcourir. par Jes Perfans; ellc lcur cfr •enue de !"Arabie, ou cllc- fon. erendue., _rfi le. rcnvcrfem~nt des accords 'lui cft connuc de route antiquire. · s'y rrouvcnt commc fur le davccin, & dans rous lcs ·tens .•~uffi fa rablarurc cfl:-elle la cltf de cct inllrn­ G:ifpa rd S.inz, habi!e compolim1r. die dan~ Con mc"nt pour en connoitrc lcs vr~ies policions & !cur Tr.ii ti dt l.i guiu.ire, qu'il avoir vu un joueur de cec complication, vu la quantitc de 1:ores fcmbloib!c:s infirumcnc jouer d'une guittart i une feule corde , 'qui pcunnt tromrer ·recolier, lcquc:I pcut-etre les de m•nihc qu'on croyoic eorcndre plulienrs infim­ ' iroit chcrchcr. fore loin , lorlqu'cllcs fora fous fes mens diff.frc:ns. Ccla n'efi· pas plus croyablc quc L& doig:s; cc <_lUi empcchc alorS' 1.i lio1ifon des Cons preu:r.due lyre a trois corJes. & mer de l:i lecbcretfe dzns le toucher. . . ( M. tie la Borde, Eff~i fur la m~fi

9. Gianelli, Pietro. Dizionario della Musica Sacra e Profana. Venezia: Santini, 1801.

Chitarra. Strome1ito musicale a cordc. Se ne attribuisce l' invenzione agli Spagnuo­ li; le prime non avevano che quauro soli ordioi di corde, poscia sono stati in1picga .. ti cinque ordini di cor

10. Koch, Heinrich Christoph. Musikalisches Lexicon. Frankfurt: Hermann, 1802. @n f i arr r. Q:in 0nftcnfnrtrumrnt,·· 0nfteit ift, G A d g h -·e; !!i) ~e turlcf)cd fn 1tnfrl}ung l>er ~rbnnb1 we1·bc11, fnbem bit lintc ~nnl> i>ie J11n9 untcr bit @nttungrn ber \!nute ~~nt grdft, mft brn ~fngl'rn ber obrr 3it~cr _!Jtb~rr, ~cf} a&tr in a:ed)ren ~nnb, fo 1ufe &e17 bn· 1!au1 ffi1\dfid>t 'lllf bn' [ori'mJ fotuol)f te., grri(fen, unb ba~ ~nf[r11111mt ti:>n i>rr 1!11utt, al~ ~ucf) uon btr tt>frb an einrm ~anbe ~an9cnb, grmrhttn 3itbcr. fe~r mrrPlid) nntl1 turlcf}cd t1ber bie @!d)uftcm gr~ogc11 ;dd)nct. ~al1 1hn unb l)c\111 bit 3111 Ht nnd> brm ml'l·~dltniffr bee ~gll'rn fn eonnicn grbrand)t. ~l't) ~t·o1k brr ':DccFc unt> f>r~ mobcntS und bat fie fid> ftit rinfger 3rit 'b6hrr, 41:'5 · br17 ben ~eigcnnrten. Jnm· 2icbflngdfnthumente ber !Dai ~ir ~ruOe be~ <.torptt~ lJnlt oi}119e1 mrn ju rrbrbrn 9cnmur. f1HJl' thl~ ~J~ittrl 3r~ifcfJtn cinec !Dfcfcf·. ~nflrumtnt 111 uon efnem miolirtt unb dnrnt 5l3il,loncrU. '!)cc brntfd>tn . -t11nflfer :: JU· 2onbon mft ~nf :1 bet" ~11it.irrc ift lH'tit, unb ehur 2! rt "on ~lnutarur tttrftbttt auf brm ~'riffbt·rtc fin~ bit '.toni iuorbcn, tt>oburd) cd fn :>f nfebnng grilfc mit fo9rnnnntrn ~nnbrn &tt fcfner ~cbanblnng falr Mr lfnte al'i\f>ntf I bj(' QiJCl' \>On Q:{ft'n&dn ffl ~tJJtb QJuftarre blcfbr, falr bft rtd}1 lHlG (Sriff&rrt l'ingelr9t finl'. Obrn tc n&tr ftdJ fn tin '})fnnofol't urr1 an be m J~olfr (1c~ri't·rt firl) nnftntt tunnbrlt, bn~er mQn ibm curd> ~rn be' ~irbe1t.11ic1:d ctn ffod)rt$ r1,cE1 tnnnun 'Pf ctn o fort g n ft n t· r r gcr tuorta 9L'l'irctchrn, fn 1uef1 gc&tn l)nt. !Die mrd>nnfld)e ~int d)t'nl bit' fil3irbrl laufrn. ~t'l' errs, l'ld)tung bf rfrr mcrbe(fernng bctlebet rurld)cr &rrit uni> ftilrt, o~n· jc~i: l\nrinne, bnfJ nn brm untcrn i·ecb: nicbrf_q t1l, tuit'l> auf bcr ffil·fononJt trn ~MEtn bcr mefonnn.Jbt'clt jo btde ttngt'feimt. ~ca~ 3n(trummt tJid Q:l'1t't6 ange&t·acf)t ~!lb, nl15 ff[ mit :rd)S <25Gitcn Oe~ogm; bit bnl$ ~n~tmnrnt @:>nitrn bllt. ~icfe uirr ~5brrn finb 9e\u6lmlicbc narm1 'n !'o ufd tans foitcn, AU brn 6rlJben tirfrtn &rbient gm ten \trr&nnben, tnddJt 6ru ~tr mnn firb a&ra: t'berf~onnener @5ni1 ~l l't,~rung bcr rrfhn nuortrrtcn, unb Me 1nerbcn. !l}f r ~timmung birfec eaftt•lt I fo tt)ff bf( ~dmmcr 6c11 bcm ~ortcµiano,. &uni ~l bfcfc ~fnrid}tung et1 lnngt bad ~)n1rc.m11cnt l>l'll mol'tbeil cine~ fqcnn nnb ~\·11iinmtern ~o: nr~, mel)r $0U1timmigteit, unb, in ffi1iJ'~cf:lt nuf bfr rcq>te .Qanb, cin fdd>tncl$ Q:t·nft~mtnr. 116

11. Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica. Milan: Fontana, 1826. CHITARRA, s. (.Noto 1trumeoto musicale, alto in ispeeie.all'ac compa~amen~o delCanto, ii quale ha aei corde, di cui tre aono acla .filate in ouone, e tre di hudello, accordate ordionriamente · m1°, la, re, 101, si, ·,,,;. Sebbelie la~ esteosiooe lroYisi quosi int m~nle oella Cbiave di .Basso, n·ondimer;10 si nsa la chine di Vior per notare la miisica destinnta per la Chitarra: ·1, orecchio aente conS('gueoza risonare i suoni oll' Otta TB bassa delle Nott che Ii n presenlano aulla carta. · La Chitarra eI' ultimo rimasoglio dell a fam iglia dcl Liu to, ohrc tol · ai num~rosa. E,.a auccedelle al Liu lo, all~ Tiorba, al Sistro ~all' A gclica, ~Ila Mendola;· atla Pandora i al Cola.scione, nI Mandolin alle J;ire d' ogoi a~ic. Jl'corpo della Chiwrra .somiglia a quello ·gli alrumentraa arco; manca pero de' cosl dcuiff, aTendo in Tccc meno on tondo {oro di risonaoza. La aoa tuola armooica eJ Condo aono piaoi, onili coo fascie, cbe, in proponione de'mede!' ·1!3DO piu alte di quelle degli alrumenti .della famiglia de' Violini. · grandczia del corpo tiene ii mezzo fra ii Violmo ed il Violoncello. manico della Ch_itarra ~ largo. Sulla taslalora lroTansi, in Tnrie alanzc, 11.rUcioJine d' uorio inlarsialo, che aq;nano i ri!pclli-ri ,u ·da preoderai • .Alla parle aupcriore del manico Ti c una picciola ·piana, COD lmlro i bischeri.11 ponlicello, che aene pure di Co · i largo e forte, ma ba55o a53ai, eel e incollato aulla tavola d' onnon' La Chitorra ha i auoi Arpeggi. parlicolari ed e UDO di' quem s., meoti, per cui oon ai puo comparre aenza sapere in qualchc Iii~ ~rlo .. TntTotta per renucre ~1ufc1c1.le 1'e~u~ione d~ <:erli Tooo~ ~i us.a ~ parllcolare Capota1to-, -.cr1vendo· la parle m· altto .Tuono ·coll' u1d1l "lsiorie':della rispett~1a·po1izione. Coal p. e:·unpeuo acriuo iD ·Jo".col 4potuto:alldten,(jpo1h.ioiie diTenia mihem'olle; e scriuo io 10/ di~ enti 1ii·hemolk•. Uoi 'Cantin',. .1Jn ·NoUurno, una Romana, an· Daeltino i accom­ iagoati eolla Chitaira ;'. faono un Luon effeltO j,.aoor llJO~i nlali e gfa­ i, danno &Jle masae d' annooia. moJto fayore.yo}i atla ·Toce, col Soll~ la·.m& 'COpnr~~~ 'Qoesfo atromeoto e perbridouo qaosi"al ailcm;. , qaan~o· 1i fa cantare. La .aaa f oria consiste nelJe .,ibrazioni moJ .. ~t.~ di ."arie co~e .pizzicat~ ~u~~iva~en~,- ~ ai~u!t·~~amente. momento che 11 deTooo lasaare gh arpegga per l'unuono,:e pas· ~ate da' Baui aonori all' Ottua acuta, ccmpo.5"' di.Tooni ouenoti m~· liante )a corda· racc:Orciata, eche DOD iibta pilii iii allond} Canto de· ole elanguente, prh·o·del.10CC:ono:.dell' armonia; '.non e·piu the :un Jzzjcalo·inagr.o, secco, ·e aproni1to .di "tultn ap·ecie·d'.oliratiite~ 117

La Cbitarra fu recen,temeote miglior~ta da B.:de Villero1·8 Fre­ ie;·lOip'::COate'del Nord·(nel .prqaum'i auoni armbnici);·'da Gio. iorgio ·Staufer,. e Gio. Ertl a Vienna. La"par~;dealril e inferiore deUa.Liv.oia' onnonicil di questo stru­ cnto ru· monita da tin arti.sta 'tedesco a Londni di ~na specie' di Ta;. con .sci tasli, le cui tangeoti aortono dal . foro di risonanz.a ~'81- llo che Ii .sprofondano .i ta~ti, ed ·intuonano le corde a .guisll 'dei rtelletti n~l Pi:in'oforte. Un aifi"auo 1tr0mcnlo ebbc ·per c;ioJI name

Cl1ilarra a :piano.forte 1 ii eui maneggio pei- la ma no· ainistra rest.'\ stwo,'C:ome nella Chiiarra, ·ma per la maoo deatra ai cangia in qucllo PiaoOrorte~ · · · · · La Cbitarra, favorita auai dagli Spagnuoli, a cui i pervenuto dai ri,_ e ancbe molto in USO presso i Turchi ed i Pcraiani' i qaali l' eb­ ro d,alr Arabia, ~Ye~ conoscfota da' lempi piu antichi. · CllITARRA Ftl\ANCESE. E un perf'~zionameitto del Sistro tede­ , e qaaai :siruile alla·chit~frra· spagnuola. Hau~ soon·o gratO, e motto raceote per I' accorripagnamento· ~~Ila v~. Questa ChitaTra ~ molao iui:i'in· Italia; , · · · · . iCHIT ARRA· LI~A ·fl: I.JU CBiTJ.BU.. . : iCHl~ARRA SPAGNUOLA. Strumcnto mato nelhi~Spagna,.par­ eolarmeote dalle donne1 Ha ·cincjue ordini di corde, clie si sogliono trcnotcrc colla mano, o toccare coJla pun In dclle dilll, ·cd e 'lnasi mile alla Chit&irra franccsc. · . · ' : CHIT ARB.A TEDESC~, o.sia ·ii iSisfro aYea. origiuariamente sol~ bilto ·quai&ro conle.~La moderpo· eta •leasa _che l,a f ra~~ ; .. ~ ;, .Clll'f ARRA D~AMORE •. Strumento ,wTeotato: ncl :18~3 ·Jal bticatoni "Ji ilrumeo\f SLaufer.~:Vienna.: Ha:~alorma maggiorc .d aolire Chitarrc, con tavola armonica, fondo ·a Tolla ,.e·leuo cordc. 1 . •. I .::·l·ruoniacoli.della.C/u·1arra.-d'amo~1omiglianoa.quelli.deln.O ed i gta~ •• quelli;del ~rn~.basseuo,- di·modoehe:noo:~edendo Cbi1ami~ ·ei crede 1en\ire udo atrumento· da · liato di uii l:Ketto aggra de,ole~ Ui Scala cl'omatica td anche le Scale· dapp~e ·per..T.ftac ti eseguiscc>oo.

12. Blaze (Castil-Blaze), Francois Henri Joseph. Dictionnaire de Musique Moderne. Bruxelles: l'Academie de Musique, 1828.

Gm.u.::i::, s. f. Instrument de musique Cct instrument diffc!re des autres ; en· it six cordcs, <.lout trois apier, ct que

13. Lichtenthal, Pietro. Dictionnaire de Musique ... traduit et augmente par Dominique Mondo. Paris: Troupenas, 1839.

CHIT ARRA= GUITARE, s. f. - Instrument de musique propre surtout a accompagner le chant, monte de six cordes, dont trois de soie filees en lailon cl trois en lioyau accordees ordioairemcnl en mi, la, re, sol, si , mi. Quoique ce diapason soil presqu'en enlicr dans le domaine de la cle de basse, on se serl neanmoins de la cle de violon pour ecrire la musique deslinee a la guitare. L'oreille cntend, par con­ sequent, rcsouncr lcs sons a !'octave basse des notes qui les representent sur le papier. La guitare est le dernier rejeton de la ram Ille du luth autre­ fois si norribreuse. Elle a succede nu luth , au theorbe , :m sistre' a l'angelique' a la mandore' a la pnndore' au cola­ chon, a la mandoline, aux lyres de toutes les espi!ces. Le corps de la guilare est une botte a peu pr~s ovale, ayant deux depressions laterales a pcu pr~s comme une caisse de violon, excepM qu'll n'y a point cl' angles, tout et:mt arrondi; l'ovale un peu resserrc vers le milieu, forme deux venlres dont celui qui tient au manche est un peu plus pelit. Les deux ta­ bles sont planes et parallcles; les cotes ou eclisses ferment la boile tout a l'entour, en suivant les sinuosites dont on vient de parler. La granclcur du corps tlc la guitarc lienl le milieu cntrc le violon ct le violonccllc; son manchc est large cl dl­ vise par cases qui marquent lcs tons clirrerents que l'on pcut prendrc. A l'cxtrcmlM supcrleure du manchc fl ya une pcllle tablette percce de trous ou cntrcnt les chevilles. Sur la sur­ face cle la table supcrieurc vers le bas, est fixe le cf1evalet; c'est une barre transversale en bols trcs dur, collce sur la table; elle est pcrcee de tr<;ms, oil I' on introduit le bout de ·la corde. La guilare a scs arp~ges parlicullers, ct c'est .un de ces Instruments pour lequel on ne peul pas composer sans savoir en jouer. Quelquefois pour rendre !'execution de certalns tons plus facile, on se serl d'un ccipotasto, ecrh'ant clans un autre ton, avec !'Indication de la position du capotasto. Par exemple: un morceau ccrlt en do avec le capotasto ci fa troi­ sieme position, se trouve en mi flemol, et ecrit en sol, II passe en si IJemol. Une cavatine, un nocturne, une romance, un duetllno, ac­ compagnes par la guilare, feronl un hon elfet ; ses sons voi­ les et d'un diapason grave; donnent des masses d'harmonie tr~s favorables a la voix qu'ils soutienncut sans la couvrlr; mals eel instrument est presquc silencicux quand on le fail chanter. Sa force consiste dans Jes vibrations mullipliees de plusieurs Cordes pincccs lour a lour OU simullancmenl. Des que l'on est oblige de laisscr !es arpeges pour l'unlsson, et de passer des basses souorcs a I' octave aigue qui n'esl composec que de tons obtcnus sur unc corde raccourcie et qui ne vibrc plus, le chant faihle ct l:mguissant, privc du secours de !'har­ monic, n'est p!us qu'un pizzicato maigrc, sec et dcpourvu de loute cspi'!ce de charme. La guitarc, il y a quelqucs annecs , a etc amclioree par Jl. de Villeroy, a Treguier, departement des COtes-du-Nord (en produisant lessons harmgniqucs), par J. Georges Staufer ct p:tr J. Ertl, a Viennc. L'art de jouer de la guitarc est porte aujourd'hui (1838) it un tri'!s haul point de perfection ; dans ccs derniers temps, ~l~I. Sor, Aguado, Huerta ct Carcassi, en ont fa.it un instru­ ment; de .concert, et sont parvenus a executer de la musique 1:f~s compllquec a plusicurs parties. ; : La. partlc droite ct lnferieurc de la table d'harmonie de eel Instrument, a etc munie, par un artiste allemand, a Lan­ dres, d'une cspi'!ce de cla\'icr a1·cc six touches dont les tan- 9tmtC3 sortent du trou de rcsonn:mce au moment oil Jes tou­ ches s'abalssent, et frappcnt lcs cordcs en guise de petits marlraux, comme dans le piano. Cct instrument s'appela , a cause de sa construction, guitm·e ir. piano, dont le doigtC pour la main gauche est le m

14. Schilling, Gustav. Encyclopadie der gesammten musikalischen Wisenschaften. Stuttgart: Kohler, 1835-42.

@uiture, Kitban, Chitarra (itaI.) Iiat i~rrn Urfprung ni~t foroot)'{ btr Qautt 1 a(! btr afttn ,3itbtr oU tmbanrtn. 6ie rllm RU! btm <.morgtnlanbe 0utrft nae!) Spanitn, roo fie fief) au~trorbtnllid) btlitbt mad)lt, u. 1'0n roo fie nad) ,Stalitn u. ijranfrtid), u. enblid) nact) :Dtulid)lanb iibtrginq. Sn btr filtgd itl ba6 Snflrumtnt l:!on brr !!aute btr jBauart nad) l)auptfQd)licf) b11burd) l:!trfcflirbrn. bafi t~ nid)t gmi:ilbt, ft'nbcrn mil f{actem · jBobtn unb f!ad)tr '.l)ccft :.itrfrbrn itl, 1t1e!d)t lt~lt rin runbr6 Ed)aa!L•d) bat. Xlie btibrn 6tittn brr :i:)ed't unb tie! !!3ol'rn!, fo ll!it brr .Sargen, finb burcf) rinen

!)On tin em 6ttgt I ll!it bei brr mio!int I fonbtrn aacin !)On tin cm brtittrn unb l)obcrn 1l3ttnbe anr·obertn (fobe bra S;)a!i~! gdragrn. Unltn finb fie an einem Sattd unb obtn im m3irbt!raf!m an l'c:t m1irbtln btfctligt, burcf) btren Umbrtbtn fie gtj1immt nmben. '.tirft mJirbd nmbcn balb l:!cn bin.: ten, balb unb mtift l)On btn Stiltn, roit l'ti btr mio!int, angtbra~t. 9Jlan ~at iibtrbaupt in btr .!8auart mand)tr(ti mrrbtiitrungtn l:!crfud)t, aucf) an btn !!Jlirbdn, um baa .3uriicfgtbtn btr 6aittn 0u :itrbiitcn unb fcjlm unb gcnautre Stimmung .;u. btll)irrcn. SBtf onbna bat fief) barin 9)r. ~bit It.:. man n in SBtr!in· ftit JS06 au!gt0eicf)nct, 1ibtr be!Tcn ntugtformlt unb 1'er:::· btjjrrte @.uitarre. man V?cibert6 im 16tcn Sabrgange 6. 7.» unb im 1Sttn Sabrgange 6. 717 bcr i!tiPA· aO'gtm. mufiP. .Sci tung litfl. Sm Hltn Sa~r::: gange 6. 481 btrfdben .3citung murbe 1'on .f;)rn. ~Cr.; b c r gt r cin bcmtrs rcn611!~rtber morf d)(ag .;u tin er ll)tftntrid)cn l!ltrbriitrung im $llaut bitft' Snilrumtnlt6 nichrgdtgt. 9Jlan ~at iibri11rn! i!Qra:(»uitarrcn unb l11utrn::: cibnlid)e. ID'?unfbimtor .lair n b a cf) in SStr!in rrfanb tine .!8 o gen:~ u i::: . t 4 r rt, c b it a r r.·ll co D ll r c 0, r. btn 26fltn Sabrgang bzr !!rip.;. aOgrm. mujilo.l • .3titung 6. 813 (1'ergf. aud) ben fo(gtnb: ~Crt; Gui ta rr e d' a· mo u r) •. Vlad) '.l)rutfd)lanb ll)Urbe bie @uitarrt 3uerjl 17S8 au! Stalim 1'o• btr .f;)t_r.;ogin ~Cma!ia l)On mltimar gcbracr nad) .(tintm tigtntn .3tugnij in ftintm Q3ud)e ,,Ucber ben !Bau ber !Sogn:::: Sntlrumcnte JC.,, .auf bt6 Jt. 6cid)fifd)en <.rapcamcijlcr6 V?aumann mrran::: IalTung .;unft bie 6te 6aitt ~inaufiigtc, bit ibr · feitbem nid)t ftbit. :Die 3 ~od)tltn finb Ilarmfaittn, bie 3 titftltn gcn-o~nficf1 au! 6tibt 1'trfcrtigt unb mit 6iiberbrat~ ii~trfponnen, niobei au bcmcrftn ifl, baj jtbt ticim 6oite not~ll)tnbig mit. jlcirrmm, nicf)t rnit g(ticf]ftarfrm 1)ral~e iibcr.;ogcn ltltrbcn muj. S~re. 6timmung cnt~ci!t 4 .Q.uartm · unb cine' groh ~tr0 in fo!gtn::: ber Orbnung: E, A,- d, g, b, ;: l)ie !J?otrn baau rotrbtn im }!liolinfd)hif.: fd um cine Octa1'e ~ober gcfcf)riebtn. !Bci !l:onici~en in F cbcr B flimmt • man aucf) bie ticiflc· 6aite in F, um btn 1)aumen brr linfm S)anb 0um @rcifcn bicf,, !tonc6 nicf)t notbis au bab_tn. <.!inige ftimmcn au~ bd tieie ~ E fogar in G unb As um, l1)a$ abt: bem .Sn11rumcntc. fd)iibfi~ ijl, ll)tiI bie !!Dirbd burd} .ba~ oftcre '.l)reben unb' bit groje 6p1mnun9 btr 6ai~e 122

rocftr nmbtn. mtim 6pitlen ~art man btn S;)al! ~tr @. Attiif~m bm '.I)aumcn unb .3tigtringtr btt £inftn 9)anb, fo ba~ "bit tringer fid) bcqum auf btm @riifbrttte bmtgrn ronnen. lltn untmn ~btil bt?fdben jluOt ntan auf ba4 red)te .i?nie, fo baji btt ffitf onanabobrn abniart! gthbrt ill 2c. l)er flrine. U:ingtr btr m~ten S;)anb roirb ·auf btr .Obtrbtcft unroeit bt~ 6diaUCod}t4 fe11gtfe~t, unb mit btn iibrigen fringern nmben bit Saiten geriiitn. - 1acit>e S;)anbt babm ibrz eigcne 12Cpplicatur, bit !n jebrr @ai.: · tarrcn:iJlv beat bit ali t4 bie ,3uriidftQung, bic C!ini~c l'ariibtr au49tfpr11d)rn babtn, rrint!mtg! 11rr.: bitnt. frur !tid)tc 1'iltttanttn:Unttrbaltung, namtntlid} im ffrtitn, ijl bie @uitarre ftbr .;nitcfbitnlid1 unb t?'!lOQlid). m1can bat hbtt in btn .Btittn ibrt! bodnlcn Ulort!, btnrt bie fitbbcabtrti bat in :l)eutfd)fanb jeot am mti(ltn nad):Jtfa!Ttn, ium 1atjltn brr ::Oamen fur allcrlri tm · man-.tlti ofje:; nrn Saittn au! F:Zlur fpidtn miirbt, au! As:l)ur zc. :iDn .~u(faQ (6tt9) ft!bjl btfltbt gmobnfit:Q au& einem, mit rotid1tm i!tbtr an brr !!Cuffaorante btflrbtm,

benn gana aujjerorbentricbe IJTiei11er, ~eren bit @uitorrt aud) itboc:b nid)t ,;u rotni~t aufAmticifm l)at. 60 He~ fid) A· QJ. 1806 btr 9t1utftnt l)oifauttni:1 bt6 6:f)uriiir11cn tion IJTiain3, l)r. e d) ti b I er I in ijranff1frt a. <.m. llllf eimr @uitarre mit 7 15aitm mit fold) tr ~Cu! 0 tid)nung .boren, baj tr alb gemcin fiir btn grosttn Qiuitarrenmei11er '.l)eutfd)lanb~ gebaltm rourbt. i808 gab 5,)r. @ i 11 l i an i om 3ttn ~C1>rif in m.1im ein tion ibm it!b(l componir::: te6 nnb mit :i3egleit11n9 bt6 gan,;m .Crdlt11tr! uorgetragtnt!

@uitarrt I ba6 feint~· ee1tcnbeit \l)tgtn unb \l)ti[ ,.; li~blid) 411 bortn ll)Qf, oufitrorbtntlid) gejief. lllud) btr beriil)r.tte 91. spa g n n in i ijt tin fo grofitr ill'?tijttr 4uf ber @uitarre, bas .!!ipin!ri ftlbfl faum au tntfd)eiben ivufitt,

ob fr grohr aur btr lllioline obtr QUf bitftm I in fpattrtr .Btit lion sp • .;uriicfgeiebtm, Sn{lrumtnte fe11. merounbern!rotrtb ill t!, roa6 J;>r. e or, namentlid) im i,)armoniicbtn barauf au mad/tn IUtiS j tr gtbort untrr bit griiptm IJJlti1ltr. - 2£n £cbrbiidmn fiir bie @uitarre i11 mtbr Utbtrflus al& 9Rangtl. 1)ie betanntt{lm finb uon .!23 or to la A0 i, .!23 t ti i la qua, mor n b a r b t. er a r u I: i , :C o i i 11, ff i e b l er, @i u Ii an i, ;, a r b tr, Q t fJ m Q n n, IJR 0 £i n O, 1' a C i It i, 6 cQ ti b ( tr, 6 0 r, 0 p j n a, 6 t Qf) ( j n, ml ob l i ab rt u. ~(. ~in lange6 mer,;eid)nis f. in ~bitlling'& j;)anbb. b. mufit• .!!ittrat. e. 420. - Xlit ID'ltngt btr l!'omporitiontn itlbtbeutrnb u. 1'mntbrt ficl1 nod) jcibrlict, benn im ~u&lanbt ifl_bie@. uid btlitbtt~ al& je~t bti un&~ fb. 124

15. Escudier, Leon. Dictionnaire de Musique. Paris: Bureau Central de Musigue, 1844.

Go1TA•1. Instrument l six .. cordcs~ 'dont on Joti2r3ltl!tcs; rune en '2pln, l':antre en. fr:iblc ou en :icajou~ :is:simblecs par. unc ~clls.se: dont 12· T:alenr \'Ulc de trols ~ qo:itrc pouccs~ A l'uno des cxtremttes "est ad:iptc un m:mchc dlrl~·pudes toilche1 sur:lcSqticllel ori. ~lei dolgt.A de la main .. g:aucho ,·i:andls ·qu'on plnec avec ·ceux de 11· m:aln drolto. Co ··mancbe est fCrmln6 p:ir un··amct~~ctguol'de·ch·&­ vlllcs pour montcr ou :dcsccndre let conies qtif soot O'l~ a l'anlre oxtremlte de l'lnstromcnt sur un cheTalet =fort bu. Au milieu do la ublo supcrfcurc: ~t= pr:atlqu~ ·u·ae-.ooTerture :ip- . • ' I • • • •. ,. •.. . pell~ ro1CJ1:1 ou ro111t1. Les conies sont":lccorot!cs J)3rqu:ntcs. Jnslcs en. monfunt, cxcepte l:i qnatrl~me' et· Jl."cloquleme,:".entre tc"squellcs It n'y :a qoc r1nto•y3Jlo d'qne Ucrce miaJeure! L·aceord tfo l'Instromcnt cat done, en pul3bt du gra\-e, nil; la, f'I; ·IOI, ·11, ml. u ·muslqtic ccrlle pour .J:a gul12rc est. not~· sur la clef de 10/. . . . On tic ult ricn do ccrt3ln 11ur l'orlgf nc do eel Instrument. On pensc g~ner2lcmcnt 'qu'll est :au11sl ·~nclcn quo Ji. harpo {fny. cc mot), ct quc.tcs M3uros l'ont apporte en EsJXagne, d'ob 11 s'est cnsullc ~~ndu cn.Portugnl ct en Jt:alio. Du temps_ de LOOla XIV, ii ct:1it rort ~· 1:1 mode en Fnnco ;· mals l:a ,·ogue' qli'U cut !ul de courlo duree, ct :.pres 'nolr bri116 «fun ttlal" ttiut nouTC2o; 11 y ~ quctquca :innccs, sous tcs dolg"ts d':irtlstcs. rort· b:ablles. n e,:t aujoord'hul presquu compl~lemcnt :.bindonnu c0mmo le plus lngr:il ct le plus monotone lie tou5 Jes lnstror;ncnu.· 125

16. Vissian, M. Dizionario della Musica. Milano, 1846.

CHl~.A~ ~GtnTARE}~· Liuto:. ·piccolO' ·ch&'. maoca oel~ bas5o e sopraooJ.Ques.to.-stromento·si··imona ·piziicandone··t& c0rde- colla· maoo destra. Sei so no le corde della chitarra; ::de lie qua.Ir: tre- di ottone e" ti-e di bndello. II suo·: corpo ·e foggiato su !quello degli stromenti. da arco., ::ed ha. in mezzo ··un : (oro- tondo· invece dei soliti cosi deui ff.' Sul" manico 'havv~ la tastatura segnata da piccole strisce d'avorio per indicare i suoni da prendersi. · La chitarra e' ·un istrumento ·an'tichissimo;. ii di' cui USO· va giornalmente· sccmando. 126

17.(a) LaSalle, Albert de. Dictionnaire de la Musique Appliquee a l'Amour. Paris: Lacroix, 1868.

G UITARE. - Cet i.nfirument sem­ elle (6 bonheur ! ) s'en. efi allele trouba­ ble n'ctre qu'un arriere-rejeton de la lyre dour de salon, une cfpece de joli creur antique. Vers le commencement du on­ & ·de bellfttre qui dcbitait_ des fiupiditcs zieme siecle, ii pcnetra en .France sous tendres clans une langue a faire pamer le 110111 de g11iter_11e; & tout portc a croire Chlori:;. Et ce troubadour, si vous vou­ qu'il nous cfl vcnu d'Efpagne, ou les lez bien y prendre garde, n'c.tait autre Maures l'avaicnt introduit. que M. Prudhomme jeune'. Son hifl:oire ne lai!fe pas que d'etre Vcut··on un cchantillon de sa pocti­ accidentce : el le prcfente unc serie · d'e2, que? voici jufiement une romance pour clipfes alternant avec des pfriodes de· guitarc adreffce a la guitarc (elle efi de lumiere. · la bonne cpoquc ! ). . ' Ainfi la guitare, abandonncc des le seizieme siecle, efi. remife a la mode par. A. MA GUITAnE '. Louis XIV, qui avait appris a en joueri Doux charme de ma solitude, sous Franccfco Corbctta, Auteur du c~lme de mes nuits,. · De ma tendre sollicitude · Partage les. secrets ennuis I ...... Cet homme si rare Tour A tour joycufe & plaintive, Qui fit parler ;) sa guitare Guitare, ~cho de mes soupirs, Le vrai langage des amours ... Exprimc A ma voix attentive Et ma douleur & mes plaiCirs. (Bis.)

Delai!fee de nouv~ati, clle cut un re~ Compagne fidele & cherie, · · gain de succcs a partir de 1813. A cette Seu le interprete demon creur ! 0 senCible & difcrcte amic ! · date, en cffet, c!le fut introduitc n l'Opcra. Confidente de ma langueur1 par Jc danfcur Albert, qui en joua, ert Soumife aux lois de ma prudence, cxecutant un pas dans le~ Abencerrage.• Quand tu refonnes sous ines doigts de Cherubini. , . · · Tu sais te rcduire au silence Des que t~ n'entends plus ma voix. (Bis.) Aujourd'hui la guitare efl muette. Ar~ 127

P~ur mieux chanter l'objet que j'aime, Enfante de nouveaux accents! , gros violon deguife ·en lyre) a du n~itre, En imitant mon trouble extreme,. sinon une ecole melodiq~e, du moins un Port.el~ trouble clans mes sens! repertoire chantant a!fez bien caraCle­ Si je gemis; gcmis de meme; • rife. L'age d'or de la guitare fut !'age Que sa voix, senfi.ble A te~ sons, Dife avec nous ce clrnrrhantj'aimc I d'6r de la romance, de la ballade, de la Qu~ fa:it I~ prix de. nos chanfons ! (Bis.) tyrolienne, du noClurne; & Jes myficiens ' qui s'adonnaient a ce genre de compofi­ Penfer qu'il y avait des pbjets qu~ c~- tion, les specialifles du 'couplet plaintif, daient ces plain/es. langoureufes '(10.;t; a etaient en q~~te de melodics franches.) les. accenis etaient en/antes da~s:, ~wt· qtli fu!fent a la portce des voix d'ama­ extreme! ... Ajoutez, pour· trou~le ~om-. teurs, & ~'aillcurs facilcs .a gardcr dans pleter . ie. tableau,· que ce.s platitudes la me.moire~ etaient" 11~odulees par. des mcnefir~.ls f!rt JI fallait done que le charme de la ro-· bottes a creur dans aes salons a la 'mocl[ inance refidAt dans le motif. C'ctait une grccque I · ·. . . Joi abfolue, une confcqucnce de la nul­ 'Par· e~e.mple, il y a plus a louer-datts lit~ inuficale ae la guitare, qui, pa!fee en !cs airs bredes sur ccs flupidcs cancvas. sauto1r sur ta· poitrine du chantcur, . On en tonnpit de fort ''alables. En eflcr n'etait guere qu'un °meuble ou mettre ses de l'~mpui!fance meme ~e .la guitart: ~! mains, & i1on un infirument accompa­ gnatetir pouvant .donner des effets har­ rrioniques d'e' quelque pui!f~nce. 128

17.(b) Lemoine, A. M. A Ma Guitare, Romance Dediee a Madame Caccia. Paris, n.d.

A !t!A GUITARE, Romance Dediee a 1Hadame CACCIA. Musique e~ accomp~ de Lyre ou Guifare par A. 1\1. LEMOINE. Prix so': A ParzJ, de~ Le.moin6 ain~, !t1~ _Je JJ!usz'Ju~ et J'Jn.rtru~~.s, · Ru~ Ja B oucherie./ S ! Honore N'! 3. · 0 D cpo:;e' ' a ' 1 a d . n d e 1. a 1"hi ra1rie.. · ( N~) Les notes ayant un ( 8) se font a Yocta,.ve en bas sur la Lyre OU Gui tare a 6 Cordes. N. 87.

Gui tare ou Lvre.,

•I . 0 Gui-t11re enrhan te - res - ~e source u- : I F.Ull.

~'- -d '

sous mes doie:ts je te --- - ....

Jene forme aucun de-sir SOlS fo mai-

·T 8

se ·che - ri- e qui .. m'en-chai - ne pour· tol.t~ ~

:::;Ii:' 8, f J'• I ·.. Propriit!, J~ l EJde.ur. 129

.~ /"':'. - :: l et cp1e ta d.ouce harmo - n1 - e me /"':'. 7: loam I - tienne lieu des a - mours et que ta douc~ harmo- r - + K + ~;~;

e me tien - ne lieu des a -·mours.

l...J--""' D.C. ~t; c .. De tes cordes argentines Quand j'entends le son flateur, !'Ion ame au terns des corines Se transporte ;wee douceur. De Sapbo de Deshoulieres Tu prends le ton sed11isant, Et l'i>n ,ne rr~si~Le gueres Quand tu .peins le sentiment .

.:3:~ c. Mais il faut un Coeur de flamme . Pour .entendre tes. accens,. Car tu ne dis ri~n . a l'ame . De.s ~tres ~ndifTereru • · Ponr eux ton c.harmant langage N'est que du ~on et du bruit, Et je · lis sur leur visage Qu'amour ne leur a nen dit. 130

18. Mendel, Hermann. Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon. Berlin: Heimann, 1870-79.

Uuit11rre (span.: guita1'ra, itu.l.: chitarra, franzos.: guitare oder gui.terne) iit der Name eiues Tonwerkzeugs, dessen Geschichte hinaufweist bis zur Urzeit der 'fonkunst, die uns Instrumentgestaltungen vorfilhrt, welche oft nur scheinbar denen der heutigen G. durchaus fremd zu sein 11cheinen. Unmittelbar entstand dieselbe u.us dem El-Aud (s.

des neuen Geistes der Musik sich einer Anerkennung erfreuen 1 die mit der. Fortschreitung Jer Kunst sich dcrselben entsprochend ii.nderten und vervoll .. kowmnctcn. Die Verfcrtigc1· von arabiec.:hen 'ronwerkzeugen wurden durch Fanutismus zwar verlricbcn oder vernichtet uud die Kirche gesta.ttete nur dear u.bendlii.ndischeu 'fongeisto die iifl'entliche Pflege,

eiktreibcu in freier N atur zu jeder Zeit gilnstig war 1 der romantische, ~ malerisches Erscheinen sch warmende Geist dcr Spanier, wie die im V olke ul eiugewurzelte Gewohnheit, 1lurch Gesnng in romantischer Form seiner Lie~/ .\ usdruclc z11 :;cheu, forderte .. in leicht behandclbnres, zur Gesl\ngbegleitunf wohl geeignotc11 und bct1ucm traueportahles 'l'onwcrkzcug, das der El-Aud Erb­ Lhdl iibernahm. Di1:11 Erbtheil iibernnlim die G., die aber erst zu Ende Jos. lu. Jahrhun

kasten befindet sich ein Hals von 5 Cm. Breite und 31 Cm. LiLnge, der oben plan, wie der Resono.nzboden, und unteu rund ist. Auf der oberen, gewohnlich sch\varz gefarbten Scite des Halses sind Bunde a.us eingelegten Elfenbein- oder Metallstreifen, \Velche auf gleich gcflirbter, auf dem Schallbodcn fortgesetzter U nterlage noch bis in

. . 11ie aich beaondera zur einfachsten Begleitung von Ge11angstiicken eignet, 11obald dieselben nur accordiscbes A.ccompagnement fordern und eine Octave iiber dem Tonreich der G. erklingen, also zur Begleitung von Sopranparthien, weniger zu Tenor· und no ch weniger zu Bassgesingenbegleitung. In gleicher Weise stebt auch der Werth der G. im Ense~ble. Als Soloinstrument, wie man es in seiner Bliithezeit einzuftl.hren versuchte, hat es sich nicht bewahrt, trotzdem Virtuoaen aich miibten, eigens daflir gesetzte Tonstiicke, wie Fantasien, Sonaten, Variationen etc., selbst mit Trillern, noppeltrillern und Flageolettonen verseheu, auf durchaus vollendete Weise darauf vorzufiihren; der Ton des Instruments, die eigentliche Seele desselben, ist kalt nnd diirftig und muss in einer Zeit, wo man sich immer mehr dem gefiihlten Ton zmvendet, an Verehrern ver­ lieren. Dcshalh ist f'R nicht ungerecht, zu beho.upten, de.as seine Vorziige es ihm nicht erlnuhen, in der Kunst. eine hedeutende Stelle einzunehmen, wofiir jedoch seine vielfache Anwendung hei niedern Kunst- und Dilett.antenleistungen, wo es fast unentbehrlich gewesen, reichlich entschadigt. Das hcdentcndc Ton­ reich der G., welches von E his h' reicht, knn n .J eder leicht zu beherr1.1chen sich aneignen, und die Stimmnng der Grundsaiten derselben gestattet in C-, G-, D-, A-. E- nnd F-dur, sowie in .J.., E-, Fis-, Cis- und D-moll stehende Tonstilcke bald a.usfiihren zu lernen; Tonstilcke jedoch mit mehr Versetzungs­ zeichen darzustellen ist schwieriger, unrl gebrnncht man hierzu den Oapo tasto (s. d.). Bei gri:isserer Beherrschung des Instruments lasst sich oft, ohne der N atur desselben Gewalt anzuthun, mehr a.uf dernselben heratellen, a.ls mo.n glauben sollte. Um dies jedoch zn ~ermogen, ist eine schulgerechte Behand­ lungsweise desselben durr.haus zn empfehlen, die in jeder G.·Schule nachgewiesen wird; die bekn.nntesten der letzteren sind: die von Bortolazzi, Bevilaqua, Born­ hardt. Carulli, Doisy, Fiedler, Giuliani, Harder, Lehmann,.Molino, Pacini, Scheidler, Sor, Spina, Sti\hlin, Wohlfahrt u. A. Ein vollstii.ndigfll'es Verzeichniee bietet Whistling in eeinem 11Handhnch der mneikn.li~chen Literaturs, S. 420. Auch dr.r Compositionon filr G. 11i111l nicht wcnigr, cloch Hind nnch 11ieftc mcist illlorn Datums. Zwl\r sinrl tar (s. d.) ge­ nannien l\fosikinstrumente do.gegen lmben sechs· und eiebensaitige Bezilge n.us 134

Metallsaiten, gehOren also nach Obigem zur Gattung der Tanburen, und lassen wir deshalb diese hier trotz der Benennung ausser Acht. - Die per11ische Sch tH.r e ( s. d.) hat nur vier Saiten. In China kennt man in neuerer Zeit drei G.-Arten: Pun-gum (s. d.), viersaitig; Gut-komm (s. d.), ebenfalla vier­ saitig; und Sam-jun (s. d.), nur dreisaitig. In Japan kultivirt man zum Spiel bei Tiinzen vorzilglich eine zweisaitige G., von der ein gutes Bild, das zugleich iiber die N utzanwendung derselben helehrt, in The illustrated London news No. 1807 des Jnhres 1874 pag. 349 gegeben ist. - Schliesslich seien bier noch kurz einige der Bestrebungen, die G. zu vervollkommnen, a.ufgezeichnet. Thielemann, Instrnmentbauer in Berlin, beschii.ftigte aich seit dem .T. 1806 mit Vorliebe mit der Verbessenmg der G. und hat die Frucbt seiner Bestrebungen in zwei Abba.ndlungen nieder~eleirt. (Leipziger allgem. musika.l. Ztg. 1818 S. 756 und 1820 S. 717.) Eine ebenfo.lls die Verbesserung der G. betreffende Abhandlung befindet sich in der11P.lben Zeitung vom .J. 1813, in der der In­ strumentbauer Arzherger seine Erfahrungen mittheilt. Besonders um den Da.mim, deren Lieblingsinstrument die G. in den Zeiten il1rer Bliithe war, die wunden Fingerspitzen beim Reissen der Sa.iten zu erspa.ren, erfa.nd cin Deutscher in London. dessen Na.men nicht bekannt geblicb1m ist, einc Claviatm· mit sechs Tasten. Durch einen Mechanismus bewirkten diese, dass Ta.ngenten a.us dem Korper der G. durch ein lii.nglich geformt.es Scba.llloch die Saiten tonend er­ regten. Die Funktion des Grcifens der Ton11 verblieb a.uch bei dieser G. der linken Ha.nd. Der Erfinder nannte dies Tonwerkzeug: Pianoforte- oder Tastenguita.rre. Der Hang, der G. eine mo~lichst roma.ntische Form zu verleihen und derselben dabei zu!lleich die leichteste Behandlungsweise anzu­ weisen, filhrte einen Franzosen, des sen N amen gleichfa.lls nicbt bekannt ge­ worden ist, dazu, dcr G. die Form einer Lyra. zu verleihen, die mit Griffbrett versehen war und a.usserdcm eine Tastatur, gleich der der eben erwii.bnten 'raetenguitarrc, hattc. Dies Instrument, welches sich in den Ja.hren von 1820 his 1830 cinigcr VcrhrP.itung erfrP.ute. nn.nnte 11oin Erbn.uer Lyr11guitarre. Im J. 182:\ crfancl .Toh. Georg Stnufer in 'Vieu die sogenannte ,Guitarre

19. Riemann, Hugo. Musik-Lexicon. Leipzig: Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, 1882.

QJultarre (fra113. Gnitare, ftiif)cr Gui­ terne, ital. Chita.rra fµan. guitarro.), Oumternc ein ~nOrummt, toeI:: d)c.6 in nllcm ber £aute mtfprid)t, l>Io& f(cinere SDimcnftonen unb tmr fiinf ~l)itcrnnc eincn \')fatten fnum 0\ocen ober brct) 1jinner I}od)c) mtb uier obcr filnf . Stt SDmtf cf)fonb fd)cint fie nidJt f>cfonbers bdicbt gc\llef m au fein, bn fie bort au ~nbe bes borigm ::Snl)tIJmtbcrrn nls chuas gcm3 91me~ \uicbcr nuftnud)te. S0ie@5tim:: mung ber 'f)mtinm @. ift EA cl g h·e'; burd1 eincn fo!'lcn:~\wotnOo tcnmbicetim:: munn fnnttlid)er @;nitcn 3uglci~ -.:ei­ ncn ~nmton er'f)o~t \oerben .. 136

20. Jacquot, Albert. Dictionnaire Pratique et Raisonne des Instruments de Musique. Paris: Fischbacher, 1886.

GUITAµ. Instrument .a. -six cordes dont .J'origine;· fort ancienne, e~i orhmtale. On l'appelait d'abprd Ouil~rtie -( Vove:& .ce mot), ce n'est qu'nu XVII1 s~ecle qu'on lui d?nnn le nom de guitare. ·Les Mnurcs l'apport~rent en Espagne ~t elle apparut en ;Frnnce "er~ .le XI1 siecle, Elle 'n~eut d'nbord que ;qualro ra~gs: de cor~es; celui.de la :cbanterelle, simple. et les nutre_s, doubles i. le martche, ~yarit ainsi sept cordes, fut diyis{l en huit .touches · ou · cas~s., 11 y cut ensuite c1e's· guitares a dix cordes, on cinq ratigs ''ttouble!, donnant: ·la; . neuf cordes .. . ,.e, ... ·aol,, ut, .mi, . scule1~1cnt garnissnicht la guitare, · In .chantl:'relle etait · seule . . . dans cc cas. Depu\s la moilie du si~clo dernier, cet instrument n'ri. plus que sii·cordes simples, ..qui ao~t :·mt, la, re,-sol, s!,~m£. ·En 1i13, -Van . Hect.e imagina une guitare 1\.-douze. col-ties. 1 : appelee Biss.<µi:. Les guitares d~ pali~~andre s~nt rrag;.fos,:~el.Ics .de citronnier et de platane sgn't Jes mcilleures pour le son; _On 'joue ~t ·instrument en pin~a:nt lea conies'; Les tables. !o~t. parallelcment ma.inlcnues par !des eclisse:;, .h~utcs de.it.ro"i~";~r lcsquclles .les doigta de la n~ni.h gaucho s'nppuicnt,.tn:ndls ~q1:Je la .·droitc ·pince les cordes .. Uh ·sillet,;en haul ~de. ce.mtrich.e.· pa"rt.~ge e~al~~~nt. l'intcryallo' .a~ -c~rdc~-. qui,. p~~~~t·(~;~n . clicvalct ii bouio_ns, place au bo'ut'do la t:i.blo, aboutisspn't.D:.d.os cheviUe.~: en. .. bois ou en m·e~l ·;· ·cclles~ci s_'appe~~!t~;iaj9rs cheTilles-rriip~ique~. Au ·milfeu l1e Ia '.tab1~, .un~,'ou~ehu~ pour le sori est prntiqub! ;. on l'appellc ,·osace .ou rQSelte. ·us· 0 11lx '.Cordes, dont ~roia en·. sole enrouMe de. metal; .·ef trohr en b6yau, son t ncco1119es pa.r qunrtes justes en. rilont.ant, exceptc la qtiati;ieme e~ lticlriqui~me, qui n'ont entre' .elles "que l'inter­ valle d'une tlcrco majeuro~;et donnent l'accord: me grave, '1a,· ·re, sol: sf, mf; On ecrit la ffil;J.Sique de.Jn guitare ~la clef de sol, mais on la lit lt· une oct.:1.v~ .plus bas. Les guitires. Y~nltienncs de)n Stella sont du XVII• si~cle et rell\arqunbles par leurs belles incrustations d'i"Olt_e. On a fnit des gu\t'ares en ~caille. 137

Stl".adi,arius .· faisait aussi des ~guitares . ; . un " super be instrument de ce mnltre se voit nu 1tfusee: du Cons~rvatoire de Paris, sous· le n° 272. Charles J ncquot; ~on ·grand"pere (180.i- 1880), se distingua aussi par la fabrication dea· guitares arlis­ tiques; Jes·ros.aces, les filets ct les incrustations.· de nacre · ~t d'iyoire sont npprecies .des conmnsseurs; il inYc11ta, pour la premiere ex.position de Nancy, un~guitnrc avec pied, permettant d·~ ·-supporter l'instrume.nt et. de Iui f~i~e prenare to.utes Jes positions ciesi~bles. Cct essai lui valut:u.rie recoinpense~ Sor, le fomeux guitariste; -Iui comtnanda plusleurs guitares. Aguado inventa . un. pi~d. dans ce genre, . nppele Trlp~disono.,. Les ctifferen~s ·forme.s n..ffectees a :·la :grutare; ava.D.t d'a.i:river a l'inslrument qu~· nous conriaissons, ont doJine lieu aux appel- , . . . -· lations suivantes : Guttlere, Guite1m, Gutn.t,eme, Guttarrie, • . . r -...... Gutsterne~ Gutsl~rne •. ·GUITARE ALLEMANDE. Cistre montfde cinq ct de sept eordes .. ·· GUITARE A OLA VIER. Bachmann, de Berlin CQnstnusit, en ;i780,··cet· histru.ment, qui portai.t, a droite .·.d.e .la :table, tin meeanisme a ·l'aide auquel d0t pelitS .m¢eati :frap~ent)es -~rdes.- · .. · .. · · .· . · _.. ' , ·: .

. ! .• GUITARE D~AMOUR~- Genre de viole, eonstruite'i Yienne, .. ~:~taU!er,~~n·l~.·Le.s ~rd~s 6°L·uent nt~u~~~~·~et._· ::. GUITARE1DES.MA.NDINOUES. Guitare.primilivel.cinq . . " I ...... ' col-des.: . .· .otJITARE ;:ECHO~··-Alix, · d;Aix,· con'struisit au.,tnllion .du xVri• ~i~~fe,·ti~-gqu~lette-qul, A11'8.icie d'tm IIi~lsm~ :-d~roM a ·la. ~e~ ·jduillt ·"d'une giiitare~. et .·J~i~m~m~ avalf un~. autre guitare A l'unisson de ln premiere. Lorsque Alix jouait, le squelette ra.isait rep~t.er les modulations en echo. GUITARE ESPAONOLE. Gui taro u cinq cordos, upi~e <1es le XVII• siecle, ..surtout par les dames, en Espngne et .. en Itnlie. bUITARE HARMONICA. Villeroy, 'de Lille, construlsit, en 1820, un nppru:eil nd.apt6 au manche dEt In guitare, dormnnt plus de ncttete aux sons barmonlques de eel instrnment. GUITARE-HARPE. Guitare coniquc a ·sept· cordes, invcntee par Levien, en 1825, a Londres. 138

GUITARE LATINE. Guitare dans le genre de celle des Maures, rnais u cinq et six cordes. GUITARE-LYRE. Norn donne a di verses guitnres aynnt la fonne d'rine lyre. Le manche'de la guitnre cb1mgeait seul cctte. forme, il eta.it pla~ derriere Jes cordes et rnuni de cases .. 11 :'.y· eut des guitares-lyres R six OU a neuf cordes. On l'employn surtout, en France, a la fin du siecle dernier jusquo verJ 1851. Mougnet, do... Lyon, en 1811, Levieu, en 1825, et Ventura, de LonQ:es, en 185~, en conslruisirent cliff~rents ~odeies. GUITARE HAURESQUE. Differente du Luth par son corps plat en .dessous _comma' en dessus, echancree des cME\s et a trois Cordes seulement~ GUITARE HEGRE. Sorte de gourde retouYerle d'une pl~n~ chette mince et garnie de ttois, quatre OU six cordes. Un autre genre de guitare existe ~ussi ~hez les negres : c'est une piece de bois ·· creusee, recouverte de cuir et ornee de-.'plaqties i·et ... ' d'anncaux de .fer. Deux on trois cordos. de crins· tresses"font resoniier eel ins.irunien~ primitif... GUITARION. Genre de gultare, imagin~ en 1831 par Franck~ les cordes 6talont A volontc, pin~es ou nttnqti~es. pat Ttrchet~ .. GUITERNE.-Im~trument d'orlgino oriontalo et fortnnclenn~9· nyant 4onne, ~for~ de perfcctionheineuts,:la ~ltare til'od·~~~-·· C'~tait un instrument il cordes p!ii~es, derive de Ia:~·cithite ·et . : ' . ," •.• . ·! de la rote; on ne le dMigne afnsl qu'il partlr du xi•:on·du:Xll~. siecle. Le rnannscrit de Trt3tan et Y!eult (1200) ~orltre paiiiil se.s nombrcnses mlnhllores, un m6ncstrel jouant d'an gutte.rn:e' 1\Vec lo ]Jlectre. Ello est monteo de trois cordes, sans oordier, mnis nvec un chovnlet. Ln tnblo d'harmonle est perc~ce d'une oure et~cbancree. Une nutro guiterne usitee nu XIII• siecle se \"olt dnns l~ Rflnian de 7rote tsa forme rappelle un peu celle du ,luth; elle ll six coroes et une BO~ de cordi~r~· A,u XIV~ ..B~~e, · sa:f~~e affecte.c~lle.9.e la mandoline, mais n',,_ plus qne qUatre • • • • • • ••.• • ' •••• • - . 1 t. .·. . . = .,t' _co~~s~. ~ .~s.t 11. :P~esun:ier .que la. Rote fut_.appe~oo ~IP.me;,~ . quo ce premier. instrument rut .muni d'un manche~ '·. • • : • • 1 ... • • .. ' • • • ~ • • • . • .GUITERRON ... Le. Pere Morsenne .dH. que.:cet instrument, yari~t~. de la glilterne, a\·n.it 10 food pl.at.; d~autres.anteurs disant :qµe c~~Wt une :vari6t6 de l"Arclututh. REFERENCES

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Evans, Tom and Mary Anne. Guitars: Music, History, Construction, and Players from the Renaissance to Rock. New York: Facts on File, 1977.

Ewen, David. The New Encyclopedia of the Opera. New York: Hill and Wang, 1971.

139 140 Grunfeld, Frederic V. The Art and Times of the Guitar. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

La Guitarra Espanola. [The Spanish Guitar]. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Madrid: Museo Municipal, 1991.

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___ ."The Role of Italy in the Early History of Classic Guitar." Guitar Review 34 (Winter 1971): 1-6.

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McCutcheon, Meredith. Guitar and Vihuela: An Annotated Bibliography of the Literature on Their History. New York: Pendragon Press, 1985.

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Turnbull, Harvey. The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 197 4.

Tyler, James. The Early Guitar: A History and Handbook. London: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Wade, Graham. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. London: John Calder, 1980.