TMG Dissertation
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WEINERGATE, TWITTER, AND MARGINALIZED VOICES: POLITICAL SEX SCANDALS IN A NEW MEDIA ENVIRONMENT A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Communication University of Missouri—Columbia In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by SARAH TURNER MCGOWEN Dr. Mitchell S. McKinney, Advisor MAY 2017 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled WEINERGATE, TWITTER, AND MARGINALIZED VOICES: POLITICAL SEX SCANDALS IN A NEW MEDIA ENVIRONMENT presented by Sarah Turner McGowen a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. ______________________________________________ Professor Mitchell S. McKinney ______________________________________________ Professor Benjamin R. Warner ______________________________________________ Professor J. Brian Houston ______________________________________________ Professor Margaret E. Duffy ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not be possible without the support and aid of many individuals, not least of which is my academic family. Dr. Mitchell McKinney served as a constant source of support and voice of reason, reminding me that any progress on the dissertation was good progress. He also served as an excellent mentor who helped me refine my writing skills throughout this process. This dissertation is largely due to his support and encouragement over the course of my doctoral program, and for that and so much more I am eternally grateful. In addition to Dr. McKinney, my committee helped guide my project to turn it into something more than what I initially envisioned. My committee members were patient and helpful, working with me over the course of what felt like way too many years during the dissertation process. Serving as an additional support system, the rest of my academic family offered friendship, academic stimulation, and inspiration to help me finish the marathon that was my dissertation. Thank you to my mentors, instructors, colleagues, and classmates who helped remind me that dissertations take time but can be accomplished. In particular, a special thanks to my cohort: Ashton, Amanda, Mike, Dani, Sara, and Josh. I’m so grateful to know you all and I am constantly inspired by all the great work you’re doing. I want to also thank my friends both within and outside the academy. Your patience with my less than stellar friendship these past six years is so appreciated, especially your understanding that I would disappear for weeks at a time to get this dissertation done. Gwen, Stephanie, Andrew, Sarah – you are all amazing people and I’m lucky to know you. I also want to thank my forever womentor, Dr. Amy Aldridge Sanford, who coached me from a distance. Time and space permits me from listing ii everyone else who I count as members of my support network, but those who have been kind to me over the years and offered an ear while I worried about whether I could complete this degree are all appreciated, too. Similarly, my colleagues at NSU have been understanding and helpful in times when I needed to focus attention to my dissertation. I consider myself very lucky to have so many excellent friends in my life. Finally, thank you does not begin to cover the gratitude I have for my family. To the McGowens and Pruferts, thank you for supporting me in numerous ways: watching the kids while I traveled for work, asking kind questions about how my research is going, and generally believing in my ability to accomplish this goal. The Turner family has always been my biggest source of support throughout my entire education – from pre-K to the end of this doctoral program – including my dad, Randy, sister, Molly, brother, Austin, and sister-in-law, Lua. Your babysitting efforts, extra eyes to read drafts of my writing, hours spent listening to my thoughts, and moral encouragement were all integral to the completion of this dissertation. Even after her death, my mother, Cathy, remained an internal voice of strength and encouragement. My children, Grace and Liam, motivated me to finish so that I could spend more time playing with them, and so that I could set an example of how important perseverance is in accomplishing your goals. Last, my eternal gratitude goes to Dustin, my husband, life partner, and biggest cheerleader. If he had not supported me all throughout the graduate program, I do not know how I would have survived. Thank you all and I love you so much. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................ii ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................vii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND JUSTIFICATION .......................................................1 A Few Words on Scandal ...........................................................................6 News Coverage and the New Media Environment ....................................8 Social Media’s Many Voices ....................................................................12 Moving Forward .......................................................................................14 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..................................................................16 A History of Research on Political Scandals ............................................19 Apologia ...................................................................................................19 Image Repair and Other Rhetorical Strategies .........................................23 (Re)framing the Focus on Political Scandals ...........................................26 Media Frames ...........................................................................................27 Politics, Power, and Sexuality ..................................................................32 Politics, Sex, and Power ...........................................................................33 Ideological Circulation .............................................................................36 New Media Theories in a New Media Environment ...............................39 Media Convergence .................................................................................39 Cascading Activation ...............................................................................42 Proposing a New Approach to Political Sex Scandals .............................44 3. METHODOLOGIES ........................................................................................46 iv Weinergate: A Timeline ...........................................................................48 Rhetorical Criticism .................................................................................50 Content Analysis ......................................................................................53 Sample ......................................................................................................54 Coder Training ..........................................................................................57 Categories and Research Questions ..........................................................58 Critical Analysis ........................................................................................64 Moving Forward With the Research .........................................................66 4. RHETORICAL CRITICISM ............................................................................68 Looking Back at Apologia ........................................................................71 Apology and Responsibility in Self-Defense ............................................75 Funny Business: Humor as a Distancing Mechanism ...............................76 Serious Business: Anger at Continued Questioning .................................80 Defiant Regret: Remorse for Previous Actions ........................................85 Solemn Resignation: Formality Used to Protect Weiner’s Future ...........89 Women Used for Political Purposes .........................................................92 Weiner’s Failed Defense ...........................................................................96 5. CONTENT ANALYSIS ...................................................................................98 Descriptive Statistics ...............................................................................100 Research Question 1 ...............................................................................102 Research Question 2 ...............................................................................103 Research Question 3 ...............................................................................105 Research Question 4 ...............................................................................105 v Discussion ...............................................................................................106 Implications for Further Research ..........................................................113 6. CRITICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................115 Unsuccessful Attempts at Apologia ........................................................117 Sexual Innuendos Widely Shared Online ...............................................120 Implications for Sex, Sexuality, and Gender Roles ................................123 Masculinity Reinforced ...........................................................................124