HEROES AND HEROIC I,IFE IN THE ILIAD AND AKRITIC FOIK-SONG
Giannoula Goussias, B.A., Hons., University of Ac{elaide
Department of Classics University of Adelaide
March 1992 -7- CONTE NT S
I Abstract 3
II Declaration 4 m Acknowledgements 5
Mntroduction 6 - aims of study 6 - methodology 6 - limits and parameters 6 - existing material 8 - major differences 10
V Descent 13
VI Horses and Armour 25 Horses 25 - description of horses 26 - hero-horse relationship 30
Armour 38 j'O¡rÎ.orv r<íå,ì,oç raí ioXúç 38 - the effectiveness of unusual weapons M - hero-armour relationship (from birth to maturity) 49 - armour on the battlefield 53 - arming 53 - fighting 56 - plundering 59 - armour in death and beyond 63
VII Heroic Conduct 67 - the primary virtues 67 - contests-"aristeia" 75 - friendship amongst the heroes 83 - heroic characteristics 92 - boasting 92 - sense of honour 97 - quarrels 103 -2-
VIII Heroic Death 1,09 - death and dying 109 - eternal fame - immortality 1,74 - slaying by treachery 722 - Humiliation of the dead on the battlefield 1,27 - The Homeric and Akritic Hades '132 - heroic expressions of emotion 138 - Moipcr 148
IX Conclusion 153 - theme 153 - scene 158 - treatment 1,64 - behaviour and emotions 1,69 - potential explanations for similarities 1,70 171, : i :; ::.i?îi::,î ïä;.i.. 771, heroic convention '172 - the "Greek" ethos 172
x Bibliography 774 - primary sources 174 - secondary sources 174 - wider reading '176 -3-
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present study is to identify, analyse and categorise similarities in heroic life and heroic conduct between the lliad and Akritic folksong. A further purpose is to put forward possible reasons for the existence of these similarities. To this end major differences are first discussed and then a systematic comparison of similarities is completed, in the chapters on Descent, Horses and Armour, Heroic Conduct and Heroic Death. This comparison reveals that similarities can constructively be placed in four major categories: theme, scene, treatment, behaviour and emotion. This categorisation of similarities in turn makes it possible to suggest and to a degree discuss the potential reasons for their persistent recurrence. The examination of potential reasons leads to the conclusion that, although there are possibilities of direct and indirect literary influence of Homeric epic upon Akritic folksong, nevertheless the possibility of similarities being due to a specifically Greek realisation of the heroic convention must remain. -4-
DECLARATION
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
This thesis may be lent or photocopied
Signed
Gianna Goussias -5-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful for advice given me in the course of my research by my supervisors: Professor R G Ussher, Mr D A Hester, and Dr Paul Tuffin, of the Classics Department in the University of Adelaide; for material provided by Dr A Diamantis, Professor D Dimiroulis and Mr D Dounas; and for continuous support provided by my husband. INTRODUCTION
Aim of Study
The aim of this study is to bring order to an undefined idea of similarities between the Homeric epic of the lliad and the Akritic cycle of mainly heroic
folk songs. The study intends to organize and put these similarities into shape - by also pointing out the differences - and to suggest reasons for their
recurrence. It also Proposes to devise a system or a scheme for distinguishing
why there are such fundamental similarities, but it does not promise to provide conclusive or specific answers to the reasons behind their resurfacing. The main aim is thus to offer suggestions and potential explanations which will rather point myself and others to further research.
Methodology
This is an analytical and comparative study of Homeric epic - the lliad - and
Akritic song, conducted with a view to discerning similarities - mainly - and differences in theme, scene, treatment, behaviour and emotions. To this effect, an analysis is initially conducted under the more descriptive chapters of Descent, Horses and Armour, Heroic Conduct and Heroic Death, in
order to assist us in compiling a more detailed and specific list of similarities -
and differences - between the lliad and Akritic song.
Limits and Parameters
Due to the wide range of material examined and its versatile nature, certain limits and parameters must be set for our study before embarking on our comparison.
The most urgent matter to be settled is the choice of material and the prehistory of the texts examined. It is thus emphasized that no attempt
whatsoever will be made to reconstruct the Urgeschichte of either the
Homeric epic or the Akritic versions of folk song. Restructuring of the texts is beyond the scope of this thesis, hence the material dealt with is taken at face -7- value.
In the case of the lliad. discussion of the Homeric question will be altogether avoided, and consequently terms such as "Homer", will be replaced by others - mainly lliad , "Homeric epic" and "Homeric verse". This does not however apply to secondary sources quoted.
As far as selection of material is concerned, it must be stressed that due to emphasis on conventional heroism, the llind has become the centre of our study, leaving aside the more perplexing unconventional heroic attitude of
Odysseus in the Odyssey.
The same criteria are again applied to our study of Akritic song, which is looked at in its "established present form". Here, due to the existence of many different versions of songs in various collections, compiled by a number of authors, there has been no attempt to justify the validity and accuracy of any of them. Selection has rather been made only according to the fact that certain collections are representative of a wide range of material. Hence the collections of Petropoulos,l Kalonaros,2 Polites,3 and Makis a are given priority, although a number of other sources are also used.
Because of the dispersion of the Akritic material, and its manifestation in different versions, Akritic quotations are cited in full in this study, so as to avoid confusion; while the lliad is not always cited at length because of easy access to it.
Additionally, it must be mentioned that all Akritic material5 and modern
I netpónouÀou, Â 'EÀl.r1vrrrÍ Âr¡¡rotrrcú Tpcyoúôro.', Baorcri B$Lto?fircr\, Apt0. 46, A0riivcr, 1958.
2 faÀovcÍpou, flétpou, fl., Baofi.etoç hyevfiç Arcphaç, Aerlvc 1970.
3 nolitou, N.f., 'ArprtrrcÍ Ao¡rcto, O OrÍvaroç roù at'¡evrl', AaoypaQía, Athens 1909. a UtÍrr¡, B.X., 'Ar¡potrrccÍ Tpcyoriõrc, Arprtrrd,' Neoe ).2,4wrcr1 BtBdto?rlrq. t.
5 Recent works dealing with the Akritic songs, using thc montonic system are : Rvcyvorró¡toulou, -8- Greek secondary quotations are recorded following the by now widely acceptable monotonic system. Furthermore, the vexing question of the
relationship between the Byzantine literary epic of Digenis Akritas and the
Akritic cycle of songs is not handled at all. There is, therefore, no intention on our part to establish whether the literary epic preceded, is contemporary with or succeeded the Akritic songs.ó
Existing Material
This study has been mainly prompted by the absence of any analytical and
critical work dealing with the similarities of the hero and the heroic life in the
Iliad and the Akritic cycle of songs. Nevertheless, general comments have
sporadically been made chiefly by contemporary Greek philologistsT as well as foreign commentatorss and philhellenese - about the similar character, attitude and conduct displayed by the Homeric, Akritic and Klephtic hero; often in order to indicate a continuity of social values and character through heroic
manifestations and to strengthen arguments supporting modern Greek ties with the Ancient Greek world.
A useful account does exist of the general similarities between the Homeric
hero - in the lliad as well as the Odyssey - and folk song - Klephtic songs in
particular.l0 However, the author refrains from indicating reasons for these
1.2., O @dvarcç KaL . o rdrat róo¡toç orrl Aq¡tonrcrl noír¡oq. A0r{va, 1984. Âlôcrroprrnl Atatprpri, also Sultan, N., "\ilomen in 'Akritic'song: The Hero's 'Olher Voice', Journal of Modern Greek Studies, Vol.9. No. 2. Ocrober 1991, p. l53ff.
6 For a discussion on this see: fletpórouÀou, Eroalcrryri, also Beaton, R., Fotk Poetry of Modern Greece, Cambridge, 1980, p. 781f, and :"Digenes Ak¡ites" and Modern Greek Folk Song: A Reassessment", Byzanti on J/, 1981, p.22ff.
7 'NeoeÀl.r1vrrcó See : .floÀitq, ri0oç, H MopQrl roù Ayolvrotrrl'. @épam rne AoyoreTvíoÇ !oç, ^.,_oecocÀovírr¡, p..l!-37, and ruroúprr, I., 'emÀeyð¡revo eiç to égyoí tou Zielinski, Th., 'Hu¡iç. Kû,r. or Aplcior', MeVran rcat Aplpa, n0nlvcir,'1956, p.-93ff. Ätso : Kcrprônf, l.@., O¡n1ptxri Aé¡tara, A0rivo, 1954.
8 See: Fauriel, Chants populaires tle Ia Grèce nr¡derne, Paris, 1824, vol.l, p. 139. 9 See: Voutier, Mémoires, Paris, 1823, p.4[ì, also: Raybauci, Max., Mémoires sur la Gréce,paris, 1824- 1825, vol. l. p. 341.
,uT¿; !", ^:uff-#:iuíi,i^1' #:r-nl"#rî: ;ß: us, G., "Akriric and Homeric Poerry", Tó¡roç KZ, 1963, and -9- similarities, assuming once again that they emanate from the Greek character. In general, when an attempt is made by such writers to provide reasons, arguments tend to be primarily guided by romantic, emotional and nationalistic claims. I I
Recent interest in the until now rather shadowy literature of the medieval Byzantine periodl2 has also prompted this long overdue critical study, concerning the projection of the Akritic hero in general. The upcoming international symposiuml3 to be held by the Department of Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies and the Centre for Hellenic Studies at King's College Londop with the main theme of "Byzantine Heroic Poetry: New Approaches to Digenis Akrites" will definitely contribute considerably to the study and understanding of Byzantine Heroic Poetry. Professor Sifakis' lecture on "Flomeric survival in the medieval and modern Greek Oral tradition" in particular has already attracted *y attention and I will be following it with great interest.
Until now/ attempts to deal with the corpus of Akritic folk songs, can be defined as either purely anthological, or mainly historically reconstructive. Due to the existence of a wide range of various versions of Akritic songs, efforts have always been made to compile different collections of songs that displayed a distinct regional flavour. A differentiation has thus been made between Akritic versions from : Cyprus,l4 Pontus,ts and the mainland.l6
Toouõepoó, f., O¡tow rcat napdÀ.\qAa Qpaoøra ouorrf¡tara, ora Opr¡ptrd én7 rat orc NeoeALqwró õq¡ronró qayoúù. Ta oaord rpmlpta qç yvqoónytaç roN NeoeLlr1vtxcóv õr1¡tortrccóv rpayouôrrív, A0rlva, l9''t6.
I I See e.g. Kouppoúl,r¡, feóp., Eroç ru enxfi ú)"q, Enetr¡piç <ÞrÀ. 4. flavenorr¡¡rlou A0r¡vóv, cpr0. 5, 1954-1955, c. 229., also: Ma,póvr¡, K., 'O Oprìpoç, O Âryevr{ç Axpircç Kat I AÀl,q ôr¡¡rottrrl Bu(cvtrvrri floiqorl', ÐJ"qvtxrl tq¡uoupyíø Ârlevrl Arpítaç (AQréporyc B'), A0rivc, 1950, p.817-819, an
13 7-8 May 1992.
14 See: XprotoõoúÀou, M.N, Kurpwrcci Arlpaôn Aopara, Aeurooio,, 198?, <Þap¡rariôq, X. -10-
Last century, the main concern of scholars who discussed the Akritic cycle was to attempt to date the Akritic songs - or specific versions - according to names, mainly of emperors and strategoi, places or battles often mentioned in them.l7 Such an approach has now been abandoned due to a most valuable contribution and insight into the workings of oral poetry or song,ls which has proved such a historical approach to be of only limited value.
Major differences
Before embarking on our comparison of similarities, certain major differences in the nature and the context of the material concerning the lliad and the Akritic folk song, should be underlined. This is necessary in order to clarify and justify some fundamental questions about the material scrutinized, and avoid criticism on broader issues.
First of all, the different nature of the material should be stressed and explained, for when we come to compare the lliad with the Akritic cycle of songs, we are dealing with two distinct forms of verse. The lliad has already been defined as a heroic epic poem with unsurpassed unity of theme, incorporating a considerable body of oral songs dealing with the Trojan war. There are no other surviving versions of this material displaying a variety of thematic approaches that can be included in our study.
Kwpn En1.
15 See: Â,c¡rryiôr¡,. fI., Ar1ponrccÍ qayoúõn rou lTóvtou, A0rivc, 1960, and M 16 See e.g., ApcBovtrvóç, II, \úJ,oyry õr1paõov aopciuov rr7ç Hreípou, Arhens, 1880. t7 See: Zambelios' comment in Arcaôr1pta Aer¡vóv, Ð,)"r¡vucri õr¡ponrd, rpayoú\w A', Arhens, 1962,pp.59-63, also : Ricks, D., Byzantine lleroic Poetry, Bristol Classical Press, 1990, p.2., and Gregoire., who went. to extrcmes to account lor narncs and dates appearing in the songs. O Aryevfiç Axphaç, New York, 1942. l8 See: Parry, M. The Making of Ilomeric Verse, Oxîord, '1971, Lord, A.8., The Sínger of Tales, Cambridge, Mass. 1960, also sec Winnilrith, Torn, A.pects of the epic, London, 1983, p. 82ff. 11- Whereas, when we look at the Akritic cycle, there is not one specific work involved - when we set aside the Byzantine literary epic - but many different versions of songs. Although we often have lengthy versions of some songs - chiefly from Cyprus - none of them incorporates all the existing Akritic material to form a unified work. There is, thus, no question of a work of epic proportions. We are rather dealing with heroic folk songs - as opposed to poetry - of previously oral nature, that have been written down and published in their "original" form. Second, when we look at the material, there are certain contextual differences that must be taken into account. The chronological gap of about 2000 years does indeed present major differences in society and circumstances. The Homeric and Akritic worlds display differences in social, political and religious aspects, all of which cannot be fully examined here, but simply outlined. The elaborate system of lords and kings in the lliad, allows for the development of a highly organised system of heroes, representing a number of Greek and Trojan regions, that contribute to the variety, excitement and intensity of heroic encounters. Furthermore, the rich pantheon of Greek gods and their human-like behaviour enrich the action significantly. Additionally, in the Iliad, we are confronted with a highly idealized set of circumstances, which has the enemy bodies practically facing each other for a long period of time, allowing a constant flow of on-the-spot heroic activity. On the other hand, when it comes to the Akritic social and political sphere, we are again met with a"kingship"- this time a single one - that again employs "heroes" - the Akritai - to guarcl the borders of the Byzantine empire. And although the emeny should be obvious - the Saracens - there is instead a territorially conducted war, thaf first of all satisfies personal gains that do not 72- always coincide with the empire's interests. Furthermore, this is a war fought at a more distant range, which first of all makes the employment of horses not a luxury, but a necessity; and secondly, has a far greater element of surprise and excitement in its encounters. The incorporation of imaginary animal opponents is also apparent, displaying a wider use of folk mythology. As far as religious beliefs are concerned, the rise and - by then - the establishment of Christianity should be taken into consideration, since this immediately accounts for certain differences in beliefs. DESCENT The theme of descent plays a very decisive role in the lives and performance of the heroes in Homeric poetr/, and in the Iliad in particular, as well as the Akritic Cycle of folk songs. Established family ties are important in determining the reputation of the heroes, which becomes a valuable source of confidence and courage in the turbulent moments of their equally stormy lives. This is achieved mainly through : - the projection of the heroes in connection with their fathers. - i.quiry about the hero's genealogy in the conventional way of direct question and answer, often found in heroic poetry. - self-praise and boasting of the heroes themselves in moments of victory and glory, and - statements of encouragement and praise of the hero's worthy race and conduct either by other people or often by the poet himself. Heroes and their father ln the lliød the poet introduces the heroes always in association with their fathers : Achilles with Peleus : ' nrìÀ€iôn peycÍ0upe (XXI, 153), Diomedes with Tydeus, (V 724-726), Pandarus with Lycao , (V 2M), Tleptolemos and Hercules : ' Tl.r¡nóÀe¡rov ô' 'Hpa,rÀeÍôr1v, ririv te ¡Éyøv te' (V, 628), Idomeneus with Deucalion (XIII 452), Aeneas with Anchises : ' crùtùp ð1<ìrv uiòç ¡reyoÀritopoç 'A1lioao' (XX 208) This enforces Redfield's statement that : " The cooperative relation between father and son is an outgrowth of the special character of inheritance in the Homeric world. Inheritance secures the continuity of the household, which is the fundamental social institution. -1,4- Through the continuity of institutions, culture rescues some stability from the flux of nature; the household continues, and each householder has his household, as it were, in trust for his heirs".l9 For it was indeed the fathers of the heroes who send their sons to war with the order to excel, and not to shame their race, as Diomedes emphasizes in vI208-210 : ' aièv crptoteúerv rcrì óreipolov ë¡r.pevør d,ÀJ,r¡v, pnôb yévoç nctépcov aioXuvê¡rev oi pé/ riprotor Ëv r' 'EQúp[ èyévovto rcx,ì èv Aurí'¡ eùpei¡' And as a response to this expectation, the heroes often boast that they emulated and surpassed their ancestors' fame : " ipeîç tot ncrrêpolv ¡rét' d¡reívoveç eriXó¡re0' etvqt' (IV 405) In the realm of Akritic songs the connection of the heroes and their fathers is again preeminent, and it is often declared not only by the personal statements of the heroes : ' o Appoúpqç, o AppoupónouÀoç, t' Appoúpq, o uróç Apéotr¡{ (Tou Appoúprl, l. 142) but even by the titles of some songs, such as : ' Tolv utóv tou Avôpóvtrou. 2o ' Tou rol.opofpr¡ o ytó( (tpoyoúôr rou Appoúpn) 2r ' To ncÍÀ¡po tou Toa¡raõoú pr ro Tro tou' 22 However, in the Akritic Cycle, an extra dimension has been added as far as paternal ties are concerned. While in the lliad we only meet the heroes in the prime of their youth in a setting of war, which restricts their projection in time 19 Redfield, Jamcs, M: Nature and Culture in the Itiatt ; The'l'ragedy of Ílecror.Chicago and l¡ndon, 1975,p.1 1 I 20 Xalovripou, flÉtpot¿., Baofi,etoç Aryevrtç Arpíraç, Aerivar, t9?0, p. 210-Zl2 2r nypóy9uÀou, _Ar¡pr¡rgiou., EÀÀr¡vrrrí Âr¡¡rortrrÍ Tpcyoúõro., Baotrrl B$),to7fir1, op. 46, A0rlvar, 1958, p. 33-3a. 22 tbi¿, p. 54-55. 15- and place, in the Akritic songs we have the oppor'unity to meet the hero - in different versions - in all the facets of his life - from birth to death. And it is from the moment of his birth that we see the young hero anxious to associate himself with his father, and to stand equal to his ancestors by preserving the heroic tradition of his race. The singer makes this task even greater since the father is usually absent, enslaved or completely unknown to the young hero, who is consequently forced to mature and prove himself at a younger age. These circumstances, therefore, demand that the theme of descent and race must be treated with greater urgency and importance. Descent, then, becomes not only the opening theme, but also the focal point of the whole song, and it is associated with the subordinate theme of the challenge. That is where the usually background figure of the mother is of more integral significance. She is the necessary link between the son and the absent but valiant father, and she sets the standards with which the young hero is challenged in order to determine, equal and surpass his heroic paternal tradition. This topic is developed in detail in the opening lines of the Song of Armouris (Tou Appoúpr¡), where the son is challenged by his mother to bend his enslaved father's golden spear in order to prove his strength and maturity and to be allowed to ride with the other.crpXovtónoul.a'.23 At this point it is difficult to avoid an association of the theme of challenge with the contest set by Penelope, in the absence of Odysseus, where Telemachus also takes part24 Another variation, the theme of the enslaved mother and the young son separated from his father 25 and brother, is the opening of the Akritic song of 23 KaÀovdpou, p. 213, Tou Appoúpq, l.4-20. 24 Odyssey, Book XXI 25 In the Iliad, the same theme ol rhc son "bercaved" fiom his lather, is suggesred by Andromache's lament, after Hector's deaú¡, whcre-shc fbrcsces a dcgrading trcatment of Astyana;r as an orphan with no esteem in the community, since ' {pap õ öpQcvrrcóv novo.Qri},rra no,iôa tiOr¡or' (XXII, 490) -76- the Sons of Andronikos (Tcov Yróv ro'u Avõpóvtrou).26 Here the son himself challenges the Saracens, and having managed to jump over nine horses blindfolded, with his hands tied and carrying heavy lead on his shoulders, "a(úcrotov poÀúõtv", wins his freedom, which allows him to find his father. On the whole, there seems to be a Homeric as well as an Akritic urgency on behalf of the hero to associate himself with a renowned father. For this link with a heroic father not only guarantees the hero an initial recognition and attention focused on his conduct, but at the same time sets a high standard which he is challenged to surpass - and subsequently he claims to have done so. Therefore, it is by exaggerating his ancestral strength that the hero elevates his own strength even more. The hero's genealogy In the /líød we often find the heroes inquiring about their opponents' family tree during battle. In the duel between Asteropaios and Achilles, the latter asks his opponent about his generation : 'tiç nóOev eio' a,võprõv, ö ¡reu ätÀqç civtioç äl.Oeiv ; ' (XXI 1S0). Asteropaios answers proudly in XXI 153-160. Here we get the impression that in fact we witness a clash of two separate family trees, whose honour and glory the two heroes are defending, boasting till death. After the death of his opponent Achilles exclusively attributes his victory to the superiority of his family (XXI, 187-199). Diomedes inquires about Glaucus' descent : ' tiç õè oú ðoor, Qéptote rato0vr¡trñv civOpóncov, (vr 123 ff) which is followed by the magnificent simile referring to genealogy from Glaucus, and the scene of recognition of old paternal guest friendship existing 26 t The same curiosity about the heroes' genealogy is noted in the folk Akritic songs, but the stage now is not only the battleground. In the song lohn and Dragon (frdvvr'¡ç Kctt ÂpcÍroç), the Dragon inquires about his opponent's race: ' - Mcr ôe pou.Àeç, pnpe ftd,vvr¡ pou, æoóOe y€vrol(pctréocn ;' (frcÍvvr1ç rar Apóroç, l. 26, lletpoæoúÀou, v.1,, p. 2l) which is followed by the exaggerated answer of Yiannis : ï pdvcr pou elv' rl û,orpcrTr'i ru aQévrnç pou eív' ö Bpóvtoç, rr eyó x' o,orpa'ftonéÀero, nou røico roou ôþøródou(. (1.'27-2Ð: that completely changes the circumstances, so that the dragon who intended to have l-icívvq for lunch, now invites him to return sometime, so that they can lunch together. In the Fight between Tsamados and his son (To ruìtepa rou Toa¡røõoú p€ to Tl,o rou), in the fatal encounter between father and son, the father inquires about his young opponent's family tree, which results in the recognition scene that unfortunately is too late for death to be avoided : ' p.ou, ppe -.ficr. reç BÀaXónouÀo, nó0e' v' ta yovrrcÍ oou ; ' -'Eyó_'pcrr.'ro' Apetr(ç, o T-roçr tou Tocpaôtoú pncrotcÍp6o( ( To ncilepq, rou Tocr¡ra,ôtoó ¡re to Tto rou, l. 1,5-16; fletponoúÀou, v, 1. p.55) The recognition theme between father and son after a fatal duel, with the death of the father, can also be seen in the Telegony of Eugammon, where we have the encounter between Odysseus and Telemachus, followed by Odysseus' death.27 The same setting is encountered in the meeting of Oedipus and his 27 R.:cognition scene bctwcen lather and son, scc N. I-loÀirr¡ç, Er),oyaí, uptl. 77 , p. 54. For the same theme in ol.her nations see, Folkktre London, vol. XIII (1902), p.444-447, vol. XIV (1903), p.ZOl--iog, Vol. XV (1904), p.216-220. 18- father Laios, in the " o1torliv öõóv., at the crossroads which leads from Thebes to Delphi and Korinth, which ends with the tragic death of the father.28 The same thematical approach is found in the song of the Son of Androníkos, where the younger son who is searching for his father and brother, accidentally gets entangled in a fight against his older brother, but the curiosity of the spectator father to find out the little boy's family ' - A, ppe popóv, Kr ovr(l.trov, nóOev sv Tì Tewd oou, rsí æóOev €v' n pi(cr oou rqi tcr T€vverircÍ oou ; ' (froç tou Avõpóvtrou, l. 48-49,lletpónoul,ou, V.7 p.37) leads to the recognition scene and the reunion of the three male members of the family. Often inquiry emanates from insult, as happens in the beginning of the song of the Sons of Androníkos (T ' - A ôe rov Turov rrlç qvopTìç, ü ôe' tov yurov r¡ç roúppoç A' ô€ rov yutóv t' Avtpóvtrou Kr' o Kóotqç c,epgóç rou'. (Tcov Tróv tou Avôpóvrrou, l. 42-43 KaÀovópou, p. 211) lead to the question of descent and the necessary reestablishment of his pride race which is now settled by his mother as she consoles and reassures him of his family's worth ' Ev eioar yutóç tqç d,vopqÇ, ev eiocn próç tr1ç roópBaç Ttcrp' eioat yutóç t' Avtpóvrrou Kr' ö Kóotaç q€pQóç oou', and consequently leads to the eagerness of the young boy to find out about his genealogy in detail : ' crpótr'¡oev trç pi(eç tou r,a. naTcTco.yovtrcú tou' (Torv Yróv rou Avtpóvrrov,l.70, KcÀovcÍpou, p.2L2) In the same song it should also be noted that the young boy is not only anxious to prove his father's famous name, but his mother's worthy race as well. He 28 See K. Pcopciou, H xoír1or¡ evóç Aaoú, Aer¡va, 1968, p. 60. 19- considers it a great shame to have his mother's family name insulted by the Saracens. A hero should come from an equally good family tree on his mother's side, so as not to show any signs of inferior birth or to be scorned by other people and enemies. However, in the Akritic songs, the mother of the heroes is often declared to be of a different race, usually a )ew, a Saracen, or a widow2e, an aspect which reflects the descent of the twyborn hero in the Byzantine epic of Digenis Akrites.30 In the lliad as well, Achilles is famous for his "mixed" descent, since he springs from mortal Peleus and divine Thetis. Finally, there is no doubt of the interest of both the Homeric and the Akritic hero in the genealogy of their close-rank opponents as well as their need and necessity to confirm and establish their own family connections. In fact, the hero in both Homeric and the Akritic song appears to inherit his strength and sense of honour from his father's well known ancestry. His mother's descent is less clearly defined (she is either a goddess, a Jew, a Saracen or a widow), but she is more actively involved in the crucial moments of his life, while the figure of the father is usually absent. In the case of Peleus, he is far away from Troy and his troubled son, Achilles, while the father of the Akritic hero in general is either absent or enslaved. Self-praise and boasting In Homeric poetry, and in the lliad in particular, the boasting of heroes about their significant descent is a very common phenomenon. It reflects the 29' EtnÊ. qç orúIcç rov utóv, tr¡ç cvopíaç ro térvov' (tou Appoúpq, l. 171), ' A' ô€ tov 1utóv tr¡ç dvo¡rr¡ç, o' ô€ rov 'yuróv 4Z 48, 5l), ' Eppoio, 1évvr¡oe natôi ru' é H p<Ívc to'u €v' Icpcrrlvrl rr' o rúptç to Itpctrlyoú, 1.45), ' O t(' úpqç tou eo I (H rópq tou neBcÍvtTì rou BaorÀéa, I. 96, cíÀoyc (Xrlpcç u1'r.óç rct'AÀo1ct, l.l, IIe rÇ épraÀev tov llpooQúprc' (O flpooQúpraç, Arptnrri rio¡rata e( averürou EúJ,ofiç, l. l, EÀeu0eprriôn). 30 In t¡e epic, however, evcn though Digenis comcs l'ro¡n a Sa¡accn laticr and a Christian mother, the poet painstakingly empha:;izes hat his lathcr comcs from an cqually famous and glorious family, which in the end even converl.s to Christianity, so as to lcavc no doublslo thc superiority of his genealogy on both sides. 20- interest of the people of the heroic age in genealogy, and their need to relate themselves to an honourable and respected artistocratic family with divine origin. Specifically, with the praise of their divine descent and their ancestral glory, they intend to strenghten indirectly their artistocratic and hereditary authority.3l They never miss a chance to take pride in their ancestors'brave deeds, which indirectly proclaim the transfer of the ancestral virtues and glory to themelves. This boosts their ego, their pride and self-confidence. The heroes always brag of their superior stock. Glaukos indulges in a eulogy of his superior descent which ends with the words : ' toútr1ç rot yeveflç te rc,ì ai¡ro,toç eö2go¡rat divar' (VI 211) Diomedes emphasizes that : 'ncrrpòç S ëq'ú1o0oû raì è1ò 1évoç eöXo¡rar divcrt'(XIV 113) Aeneas underlines his semi-divine stock a9tùp uiòç r fuòv Fel|Àtilopoç .AyXioSco eü2¿opm ëryeydpev, pútnp ôé poi èot' 'A0poôírr¡" (XX 208-209) In his "aristeia", Diomedes points out the superiority of his hereditary strength: ' où ycíp pol levvcriov riÀuorcÍ(ovtr pdXeo0ar oùõè rcr,tc,ntóooetv' Ëtr por pévoç äpneõóv èocv' (V 253-254) Idomeneus in particular boasts with pathos of his divine origin, over the slain body of Alkathoos, as he addresses DeÏphobos (XIII M5-454) In the Akritic songs, the necessity to emphasize and stress one's great descent arises again when the hero, now emancipated, has to meet his opponents and really establish himself as a valiant hero worthy of his race. Fully informed now of his glorious ancestors, he is ready to defend himself against reproach not only with his physical strength, but with the powerful weapon of his 3l Finley, M.L.,T-he Wortd of Odys.seu.s, Lonilon, 1956, p. 84, t47 27- suPerior descent. He now provokes inquiry and criticism in order to find an oPPortunity to display his ancestral claims. In the song of Armourís (Tou Appoúpr¡), the young hero repeatedly warns the Saracens about his strength through self-praise and boasting of his descent : ' Iapørqvoi, crppøtóveoOe, oruì.td erç cr,Trrorlav pr¡v to '1ete ótr anépø o Appoúpr'¡ç,oAp¡roupónouÀoç, l. Apéorr¡Ç. (Tou Appoúpq, l. 7 2) He also on two occasions swears by his race that he will not forget them (his enemies) : ' Anó ro 1Évoç pou ôtcrpó, crv oaç eÀr¡opovr{oco 0.84,752) an oath which declares the seriousness and respect with which ancestral ties are treated. The pride displayed by the hero in his descent - mixed or not - is also the topic of the song of the Abduction of the Daughter of Leaanti.s (Aprøyrd qç Kópnç tou ÂepcÍvq). In this case Digenis, having had his offer for marriage - carried by his trusted friend and elder Õtl.onqrnoú - rejected by the girl's parents on account of his mixed descent, infuriated, determines on kidnapping the girl, which he finally achieves with the help of Otl,oncrnnoú and a magical [croúro or tapnoupøv. But his anger at rejection and the insult to his descent leads him to symbolically cut off - in a fight - the hands of the girl's mother, sarcastically repeating her words of rejection in triumph at his success. 32 Also, it is interesting to note that, although generally the hero uses descent as a powerful weapon against his opponents, when it comes to his final duel with XcÍpoç (Death), there is no mention of any genealogical information. The Akritic hero like Achilles ín the lliad in his final duel with Hector knows the strength of his opponent. His final combatant has nothing to fear as far as 32 ar, réooeprç t(cr névte, pcrooû,, ôev ¡re OéÀerç ; q; . 11, l. 2A6-209, fletpónoul.ou, p.l3). 22- ancestral claims of valour are concerned. The confined space of the marble threshing floor will become the arena of their struggle, and the witness of their strength, which cannot rely on boasting and ancestral claims. Generally, the heroes both in tÌc.e lliad and the Akritic folk songs appear boastful about their lineage, which they repeatedly and emphatically stress with every opportunity they get. Also, due to similar close-quarter fighting, they both often indulge in genealogical self-praise before, during and after their triumph in battle. Praise of the hero's descent by others In the lliad , indirect statements of praise of the hero's great descent become a boost of strength and confidence equal to none. This encouragement usually comes from the old and wise Nestor, who often in times of grave danger reminds the Achaeans of their sense of honour (VII '123-1,61). In another instance, in book XI, the same hero supplicates each man for the sake of his parents to stand equal to them, and the influence that the glorious ancestors have on the heroes is immediately evident (XV 659-667). The strength and courage that the Homeric heroes derive from their lineage in almost all of the difficult moments of the war, are vividly displayed by Athena, who heartens Diomedes with the exhortation : ' Oapocõv vûv, Âró¡rr1ôeç ðnì Tpóeoor p{Xeo0at' î yo:p tor" ot{Oeoot pévoç natprótov .fira d,tpo¡rov, oiov éXeore ocrréonaÀoç i¡nótq TuôeúÇ (v 724-126) In their "aristeiai" the Akritic heroes usually stand alone against thousands of opponents, lacking the encouragement of friends or elders upon which in any event they do not appear to rely. However, their successful efforts are often cheered on and praised, as happens in a Cypriot song, where Digenis is praised for having stood equal to his ancestors by preserving the heroic tradition of his -23 - race ' - Kcn Terc ooD, yercr oou Aryev{, ocrv sv' Tl øQelrrcÍ oou, étot ocrv ev' n pí.(ø oou Kq,r rcx, Tevvqtrrú oou" (Kunprarú XpovrrccÍ, r,. I o. 145) Furthermore, it should be pointed out that the whole theme of descent would not have been pre-eminent, if the heroes did not strive for immortality, not simply by their own heroic conduct, but also by the continuation of their ancestral glory through male descendants who were challenged to emulate and surpass their fathers. Thus also the family with many sons appears to have been the ideal one, in both Homeric and Akritic periods. In Book XXIV 247- 264, Priam is depicted as scolding his nine still living sons, expressing his grief for the loss of his noblest sons, Mestor, Troilos and Hector, who were killed by Ares the war-god, but further emphasizing the fact that he still has enough sons to order around, who will offer him comfort and support in his twilight years. In her very emotional plea to Hector, Andromache is also stressing the fact that she had seven brothers who were killed in one day by Achilles : ' oi ôé' por ë¡rtù rqoíyvr¡tot ëocrv èv ¡reyd,potorv' (vr 421,) In the Akritic songs on the other hand, the idea of having male children is again predominant throughout, always stressing the importance of continuing the family name, and defending it against defilement. The titles of some songs - as has already been indicated earlier in this chapter - indeed make this mainfest " Tc¡v Ttóv tou Avõpóvtrou "33 " Tou Kal,o¡roipr¡ o luroÇ (Tpcryoúôr rou Appoúprl)34 ' To flóÀepcx, rou Tou¡raõoú p.e ro ïuro rou' 35 ' Xúpaç u1tóç Kq,r cÍÀo1a'ro 33 ralovrípou, p. 210- 212. 34 netpónouÀou. p.33 - 34 35 ibi¿, p. 54-55 36 ibi¿. o. ss -24 - The most ideal family situation seelns to be when there are a lot of sons and only one daughter, who can be taken care of, defended, and treasured by all the brothers. She signifies beauty, and she is privileged in the family, usually married only to the best of grooms who will promise to look after her as her brothers did. This idea is fully explored in the song of the Dead Brother (Tot¿ Nerpoú AôeÀQoó) and is immediately noted in the first line : ' McÍvvs p€ rouç evvtd, ooD yrouç Kq,l pe rn prcr, oou rópq' (Tou Nerpoó nõel"Qoó, l. l, KcrÀovd.pou, p. 208) So, in the highly competitive and war-based social background of t};re lliad as well as the Akritic song, there is a similarly strong emphasis on having male children. Their existence appears necessary, not only for the immediate protection of their family, but mainly for the prospect of raising the heroic standard of the family name through heroic conduct. Female children had no hope of either immediately protecting, preserving or upgrading their ancestral glory only perhaps through giving birth to sons. HORSES AND ARMOUR The hero in the Iliad , and in the Akritic songs in particular, leads a lonely existence, since heroism presupposes self-projection and often social isolation. Although a number of themes concerning family matters and personal relationships are extensively treated in the songs, they belong exclusively to the social sphere of the hero's life. When it comes to challenges, contests, fighting with the enemy and abducting, the hero has no company, at least not a human companion with whom he can share his valour, fame and praise. However, although it is the bravery of the individual that is continually projected and praised, the hero is constantly accompanied by his horse(s) and armour, which equally reflect the hero's splendour, as lriÀæolv Kupraríõr¡ç indicates : ' . . r1 noiqorìç l(cxr erç rs rorvd npúyporcr rolv qpóaw 0éÀ¿t ¡reyal,onpénersv Kcn noÀutéÀerq,v, côrdQopov edv eivat cvtiOetoç ¡poç rqv rpcrypcrll(ótqtc¡rz The superiority of the hero is indeed reflected in his most treasured possessions : they are the necesssary accessories of heroism which both protect and glorify the hero. As will become clear from the discussion that follows, horses fulfil the role of transport and enconragement, mainly before and after his "aristeia" (or "great deed"), while the armour is the silent but invincible source of protection and offensive action in battle, and an aspect of status and pride throughout his life. HORSES In Homeric verse the distinguishecl warriors fight from their chariot which is led by two horses driven by the charioteer. Akritic heroes fight on horseback 37 xuprarciôr1ç, rriÀnorv, H rcaraorceur\ rr.,ç aoríõaç îou Axûét&, Eætno[c In heroic poetry, "No animal lother than the horse] invites so technical or so discriminating a knowledge or excites stronger affection and admiration." 39 The horse is a vital part of the heroic identity both as an extension and display of the hero's capabilities, as well as a form of animate (almost semi-human) support of the hero. Two distinctive common themes, found in both Homeric and Akritic poetry, come under the headings of : Description of horses, and Hero-horse relationship. Descríption of horses In both heroic periods the splendour and strength of horses is widely emphasized. In the Homeric era, horses were greatly respected for their poise and beauty, and they were only used in athletic contests (in competition or as prizes - Book XXIII, 'Ael.q önì l-latpórÀql) and in war. They had their own names which often refer to their colour or ability. In the lliad, Achilles'horses answer to the names of Xanthos and Balios : ' EcÍv0e te rcì Bq,Àíe, tr¡ÀercIura têrvq lloôcÍypqÇ. (XIX 400) The descent of the horses is immediately emphasized because, according to Bowra, " By universal consent one of the most important things about a horse is its pedigree, and just as heroes are superior to other men through their lineage, so their horses are superior to other horses by their birth and resemble their masters in a divine origin or at least in having been trained by gods, like the horses of Eumelus at Troy which are second only to those of Achilles, swift 38 Kuprcriôr¡ç, ItiÀrrov, O Aryevrjç Arpíraç, Aerivcr 1926, p. 42 ff 39 Bowra, C.M. Í!eroic Poetry,Ncw York 1966, p. 157 27- as birds and alike in their coats, age and height, and worthy of the nurture which Apollo gave them in Perea"40 (11,763-767). Agamemnon's mare was Aithe, and Menelaus' horse was Podargos. ' Ai0r¡v tf¡v 'Aya,pepvovér"¡v tòv ðpóv te llóôagyov .' (XXIII 295) while Hector addresses his four horses by the names : ' Edv0e te rcrì oú, flóôcrp1e, rcrì Ai0olv .Adpæe te ôîe. (VIII 185) The stock epithets most often used to describe the horses refer to their swift feet: cörúæoôeç (XII 51), <öréeç innot (Xll 62, XVI 380, 866), and their build póvu2¿crç (XXIII 7), ë$o.rrxevaç (XXIII 171). The incredible speed of the horses is often compared to the strength of the wind. In the Aol.óvetcr Dolon tells Odysseus that the horses of Rhesos, King of the Thracians, are equal in speed to the wind. ' roõ õù ral"Iiotouç innouç iôov flõè pe1íotouç' Àeurótepor Xtóvoç, 0eietv ö avépototv öpoiot'. (x436-437) The horses of Achilles in the arming sense of Patroclus are not only compared to the wind's speed but they are declared to have been born from Podarge and conceived of the west wind (Ze0upoç) , " toùç äterce Zrqúpq ové¡rrg "ApnDro l-loôtipyr¡' () vt, 150) And again, at the end of Achilles' arming scene, Xanthus, in his reassurance of their loyalty to their master, boasts that they are swifter than the west wind : 'vrñt ôè rcai Krv apa nvorfr ZeQúpoto Oéotpev, tiv nep äÀo,Qpotútqv Qúo' ép¡^tevat (xtx 415-416) Their ability to leap over natural obstacles such as ditches is also often 40 Bo*ra, C.M. tleroic Poety. New York l9(16, p. l-57 -28 - indicated as we see from Hector's statement that the horses will lightly jump over the Achaean ditch : . innor õè þéa tciqpov unep0opéovta,r òpurtriv'. (vtil 179) as well as in the case of Achilles' horses which led by Patroclus leapt straight across the ditch , in his encounter with Hector : " avtrrpù, ö ripc tcÍ4pov unépOopov cöréeç Tnnor npoooo lEl^r€vor (xvr 380-381) In the Akritic tradition as well the horses occupied a very distinguished position. The fighting horses in particular (QøptcÍ) were treated with special care: "Maópot pou arprpotcfuroror Kr arptpava,0pe¡r¡ævot and they were wholly destined for fighting, not at all burdened with inferior jobs: ' Xúpc¡ç upóç l"a,tpeóer tpfo rcq,ÀcÍ aÀoya, ro Mcrúpo Kcl ro I-píBa Kq,l rov fléncrvo ro fpípa pa rcpcÍÀa Kqr yro Àepevtrú. Tov flénovo yrcr (ól"o Kor Trcr, to vepó, ro Møópo Trcr oeQépra Kq,r yrcr nóÀepo'. (Arcaôr¡pfaç, vol. 1 . p. 92) They respectively answer to their own given names, which equally reflect their strength and colour - Maópoç, I-piBc,ç, Kórrtvoç, flénavoç, fletpitrlç - and are often accompanied by the descriptive adjectives : pa,úpoç, yopyoyóvatoç, ovepoKul(l,onóðqç, aveponóôr1ç, rerpo¡(cr,rcx,l,útr¡ç, oonponóôüpoç (poúooç and paupo¡rcÍtr¡ç are used both as adjectives and names) " Maúpe pou yopyovóvû,re, Kr crvepoKul(Àonóõr1 Mc,úpe pou TopTovóvq,te, paúpe p' ave¡ronóôq . (Arcaõr'¡piaç, vol. 1. p.67,97) As is apparent from the adjectives themselves, very often the amazing speed of the horses is emphasized and compared to that of the wind : "'l)or€ vû, nn êyeæ yerû,v é5o,ye ¡!Àrcr ¡riÀtcr Kt óote vû, fiouv 'erç 1o ro.Àóv" cíÀÀa 'rcrtóv nev{vtø (Arøõr¡picç, Vo. t. p, 106) _29 _ ' Âivet Brtotd tou ¡rcrúpou roD KcÍ,r núet oapcivtcr píì,ra trl pcrr,crôeutepóvet iou,' rcq,r ncÍer o'apd,vtcr néite l(cx,l rp€xer ÊDÎDç ocr,v oveFtoç . pqôé to ¡rcrúpo eíôcrve, ¡rr1ôé tov roupvrcXtó roD' ("Ayr Oépou, Vol. 1. p. 128) Again, in the song of Armouris (Tou Appoóprl), a Saracen mocks the young boy and his small horse, "napínntv' by emphasizing that the Saracens had steeds that chased the winds, caught wood pigeons and partridges by their wings, and overtook hares in the chase on a slope : ' Ðapcrr¡voí éXouorv Qcpía ta ôróXvouv touç oépøç, rrlv Qdooav rar rrìv népôrrcav crnó ntepoú trlv n'aífvouv . 'ç Kcr,r rov Àø1óv ro avr{qopov anó ôpopoú tov oóvouv . (Tou Appoópn, l. 34-36) and he goes on to ask how if they cannot even jump over the Euphrates, could the boy be able to do likewise. But the son of Armouris proves him wrong, and by spurring his horse, crosses to the other sicle of the strong and turbid Euphrates : " 'Hrov o AQpútr¡ç ôuvcrtóç, r¡tc,v Kcx,r Bouprcopévoç rrepvrorqpéav tov paúpov tou (rpoúer) Ksr rcépaóé rov (Tou Ap¡roúprì, l. 43-53) Furthermore, the exaggerated ability of the "Qcprd' to pass over obstacles and deep ditches is also indicated by the following lines of the song of the Small Vlach Boy (Tou Mtrpoú BÀaXónouÀou), where the horse warns his wounded rider to tie up his heac-i, in case he gets dizzy and falls off, when it attempts to leap over a ditch : " Mov' õÉoe to reQcí),r oou p évcr Xpuoó povtriì"t, pnv tóX,q À<Írrcoç KGr prXtó KGr néor¡ç an' rn (cÍÀq" (N. tloÀítr1ç, p. 83, l. 2e-30) And again in the following song of abduction : -30- Kcrr 0u¡lq0ó rn vtótq pou Kcx,t rcÍpco Kcx,r noul,úpt, Kor oneípco tcr ¡ruaÀoóôra o'ou o' evvrcÍ poõró lopcÍQr'. (H Apnay( rnç fuvatróç rou Arpitr¡, The Kidnapping of the Wit'e of Akrites, l. 27-26, KuÀovdpou, p. 236) In general, there is a similar perception and depiction of the horses in the Iliad and the Akritic song. Emphasis is particularly placed on the speed and breed of the horse - often indicated by its name. Thus, the necessary quality of speed in horses, in the stormy clashes of the lliad and the Akritic song, is in both exaggerated and compared to that of the wind, in order to highlight the vital role of the horses in the fighting. Hero-Horse Relationship The bond between heroes and horses in both Homeric and Akritic song was very strong and intimate, and manifested itself both in periods of peace and war. The excellent steeds which proved an essential companion in the battlefield were also a constant preoccupation of the heroes during the peaceful moments of their lives. In Homer, this infatuation of the heroes with horses, horse riding and competitions becomes obvious by the frequent use of compound words, which begin with inno, innóôa¡roç, irnó¡rcxoç, innorcopuor{ç, iænótc, iæn r¡Àdtcr, innooúvq. The Trojans in particular are constantly referred to as breakerrof horses " Tpóeoot innoôcÍpororv" (X 424). The horses were given special care, Iove, good food, with special attention to grooming and decoration. This is clearly displayed, first, by Hector's encouraging plea to his horses to go on in battle, reminding them of the good care they have received from his wife Andromache, who fed them honey wheat and wine, always giving priority to them rather than to her brave husband : l-\ uprv frcp 7rpofeporor p€Àiqpovq, nupòv éOqre I ,tt otvov f eTKe 7rtel v, o1€ eu¡ròç . .. öç oQcpTv púlq.noì.Àúxrç qpòv ëÀarov XørtcÍcov rcrtéXeue, Àoéooaç {iôcrtr ÀeurrD" - (xxIII 2lt-2lzf An opportunity for displaying the horses' speed and the heroes' horse riding expertise was given by the frequent competitions, which in case of the lliød, follow and commemorate the tragic death of Patroclus. In the first event of the games - a chariot race - the Achaean chieftains were given the opportunity to excel in horsemanship, and to show off their horses. In the detailed account of the race it is not simply the speed of the horses that is emphasized, but mainly the skill in horsemanship accompanied by the character of the rider-charioteer that determines the results, as Nestor advises his son Antilochos, before the race begins: ' pútt ô' r1vío2¿oç neprlíyvetc,r rlvró2¿oto" (XXIII318) In the Akritic folk tradition the horses enjoy an equally advantageous treatment. In periods of peace, or perhaps temporary halt of warfare, the heroes devoted enough time to the needs of the horses, as well as to horsemanship, which in this case required different techniques, due to the absence of chariots and the stronger association between mount and rider. The charioteer - the "middle" man - who was essential in Homer for taking care of the horses is absent, being replaced either by women (Andromache in the lliad) or by older men, while the bond between hero and horse is stronger and the role played by the horse is more dynamic. This is displayed by the opening lines of the song of the Small Vlach Boy (rot Mtrpoú Bl,crXónouÀou) where the three Akritai are seen eating and drinking 32- next to their horses, whose strength is vividly depicted o KCT,l KC[t Tou KCT,t (Tou Also, the special care given to the horses by the women of the heroes is again presentar in the Songs of Abduction. Here, when seventy-five horses were challenged to protect their lady, only one old horse responded out of gratitude for the good treatment it always received from her : " Eyó eípcrr yépoç rar doXq¡roç, to,(tôra ôev pou npénouv (rc.qlid psr(pora(rôéryor, Tr' Tyonl\ tnç rupóç vct, onoú p' arptBotú1t(e oto yúpo tr¡ç noôtdç tÍlç, onoú p' crrptponótt(e orq 2¿oúqta tou leproú r\( 42 (Tpcryoúôrc tnç Apnoyriç F, tr. I l0 l. 72-75, fletpónouÀou, p. 61) Furthermore, the privileges ancì affection enjoyed by the horses are clearly displayed by the association made between the horse and the woman in the following song, which finds the hero expressing his love for his horse more often than for his wife : ' flévte QtÀd to paúpo rou Ksr ôéra trlv rcal,ri lou IrúBer StId to paópo tou nq 'orrlv aotepatúôa .' 43 (Arccrônpfcç, vol. 1, p. 65,71) Training was again, an essential part of the hero-horse relationship, and was very often practised in order to reinforce the hero's riding abilities and improve the speed of the horse, both necessary during competitions, hunting, abduction, raids and war : " Ma,úpoç eiocr, ¡raúpcr Qopefç, ¡raúpo rcq c,l"Àrreú1erç paO0aívetç rov vc nopncxr{, ¡rcrO0cíverç tõv vq, ôpépn 4l t.O. Kcrrprôri, Oprlpucd Oépara, A0rivo., 1954, p.l l0 42 See also Ayr oÉpou, r. 1., o. 127. 43 uorepuliôo = white spot on thc horsc's lìrrchcacl. -33- ¡rcr00críverç rov vu, ËpXetar rov óXÀo rou noLépou, pø004ívetç rou Kcn rqç orepeøç ord,r rør tou nel.d,ou 44 (O AvôpóvrKoç rt o Mcrúpoç rou, l. 6-9,1-letpónoul.ou, p. 35) The test of manhood for the young hero very often involved proving his skill in horse-riding, as is indicated in the beginning of some Akritic songs. In the song of The Sons ot' Andronikos, (Tcov Tróv tou Avõpóvrrou) the young son, 'to porpóv' (the baby) as he is referred to, challenges the Saracens and manages to jump over nine horses blindfold, with his hands tied, carrying heavy lead on his shoulders 'Egíycrorv ta '¡r¡rcÍõto rou lre ro pÀóv pcrQíõtv, eôrioaotv ta 1épra Ío'D xperç ôinÀeç ot' ql,uoiôrv, rr' éBalov erç tov vcopóv rou ø(úcotov ¡roÀúôtv, éQepav tou evvás ¡raúpouç Kcx,r rov ôrrcóv rou ôérq Kcr,r tpannrld Kq,r touç evvecÍ rct' érqroe orov ôtróv rou'. (Tov Tróv rou Avôpóvrrou, l. 25-29 Kcl.ovdpou, p.21,1,) while, in the beginning of the song of Armouris (Tou Ap¡roúpr1), the young man exPresses his wish to ride with the other rich Saracen youths who were practising on a Sunday. (Tou Appoúpr1, 1.1-14). But the most moving common theme, in both Homeric and Akritic song - as far as horses are concerned - is the special emotional bond formed between steed(s) and master. And it was in war and danger that it manifested itself mostly. The horse-companion was seen conversing with its master in times of danger, either giving him advice or foretelling his future - death - as well as grieving in a human way after his death. In the lliad the only horse which spoke once with a human voice was Xanthus, Achilles' horse. However, the poet felt impelled to explain this by stressing the fact of divine - Hera's - intervention ' Tòv E ap únó (uyóqr np<-roéQr¡ nóôaç aióÀoç innoç Eciv0oç . auôrievta ô' ËOl¡rce 0eù l,eurcóì.evoq "Hpn. 'rcrì Àir¡v o' ätr vûv ye oaóoo¡rev öÞp,p 'AXtl.Àeû 44 See also A7r Oépou, Vol. l, p. I I I -34- (xrx 404-408) And it was in this striking pre-aristeia conversation that Xanthus foretold Achilles'death : ¡ropo,pou äotr oer! te ,.*i ¿"#T^t,"H,li;3'" (xrx416-417) The scene is summed up by Bowra as follows : "Homer moves with consummate skill from the ordinary theme of a hero driving to battle to a forecast of his death from his horse. With his Greek moderation and wisdom he first makes the horse understand what Achilles says, and then he explains the miraculous sequel by attributing it to a goddess. All is kept in hand, for even the prophetic words of the horse are explicable on the anciènt belief that horses have gifts of prophecy. The essential realism of the scene is maintained when Achilles is angry with the horse and tells it that he knows well of his impending doom but will continue to fight until the Trojans have had enough of war. 45 After the special treatment received by their master, the horses' most essential task was to bring him back from the battlefield alive, wounded or dead. For this reason, Achilles chides his horses for having abandoned their charioteer - Patroclus - to the mercy of their bloodthirsty enemies, which resulted in the stripping of his armour (xrx 400-403) And it was Xanthus' sense of dr"rty which compelled him to defend his and Valios' actions in a human utterance, blaming Apollo and Fate : or.,o,, dÀÀù 0eóç * pá oç -*ì ü:iôp1tîtiHTli ouôb lcp r1¡retépr¡ ppaôutfrti te vcrlXeÀiq re Tpõeç an' ö¡rorrv- flatpórÀou teúXe' ËÀoùro. " (xtx 409-412) 45 Bo*ra, C.M,l'teroic Poerry, Nov York, l9(r(r, p. 170. -35- Kakrides, noticing the repeatedly emphasized grief of the horses in the lliad, writes that o róvoç roù (óou ouyl(tvei nro noÀú crró tov æóvo tou cvOpónou. 'Eror pe ro 0privo rouç vró0oupe crró¡rr¡ Bcr0úæpa tr oupQopd ritcrv o Xopóç tou flatpórl,op'.aó A sentiment which is shared by Bowra who indicates that : "The horse's silence is more effective and more moving than any speech, and the poet shows how well he understands the human experience behind the traditional theme of the faithful horse."47 In the lliad , Achilles' horses were seen motionless, leaning their heads along the ground shedding warm tears in their mourning for slain Patroclus in 'Mevel,cÍou Aptoteia" : ' innot ö Aisriôao pcÍXnç drnaveu0ev èóvreç KÀaiov as well as in'"Ael.cl öxì tlotpórl"cp' where they still stood with their manes brushing the ground grieved at heart "tòv tó t' ëotaóteç nevOeietov, oöôeï ôe oQr 2¿citat èpr1péöatat tcb ô Éotatov alvu¡révol Kf,p' (xxrrr 283-284) The supernatural ability of the horse to communicate in human voice with his master reached wider dimensions in Akritic Song , and it was not at all restricted to a single occasion. In the Iliad, on the other hand, although the poet easily persorrifies everything, when it comes to Xanthus' human voice "ano0dvetar rn otryprl ereivr¡ rrìv avclrr¡ vcx. e€nyúon ótr peoolúpr¡oe 46 l.O. Kcrprôriç, O¡rr¡ptrcÍ gé¡nra, A0rivcr., t954, p. t12-tt3 47 Bowra, C.M.lteroic Poety, Ncw York, 1966, p. 169. 36- Oaú¡^ra, pe rnv ené¡rpaoq trìç Oeúç tHpcrç, Kcx.r ótr o' crutó ro Oaópc ogeiÀetar to 1e-yovóç ótt ro d,)'o^yo anóXtrloe npooroptva ro npovópto qç avOpómvr1ç qúonç. Itü veoeÀl.qvrrcd, tpcryoúôta rou Arpttrroú Kúrì.ou ôev æcrpouotd,(etct na,póporcr ôuo'Xépera. O Àaïróç tpøyouôtotriç, Kcr,l pcr(í rou o orpocrtriç l.cróç, crro0d,vetcrt to ciÀoyo vcr eivcrt õepévo róoo æoÀú pe rov raBcrÀl.dpq roD, óote ôev éXouv avcÍyrr1 va e(rlyrloouv noç eyrve ro Oaúpa rnç crvOpónrvqç Qo¡vúç oóte vs neptopfoouv oe prcr povcÍ2¿cr nepintoor¡ To ôtoÀoyo rou avOpónou Kcr,l. tou aÀóyou'.+a This idea is also further explained by 'Aì.rq Kuptaríôou-Néotopoç when she infers that : O Àóyoç eivqr, nroteúco ótr n opr¡ptrr,i 'r¡ponrrrl' æcrpcÍôoor¡ eívar nol"ú neptooótepo op0oÀoytotrrr( anó tlìv ¡æocrtolvrrrd, orqv oroicr ro unepQuotró anotel.ei pépoç rnç "emrriç npcr1pcrtrKórqro;E.ts The Akritic hero often confirms the determination of the horse to carry him through the turmoil of the battle : " - Aúveoat, pu,úpe p', ôóveoar oro aípc Trcr, vcr rÀ¿Eqç, " - Aúvo¡rcrt, crQévtr¡, ôúvo¡rør oro afpc Tlcr vq, æ)tÊla, Kr óoouç Ocr róVq 1o oncrOi, tóoouç Oevó notúool. (Tou Mrrcpoú BÀa1ónouÀou, N. Ilol"irr¡, p. 82) Often the horse is capable of reacìing his wavering thoughts and replies to him in an encouraging manner " Itércet rat ouÀl.of(etat Kcx,r Fe do vou dou À^é1er. " Ncx, rú1 On other occasions, "o Mcrúpoç' perceives the danger and by neighing informs his master of impending danger. This is the case in the song of the Kidnapping of the Wife of Akrites (U Apnalrj rqç fuvaircóç Tou Arpírq), where the 48 Porpaiou, Kóora, H Iloíqo4 evóç Aaoú, A0rivo., 1968, p. 33. 49 Xuptariôou-Néoropoç, 'AÀrr¡, AaoypaQtrcci peAerqpara. Oeooo,l,ovirr¡, 1975, p. 185 ff 37- horse warns Akrites of his wife's abduction ' AC Kr' coç pqppqpévra tcÍpÀø, ?"proVcr .éntva oe o paópoç pou ll.rpivtproe Kcrl ro oncr0i pou eppdq, r' e¡revcr o vouç lrou to ÞcrÀ¿, ncrvtpeúouv rrìv rcrl,rd ¡rou ¡æ rdæorov cÍÀ^l.ov q pÀoyoúv r' ereívq ôev tov 0éÀ¿r, rl'lv K' e¡reva p' aotoloúve' 7-5, Kal,ovcípou, p. 236) Also we find that the Akritic horse takes very seriously the task of bringing back his rider, to the extent of giving a detailed account of what happened, burdened with the grief of the loss of his master, in the same fashion that Xanthus did ' - Bpe, æoú eívat, popé Mcúpq, nou av' aQévtqç ¡raç rou æriyeç oto oeQépr rc ripOeç aõetavóç ; ' - A$riole p€ va ernó ocç rcr tpaloúôta pou KCn to prydÀo nóvo rqç rapôoóÀo,ç pou. Era¡r.cr vø æepd,oo '7ro rov notcpó, ront{rave or oel,l^eç Kcr,r, or oraî,oloréç rør æ{pe tov aQévtr¡ K' r'ip0cr aôetøvóÇ. (K. Porycfou, p. 34) Finally, it has been noted mainly by modern Greek scholars, and K. Romaios in particular that : ' O'Oprlpoç crvépal"e VnId ro úIoyo Kcr,r ro pól,o rou lréoa oro éæoç. A],],ú ro, ôr¡potrrrÍ rpaToúôra rou rúrl.ou rov Arptróv 0a ¡rropoúoe vo ro2¿uptoOrl raveiç ótr éXouv avepúoer arópq ryr¡)'.ótepc auróv ro pó},o. Ma(i ópcoç avéBaoøv VnÀú KCrr rrlv npooo?rlr(óqtø tou al,o1ou.' 5o On the whole, there is a distinct priority given to horses in both Homeric verse and Akritic folk song. Due to their vital contribution in times of danger or war, and the consequent attention and standing given to them during times of peace, there is a very close-knit relationship developed between mount and rider. It is an almost human bond sustained on a give and take basis, requiring responsibility from both parties involved, reaching emotional dimensions beyond normal limits, which allow verbal communication belweel horse nnf 50 Pc4raiou, Kóotcr, H Iloír7or7 evóç ),aoú, Aerivc, 1968, p. 32, 38- hero-more extensively exercised, however, in the Akritic folk song. ARMOUR The implements of war and their importance in the lives of the heroes require special attention. The heroic armour indeed is part of the hero's distinct personality in battle, and it is associated with intense feelings of passion. "The hero's weapon is both an instrument and emblem of his terrible power".sl lts importance is immediately noted both in the Homeric epic - by long passages dedicated to the description of armour, and the great variety of stock epithets attributed to it - and in the Akritic songs where arms are seen as entering the life of the hero at a very young age inducing intense feelings of admiration, adoration and fear. First, the variety of weapons used as well as their splendour, strength and status will be discussed, followed by the hero-armour relationship from birth to maturity. The role of the armour in preparing for battle and in the actual fighting will then be looked at, concluding with the importance of the armour before and after the heroic death. These subthemes will be closely examined under the following subtitles : - "bnk¡v rd,Àì.oç rar ïo1úç - The effectiveness of unusual weapons - Hero-armour relationship (from birth to maturity) - Armour on the battlefield - Armour in death and beyond ' 'Oæl,cùv rcÍÎ,î,oç roì iolóç The Homeric warrior's typical equipment may best be understood from the 5l Bowra, Heroic Poetry, New York, 1966, p. 154 39- descriptions of arming for battle which occur at four points in the llíad s2 : the arming of Paris for his duel with Menelaus (III 328-338), of Agamemnon before his EíQoç, dop, and Qcícyavov were the words used for the bronze sword, usually followed by the epithet rigyupónl,ov, which takes us back to early Mycenaean times. The gold-plated sword, though, was not completely unknown to Flomer, for Agamemnon once arms himself with a sword in which "gold rivets glittered" (XI 29-30). The exchange of the prominent (fQoç ripirupór¡?'ov (VII 303) between Hector and Ajax, as a token of equal valour and friendship after their duel, should also be mentioned, in order to understand the heroes' acknowledgement and respect as equal opponents on the battlefield. On the more complicated issue of the Homeric spear we should mention the distinction between hXoç and ôópu. The first is believed to have been heavier, for thrusting at close quarters, (öBprpov, Bpr0ó, VÉyo,, onBapóv) and the second is described as lighter, for throwing from a distance with another one In Book XVI 139-147, we find Patroclus putting on Achilles' armour, but he refrains from taking the spear, which only Achilles could wield, taking instead 52 Wace, A.J.B. & Stubbings, F.A., A Companion to Homer, London 1962, p. 505 53 Luce, J.Y. Homer and the Heroic Age, London 1975, p, 107, 40- "two stout spears that fitted the palm of his hand". 54 The artistic splendour of the heroic arms was in accordance with the importance of the hero. Only the bravest leaders of the army were clad in splendid armour, which gave them prestige, and it was a trademark of their class. That is why Aristotle in his Rhetoric (1262 a) points out that ."Or?r,olv rcÍi[l,oç ori tr.õ ôrrcrícp úppótter ü¡d rrp dvôpeicp'. And it is again here rhat we find reinforced this symbolic issue that only the best heroes deserve and are capable of handling the best of weapons. Patroclus, however, falls short of this honour. In the lliad, the detailed description of the artistic brilliance of the shield of Achilles (XVm 468-6'13) and the rest of his armour displays the hero's greatness in warfare. Fighting in the forefront armed with a sword and spear was indeed highly regarded amongst the heroes, because the ideal warrior was the spearman, who could fight at close quarters standing his ground. Fighting at a distance using the bow is often attributed to lesser heroes, and to the foreigners - Lycians, Carians, and Paeonians, and is scorned by the major heroes. Diomedes reproaches Paris for fighting with the bow (XI 385 ff): Pandaros (IV 104 f0, Teukros (VIII266 ft XV 442 fÐ, Helenus (XIII 5Z6 ff), and Dolon also use the bow, but Odysseus, who gives a taste of his cunning in the wrestling match with Aias (XXIII 725),left his bow at home when he sailed for Troy, and like other major warriors fights with spear and sword.55 It should however, be pointed out that in the Odyssey XXI -XXII (in the Tó(ou 0éorç and MvqotqpoQovia), we see a completely different treatment of the bow, where it is regarded as a fully heroic weapon. Indeed odysseus' bow, 54 Luce, J .Y . Homer and the Heroic Age, London 197 5, p. 107 55 Mue[er, Martin, The Itiad, London 1984, p. 78. -47- which only he is capable of using, becomes the murderous weapon, which restores order and honour in the household of the Ithacan hero. But it should be clearly stated that the bow is originally the means of winning an athletic competition, and is not used as the ultimate weapon of winning a battle. It is presented as a proof of bodily strength rather than heroic valour and it becomes the symbol of restored order enforced by the reinstated king. In the repertoire of the Akritic songs the hero is mainly equipped with a sword and a spear, although these are not the only weapons used by the Akritic heroes. Mcrooún, tonoú(r, popôí, pcrlcripr are often encountered as additional offensive weapons. The sword in particular appears to be the most often sought and used weapon. The stock epithets and phrases often attributed to it refer to a light but strong weapon, sharp on both sides (double - edged) : ' Eyévetov o ar?#rd1, ' Kr efle ra paoa roúvtoups Kol QcÍvq r' dppøtdv rou rcn QcÍvr1 Í' qÀq$pó onaOí ¡re Í' aplupó 0r¡rópr.. (Krrrcravrriç rar BqotÀonoúÀa, l. 2-3.lletpónoul.ou, p. Sg) ' gepéte ro onoeírot [roD TroD róqr' oppóç rsr æíoct (fior Avõpóvrrou Kcr,l oror1eró A', 1.19, lletpónouÀou p.a3) ' olo ¡ipropa tou pcrúpou oou, oro rl,óo¡ra tou oncrftoú oou êyer popó lapcrrqvú, yépovteç aprouôróvte(. (Tou OeoQóÀartou, l.4l-42, fletpóroul,ou, p. 52) Tradition also depicts it as shiny, made out of gold or silver, usually kept in a gold or a silver case respectively : ' I'upí(er ro oncx,Odtorv roÐ roeivov ro TpouocQévro Íocn prov rou rcÍoupou ôrq, nou¡crv ''Eoupe to oæc0ítorv aÍ' cr,ç ro 2¿puoóv õercÍprv' (O Âryevr{ç aæÀeu0epóva tr¡ yuvaí Kcr rou, l. 55, Buofî.r1 Múrr1 p.156) On the brilliance and refinement attached to arms in the folk tradition Fauriel also comments : ''Evcr dâ,?ro Iapcr,rcrrlprocró yvópropcl pe ro oruoio Tì l,crirri $øwcroia rov EÎø\r(vox crvcrôaróvetat otcr tpcryoúõrcr rouç, eivcrt prcr rdæorc a(irooq vcr e(erryevíoer rs. Qtr¡vú petcrftÍl,î.ouv ro oíôr1po, rs. petcrî,î, o€ 2¿puoó, oE ôrapdvna, Kqr pspy crurcÍ norr¡nrd, 1v The spear accompanies the sword, and the hero is often seen asking for or using both weapons in that order. In the Akritic versions from Pontus - easily recognized by the replacement of the - r¡ with - r : El,Àr¡vrróv, EÀIevrróv : the spear is mainly called'EÀÀ¿vrróv', "Greek" ' Ercrfpev r' el.aQpóv oæoOív Kr eÀÀevrróv rovtcÍprv' (ftoç tou Avõpóvtrou B', l. 1,2, llerpónouî.ou p.38) With the emphasis placed on close range fighting, it appears to have been a short spear, easily carried and handled on horseback : ' Ârapaív', rc.l,qpepí(er cr,rov, rcrÀr(pepov K' enaipev 'Eoupcrv ra orcrOicr roùv, va rpo{ryve t' êvcrv t' cÍ},},o Toarol0crv tcr ona0ícr, rouv, 'Kr rpo{r¡ve t' évcrv r,' ú}.1.o, 'Eoupov tq rovtdprcr rouv, vcr rpoúyve t' évav r' úÀl,ov. ToaróOr¡røv tc¡ rovtcÍprcr roDV, ' Kr rcpoú1ve t' évcrv t' cÍÀÀo 'Eplouvtat rr crvtcpoúvrcrve Kq,r rpoúyve ¡rouotouviaÇ. fioç rou Avõpóvrrou B', l. 27-26, fletpónoul,ou, p. 39) ' Ot ôúo teç oéÍ[À^eç opiouorv Kt' or ôúo tcr XcrÀrvciprø Kr' or õóo rcr, pourroróvtapø tcr cÍ(tcr ncxl"l,r¡rúpra (Tolv Tróv tou Avôpóvrrou, l. 84-85 Kal,ovcÍpoo p.212) 5ó Fauriel, C.,Chants populaires de la Grèce Moderne. Athens 1955. v. l, p. 13 -43- The most impresive Akritic spear is described in considerable detail in the song of Armouris where the young hero is challenged by his mother to bend his father's gold, pearl-studded Babylonian spear - a spoil of war : ' cr,ædvol rpé¡^retcr ro rovtdprv rou natpóç oou, ro upnalev o róplìç oou eK rrlv BøBul.olvíøv, aædvo¡ rcÍto¡ oÎ.ó2¿puoov õtcl l,í0ou pcrpycrprtdpt (Tou Appoúprì, l. 70 -1,2, Kal.ovdpou, p. 213) The detail invested in the long Homeric epic however, is not found in the shorter, concise and brief descriptions of the heroic Akritic Song. Brilliant descriptions such as the one of the shield of Achilles are a rare commodity even in epic poetry in general. Also, the Homeric momentary mention of inferior heroes' activities is not present. The audience is clearly entertained only by the main hero's activities and feats, and it is to him that the splendid armour is obviously attributed. There is simply no place for second best. Furthermore, the use of short-range fighting gear, and the hero's expressed urgency to engage in battle - often with wild animals or numerous opponents - leave no doubt that fighting at close quarters abides with the heroic code of conduct. The Homeric ambiguity on the use of the bow as a heroic weapon does not become an issue in the Akritic cycle. On the contrary, it clearly indicates the perhaps original use of the bow as a hunting instrument, also used for contests and leisure activities. In the Sons of Androníkos and the Monster, the bow is used by the hero to kill the beast coming to drink water at the spring: '\EÀa eurr{ tor¡ ¡rcívvsç poo, elç rn ôe(tcÍ ¡rou pndvta va rnóool tr'¡ oø1tc pou, rnv nl.ro rc,Àútepri poD, vo 0avcrtóool ro 0epró crnoú 'pxeru: orn Þpóo'n'. (fror Avõpóvrrou Kcr,t ltorXeró B', l. 75-17, fletpónouÀou p. 42 ) In the song the Deøth of Digenis, the hero requests his bow in order to go hunting in a desperate attempt to avoid Charos : -M- 'rar géprs tr' tn oafrtc LroD ro oup e(r¡vtu,névte (O Oóvstoç rou Àtyevli A' l. 16, lletpónoul.ou, p. 22) While in an Akritic song from Pontus entitled I wish I was a braae young man, the bow is depicted as a glamorous piece of youthful entertainment, made out of silver and used for shooting at the stars . . Aç eflø rr¡v ocritcr p' lo apyupóv to(<íp' oov oupcwóv epyøíva r' aorpu etó(erucr (Aç Épouv æø?rå.r¡rcÍp¡ l. 3-4, Avérôoto K. M.>. Tpane(oúvra flóvrou, Mórr¡ p. 213) Both Homeric and Akritic war gear are indeed presented as splendid, while there is a surprising persistence of the use of the sword and spear in both. The ambiguous role of the bow in Homer, however, becomes clear through the study of the Akritic songs which assign to it its original hunting and sporting role. The effectiveness of unusual weapons Apart from normal warfare using arms we often find in the IIiød gods and heroes indulging in a harsh fight using stones and clubs. Athena hurls a huge black and rugged stone against Ares : ' i E tivolooocrU¿vl l,iOov eiÀero Xerpj nalei¡ rgí¡æ;yoy èv r¿ôfco. pél"crva., tpq2¿úv te péy,cv te,,' . tóv þ' dvôpeç rpdtepor Oéoqv Ëp¡revar oùpov ripoúpr1ç rQ PdÀ€ 0oûpov "4ptìo xat' ar31évo, l,õoe ôè piø . . (xxr 403-406) Diomedes in his "aristeia" hits Aen eas with a stone . . ö ôè 2¿ep¡rdôtov l"cÍBe letpì Tuõeiõr1ç, pfuo ðpyov tr.õ pd].ev Aiveiso rar' ioXiov ' (v 302-310) -45- In an encouraging speech to the Achaeans before the challenge of powerful Hector, Nestor refers to heroes of his youth, and especially Ereuthalion who was famous for his fighting with an iron club : rÏyõpeç luvcrireç, oüver' ouoí te ttcrorõ,I dî,Xù orõr¡peiq ropúvr¡, qcÍiøyycri' (vrr 138-141) A great psychological weapon of the heroes was their loud cries, which scared oPPonents and encouraged themselves or expressed their triumph. The unarmed Achilles, standing on a ditch uses his powerful cry as a weapon, in order to scare the Trojans away from the body of Patroclus : ' lprçTpì ëv0a cip$í oQoî( ö2¿eeoor rcrì (xvur 228-237) Almost all the heroes in the IIiød are' Boriv cr1aOq["sz (v 303, v 2Bg, vr J7, Vl 66, XI 275 . . .). Ajax utters frightening cries in order to encourage the Achaeans : ' ióç Aiaç ëæì rol"l.ù OocÍolv irpra vr¡cõv 09íIo .pørpù ÞlÞcÍç Qarvù ôe oi. cri0ép' ircrvev, criei ôè opepôvóv poóoll Acrvcroior réÀeue vr¡uoí r€ Ksr rÀroi¡orv ripuvé¡rev (xv 68s-688) Pandarus also utters a triumphant cry when he hits Diomedes 'rq ö äæì porpòv rÏuoe .A,urcÍovoç ayÀoòç uióÇ (v 283) 57 Ancient and Modern scholars have noticed that the Trojans arc more noisy (boisterous) than the Greeks, everal tanguages (IIt 2-3, IV 433, VIII l3g). ooaÀovirr¡, 1950, ercõotrrr{ etarpeia' , rrÍôr¡ç, LE H Atõaorca).ía rav ponrcav rpayouõtøv ru rav Neod,Lr1vtróv -46- Aeneas seeks to protect Lycaon's body (his son's) from mutilation,'opepõoléo ió2¿arv' (V 297-302) and Flera, using Stentor's voice encourages the Achaeans (V 7U-7K), while Poseidon encourages them crying aloud like nine or ten people together : Threats and battle mockery can also be considered very effective psychological weaPons during fighting at close quarters. Again the aim is to humiliate and discourage the opponent so that he becomes an easy prey or as Vermeule emphasizes, "to turn the opposing soldier into a female or, into the weaker animal role".S8 Vermeule sees a parallelism between sex, hunting and fighting which are perhaps three activities in which man must excel in order to prove his manhood. It is interesting that a similar parallelism is found in the Akritic songs. In Homeric verse, the verb ¡reíyvupr is used both for mingling in battle and mingling in sex : ' öç pepcr<\ Tporeoor píTn rpotepòç Atop{ôqÇ (V 143) '..., crritoo2¿eôír¡ feï6cr Xeipùç te pévoç re", (XV 510) while the verb ôapd(o¡ has all three connotations : taming an animal, raping a woman, and killing a man : ' èr pév p' ql.l,dov aî"rcíolv crvôpì ôapcroo'ev, Aioriôr¡ llqÀflt, raì Ërlr¡v civépoç euvÌ¡v noÀÀù pcÍå,' oùr èOél,ouoo" (xvrll 432 ff) 58 Vermeule ,E: Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry, Bcrkclcy, Los Angelcs, 1979, p. l0l. -47- 'ud ëpoì ôpr¡Oêvtcr, . . .' (V 646) ' . . . ¿pQ ô urò õoupì ôapévtof (V 653) And to make a further association between war and women or sex in particular, we must point out the fact that "it is no accident that the phrase 'rpriôepvov ?r"úeo0at' (to loosen a veil) can mean either to sack a city or to breach a woman's chastity".sl When it comes to unusual weapons by Homeric standards, in the Akritic tradition the heroes are very often depicted as fighting with a club which is referred to as either toroó(r or papôf and even as patooúrrv. This weapon-club can be compared with the Homeric "otôqpeír1 ropóv4' of Ereuthalion (VII 138-141) : 'þpi(et ro tonoú(rv tou,^r(eívov to 1rÀtol.itpr rÇan prcrv Íou rd,oupou éô ' Qépre pou ro pørooúnv pou, Trou 'v chç McÍ¡raç rd,vot (Tou @eo$ul,cÍrrou , l. 20,lletpónoul,ou, p. 52) ' gepéæ to pcrpôítol pou ro ev ' oapcÍvta l,ítpeç (I-ror Avõpóvtrou KGr oror1etó l. 18, lletpónouÀou p. 43) ^', And as in Homer, it is the sheer strength which comes from its weight that makes this weapon very effective both against wild animals and human opponents. On the other hand, loud cries, threats and battle mockery become an effective psychological combination against the enemy in the Akritic battle scene as well. 59 Shein, Seth.L ,The- Mortal Hero,lJniversity of Califo¡nia Prcss, 1984, p.-Bcrkctey 77 also Nagler, M.N., Spontaneiry andTradition : a stu"dy in the )ral Art of Homer. and Los Angeles, 1974, pp.44-60. Ontheassociationof warandsexcommontomanyculf.u¡es,seeJ.G. Gray,TheWarriors: Reflections on Men in Battle (New York, 1967), pp. 59-95, espcciatly p. 68 c.f. MacCary Childlike Achilles : Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the Iliad (New York, 1982), pp. 137-48, l5Z -60. -48- The heroes successfully use their cunning and boastful abilities initially to scare their opponents, either by openly challenging them : ' floroç eV (opl,riç rar õuvatóç, Kqt ú(rov nal.l.rlrccÍpr Aç (óoretcr l,ugpóv oßs0ív orov nóÀepo cq ep' rot ' (O Ecívtrvov, l. 30 -31, fletpónoul"ou, p. 20) or by denigrating them : ' Ouô€ to BrÍpvav Qopoúpør ouôé tov NtreQópov ouôÉ ro BapurpcÍ2¿r¡l.ov, vto to onqOfv roQt' épnpou Kl oríoo¡ (Tou IIopQúpn I- l. 14-15 lletpónouì.ou, p. 47) and often by directly threatening them : 'Xav eíote QíÀor góryete' e2¿0poí, epnpóç otaOnite o pcrúpoç pou epéOoo€v cræ tolv Toupróv to oi¡rø (Tou Mrrpoú Bla2¿ónoul"ou A', l. 32-33, flerpónouî.ou, p. 49). In the song of Armouris the young hero is seen as being mocked by a Saracen for having great aspirations to pass over the Euphrates river with his young horse : 'Xcrparqvóç eotéretov, oréKet, crvcryeÀd, rov" (Tou Appoúpr1, 1.33, Koî"ovd,pou, p. 213). and the hero later responds to that insult by loudly crying at the resting Saracens to arm themselves immediately in order to face him, by calling them "dirty dogs" : ' Erpryytdv govr{v el.dÀr1oev, óor¡v KGt sv eôuvétov 'Xaparqvoí appatóveo0e, orul.td, ¡roycrpro¡rêvcr, l"ouprrroOriæ yl"rlyopcr, erç aærotícrv prì to '2¿ete ótr o Ap¡roópr¡ç, o AppoupónouÀ r Furthermore, comparing the opponents with women is aiming further to downgrade and humiliate them. In the song of the Son of Andronikos , in particular the young man mocks the Saracens as they test their skills at jumping, stating that they are being surpassed not only by women in a normal -49- condition but also by pregnant ones: ' Kar Þpú*e roùç lrcrpcrrqvoúç ôrripr¡v anr¡õoóocrv 'Ârrí¡nv æou æqôcÍte oelç, nr1õoúv ro Kr or yuvaíreç óp yuvaireç cÍtpoQeç, póvov e'Ìryqorpo4reveÇ (froç tou Avõpóvrrou A', l. 77-79, flerpónouÀou pp. 36-32), while the association between sex and fighting made by Vermeule is clearly found in the song of The Braae Willowy Maiden, where the accidental identification of the opponent as a woman - when her belt breaks and her bosom appears - urges the Saracen opponent to declare the fight "feminine" and the raid as "bridal/nuptial" ' flatõrcÍ Kcn pn ôaÀróoete, ncnôrd pn QoBn0úte fuvaireroç erv' o æóÀepoç, vuQaôtaróç o roúpooÇ. (H Avrpetoryévr¡ Âuyepli, l. lZ-73, KcrÀovcÍpov, p.207) On the whole, both Homeric and Akritic heroes appear to resort successfully to the use of psychological weapons in achieving victory against worthy opponents. Loud cries and threats, even when anticipated by enemies, always have a weakening effect, especially when the hero-aggressors refer to their oPPonents as women. There is also a common thrill noted in the heroes of both eras when they associate fighting with sex. When it comes to using clubs however, we find them more widely applied in Akritic song, usually in overcoming mythological creatures such as monsters and wild animals. This is possibly because these creatures are more easily eliminated by the sheer strength and weight of this weapon, not always necessary in facing humans. Hero-Armour relationships (from birth to maturity) The acquisition of the hero's armour is a very significant element in both eras of heroic poetry, Homeric and Akritic. It signifies maturity, emancipation and hereditary strength for the maturing hero, and it lays the foundations for his successful heroic career. As it is from his father that the hero acquires his glorious name, it is also from him that he inherits his very first and special set 50- of armour, which nrust accompany him throughout his challenging but renowned life. Flowever, it is again his mother who plays a more active role in helping the hero to receive his fighting equipment. In the lliad, we are informed of the hereditary acquisition of Achilles' armour when the hero sighs and mourns for his dear friend Patroclus as well as for his lost suit of armour, which was stripped from the slain body - because as he declares, he was bound with it for many years and it had been a present, unmatched in size and beauty, from his father : ròv úæóÀ¿oa teú2¿ea ô' "EKr{Dp ôqóoaç dlréôuoe æel,ópra, 0crûpa iôéo0qr, raÀcÍ' rù p€v nrì},flr Oeoì ôóoqv (xv[ 794-197). And it is the re-acquisition of his original suit of armour and the killing of Hector - its temporary owner and killer of his "philos" - that drives Achilles back to the battlefield, equipped with new and more splendid armour (XXU 367-369). But it is his mother's support in acquiring this new suit of armour which prepares him for his final challenge. It is also her emotional and material contribution which enables the hero to overcome his selfish, "childish" behaviour, and to fulfil his goals. It is thus a "challenging" process of reacquisition of the armour that is especially emphasized in the lliad, However, in the Akritic song and especially in the Song of Armouris, the mother is the person who introduces "the challenge of the acquisition" of the paternal arms. Again she gives the hero his opportunity to prove his maturity by displaying his strength, and thus deservedly inheriting not only his father's Babylonian spear, but also his horse which has not been ridden for twelve 51 - years.60 But even before the crucial challenge of maturity and ability takes place, when the hero is still very young, the relationship between hero and armour commences. Very often in the Akritic songs the young hero is seen eager and capable of handling the instruments of war: ' Xpovróç emd,oe to oæaOi Kctl õrétqç to xovtdpt Kr órsv eædtr¡oe ror ç tpelç, rpattétat æaî.Î,r¡rcÍpr' (ftoç rou Avõpóvrrou A', l. 9-70, fletpórouÀou, p.36) ' Etrç ôero2¿tó rnd,wer oncrOí, paúpo rcraÀÀrreú1er, tls tct oel,l.o2¿cî.ivcrpcr Kcn tl€ ra Qtapptouiprø' (Avôpóvrroç Kql Priytooa, l. 6-7, lletpónouî.ou p. 34) However, the rightful inheritance of the paternal armour by the son does not bring the issue of ownership to an end. The 'pseudo - hero theme' found both in Homeric epic and Akritic song comes as a most interesting development of the previous pattern, where the idea of the "philos" is fully explored under the guise of the "pseudo - hero" through a reshuffling of power and intimate possessions. The hero- "philos" relationship is fully developed when the hero entrusts his bestfriend with his most treasured possessions - armour and horse. However, despite his good intentions the "philos" is unable to carry out his task to the end; and thus the idea of rightful ownership is enforced. The heroic gear does not "fit" the "pseudo-hero". It only and rightfully belongs to its original possessor to whom it is bound by the sacred laws of paternal inheritance. In the lliad this is more commonly known as the Achilles/Patroclus "syndrome" which is skillfully incorporated into the original theme of 60 Tou Ap¡roópr¡, 1.4-26, KaÀovrÍpou, p. 213 52- Achilles' wrath. In the Akritic songs, however, fragmentary and more concise glimpses are seen, especially in the songs of kidnapping, namely in the song of The kidnøpping tf the daughter of Leaantis (U Aptoyr( qç rópqç Íou ÂepcÍvq)e t and The kidnapping of the daughter of the General ( H Ap¡rcq'rl rrlç rópnç toù Itpatr¡yorl )62 In these two songs Digenis lends his clothes/ arms and horse to his older friend Xrlroæaææorí/Orl.oncrnæoú, to act as a delegate /matchmaker (npoÇevrltrid on his behalf. But when Philopappus fails, Digenis takes matters into his own hands and successfully kidnaps the girl he had been forbidden by her parents to marry. The anger and fury of Achilles is here matched by the Akritic hero who is seen rushing to take revenge : ' Tc poó2(o lrou e(oúp There is thus a common theme of rightful ownership of paternal armour in both the lliad and the Akritic song. In particular, acquisition or re-acquisition of this armour is vital for the hero's existence and conduct - and that is where the mother's role comes to the fore both in Homeric verse and Akritic song. Without it he is outside the heroic arena. It connects him with his ancestral glory, and it should be handled, preserved and honoured with the same respect shown to the family name. The 'pseudo-hero' - also present as a common theme - may challenge, or interrupt this rightful ownership, but he definitely highlights and underlines the importance of the hero-armour relationship. 6l net$æouÀou, pp. 7-14. 62 rc¡ov<þu, pp. 229-231 -53- Ar¡rour on the battlefield Arming Having described earlier the splendour of the offensive weapons of the Homeric panoply it becomes immediately apparent that the arming scene is an important ritual before the battle. When the hero dons such armour he is capable of great and heroic deeds. In the lliad, such descriptions of armour are not attached to the anonymous mass of heroes, but are only reserved for the best, such as Achilles and Agamemnon (XIX 369-397). In this heroic epic the admired heroes are often depicted as clad with an abundance of precious metals and stones 'reÚ2¿eø pap¡raípovra (XVIII 6'17, XI 29-37, XIX 372-383), while the admiration and respect for a hero during his arming scene is expressed through similes of lightning and thunder (XIX 362-364). The procession of the armed warriors to battle in their fury is depicted as setting fire to the earth, which groaned in pain under their feet (II 780-785). This places emphasis on the commotion of the natural elements (fire, earth) as an indirect expression of admiration for the greatness and strength of the heroes. However, the heroic preparation for battle does not simply concentrate on the armour being donned. In fact there exists a wider association between armour, horse(s) and divine help in answer to supplication or encouragement. The Homeric hero is indeed seen preparing for battle, wearing his fighting attire, while usually the charioteer gets the horses ready for the encounter/"aristeia", and the god/goddess patron of each hero makes sure he is inspired with courage and equipped with special powers to face his oPponent(s). In the famous arming scene of Achilles the preparation of the horses is given special treatment. 54- Automedon and Alkimos are seen carefully yoking Xanthos and Balios (Bay and Dapple) with fair breast straps, while Automedon, the charioteer in charge vaults up on the chariot taking up his shining whip : ' iræooç E Ariropeôolv æ rcrì 'Al.rtpoç cipQtfuovteç (e{rpuov' dpQi ôè ra}.ù f,éæaôv' iloq,v èv tÈ 2¿c,}.rvoùç TcrtrQTìIf,ç Ëpcl.ov, røtù ô rlvia teivcrv ôæiooal roÀ.î,qtòv æotì ôiQpov' ö ôè pcÍottycr Qaetvl¡v letpì ì,apòv dpapuîav äQ' inrotrv Athena on the other hand fulfils her role of divine encouragement (XXII 216- 223) which in the case of Hector is taken up by his patron god Apollo, who for the last time stood close by him and drove strength into him : ' rcñç õé rev "EKr{Dp Kf,poç óne(éQuyev Ocrvd,toto, ei pri oi æúpcrtóv te rqi {iototov r]vtet' 'AnóÀÀolv èyyó0ev, öç oi ènõpoe Fevoç ì"øryr1pó te yoûvc;" (xxII 202-204) In the Akritic sphere the arming scene follows again the same thematic approach. Emphasis is again placed on all the necessary equipment for warfare : material and psychological (divine help). ' Avrpina vrúOq Kr cÍå.},a(e Kcr,r naípvet x' up¡turu roq Qí&cr orpóver ro Qdpo roq rr olréç tov ral,r1óver Kcrr rouç aotpíteç rouç rcrroóç rouç pdver Qtepvrotr{pra' (H Avtpero4révq Âulepri A', l. 3-5, fletpónouÀou, p. 3) The Akritic brevity of the arming scene does not allow for a detailed and elaborate description of the armour and the hero respectively. However, in the song of Kølomoires the locked up paternal armour which is lying, waiting for the son to take it up, appears to shake, out of excitement and eagerness to engage in battle again. ' Ksl nder peo' orrlv rdpcrpq onoú 'tot "t' úppcrtú tou Trpr vcr ta múor1 nrd,vourto, npl vcx, rcx, oero' eoerótto, npr vcr tø cÍl,q ndvol tou, erceivcr nponc,ttótto" I Tou Kø],opoipr¡ o froç (Tpcyoóôr tou Ap¡roópn) l. 73-tS, -55- fletpónouì,ou, p. 34 l The hero in his fury is also often seen requesting or orclering his armour and horse, using the imperative 'Qepéte" or "Qépte poD' : 'Qepéte to pcrpôitor pou ro ev' oapd,vta Àitpeç Qepéte ro oæcr0íror pou æoó roQt' oppóç rar ní.ool, gepéte pou 1o pcrúpo pou, ro vtd,vo pou nouÀitor" (I.ror Avôpóvrrou Kcr,t Erotleró l. 18-20, lletpónoul.ou, p. 43) ^' while the divine component is incorporated in the armour itself. The hero asks in particular for the arms which have as their emblems figures of saints, and their blessing : ' X€?'î.óoæ rov rov paúpo pou, raÀop1Àóoeré tov, Kcrt ôoç pou pdwa, ro oncr0i, r' cr,Tror(cùorcrvttvcÍro vcr plo vc¡ tôó, tov nóÀ^epo nou rd,vouve or Õpdyrot (Tou Mrrpoú Bl.a2¿ónoulou B', l. 70-1.2, fletpónouî.ou, p. 49) It is in the song of Armouris that the young hero pleads for the help of God who he believes has abandoned him at the outset of his heroic career when he is about to cross the Euphrates, and God responds to his desperate plea. ' Eulaproró oe, @eé rcrÀé, Kcr,r puproeu1cptotó or, r pe rnv naípverç tópø pa,voú crnovol. tqv Qovrréav rnv pí(av opnpóç etç ro pnpooror(oópBtv cn vc nepcÍor1ç nêpa' (Tou Rppoúprl, l. 50-52, KcÀovcÍpou, p. 214) The divinity in this Akritic song appears more merciful than in the case of 56- Hector, who in his final moments feels betrayed and cheated by Athena's treachery as well as Zevs', as he finally admits that the gods have summoned him deathward: (xxrr 300_303) The arming scene, therefore, as the first stage of both the lliad and Akritic "aristeia", is very significant for the projection of the hero in his ultimate hour of glory. There is, thus, an essential build-up of material and psychological preparation. Horse(s) and armour are seen in their splendour prepared for the hero, while the hero himself pleads helplessly for divine assistance. A common reminder therefore exists, in both the Iliad and Akritic song, of the superior but still mortal nature of the hero who is always susceptible to death, never, even in his supremacy achieving divine immortality. Fighting Under this heading, the performance of the armour during the actual fighting will not be looked at in detail, because of the existing wider association between armour and heroic conduct on the battlefield which will be analyzed in detail in the following chapter. Instead the absence of armour from the battleground and its significance will be examined. The continuous struggle and dangers in peace and war force the heroes never to part with their armour (Thucydides 1. 5-6), which eventually becomes an extension of themselves. The absence of armour in the Homeric epic indicates a halt to heroic activity and a weakness on the part of the heroes. Thus, Achilles refuses to enter the fighting unarmed : ' nõç r' üp ir,l petù prõÀov ; äXouor ôè teuXécr reivor." -57 - (xvllr 188) and Patroclus becomes powerless and is killed when disarmed by Apollo: ' roû õ dæò ¡rèv rpatòç r,ovér1v BcÍÀe <Þoipoç 'Anóî'Ào¡v. dorìç oùv teÀaprõvt 2¿apaì néoe teppróeoocr. (xvr 793-803) The heroes' respect for their armour even matched or was identified with their respect for their values and ideals, to the extent that they fought and died in order to honour their weapons, 63 or dishonour their opponents' weapons. Loss of armour on the battleground was for the heroes 'rcrtqQsll roì övetôoç . . . rlpara ßú.vrs. ôrø¡rrepéÇ (XVI 498-499) and a great calamity. Sarpedon, in his last moments, after having been hit by Patroclus, entreats Glaucos in a moving way to remove his armour (XVI 497-503). The warrior who does not struggle to save his companion's armour from humiliation is himself humiliated; that is why Menelaus is afraid of reproach from the Achaeans, because he did not run to save the armour of Patroclus (XVII 91-93). As a consequence of this, the biggest prize for a hero was the armour of his opponent. Possession of it humiliated the opponent and glorified the winner. Thus, Hector boasts of the fact that he killed Patroclus and removed from him the armour of Achilles - an act of humiliation accorcling to the heroic code of ethics (XVII 729-1,37, XVII 184-187). Therefore, since spoils of war after victorious raids proved a hero's victory, the heroes often indulged in looting. Cessation of fighting is also indicated in the Akritic songs by the absence of the hero's weapon. The son of Armouris indeed cannot engage in battle and prove his maturity and strength against the Saracens - when he commences 63 the ' _See Lycurqls, Kard Aerorcptirouç, 76-7'7, oath of an Athcnian hoplite: oü rotaro2¿uvrõ örÀrr trí [ep The idea of absence of arms resulting in defeat is explored in the songs specifically referring to the final battle with Charos. Thus, in the Shepherd ønd Charos (Booróç rar XcÍpoQ, Charos asks the young shepherd to take off his clothes and armour and fold his arms tightly in a cross so that he can take his soul; but the courageous youth refuses to surrender and challenges Charos to a duel : (Booróç rcrr XcÍpoç A', l. 8-11, lletpóroul.ou, p.27) And again Charos declares his superiority over a soldier (and his defeat) by announcing to him that he already holds his shield, sword, red Àoupíoro, as well as as his wife's fate in his hands. 'Bøoró ooù vtcÍpya .Kor ona0í Kcx,r rórnvo Àoupíoro pcroró Kcrl roq T9vcriraç oou ol"ópuupa va Bdfrl" (Booróç rat Xdpoç B', l. 8-9, fletpónoul.ou, p. Zg), while often oPPonents pray to find the hero sleeping with his armour hanging up, and his horse grazing in the fields : ' Oeé, vcr ppol . rov Kolvotcrvtri ornv rÀívr1 va rcot¡rdtøt vo 'v' ro oæa0ív lou otcl onGoú rct o paúpoç Tou orov r<Ípno Ksl r' ûoqpoTnotóItcr tou oro XpuooQó ôoo.¡revo (Tou llopQópn B', l. 21-23, llerpónoul.ou, p. 46) @e p' va æci¡re va Bpioroupe rov flópQupav 'ç oov ónvov, -59- vcr v' to orcrOív cr'ç oo Oercdp t' dloyóv' 'ç oov rcÍpnov, (Tou llopQúpn l,1.23-24, flerponouÀou, p. 47) Disarming of the hero indeed indicates defeat, and it is a source of great humiliation for the hero. This can be seen from the duel between Mavrciidis and Charos where the former considers himself humiliated for having been stripped of his armour, and admits that it is not worth living, but better to follow Charos to the underworld : ,ó erp avtperrrlpévoç, .*:'1151*"-":-fov q7tcx,voD r(oopo ' éplopar pe rqv rópr1'. (Maupoïõúç *r' o Xópoç, l. 45-48, KcrlovcÍpou, p. 248) On the other hand, it is contrary to the heroic code of ethics to take advantage of disarmed opponents. And it is in such a critical dilemma that we find the son of Armouris who, in his first encounter with the enemy, does not wish to be considered either dishonourable, or to have his victory belittled because he won under very favourable circumstances. This is why he warns the Saracens by shouting so that they can arm and equip themselves adequately for battle.6a There is definitely agreement in Homeric verse and the Akritic Songs on the necessity, significance or simply presence of armour on the battlefield. Cessation of heroic activities, and weakness and humiliation of the hero were indicated by the loss of his armour, which brought victory and glory to the one acquiring it. Losing his armour during fighting was equal to the hero losing a part of his own self and constituted a great injury to his honour. Plundering Plunder was a great part of heroic victory and the pillage of dead opponents was an irresistible moment for the heroes, who often abandoned the pursuit of their enemies and indulged in plundering, often not taking advantage of 64 Tou Ap¡ror5pr¡, l. 69-75,1. t40-t42, KcÀovrÍpou p.214, p.216. -60- victory opportunities. There was also even the danger of defeat of the pursuers, if there was a return of the fleeing troops. That is why Nestor advises the Achaeans against it (Vt 67-77), and Hector threatens with death the men who desert the battle to loot: ' vr¡uorv è¡rrooeúeo0q,r', ðù.'v ô' ävapø Bpotóevtø' öv ô' dv eycìlv dr<ÍveuOe verõv ètépoÉt vorioro, ariroõ oi Odvarov pr¡doo¡^tar (xv 347-349) In the Homeric epics the heroes boast of their predatory acts, because robbery and piracy were not considered shameful and reprehensible actions, but even gained them fame, as Thucydides also indicates : " tipna(ov raì tò nÀeiotov toû píou èvreû0ev ènoroõvto oùr äXovtóç rú) øioXúvr¡v toútou toû Ëgyou, Qépovtoç õé n rcrì õó€nC FdÀÀov".0s Thus Achilles proudly announces that he will return home loaded with spoils : 66 ' Ëtor ôé ¡ror pdl.cr noì"ld,, tù rccÍl.l,rnov èv0<Íõe ëppolv rÍ?r-î,ov I èvOévôe lpuoòv raì 1cÀròv ëpuOpòv rr¡[È yuvaîraç èti(óvouç æo]"róv te oíõqpov d(opat, ü,od ëX.41óv 1e (rx364-367) Nestor's father, Neleus, feels great joy at his son's excelling in looting (Xl 677- 684), and we also see that there was a goddess who protected plunder, Athena the plunderer 'l.qîtrÇ (dyel¿íq) (IV 128, v 765, X 460). Slave-women were considered a highly valuable part of the booty, especially young virgin maidens, or the opponent's wives; that is why we see Achilles himself receiving Briseis as a prize from the "sons of the Achaeans": ,oC oï npõru ôóocrv yépaç .fitç'AXcrtcõv" 65 Thucydides, l. 1. 5-6, 1.4,3. 66 In the Odyssey, Odysseus also boasts in front o[ thc Phacacians about his prodatory dceds (Odyssey, XIV 232-236). -67- (r,276) Furthermore, booty itself was a measure of a hero's worth and inanimate things were not exactly equal in value to human captives. Thus, when on the subject of captive married women, MacCary points out that "men fight to possess other men's women, and more perverse, to force those men to acknowledge their loss even beyond death".67 On the subject of plunder and looting, the Akritic heroes seem to follow similar Homeric patterns of beliel which become immediately apparent from a special section of songs particularly dedicated to kidnapping6s and from several references to plundering : ' Eoeíç rprire Kcr,l nívere Kcr,r yÀurotpaBouõóte, Ecpatocmoí oaç æld,rooov Kcn nripav xLç raÀeç ocrç Ilripøv rou fidwll^ dnT rø|ri, t' AÀé(¡ dr1 yevairca Kcr rou ¡rtrpoó BÀc2¿ónouÀou dr¡ pepcovtoottrr( dou' (Tou Mrrpoó BÀa1ónoul.ou, 1.9-72, fletpónoul.ou, p.48) ' Koupoeúrouv Kcr,l Xaparr¡voí, rcoupoeúrouv or ApaBiteç roupoeúrouv tov Avõpóvrrou vo núpouv rnv ral,riv^ rou' (Tc¡v Tróv rou Avôpóvrrou, l. 1-2, KuÀovdpou, p. 210) These references, however, are consistently referring to the plunderers as being Saracens or 'anwLanef as is again noted in the following song from Cappadocia titled the "Plunderer" (O Koupoatopaç) : - ó7 1Vøccary \ù/ Thomas, Childlike Achilles. New York, Columbia Univcrsity Press, 1982. p. 116), because as he emphasizes the loss of a man's armour ancl his wilc are cqual to casl.ration since these "things" arc part of the man, and to lose them even in dcath is pain[ul, shamclul cmasculaf.ion (ibid,p.l l0). 68 See fletpónouÀou, ô, p. 58. Baotrrl B$).rc7r¡rq. EÀÀr¡vrrcrÍ Âr¡¡rotrrcd Tpcloóôra, 1958. for a detailed account of the origin and different types of Songs ol Kidnapping. -62- (B. McÍrq, p.134) followed by the note below, indicating that this type of song was reflecting the sudden and well organized raids of the' aneì"dteç " often met by the Akritai : ' To ,tpoyoúõr crutó eívan evôetrtrró ï.o ttç ryfu)êç (npréç,. æou ércrvcv or anæLúreç, touç onoiouç ruvrryoúoav or Arþíæç. Or roupodtopeç r(tav opyavo:¡révor o€ pETd:Io oópu,ta Kcrr ércrvsv arQvrõraotrrÉç enrõpo¡reç oxo eocrlteprró tnç W6po;€.6e Plundering, though, and taking things or women away by force are regarded as common and expected practices of all brave men avrperctnltÉyor in the following song Maaroîdes and Chøros ; ' @e pou rcn fl vcr, livr¡oa rou róopou or 1qvrpercopévor, rlte oe yín Qaívovtar, qôé oe rÀcÍppcr eívrcrr eÍôcÍqvø vø roupoéyouor rou ôpcÍrovtcr ro rcd,otpo, ro rcÍotpo onó '2¿a tqv (avOri, Kqr poupo¡rcttcr róprl, îou o Mcrupoïôriç, æoÀuayc,nd, luvc,ircr, vcr vtrlv ncÍpr'¡ - (O Maupoïô{ç rr' o Xdpoç, l. 1-5, KaÀovcÍpov p. 247) Bravery is thus not exclusively reserved for lawfully defensive groups, since in this case Mavroides is the hero in charge of a group of pirates who have come to plunder the dragon's castle and take away the blond girl held there, whom the hero desires. The name of the Akritai is however mainly associated with defensive activities; they are not seen initiating plundering attacks, perhaps in order to show their obedience to the rules of the empire. Nevertheless, in the songs there is often an ambiguity in the role of the Akritai and the "aneì'are(, indicating that they were both organized in gangs with members of questionable or easily changed loyalty. On the whole, plundering and kidnapping appear to be a normal and well- justified extension of victorious raids and fighting both in rhe Iliad and the 69 Mórr¡, 8., p. 134 63- Akritic song. Taking away what belongs to an opponent makes the triumph complete by offering the hero satisfaction as well as concrete proof of it. There is indeed greater caution in associating the Akritai with plundering - when it comes to kidnapping there is a completely different story - due perhaps to the seriousness of their role in protecting the borders of the Byzantine empire. (and their identification as national heroes). An¡rour in death and beyond As Hector exclaims just before his final duel with Achilles, one should not endure an inglorious death, but should put up a struggle and do some great deed first that men to come shall know of : 'pù pòv tioæouõi ye rai tirî"etrñç And that 'great deed' according to heroic conduct can only be achieved by fighting courageously in the front line, honouring your name and your paternal armour. It is thus an active death that is generally promoted in the Homeric epic and is supported both by the Achaean and Trojan heroes. But this preoccupation with honour is not the only one vexing the heroes in their last moments. Their close relationship with their war equipment - an almost sacred bond - compels them to ensure that it will not be broken after their death. That is why we meet in the Odyssey, the unburied and unwept body of Elpenor in the underworld, wishing to be burned and buried together with his armour (Odyssey, XI74-75), while, according to Andromache, Achilles, having killed her father Eetion, respected him and burned his body in its elaborate war-gear (VI417-419). And it is perhaps quarrels over the ownership of their armour, after their own death, that explain the heroes' determination to ensure their possessions' destiny. For it is in the Odyssey that we are informed of the quarrel between 64- Ajax and Odysseus for the ownership of the fine arms of Achilles, and the suicide of Ajax, because he was not only unable to win the arms but the fame and glory of the title of the first warrior of the Trojan war as well. Approaching death in the Akritic Songs is personified by the figure of Charos who is considered by the heroes the ultimate and final opponent, not to be submitted to without a fight. That is why they often challenge him themselves, or eagerly respond to his challenge to fight armed on a marble threshing floor ; as indeed happens in the previously mentioned case of the young shepherd, who refuses to surrender even when stripped of his clothes and armour. In the song of Maupoïõfiç Kt o Xd,poç the hero responds to Charos's challenge by claiming that he possesses the "steel sword, iron belt and marble chest required to fight with him on an iron/steel threshing floor"7o; while in a variation of the song of Digenis and Charos from Pontus, the hero asks for his additional arms as a reinforcement after having been defeated by Charos in a wrestling match : ' E(épav rst encÍ:ì.¿rycrv, evíreoev o Xúpov. - Narl?'í epév rcn p<Íï e¡rév, evirqoe pe o XcÍpov. <Þépæ p€ rrlv grl.ívtpa ¡rou, Qépte pe tq, orÀrdXa ¡rou Qépte p€ ro tonoú(r pou, vro ev' e(r¡vt' ordôeç, Kcrr r' cÍ)r\o to tonoú(r prou, vro rv' e(r¡vranévte". (O Aryevriç Kr o X<Ípoç, llapcrlì,ayri repaooúvtoç, l. 73-1,7, MrÍrr¡, p.67) The questionable destiny of his possessions - arms, wife, horse - haunts the Akritic hero as well. But in this case he takes destiny into his own hands by burning his tonoó(t, and by killing his horse and his wife, when he is informed that his neighbours have already decided to take them away : 70 O uoupoiôriç n o Xtþç, l. 30, Kcl,ovdpou, p.248 -65- (ibid, 1.34-M, p. 68) To honour their armour by valiantly fighting till death was a common wish of both Homeric and Akritic heroes. But an even greater concern of theirs was the fate of their armour after death, which they wanted to control. Being burned or buried with their arms was, thus, the realisation of their ultimate wish of never parting with it, even after death. In conclusion, I believe that the most interesting points resulting from the parallelism of Horses and Armour in Homer and the Akritic songs, do not emanate either from their impressive presentation or from their often similar style of projection and use. On the contrary, it is their relationship with the "lonely" hero that raises their status and significance. They belong to a separate, but also special sphere of his life. They are an extension of his own heroic self, a means of protection for himself and for his wife/woman, and in this sense rank even above his wife who is the "object" to be protected. Through Horses and Armour we catch a different glimpse of the hero, and a very controversial one at that, mainly because their role is also such. They are the instruments of offensive actions which promote the self-sufficiency and selfishness of the hero, necessary, however, for proving the hero's maturity; they are the only things he can rely on, that connect him wiih the past, that are fully subservient to the needs of the hero; they are the things of which the 66- hero becomes very possessive and to which the hero becomes very attached, so much so that they can bring out the sensitive aspects of his nature. HEROIC CONDUCT The Primary Virtues In the lliad, it is clear how the first of the heroes had to prove their natural leadership abilities and their bravery in a very antagonistic society, which did not accept titles of royalty as tokens of heroism, as Diomedes displays in his address to Agamemnon : ' ooì [È ôtcÍvôr2¿a &õre Kpóvou ndtç ciyruÀopriteol'r gftltrpq prJ rõt _ôrõre teirpfloOcrt iepì' ¡rÍviorv, dl,rt¡v I oü tor õ<õrev, ö re rpcÍtoç äotì ¡réyrorov.' (rx37-39) The leader of the army was not usually the bravest of heroes. Authority was not identified with heroism. 7l On the contrary, as immediately becomes apparent from the main theme of the lliad - the wrath of Achilles - the highest heroic figure challenges authority which is in turn, an element of disturbance for the hero, a vexing compromise, and a hind rance, but also a challenge to his heroic potential. It is indeed Agamemnon's behaviour that determines the course and outcome of the lliad, because it is he, who provokes Achilles' wrath and finally his furious and unrelenting victory. And it is the overall situation that results in an outstanding heroic epic - the lliad. Furthermore, the heroes had to be worthy heirs of glorious parents.T2 Their merits in warfare were obtained through the practice of competitive sport, so Agamemnon was ' pcrorÀeúç t' aycr0òç rcpatepóç t' aiXpnrúç (III 129), and excelled amongst the other heroes (II 483), Hector was familiar with'æoÀeprita Ëpyo, Vu"Xaç dvôportcroícrÇ (VII 236-237,237-241). Ajax was '*êyaç, iqQtpoç, dycruóç, ër1ç, neÀóproÇ (v 625,11 819, rrr229). Diomedes and Ajax display an 7l Moo.man, Cha¡les, Kings and Captains, Variutions on u Ileroic'!'hentc. (Kentucky, l97l), p.lff. 72 See chapter on Descent. 68- excellent fighting technique during the funeral games of Patroclus (XXIII 811- 815), and generally all the heroes were brave 'ôouprrl.utoí, rpcrtepoì, ai26¡rr¡taí' II U5, Vl 97 , XIII 467, XVI 195). Many stock epithets are used to emphasize and distinguish their merits in : body: ¡tÊyo;ç, æeÀóproç, iqgrpor ôpor beauty: Oeoaõrdç, (avOóç, rdLl.roroç, 2¿crpíerç strength: rpatepóç, iqftpoç, èóç, leipa pcpetav inner qualities: dyøOóç, d¡reivc,lv, öproroç, ¡r^eycÍOupoç, raptepó0upoç, æo?rotl.riprov, ¡Érycr, gpovéolv, 0upoÀécov warfare skills: iærql.ótr¡ç, innóõapoç, öq6{vop, pé1a Éproç nol"époro, The heroes also excelled in athletics. Achilles, Ajax, Odysseus and Antilochos were distinguished for the swiftness of their feet, and stock - epithets such as 'æóôcrç ci¡*úç, æoô<íprr1ç 0oóç, ro:xúç (I 58, 1,21,, x 599, XXIV 668), were common in the Iliad . Ajax and Odysseus were good discus throwers (XXIII 836-848) as well as excellent wrestlers (XXIII 708). Odysseus, Meriones and Teucer were superb (oroneutéQ marksmen, while Diomedes, Aeneas and Hector were capable of lifting and hurling against their enemies huge rocks double their size (XX 285, Xll445, V 302-306). Imposing and handsome appearance, and the combination of health, beauty, size, strength and bodily dexterity were the trademark of most heroes. 74 Achilles was the bravest as well as the handsomest warrior of the Achaeans, and Nereus followed after him : 'Ntpeúç öç rú?uî.roroç crvì¡p r5nò Ïì.rov f,lee rrõv d,llolv Âavarõv per' dpú¡rovcr llqÀe1ovo.' (rr 673-674) 73 Avcotaqríôîç, !.8., H hõaorú"ía rav Opr1pwrív Extiv ¡tt n¡ porlIew rav dr¡¡toøróv Tpayou&cóv RaL rav Neoú.).r¡wróv Ilapaüoeøv. OeooâÀovlrcr¡ 1977, pp. 134-135. 74 See also Aristotle's Rheroric.l36l a. -69- The ideal hero combined bravery and beauty (VI 155-156) but beauty did not compensate for bravery : ' f, rou rcry2¿aâ" óolot rcÍpq ropóot'vteç '42¿atoì $cívæç riptotñø æpó¡rov Ëp¡ævat, oövercr ral,òv rΡoc Ëæ' üÀ- orir Ëtot Êiq Opeot" dÀrú.' ,"rir%åb as Hector illustrates above in his rebuke of Paris, divine beauty is the measure of heroic beauty, and Achilles is usually compared to the gods in this among other respects : ' r'ltor Âopõrvíõr¡ç llpíapoç OoúpcrÇ 'A1rî.flcr, öoooç Ër¡v oióç te Oeoior yùp dvta êr.þra' (XXIV 629-630) Epic poetry never ceases to admire the beauty of the heroes. Odysseus is U€oro, 'Agyeiorv reQcrl,r{v ,; ¿¡:lpxiffii:,ff', (rrr226-227) Hector is compared to a snowy mountain (XIII754-755) and even when he has been killed, the Greek warriors run to see and admire his stature and beauty (XXII 369-370). Ajax is distinguished for his fearful and gigantic stature, and he is compared to a wall as well as Ares, the war god (VII 206-21,4). Repeatedly, the admiration for the beauty and the youthful vigor of Achilles is expressed, reinforcing the idea of heroic poetry in general : that the bravest warrior is also the handsomest (I 131, XXI 108, XVI797-799). Griffin asserts this fact as follows : "while he lives, the hero is god-like and loved by the gods. In his martial rage, the high point and essence of his existence, he is like a lion, a wild boar, a storm, a river in flood, a raging forest fire, a bright star from a dark cloud; his armour blazes like the sun, his eyes flash fire, his breast is filled with irresistible fury, his limbs are light and active ."75 75 Griff,rn, Jasper. Homer on Life and Death. (Oxford, 1980), pp. 89 (XI ll3, XVII 282,Xl746,V 87,XI 62,XrX 398, XU 466) 70- Generally, the basic characteristics of the arpearance of the ideal hero were strong legs and thighs, muscular arms, and broad chest and shoulders : 76 U€oro, 'Agyeíorv regcl.riv ;, *#:t?Jlåil? , ' (rrr226-22n ' eripórepoç ô' cöpororv iôè orépvolotv iôéoOcn' (rrr 194) öpet vrQóevn êotróç (xrn7g,) Aiqç . . ¡reÀóoto,?u 'A2¿orcõv' åîii, ' Aiøç èorì rel,óproç, Ëproç '42¿crõv' (rrr229) The same distinction between heroism and authoritarian kingship, is again expressed by this existing competiveness between hero and king in the Akritic song. The maturing hero, in his vigour, finds it necessary to discard authority, which is usually represented by aristocracy and ultimately by the king. He feels strongly compelled to establish his heroic claims which are not determined by titles of royalty : ' O Kcovotcrvrivov o prrpóv, o Mtr 'ç oov 2¿póvov pdery to onøOiv, 'ç o tcÍprv 'ç oo tpírov ersurforerov 'rcrvéva pouõe prrpóv pouôé peyqv pouôé to (H Arpraî,orícr, rou Kortcrvt{, l. 'l-4, Mdrr¡, p. 100) It is an unavoidable situation, where the first man of the state is both envious tu T9 same type of man, which according to Emile Mireau persisred in archaic Greek sculpture until the f,rfth century. Mireaux, Emlle, Daily life in the time of Homer, 1959, p. 51, also see: Avootaordôq, I.E. (1977, p. 743) 71, - of the supreme hero, but also in desperate need of his services. It is a force that must be carefully handled by the king, directed against the enemy, so that it does not rise against himself. That is why we see the king asking the hero's help in combating disruptive elements of the community, such as the Giant- crab: ' Xannóprcr rocr pqvúpata rou Âryevr{ rocrr nrÍorv ' Eî.a vc rd¡reô, Âtyevri, ro' o pcrotl.rcÍç oe 0éÀ¿r' (Âryevriç ror KcÍpoupcrç, l. 16-77, fletpónouÀou, p. 17) Established family ties and connection with a heroic past is again necessary for the hero- as it was demonstrated in the first chapter - but aristocratic claims are not of priority. Surpassing your hereditary strength was more important, and solely for this reason we see the heroes "cultivating" their war skills by practising competitive sports, from a very young age. Learning to handle a sword and a spear was essential : ' Xpovróç enrcÍoe to oæøOi Kqr ôÉtr¡ç to rovtcÍpr Kt ótav encirqoe rouç rperç, rpaoétcrr raÀ"l,r¡rópr' (ftoç tou Avôpóvrrou A', l. 9-10, fletpóæouÀou, p. 36) as well as hunting : ' Âóõera yror rou Âtlevri æcÍve vcr Kuvny{oouv' (fror rou Avôpóvrrou rot lrot2¿eró A', l. 1, lletpóæouÀou, p. 41) lifting : ' qópev Kcn rouç laparrlvoúç õrrí¡na Kl' eor¡róvvcrv cÍlÂoç oqrówer ær0av{v, Kr' rÍâ"tr"oç or¡róvver æúr(rlv, rêl'eu rou o ra.l.ì.itepoç orcr, otriOq roù cr0pónou" (Tr¡v Ttóv tou Avôpóvtrou, l. 11-13, KoÀovcipou, p. 211) jumping : ' qúpev Kq,r rou lcrpcrrqvoóç õrríptcr Kr' crænqoúoøv' (ibid,l. 18) and riding : ' Eri¡repov dÀî.oç oripepov cÍÀì,n qpépo, ori¡repov fu 0él,ouv rcBol.l,rreúoet' (Tou Appoúpn, l. \-2, KcrÀovúpou, p. 213) -72- A favourite pastime of the aristocracy was to tell stories about brave heroes, which in turn became a favourite subject in heroic poetry. Thus, indirectly, the dexterity of the heroes in hunting, jumping and running was praised : Xto yÀrÍrro rnøv' o vloç Lo1ó, orov ærlôo mav aypipr rrlv repõtro rTlv æÀouprou/i oriocrl tqv aQriver M o Xcípovraç eæépooe la {tove pcrvrao¡Évo{ (Bóoroç rar X<Ípoç A', l. 7-7, llerpónouî,ou, p. 27) Another favourite heroic pastime was playing a musical instrument - in the Iliad, this is attributed to Achilles. In Akritic sohg, the hero is seen playing a taproupcÍ,77 a stringed instrument which is made by the hero himself, following the instructions of ÕrÀroæcrnroú - and is used for kidnapping the girl desired by the hero : ' TÇ éærøoe t(at rov rrcrpæoupcív eurúç erç ro oéprv r( éæar(ev o trolrßoùpdç tou róopoo reç yl,urcÍe{ (H Apæcryri qç Kópqç tou Âepavtr{, lletpóæou}.ou, l. 140-141) The word most often used to indicate "hero" is 'naî,ÀqrcÍpr' - brave young man - from the ancient Greek,'æcÍ),ÀaÇ, "youth",78 mainly accompanied by the epithet 'ö(ro{ (worthy) : 'Aroúç, crroúç, Arptto pou Kr úlro Frou naî,l.r¡rcÍprv' (O @óvcrtoç roù Âryevrd A', l. 9, lletpórouÀ.ou, p. 22) Other epithets used mainly refer to the hero's boldness and strength - (op)rúç, (bold, brave), õuvatóç (strong) : 77 A description of it is given in Petropoulos, H Apxaytl 14ç Kópnç rou AeBdvr1,l. 123-126, p.l l. 78 Campbell, John Kennedy, Oxford 1964, Honour, Family and Patronage : A study of social institutions and moral valu¿s in a Greek mountain community, p. 160, defines pallikari as a young unmarried man between the age of 23 and 30 who has completed miliøry service. The ideal type is úe herowarrior unencumbered with family responsibilities. -73 - 'floroç ev ' (optrriç rm õuvaróç rar cÍ(rov æcrl.ÀqrrÍprv i (O E<Ívtrvov, I. 30, fletpónoul.ou, p. 20) to his swiftness - y?',r(opoç (quick) : ' O Ârevriç o yl.rlopoç dpæø(ev to pa,Btiv tou' (O XcÍpoç Moúpa Õópr1oev, 1.7'1,, Kal.ovcÍpov, p. 246) his impulsiveness and abruptness - crnótopoç (abrupt, sudden) : ' ToD fic¡wcrroú 'ev nphwt rou, æcrpú rou ÂrevcÍr(r1 noù 'V ú(roç r(cn nóroppoç Trcr vø rr¡v eBÀeæíoq ' (Apæoy{ tr¡ç rópr1ç rou .A,epcÍvtr1, l. 20-2'1, flerpóroul.ou, p. 8) as well as his invincibility : ' - E¡æv Arpira À^e"/ ve ¡æ ovirqtov Arpítø', (O @cÍvcrroç rou Åryevri A',1.26, fletpóæouî.ou, p.z}) Emphasis is also placed on his popularity and fame - o róvra ÀakÉvov (all famous) ' O EcÍvcvov, o Ed,vcvov, o æóvta l,uÀ€F€vov' (EcÍvcvov, l. l, flerpóæouÀou, p. 19) Ethnicity as a claim of strength and braveness is mentioned in the song of The son of Andronikos where the hero emphasizes his race - po4raíra æcrÀl,qróprcr - when facing the Saracens : ' õra vø rõrite ncoç nqôoúv pa4raira æcrl"l.r1rúproi (froç rou Avõpóvrrou A', 1.25, Iletpónouì.ou, p. 3Z) The participle crvtperolpévoç - cr,vlpopévoç (brave) is also found in : a) the title of the Braae Willowy Møiden (H Avtperol¡révr1 b) descriptions of ^uf'epú) Digenis (O Àryevriç yulo¡ra2¿ei, 1.5, KøÀovcípou and c) The Shepherd and Charos song : _74 _ ' Kr eyó vcr ocrç eôryqOó yta évav avrpolpévo' (Booróç rar Xdpoç A', 1.2, flerpóæouluoo, p. 27) Furthermore, the sheer strength of the hero is stressed, when he is yoked with a buffalo - as punishment for having kissed the king's only daughter; zl while in the song of Prosphyris, the hero appears instantly breaking his made-to- order pcrpôí, made out of a thousand okas iron and steel: ' Xro 2¿épr rou ro éær.croe, ncl,. otro. pouvóv eBraíwer, orouç,oupøvoúç ro nê1a!€, oro rou &Irtl, ^Xê$ .ro oro yóvaróv rou ro palr rar ôuo roppduc nvn'. (Tou flpooQúpq, 1.35-37, Kol"ovcÍpou, p. 218) Dexterity in using the sword is displayed by the following lines attributed to the son of Armouris : 'rrlpafov ora0ít(rv éoupe øró cgyupóv. Qr¡rcÍprv, elç lov oupavóv ro o;nâro;(ev, erç to 2¿éprv rou ro ôé10q'. (Tou Appoúpn, l. 81-82, Kal"ovcÍpoy p.274) who later on is seen chasing a Saracen by covering miles on foot : 'ocrpdvta pfl,rcr tov eõfo46ve æe(óç p€ ro yovdtrcr, Kcrr dâ"2',4 oapd,vta téooepct ne(óç ¡re ro l,oupirrv'. (ibid, 1.96-96b') While the supernatural abilities and stature of Digenis are summed up in the following lines: 'Dníln õev rov eoréæa(e onr(Àro ôev rov eXóper, ta ópr¡ eõtaorél,r(e, pouvoú ropQéç enriõa, lcpdn 'apaôoÀó1ave Kcn pr(rprcÍ (eroúvere. Xro pítor¡rú rnove æouÀrcÍ, oro nepcropø yepdrta,'r' oto yÀcÍno K' erç ro æriõqpø ra l"cÍQra Kcrr o7piprc,. (O Âryev{ç YuXopayeí,1.6-10, Kol.ovdpou, p, 253) In conclusion, there seems to be a general consistency in the depiction of the physical appearance and the abilities of the hero in both the ltiad and the 79 Krooravçr|ç (efÉvoç pe poupríÂr, lletpónouÀou, p. 20. 75- Akritic songs, with the exception of heroic beauty, which is not directly associated with the Akritai. However, most striking is the clearly defined relationship of hero and king, common to both heroic spheres which is a vital component of heroic determination and heroic excellence. Contests - Aristeia The battle ground was the perfect stage for the heroes to compete, excel and prove themselves, since contest fulfilled their lives and satisfied their need for glory, distinction and superiority. The heroes of the llíad were warlike 'tirópqtor noLé¡rou, paXn; drópr¡tot, Qrl"oætóÀepor' (XVI 65, XVII 224, XXru 5, XIII 639), and they chose war and contest rather than peaceful existence at home (IX 41,2-473, II 331-335, II 453-454, VII 3). Even in their old age they craved for war like Nestor in I247 ff. Fighting was their soul's nourishment and fulfillment which overshadowed every day living necessities. Thus, before his aristeia, Achilles refuses to eat, even though he is besought by the other Achaean leaders claiming that he does not need to satisfy his heart with food or drink, when it is filled with sorrow and vengþnce (XIX 305-308). The battle was'n¡õrcÍvetpø (XIV, 155), and the heroes fought eagerly for glory. (IX 4't2-473, Xll 406-407, XVIII '121) The phrase 'crièv cproteúerv raì ureipo2¿ov Ëppevm dl"Àolv' , expresses their love for leadership and superioritlr, and explains why they considered it an honour to be a champion on the front rank (npópc?(oç) (V 536, VI 444-M5, XX 376). As Mueller points out "by far the most important type of serial fight is the "aristeia", in which a warrior becomes for a while the star of the show and displays his prowess"so which subsequently becomes one of the most important themes of heroic poetry. 80 Mueller, Mafin, The Iliad (London 1984), p.96 -76 - The Iliød dedicates whole books to the "aristeia" of certain heroes : Menelaus III, Diomedes V, Teucer vIII, Agamemnon XI, Patroclus XVI, which gradually prepare the stage for Achilles'impressive "aristeia" XX,XXI. Schein explains the etymology of the word: "Aristeia is an abstract noun, closely related to the verb aristeuo, which in the IJ¡ød means "to be (or try to be) the best and bravest in battle". In Greek, of all periods, the adjective aristos "best" is the superlative of agathos, "good", but in the Iliad, whose world is a world of war, "good", and "best" mean "good (or best) in battle". 8l And he goes on to distinguish the different stages of a typical "aristeia", based on Krischer : 82 "First there is a description of the hero arming himself, including an especially detailed description of his triumphantly gleaming armour. Next, the hero turns the tide of a dead-locked battle by killing an oppenent who stands against him. Thirdly, the hero breaks into the grouped ranks of the enemy and wrecks havoc among them. Theråfter the hero is himself wounded (which causes a temporary setback, for his side), but he Prays to a god, is healed or strengthened, and re-enters the battle to kill an important enemy. Finally, there is a fierce battle over the corpse of this enemy, until it is taken (often with divine aid) from the clutches of the hero".83 Thus, it becomes immediately apparent that the aristeia is usually won through unusual deeds that show the superiority of the hero in battle and in ir duels, and it ihe most important aspect of killing many men (XXI z'l}-221,, xvl 395-41'8,XV 74-6) and sometimes two at once (V 547,608), that distinguishes the first warriors. 8l Schein, Seth, L ,The Mortal Hero, (lJniversity of California press, 1984), p. g0. 82 Krischer, T., "Formale konventionen der homerischen epik," 7¿temsta,no. 56, (Munich l97l), pp. l3-89. 83 Schein, S,The Mortal Hero,1984.p.80. -77 - The detailed projection and exaggeration of all of these elements, the variation from the standard of a normal "aristeia" and the extra emphasis on superiority and superhumanity, mark Achilles' aristeia which according to Mueller begins "by an even more emphatic scene of arming. Indeed, the arms of Achilles are described in three separate scenes, as they are made, as Achilles first sees them and as he puts them on . . . The gleam of armour is the typical finale to the arming scene ; it is a harbinger of the destruction the warrior will cause. Its elaboration in the case of Achilles, in line with the fire motif that accompanies him throughout his aristeia, is a sign of his special destructiveness. "84 Achilles' "aristeia" abounds in similes taken from the natural world, as well as the animal kingdom. Thus, the hero in his fury, first rises like a lion against the great-hearted Aineas (XX 1,64-773), and continues to spread destruction, cutting his way through to the Trojan plains, like inhuman fire, consuming all human existence (XX 490-494). Most striking however, is the simile referring to the destruction that Achilles is wreaking in terms of threshing 'èUrtr¡revq ëv However, Achilles is not completely unchallenged in his aristeia. Fear seizes him in his dire encounter with the river Scamander (XXI 248) which becomes the main obstacle in his advance, perhaps emphasizing both the difficulty of successfully fighting in water, and the fact that the hero must prove his 84 Mueller, Martin, The ltiad, (London, 1984),p.97 85 schein, S, p. 14ó -78 - superiority by fighting against all natural elements The Akritic hero strives for distinction from an early age. He is in constant pursuit of challenges and contest, which drive him out of the domain of his home. As is aptly observed by Nancy Sultan : "The hero's life as portrayed in the traditional songs is essentially external ; he stays away from the inner circle of home and spends his youth, his pallikaria as a wondering exile (Eewæp€voQ, consciously rejecting and systematically avoiding domesticity. so This voluntary departure from his familiar environment and his wanderings are rightly regarded as necessary by Galatariotou 87 because they serve to integrate him into the world of men and prove his andríø. "Caution must always be foreign to his nature"88 that is why the hero's eagerness to engage in battle is often reported in Akritic song, to the extent that the hero, Yiannis, cannot wait for dawn to come, so he can enter the fighting and "deprive mothers of their sons, and women of their husbands". 'flatôtd õev rpcÍ(ou or æetetvoí, ratôrú õe (r¡¡repóver, Na røtepó 'ç tov æóÀepo va æoÀeprioor nd,Àr, Na rcÍpro pcívatç õíXcoC yrouç, yuvaíreç ôi2goç óvrpeç ;' (O frcíwqç, l. 5-7, l;u^ . A. KprapcÍç, oeÀ. 341, Kpritrlç, Baoíi,r¡ Md,rr1, p. 66) Prosphyris, on the other hand, actually prays for God to send him an army of opponents so he can prove his strength and try his new unbreakable papôi: 86 Sultan, Nancy., "Women in "Ak¡itic" Song": The Hero's "Other" Voice", Iournal of Modern Greek Studies, vol.9, no. 2, October 1991, p. 159. 87 Galaøriotou, Catia, "structural Opposition in the Grottaferrata Digenes Akrites", Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies I I, 1987, p. 40. 88 Campbell, John Kennedy., 1964, p. 297. 79- Indifference towards food and eating is also noted,se the main priority of the hero still being to fight. Regarding eating a social and festive occasion, the hero refrains from it when he is under the spell of the battle. In the folk song style of direct question and answer, the hero is often invited to join in feasting, which he categorically refuses, insisting that he has fighting as a priority on his agenda: l. 6-8, fletpóæouÀou, p. 54) Eating and drinking in general, appears to be an excuse for abstaining from war activities. It is an occasion where life is celebrated, unlike war which signifies victory or heroic death. In the songs of Charos,e0 the same rejection of food is expressd by Death, who clearly indicates that he has come to take someone - mainly a hero - with him to the underworld. ' Kql,G liptev o Xópovtcrç vcr Sø va ærr¡ prtcÍ pcrç . Ev r/iprc Tro o Xdpovraç vø ga v.g rqot pnrd ocrç,. napø prcr 1r. When it comes to deciding between fighting and surrender, the hero does not seem to be perplexed. The only solution heroically taken by him is to fight with no restraint, even when the opponent is Death himself : ¡rou, pr1õé Kcr 1' dp¡rctú ¡rou, ó, vc æcÍpnç tr¡v yulri pou, eyó or ôuó raÀavtpolpévor, oto orõepóv sÀóvr, pouvcÍ vo prl pcrioouv rcr Kcn vo laldorl q Xópcr . . (Booróç ror Xd,poç A', l. 70-74, lletpónoúìro,o, p. 27) 89 See alsn ltiad, XIX l45ff. 90 See also : - O Xrþç Mc{úpc qópr¡oev, t. 5-12, Ka}.ovrÍpou, p.244-5. - O Maupotô{ç o Xrþç, l. 22-29, Kc.l,ovrÍpou, p. 248. - Arpítaç KtÍotpov'n é2¿..oe, tlapcÀÀa1ri lwo,oooú, l. 5-7. _ KaÀovdpou, p.250. -80- This unyielding determination to fight, however, is not a mechanical reaction of a warlike robot. There is a human heart and a thinking mind behind the hero's decision. This is clearly seen by the song of The Small Vlach boy, where the young hero expresses Hector's second thoughts about meeting numerous opponents: ' Xrérer rar ou)'l.oyí(etar Kcn pe do vou dou ÀéTer : ' Nc rúTo æfoou dpérou¡rat, vct ¡caTo prpoç Qopoú¡rar' (Tou Mrrpoú nî.a2¿ónoul.ou, 1.21.-22, lletpóæouÀou, p. 49) The Akritic "aristeia" follows, the first stages of which - arming and rushing upon the enemy - have already been looked at in the previous chapter, dedicated to Horses and Armour. There, the 'border-line' heroes are seen fighting against human as well as animal opponents,el eliminating any undesired opposing force. A distinction is however made between the first stages of the heroic "aristeia"- where the hero literally cuts his way through the multitude of mainly inferior opponents - and the final stage of his "aristeia" - which consists of his final duel with an equally matched enemy. The first, mainly victorious stages, highlight the superiority of the hero, while the last stage chiefly underlines his heroic death, and it is treated separately in the Akritic song. By associating the hero's advance with his main weapon - the sword - emphasis is placed on the verb "to cut" in battle, as the hero fiercely cuts his way in and out of the enemy crowd, constantly thinning out the opposition. e2 9l Seee.g. fkÍÀr¡ tot Âr,yevri ¡re tó lpcÍro, lletpónouÀou, pp. l5-l6.Aryevriç Kor Kdpoupcç, ibid, pp. l8-19. 92 See also : Apnoyd rnç Kópnç tou Âepúvtr¡, l. 178-179, fletpónoul.ou, p. 13. Tou Mrrpoú nl,aXórouÀou A, 1.26-27, fletpónouÀou, p. 49. Tou Mr.xpoú nlcrlóroul.ou B', l. 18-20, flstpónouÀou, p. 50. Tou OeogúÀo,xtou, 1.24-26, lletpónouÀou, p. 52. -81 - ' Itcr, 'pæcr rorl otpcíteç ércrve, ota 'pycr torl povoæúttu, Kcrr orov rcû.ó torl ¡lpropó ôev qúpe fl vct róVn'. (Avtpero+ævr¡ Âuyeprd A', l. 8-9, fletpórouî.ou, p. 3) ' Etr¡v ê¡lnw þL'Ç eorótcooøv, orrlv Épya õuó 2¿r},rcÍõef. (ibid I-, l. 9, flerpórouì.ou, p. 5) In the victorious "aristeia" of young Armouris against the Saracens, the element of water, and in particular the river, again appears. The hero is seen destroying his enemies all day up the river, and all night down the river, perhaps placing emphasis again on the difficult task of fighting in (or near) water, as the hero is seen battling against all natural elements : ' Mcr rov Kup'Hl,tov tov y?rurúv, pcr trlv yl,urécrv tou prÍva óî,q F€pø touç érorrev rÍlv rívol æotapíøv Kcrl ól,r¡ vúrto louç éroære fllv rdro¡ æorapicrv. E0eoev rcn cr¡oOéoev touç rcrvÉvcr ôev aQrire.. (Tou Appoúpq, 1.87-90, Kol.ovcÍpou, pp. 21,4-215) Earth, sky, sea and even the underworld appear to be affected by the havoc the hero is spreading, as well as by his impending departure from the land of the living. The sky is covered and the sea groans as the hero spreads death: ' Lra ê¡tna 2¿iÀrouç éroye otø épya ôuo pl.rcÍôeç, Kol of dÀî.o otprQo¡lpropo ôev eúpr1re va róyr¡ KCrr o oupavóç eoréæqre Kr rì 0cÍû.croocr pouyrpiotr¡.' (Tou Mtrpoó Bl.a2¿óæoul.ou B', l. 18-20, fletpóæoulr.ou, p. 50) the earth trembles where the hero treads : ' r erercÍ æou 'nd,0reç, Âryevri, n Tnç érave Àcírro rC erceró æou 'rd,0re o Ko¡votwtr!ç étpe¡re n yqç . . ., (O Aryevr{ç Kcn r1 yuvaíro 1o1r, Iu}.I. A. Kprdpr¡, o. 316, Kpnrnç, l. 9-10, B. Mctrr¡, p. 149) the sky thunders, the world shakes, the underworld opens and its foundations crack as Digenis'r¡ruXopo1eí' (fights with death) : -82- ' BpovtcÍ rr' aorpdQter o oupavóç KCn oertt' o ønd,vc¡ róo¡roç Kr' o rcÍtol róopoç úvor(e rcrt tpi(ouv ra 0e¡rel,ta (O Âryevriç r¡rurúopo1eí, 1.2-3, Kcrì,ovcÍpou, p. 253) It is this final duel of the hero with thepersonification of Death (Charos) that mostly arouses our interest. The hero, having conquered all other forces, challenges XcÍpoç to a duel on a threshing floor. This choice of surroundings is most striking when compared with the simile found in the lliad in Achilles"'aristeia". The hero's own explanation for this choice indicates the incapacity of any other place to accdmodate such a duel, since the mountains might crack, and the citylcountry (1ópa) might be destroyed : ' rr dtvt€ vo æø roLÉryop€ oro orôepóv aì,óvr, vcr pn paioouv ra pouv<Í Kcrl vcr, 2¿øÀdor¡ rì 2(ópcr . . (Booróç rat Xdpoç A', l. '1.3-74, lletpóæoulvott, p.27) There is also a variety of adjectives alternatively used describing the ominous threshing flour, where life hangs in the balance for the Akritic hero - marble, iron and bronze : ' X<ípo av efoør ôuvatóç n ov eíocrt æal.Àqrdpr, êLo 'æc- vø raÀÉycop€ oro orõepévto aî,óvr oró '2¿er naro ôuvató rar yúpov cr,toa],évto". (O Møupoiõúç ra' o Xdpoç, l. 38-40, KaÀovúpou, p. 248) ' Eî,cr Xcrp' crç æaÀ¿úo4rev oto 1cÍÀrlvov r' crl,óvtv Xdpe, Kcn sv vrrcÍç lE oD, æaípç Kcr,r rnv yulriv pou Xdpe, Kcrl crv vrró o' eyó, vø 2¿aipolpql lov róopov.' (Arpiraç KcÍotpov êyaÇev, 1.23-25, Koî.ovúpol, p. 249) In conclusion, there seems to be a correspondence of thematic context and heroic attitude in the hero's most significant massive display of destruction - his "aristeia" - in both the lliad and the Akritic song. The nero in his eagerly destructive fury is glorious and fully justified. There are no sentiments of 83- reprehension. No laws of morality can touch the hero when he is "rightfully" eliminating the "enemy". This is the greatest test of his rivõpeicr, and it is highly celebrated. This fulfilment of his heroic potential brings the hero far away from his comfortable home abode. It is his encounter with foreign unimagined forces which determines his superiority. Friendship amongst the Homeric heroes Amongst the rival heroes of the lliad many friendships as well as animosities flourished. But friendship was a very strong and emotional bond, which inspired deep feelings of mutual trust, devotion, love and protection. Homeric friendship was distinguished for its high emotional character and its near idealism, which often led to self-sacrifice. Elaborating on the subject of the very close connection between morality and social structure in heroic society, MacEntyre underlines the necessity of friendship in such a society as follows: "To be courageous is to be someone on whom reliance can be placed: hence courage is an important ingredient in friendship. The bonds of friendship in heroic societies are modelled on those of kinship. Sometimes friendship is formally vowed so that by the vow the duties of brothers are mutually incurred. Who my friends are and who my enemies, is as clearly defined as who my kinsmen are. The other ingredient of friendship is fidelity. My friend's courage assures me of his power to aid me and my household; my friend's fidelity assures me of his will. My household's fidelity is the basic guarantee of its unity. So in women, who constitute the crucial relationships within the household, fidelity is the key virtue. Andromache and Flector, Penelope and Odysseus are friends (philoi) as much as are Achilles and Patroclus".93 Finley distinguishes three kinds of personal devices (through the channels of 93 ùfacEntyre, Alasdar., After Virtue. London 1981, p. I16. ,u- household and kin) which permitted the heroes to seek allies and friendly support in their permanently hostile environment a) marriage, which served among other things to establish new lines of kin and hence of mutual obligation,ea b) guest-friendship, the alternative to marriage in forging bonds between rulers,es and c) retainership, which set up a loose hierarchy among the nobles of a community and played a key role in the internal power structure.96 However, of all three relationships the last two are more intricate and require more of our attention. The humane obligation of hospitality of a stranger or a foreigner (Eévoç), which offered him refuge and protection in a foreign and often hostile land created a strong bond of friendship, gratitude and obligation - host and guest - a bond which becomes even more significant through the ambivalence of the Greek word "(évoç" which meant not only "stranger" and "foreigner" but sometimes "host". This strong bond of guest-friendship was formed mainly between rulers, and did not simply show human affection, but was a serious institution equal to marriage reinforced by intricate rights and obligations, often followed by expensive gifts in order to seal the relationship. It was a form of a political and military alliance e7 which demanded respect from both sides, even when they were in enemy grounds. In the lliad, on the battleground, after a long recital of Glaukos' genealogy, Diomedes realizes that they are bound by an old paternal guest-friendship, and they should not fight each other, but, instead, they exchanged their armour as a token of that friendship (VI 119-230. 94 Finley, The World of Odysseus, London 1956, p. 108. 95 ibid, p. lo9 eó iui¿, p. l14. 97 ibid, p. ll3 85- Perhaps the strongest relationship formed, strictly inside the heroic community, was that of retainership or companionship. According to Finley ' "Retainer" is a loose word, and that is why it fits the Greek therapon. At one end of the scale it defines the free but surely not aristocratic attendants at the palace banquets, who performed the offices "whereby inferiors serve their betters" (Odyssey, XV 324). And at the other end is a hero like Meriones, therapon of King Idomeneus of Crete'. 98 The formulation of strong companionships in peace and war was a common practice of the aristocratic circles of the Homeric era. Patroclus was a "Oepdncov" and "ërorîpoç" of Achilles : 'dpQ' dya0òv OepcÍæovta noôóreoç Aiaríôcro' (xvr 16s) Eurymedon of Agamemnon: ' ru,ì toùC p¿y 0epcÍnrov tindveu0' Ë1e Quoóovrcrç Eripu¡æôow, uiòç flroÀe¡raíou llerpaiôao.' (rv 227-228) Lykophron of Ajax and Teucer : 'rgõ p€v üpap0' é õ ën¿rrø ÂuróQpovcr, McÍotopoç uióv, Aiavtoç 0epcÍrovtcr Ku0r{pr, v' (xv 430-431) 'Teûrpe nénov ôÌ¡ vr[tv dæértcrro ærotòç ëtaïpoç Maotopíôr¡ç . (xv 437-438) Meriones of Idomeneus: oto óç 'Iôopwflcr iõov Ql.oyì eirel.ov crl.rriv, cr,u10v rcrì Oepórovrcr, (xrrr 330-331) The "Oepd,ftovrtç" (attendants) were tied by close friendship with their lords 98 ibid, p. l 15 86- from childhood. "They rendered of their free will, honourable service".99 They followed them in war and were their attendants and usually their chariot drivers "t'¡vio2¿or". In crucial moments of battle their friendship was a great support. They were at their side in all the formal occasions of their lives: banquets, weddings, funerals, court-cases, trips. They even took part in their friends' and superiors' revenge, and vice-verça. MacCary extensively elaborates on the subject in his chapter on "Men in pairs" where he points out that : "Not only do we consistently find hero and companion mutually and vitally dependent upon each other in battle - and, of course, off the battlefield, where we see the companion feeding the hero and tending his wounds - but also we notice the negative of all this, that is, that just as men fight successfully in pairs, they tend to die in pairs. The aristeia of Agamemnon begins with the slaying of Bienor, "shepherd of his people", and Oileus, his companion (hetairos) and charioteer (plexippos) (11 91-93).100 The Homeric scenes where the heroes make every attempt to help and support their friends in difficult battles or to protect their bodies from defilement, or to take revenge are very moving. Achilles cannot find inner peace until he takes revenge for Patroclus' death år¿ì ori8 ëpè Oupòç dvc,rye "Ertop (,rr¡u oriô tÏv.ôOpo_o qetéppevcrt. a! 5e pù æp<õtov èprp ùæó ôoupì tureìç crnò 0upòv öleoop" (xvu 90-93) The love towards "gí}.ouÇ or 'Qtl.tcÍtouÇ is reflected throughout the lliad : ' ôîe Mevoruúôq, rq è¡rcp re2¿crpro¡réve eDpq" (xr 608) 99 Mireaux. p.64ff. Finley p. l15 ff. 100 Uaccary, \Y Thomas. , Chitdlikß Achilles Ontogeny and Phylogeny in rhe 1/i¿d, New York, 1982, pp. 130-131. -87 - ' Teõrpe néæov, õÌ¡ vrñiv dnértcrto motòç ëtaipo( (xv 437) ' dIÀù d por rrõv frõoç, ènei gíÀoç cö1"e0' Ëtuïpo( (xvrrr 80) "The despair of Achilles when Patroclus is killed (XVIII 22ff) is not a poetic hyperbole, but a true expression of the deepest feelings and the closest bond that could unite men in the society of Homs¡'s ¡i¡¡s".l0l They were repeatedly called "tnotof' or ':r;',orórorol", because the first obligation of a friend is faith and devotion for which the Homeric "0epdæovreç" and 'Ëtaîpot' were famous for (XV 33'1., 437, XVI747, XVII 500). They honoured them like themselves or their parents, and perhaps fulfilled to a degree the role of the father-figure, absent in battle (XVIII 80-82, XV 437-439) and they were indeed considered as blood relatives or brothers. MacCary attempts to define accurately this in a sense unconventional relationship which he finds distinct from modern homosexuality or ancient Platonic pederasty. FIe, in fact, observes that it is not only one man usually stepping out in the front of battle to face the enemy but always a hero with the support of his therapon or hetairos. And he emphasizes that this feature of the poem must be recognized as a manifestation of the heroic temperament because "The Homeric hero requires his mirror in another closely related hero (or subordinate) to assure himself of his own "actual existence"'ì02 It has already been repeatedly stressed that the Akritic hero is mainly a "lonely" hero, striving against the "evil" forces of the world, alone. However, in his lonely quest for glory, and through his encounters, we are often l0l ¡4¡¡sar^, Emile, Daily Life in the time of Homer,1959. p. 65. 102 Maccary, W Thomas , Childlike Achilles. Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the Iliad,New York, 1982, pp. t32-133. 88- sketchily informed of the background Akritic social structure. There is indeed a definite differentiation between allies and enemies, which determines the hero's course. The enemies are basically, either of a different race - Saracens - or of an animal nature - crab, monster, dragon - although there are generally other figures towards which the hero is antagonis¡¡s.103 On the other hand, the channels of alliance are strictly defined by bonds of kinship and friendship, which are sought through the institutions of : - marrrage, - guest-friendship (gtl,o(evfa), - peer-friendship Marriage Arranged marriages served as new aristocratic contacts and support groups which were necessary in a hostile and uncertain environment such as the unstable 'Byzantine - Arabic borders. Hence we see the Anatolian "PricrÇ and the Western "BaotlróÇ intending to form an alliance, by arranging to marry their children : . O ptioç rr1ç Avcrtol,úç r(' o paorÀrcÍç tr¡ç Aóor¡ç ouppoóÀrov exú¡raorv oupre0OeprccÍv vo rúpouv' (Apæcryri rr¡ç rópr1ç rou ÂepcÍvtq, l.'1.-Z,Iletpónoul.ou, p. g) Therefore, the support and fidelity of family members - especially the wife's - was of vital importance during the testing years of the hero's existence, as well as after his death. It is this fidelity - the basic guarantee of the unity of the hero's household 104 - which is tested here by the dying Digenis, who repeatedly questions his wife's faithfulness after his death : ' ppe Av crno0civgl rol"li, .Trorov 103 5." previous chapter on hero and king relationship. lß MacEntyre, Alasdar, AfterVirtue,London 1981, p. l16. 89- Because, as is explained by Nancy Sultan, "If the wife is expected to remarry, or be taken by another forcibly, the hero will kill her because he cannot risk losing his kleos in her memory. In other words, a new life for a wife after the hero's death might make her forget her responsibility to him. She might not wear black ; she might not sing his praises. The hero cannot depend on outsiders (kséni) to perform this duty, for as Danforth has shown (1982 :1,22) true ponos is expressed only for one's 914¡¡ ftin".105 Guest-friendship The institution of guest-friendship was chiefly the result of hospitality (flÀo€,evís), which offered food, shelter and support to a stranger in a foreign land. It was a valuable form of protection which proved beneficial for both parties involved - host and guest. Not only because through this formed alliance the former host could later enjoy the protection he had previously offered, in the hands of his former guest, but also because it guarded the host himself from any sudden attack from an offensive foreigner. Inviting a stranger to eat and drink was a peace offering gesture on behalf of the host, and had to be accepted in order for the guest-friendship institution to be enforced, based on gratitude and obligation. Thus, in the Akritic songs, the direct invitation of strangers to join in eating and drinking is widely used : ' KaÀóç rópreç, Õrlroæanæoú, vcr Qaç, vcr rrrnç pttd ¡raç, va gcÍr¡ç a.$pqu rou Àcroú, va Qaç oQróv neptit(tv .' (H Aprayïi rqç rópnç tou ÂepcÍvtr1, l. 84.f. fletpónouÀou, p. 10) ' Kuâ.coç rwcr, rov Too¡.røôró ps QcÍF€ rocn vcr æroúpe' (To ncÍÀ¿pcr roD Toopaõroú ¡re to fro tou, l. 6, llerpónouÀou, p. 54) 105 Sultan, Nancy, "Women in 'Alaitic' song: The Hero's 'other' Voice". Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 1991. p. 16,4. 90- This protective alliance was not restricted to the persons involved, but it also applied to their families - mainly the sons - who were bound by paternal guest - friendship. Most interesting and intriguing is the fourth version of the song of the Sons of Androníkos and the Monster, referring to a paternal friendship, not specifiying however, whether it is linked to Qrloq,evic. The nine sons of Andronikos go hunting and attack the monster "IuypóæouÀo(, even though it claims that it is bound in friendship by oath "crõepQooóvr¡ Kr opcrloíroc" with their father. The sons in their rush call the friendship invalid, claiming falsely that their father has died, so they do not have to comply with it. The monster, however wins and eats them, but when their father himself confronts the monster, it in turn apologizes and vomits the sons back intact (ftor Avôpóvrrou Kcrl Itor2¿eró, llerpóæoul,ou, p. a2-aÐ. Peer-friendship Peer-friendship, however, was by far the most valuable form of alliance for the Akritic hero. In a society continually threatened by plundering "gangs" trying to establish superiority and territorial dominance, the hero needed the material and emotional support of peers. According to Bowra : "Though the hero may wish to be self-sufficient and in some cases succeed, he has none the less to play his part among other men and women. He is, despite all his pre- eminence, a human being and may even possess human affections in an advanced degree. He cannot live entirely for himself, and needs a companion to whom he can unburden his heart and whom he can make the partner of his ambitions . ."loó Although he is on his own when he performs his heroic feats, we occasionally catch fragmentary glimpses of his supporters. He is thus often seen eating, drinking and socializing with his companions : ltr Bowra, C.M., Heroic Poetry, New York 1966. p. 64-65 -91 - À¿Énç o ¡reycÍÀoç cr xpov KC[r æivouv yl,urolcrt pett oúvtar" u A', l. 1-3, lletpónoul.ou, p. 48) who are constantly assisting him in difficult moments. The often repeated request for his armour uttered by the hero in plural "bring me" (Qépte pou) again indicates a supportive companon group, the importance as well as the inferiority of which is immediately noted. However, amongst his comrades, there is one to whom the hero is closely attached. He is considered almost a close relative, replacing a brother or acting as a substitute father, who is expected to take part in everything of importance concerning the hero. For this reason, in the Akritic Song, Digenís uninaited to a weddíng, the absence of Digenis at his best friend's wedding is suprising. The close relationship between the heroes being strongly underlined by the words "otc[ùpû€,tóç" and "øõep$orortó( : ' O frdwqç r<ívet rq yo;po,, o ftdvvr¡ç rcÍvet Tdpo, ó)rov tov róopo rdÀ¿oe n ólouç touç rôrroóç tou, 1o otøupcetó õev róÀ¿oe, tov crôepQorottó rou.' (O Âryev{ç crúì,eoroç oe f<Í¡ro B', l. 1-3, lletpónou},ou, p. 6) In this regard Anastasiadis notes: aôeÀQororróv, nou ytvótøv tl€ rrlv pcÍ€n (crvtcÀÀayr(, aípatoç, ónÀolv, ôqproupyeí aôel.Qrroúç ôeopoúç pe- ['Aprototê].r'¡'H0trú Nrropd,lercr, ll7la : ' ori yiyvovtar ^fap Qíl,or roì,Àoi rqrd túv årcrrprrriv grl,íov'l rou êrrote é26ouv rcpú unolpéroor1 v' cì,Àr¡l.oBoq0oóvtcn or rd0e repíotcro¡ qç (olúç touç. ro7 Õrltoæaææoúç, "friendly grandfather", is however the only person extensively depicted who fulfils the role of the father -substitute in the hero's Iife. He acts as a delegate on Digenis' behalf : ' T(ar eúpe tov ÕrÀroncr,Trnoúv, npo(ev'rltriç vc ncÍn" (H Apnalú tnç rópnç tou .A.eB 107 '4vsolool He is the only person the hero can entrust with his horse and armour,l0s and the one offering wise advice to him when he wants to kidnap the girl he failed to lawfully take as his wife. His subservient role in comparison to the hero is however, immediately noted when he is openly abused by the hero for failing to successfully carry through his task. (ibid, 1.707-1'10) loe In a hostile environment, heroes both in Homeric society and at the Akritic borders sought support groups by developing ties of kinship and friendship through marriage, guest-friendship and peer-friendship. While marriage and guest-friendship appear to have been premeditated safety and peacekeeping arrangements - - the most significant and in effect touching bond was that of peer-friendship. In the epos of the IIiød, this is fully explored and skillfully incorporated into the "Wrath of Achilles", while in the Akritic song we only see flashes of this theme appearing in different versions. There are, though, the basic common elements of trust, support and emotional bond in both. Heroic Characteristics Boasting Boasting is one of the commonest aspects of the heroic character. Boasting for personal achievements, heroic deeds and bravery, diminished the opponents' spirit and heartened the heroes' soul. It was a psychological need for the heroes who craved for admiration. Self-projection varied according to the size of the egotism and ambition of each hero. 108 5." Pseudohero theme in the Horses and A¡mour chapter. l@ I would not though go as far as !o agree with Petropoulos, who clai¡ns that he was a prisoner or a slave (see Petropoulos, Introduction ol the Song: The Abduction o[ the daughter of Levantis p. 7) I am doubtful mainly because of the etymology of his name "friendly grand-father", and because of the friendly advice he readily offers to Digenis ; he appears in lact to be a true companion Lo vyhom the hero unburdens his heaf and with whom he shares his ambitions. (sec Bowra, p. 65) 93- The close-quarter fighting of the Homeric era allowed for lively dialogues between the opponents, who took the opportunity for bragging, taunting and gloating, before during and after their close encounters. Dialogues of this nature are observed between Sarpedon and Tleptolemos (V 627 ff), Glaukos and Diomedes, (VI 119 f0, Achilles and Aeneas (XXII 250ff), Hector and Achilles (XX 178f0, and Hector's speech over the wounded body of Patroclus (xvr 830 f0 In the IIíad. many lines are dedicated specifically to bragging : (XVI S30 fl XXII, 669,LV,405-407,303-305). And the following phrases are very frequently used in the lliad. ' rilç Ëqøt' eri2¿ópevoç . . .' (V 106) ' rii ËQct eù1ó¡revoç . . .' (XX 393) ' . . . ëret eõ2¿opar elvar <Ïproto( (XXIII 669) Bragging is indeed a form of an insult to the opponents who dn many occasions cannot take it and rush in battle to prove themselves: ' q Ë.$ar' 'Apyeíorot I &Xoç 1évet' eri(a¡revoro Aiavc ôÈ pcÍâ.rora ôcriQpovr Ou¡ròv öptve' (xlv 458-459) ' rii ËQad, 'Apyeioror ô' &XoC yévet' eù(u¡revoto flqvÉ:?req [iè pcÍÀrota õotQpovr 0upòv öprvev' óppr|eq õ 'Ard,pøvroç' ö ô' oril ùnépervev åport¡v rlrlveleoo dvartoç' IV 4g6-4gg) Mueller also refers particularly to the heroes' gloating speeches on the battlefield, which sharply contrast to the impartially sympathetic necrologues that have preceded. In particular, he finds the gloating speeches "similar in function to the necrologues in that they keep the fallen warrior a little longer in the limelight",ll0 while they are closely related to grisly injuries. These speeches are generally hostile since they verbally release feelings of anger and ll0 ¡4us¡1sr, Martin, The lliad, London, 1984,p.93. 94- animosity felt by opponents (XI 450-455, XIV 489-505). They often display savage irony (XllI374, XIII 413, XM56, XVI745-750), or refer to revenge (XIU 4'1,4, XllI 446-447, XIV 470-472, XVII 538, XXII 337-334), while in the case of Achilles they take the form of exultation (XX 389-392). A perfect peaceful occasion for bragging was during rest and eating, to which Agamemnon is forced to refer to in a very crucial moment of the war, in order to remind the Achaeans of their boasting exaggerations. (VIII 228-235) Patroclus is also boasting, while dying, that he would have competed with twenty men like Hector, if the gods had not taken away his armour (XVI 847 848). However, boasting that surpasses the human limitations is hybris "üÊprç" which is harshly punished by the gods as we see in the story of Niobe (XXIV 606-609), and when Achilles almost risks his life at the hands of the furious river-god Xanthus who was insulted by the hero (XXI 233ff¡. rrr There is nothing humble about the Akritic hero's projection either. Through his actions and verbal expressions, he continually seeks to establish superiority and supremacy. His purpose - to eliminate any opposition - is preceded, succeeded or basically aided by self-assertion and projection, mainly achieved through boasting. From his premature emancipation, the hero widely declares his absence of fear, and his boldness, openly provoking any opposition. Porphyris brags that he is not afraid of anyone : ' Kat Þyúre r' eru,uxíolqKs nrrlç d,vtpcr ôe QopcÍtcrr (Tou llopQúpn A', l. 9f, lletpónouÀou, p. 44) 1l I ¡4*" informaton on the subject of hybris can be found in Chaptcr VIII - Heroic Death. -95- ' 'ç oo rpitov sKcLDKíoK€tov 'Kctvévq,v 'rt Qoyoó¡rat, pouôe prrpóv pouõÉ ¡r^uyclv ¡rouôé to BøotÀeav". ( H ArXpal,oria rou Korotcwtrl, 1.3, B. Múrq, p. 100) While the son of Kalomoires, after a miraculous growth, publicly announces that he is ready for war : l. 19-21, flerpónoul,ou, p. 34) Since talking during fighting was also here possible, bragging and taunting enlivened the heroic encounters: ' Kar yÀéæou yÀÉæou Kootavtd, pev oe rarcrôtr{oco, o pøópoç ¡rou eSoúoKooev Kcr,t ro onqOiv poÐ róBret, I'ir I Qoó2¿td pou TrDpopo;XU" Kl' ev r1úpev vø loptdoq. Kcr,r 'æol,od,tat Kortcrvrrdç Kcrl rou polpoú Kcr,r. À¿et ' O ¡raúpoç o' øv eQoúoK@oev KGl to ona0ív o' róprr¡ crppoonÀ^l.têç êyet æo)uî.éç rr' qç ßd vq ra,taróBrr¡'. (Ta¡v Tróv tou Avõpóvrrou, l. 89-94, KøÀovúpov, p.21,2) If pre-fighting boasting gives the hero a psychological advantage, a victory makes him gloat uncontrollably, uttering equivalent gloating phrases/speeches. Thus Konstantinos refers to the defeated forces as "sheep", inviting the King to send even more against him to slay: ' Xcnpérø F€ rov Baorl.tcÍv Kql rqv BaotÀoæoúÀl,crv, av é2¿r1 rr <Íå.?l4 npôyaru, cç oteiÀ"r¡ p€ ror oæú(ol (H Ar2¿pcrl,coofcr rou Krootcrvttd, l. 48-49, McÍrr1, p .10t) ttz and the son of Andronikos gloats : ' Eyó efpcn o Avôpero¡révoç, t' Avõpovírou o ltoç, æou tpé¡rei o róopoç ó1"oç n ól,cr rct yaptu, roo tpépouv tpsrç ncroúõeç nou nol,éLrcr1cr. Âev rioav prite nevre, prite ôeraoltó, eQtd 2¿tÀrciõeç rioav K' syó apovaXóç . ." (N. llol,itr¡, o. 68) ll2 5." also: Iou¡æl,iôqç, o. 6?-68, [óvtou. 96- Around the imposing Akritic table,l13 ¡þs nobles-heroes, are usually seen boasting mainly about their splendid possessions - arms, clothes, women - rather than their heroic deeds.114 ' évcr raî,ó rpo;nêÇt, u Kr cÍi,î,oç u1 Qopeorú rou r, rcrunoúvtcrv rrlv ral,nl roù.' Kcû{ tou, l. 1-3, B.Mdrr1, p. 139) The final opportunity given to the hero for self-projection and justification is before his death. Because, as is indicated by Nancy Sultan: "To die for honour is the most noble death for a hero. The death means nothing, however, if no one tells about it. . . In many 'Akritic' songs, and especially those from Cyprus (see N.G. Politis, 7909,45f0 the dying hero calls his male compatriots around him and sings " rolç æcrrôno¡oóvatç, tcrrç øvtperolpraíç Kcn rorç ral.l.r¡rcrpraíç tou in effect singing his whole life in a straight line from childhood through manhood."l15 It is a "premature" boasting lament of his lost heroism which needs to be praised for the sake of eternal glory, and can be seen in many Akritic versions, such as: O OcÍvatoç Tou Âryevri B'116, Finally, while boasting is depicted as a healthy expression of the hero's feelings of confidence and courage, the Akritic hero is warned by Charos against heavy boasting which reaches {iÊptç that goes beyond human limitations. Although it is Digenis who challenges Charos to a duel, the hero's death is inevitable in the hands of the personified Death. There is no point boasting over forces that are beyond human power/ as it is indicated below : ll3 5se: Ap Oépou, r.2, o. 230. 114 5"s also: H oAßaTú qç rópr¡ç rou xtpotqyoú, l. l-4, Kal,ov l15 5u¡tan, N., p. 163. l16 netpórouÀou, pp. 23-24. ll7 ¡o,røydpou, pp. 241-242. 118 16¡¿, pp.242-244. -97 - ' EUev Arpítø, Àe/ ve ¡æ, avirqtov Arpítcr - ficr ooDç, Trcr, oouç, Arpitcr pou, Bcrpéa ¡rn røu1cíoan epév oe oev noloç éoterÀ¿v üæ' eoév naì"ÀqrcÍp ev' (O @cÍvatoç rou Âryevr{ A', l. 25, 27-28, lletpónouÀou, p. 23) There is an urgent need in the heroes of both the lliad and the Akritic song to overcome their opponents, not only physically, but verbally as well. Silent fighting was definitely not customary. Vibrant dialogue made their encounters more lively, and a great topic of heroic verse. It seems the heroes wanted to be known and remembered not only through their brave acts, but also for their words, which often surpassed human limits - as they are warned by others - reaching {iÊptç. Sense of Honour One of the most valued aspects of heroic standard and existence, was the sense of honour, pride, and self-respect that distinguished the Homeric warrior. In particular, honour is the sense of pride that emanates from the praise or reproach of other people towards ourselves. It also checks and restricts our actions, which must not attract the peopleä blame or t¡u¡1s.l1e In heroic society where morality and social structure are one and the same thing, the heroes "do not find it difficult to know what they owe one another; they feel crdõç -a proper sense of shame - when confronted with the possibility of wrongdoing, and if that is not sufficient, other people are always at hand to drive home the accepted view. Honour is conferred by one's peers and without honour a man is without worth. There is indeed in the vocabulary available to Homer's characters no way for them to view their own culture and society as if from the outside. The evaluative expressions which they employ are mutually interdefined and each has to be explained in terms of the gfþg¡g." l2o 119 5ge also : A¡istotle., Rhetoric, 1384 A, 1383 B. 120 MacEntyre, Alasdar, After Virrue, London 1981, p. I 18. 98- On the other hand Schein, elaborating on the etymology of the word "honour", points out that : "This "honor" is not merely an abstraction. The basic meaning of timê, "honor", is "price" or "value" in a tangible sense. The word can be used of a woman like Briseis, who was a geras or special "gift of honor" from the army to Achilles, as well as the seat of honor, full wine goblets, meats, and a fertile land mentioned by Sarpedon as rewards for prowess in battle and reasons for continued bravery and achievement. Those who win such tangible honors also receive honor conceived abstractly; from this comes their Kleos "glory and reputation", what is said about them near and far; even when they are dead". l2l It is this sense of honour which : a) leads heroes to horrible arguments (and in the case of Achilles, once his honour is slighted it becomes hybris and comes to dominate his personality) ; b) dispels cowardness ; c) makes them brave and d) pushes them towards self- sacrifice. The Homeric phrase 'aiôcóç, 'Agyeiot, ' rüç eiæòv, ötpuve pévoç rcr,ì 0upòv äxúotou' (v 787-792, XV 502-574,XV 565-567) Achilles on the other hand, refuses to fight for an honour which has already been defiled by Agamemnon's actions : ' où 7ùp npìv noÀéporo peôrioopor aipatóevroç' (rx 6s0) while Hector stays out of the walls and is sacrificed, because he is afraid of 121 5.¡"¡n,setlrL,TheMortalHero, lJniversityolCalilorniaPrcss, 1984,p.71. 122 5." Avooto,orrÍôr¡ç, 1,, H AtõaoraLía rav Opqptrcov Erov LrE rnt Borlleta rav Aqpoarccóv Tpayouõuóv Kdl ro:v Neoel.Ar¡wrcav tlapaõóoecov. Oeooal.ovíxr¡, lg7''t p.29. 99- shame and the criticism of the Trojans (Vl 440-443).tzt And indeed, the Trojan war is a war of honour as Achilles emphasizes : ' dÀå"ù ooí ô puy' avcrtôéç, öp' èonó¡reO' öSpcr où xaípr1ç, npt¡v dpvúpevot Mevel,cÍrÐ oof î€, ruvõnc, rpòç Tpóorv.' (I 158-160) but Agamemnon seems to ignore the importance of honour in war when he makes his demands in I737-1,38. In the Akritic song, honour is pre-eminent to the hero's existence, because it is again directly imposed by the heroic society that surrounds him . The hero's worth is measured by his peers, and the hero is constantly pre-occupied with the impression his actions will have on other people: ' Av rpoúyro rar orotóool oe, Ocr ?lÉl va ev' Qovéaç' ' rr rpoóTo, 'Kr oKoróvo oe, Ocr Àe/ ve eSoBé0ev' (froç tou Avôpóvrrou B', l. 53-54, llerpónou}.ou, p. 40) "Flonour is central to a hero's being, and if it is questioned or assailed or insulted, he has to assert himsell since he would be untrue to his standards if he failed to do anything to prove þis v¡e¡¡þ".124 For this reason, the Akritic hero is seen: accepting challenges, refusing to surrender, never compromising, and taking revenge. Accepting challenges The taunting remarks of equals and superiors, aiming to provoke the hero's reaction, are a form of insult to his pride and honour, which the hero feels immediately compelled to defend by accepting the challenge. Thus, when the daughter of Levantis tries to outsmart Digenis by setting a test for his dexterity, the hero aptly responds : ' Eç oou rnoteúro, Arevr(, ov peo oe ôot(tpd,oro. 'EXo ôrt(í¡uv éooco pou, rd,tco Trcx, vcx, to oúpro, 123 See A¡istotle's Ethics. Euôri¡rera, 1229, æ,'"Ecrt ô' eiôq 124 Bowra, p. 61. -100- oreç Ooú?(reç oou pcrotd¡vetç ro, ædvco vo Lro'u to oúpr1ç . ro vav rou æai(er ttcpnoupdv, r' ú1,ì'o nnúvver ôrt(ípr ætoo roù ro enétcr(w t(crt æriev évop pí}.tv". (H aprayú qç rópnç tou ÂepcÍvtr¡, l. 148-156, lletpónoul.ou, p. 12) The public provocation of the king has the same result : 'Oúî.cl yrø ¡ævcr tø l.cú.eíç, oól.cr ytü p€ tcr Àeetç . (Tou @eoQúÀartou, l. 731f . lletpónouÀou, p. 52) as well as Charos' crucial invitation to a duel : ' Eyó '2¿ou aotrÍl.tvo o¡sOí, ofôepo pporo(óvr, eyó '1ou orriOo pcÍppc po eoêvø vø vrr{oou (O McrupoTõr(ç rt'o Xdpoç, l. 36-37, KaÀovdpou, p. 248) Refusing to surrender The hero's constant efforts to avoid shame and sustain the highest degree of honour, dispels feelings of that he might be exposed to, enforce his andreia, and often lead m to choose self-sacrifice rather than surrender. Thus, The Small Vlach Boy overtaken by his senge of honour, feels shame to withdraw in front of numerous opponents an engages in a stormy attack : 'Eærlye ro Blø2¿ónouÀo, ortl piylo vcr ptyÀio'q BÀ¿r¿r Touprró laparqvoúç rt Apónqõeç roupodpouç, or rdpæor eæpaotví(ave, tcr nì"o1:c rcorrtvi(av cÍp2¿roe vo rouç ôrøpetpcÍr1, õra¡retpr¡¡roúç ôev eiyuv No rcír1 ¡foo¡ vtpéæetcrr, vq ncr,n epnpóç QoBútcn Itcl épna rou pærirt ocrv ar¡tóç, ota éBya oøv æetpitqç oro épncr rou 2¿íÀrouç éroye; orû, 6éÊyG ôuo pÀrcÍôeç, Kcn oto rsl,ó to yúptopcr rcrvévcr ôev aQriver (N. lIoIitTì, o. 83) The young shepherd also refuses to surrender to Charos, but honourably invites him to a duel that results in his ds¡¡þ.12s Furthermore, Yiannos is scolded by his wife for having entered a fight against one thousand men that he was not able to win : ' - frdwo pou, õe oou to eino, ôe o' oppriveucr ¡r^e 2¿íIrouç pqv tcr pdverç, Kcr,l pqv noÀe¡rúç; - ùbno., rc¡Àé yuvcfro,, KGl vrpomú(etç ¡re E1ó ei¡rar o avôpercrl¡Évoç, r' Avôpovirou o 1toÇ' ('ATr Oépou, t. 1, o. 108) 125 ge6¡dç xcr XcÍpoç A', l. l0-14, tlerpónouÀov,p.21 l<'r'- '- 101 - /t'" Neoer compromising '\.',:'";l:;i:' '' Compromise is a form of defeat and an acceptance of weakness to defend"örire's actions, that is why the Akritic heroes deny it. Their sense of pride, emanating from their honourable conduct prevents them from being subservient in any way. That is why the son of Armouris categorically refuses to comply even with his father's wishes, when it comes to stop his fierce fighting against the Saracens. It is a matter of personal honour, not at all affected even by bonds of kinship : ' Bréte rov auOévtq pou KcÍ,r rov yl"uróv ¡rou rúpr1v, éroç ÞÀsral rcr, oonínc ¡rou ôrnÀopavtl. Taking reaenge As Bowra emphatically points out "The satisfaction of honour may raise deeper questions and take more dramatic forms. In a last resort a hero's honour means more to him than anything else, and if it comes to a choice between it and no matter what else, he is almost bound to follow þs¡gs¡." 12ó The rejection of the hero's proposal to marriage, injures his pride and leads to the creation of a whole cycle of songs dedicated to kidnapping, where the hero takes revenge for the unjust treatment he received. However, the exacting of vengeîce is not always smooth; "Often enough, honour must be satisfied by bloodshed, since the hero feels that he has been too deeply insulted for forgiveness or appeasement to be possible, and can hardly continue to exist unless he destroys those who have wounded him in the centre of his being."l2r After the successful abduction of the Daughter of 126 Bowra, p. 62. 127 Bowra, p. 63. 702- Levantis, the hero meets her people in a bloody encounter, and symbolically cuts off his mother-in-law's hands which had originally refused to give him her daughter : ' To otl,rol.ítptv rou paptiv oro oéprv tou ro nrróvvet rÇan ot péoeç el.Àidvcrv €rç r rt'lv neOOepdv rou t(cn €, róBret r,s. ôruo tr1ç oépnø'. (H Aprcryri qç Kópnç tou ^ÀeBcÍvrn, l. 202-205, lletpótoul,ou, p. 13) Honour again associated with women - this time with Digenis' wife - and feelings of jealousy emanating from pride, are explored in the song of the Death of Digenisl2s where the hero has no choice but to kill his wife who has proved that she has no intentions of being faithful to him, after his death. Defilement of the hero's honour even after his death - through his "possessions'.!' is unbearable. Shame is also incurred through unheroic conduct in battle. So the heroes are very careful not to stain their sense of honour through inappropriate behaviour. Thus, the son of Armouris refrains from attacking unarmed opponents by warning them first about his inten¡iet15 12e while Charos' final victory in his duel with the young shepherd, achieved through unheroic means, is considered dishonourable by the hero.l30 Finally, humiliation and defeat of the hero on the battleground, stripped the hero of his sense of honour and were equal to death. Hence Mavroides, having been humiliated in his encounter with Charos, wishes to die, declaring that he cannot bear such an existence.13l 128 ¡61¡i¡oul.ou, pp. 24-25. 129 1e¡ Ap¡roúpq, l.69-75, Kcl.ovrÍpou, p. 214. 130 366¡6ç rat XrÍp The hero in the Iliad and Akritic folk song is constantly concerned about how his conduct will be viewed by the rest of his society. His existence and the immortality of his name depends upon the lasting 'good' impression he will have on the rest of the people. His sense of honour, and therefore his sense of shame that emanates from it guides his life. He thus has to abide with the heroic code of ethics which appears to be strikingly similar in both societies. Quarrels Arguing and quarrelling is the result of irritation, anger, wrath which expose fully the extreme character of the egotistic heroes. The Homeric heroes display a highly quarrelsome and irritable nature. They fight and argue at the same time, and their brawls become interesting epic themes. The basic theme raised in the lliad, is the Menis theme' Mfrvrv derôe Oed . . .' which is looked at from every angle, and it is fully unfolded and formulated. The epic begins and ends with the anger of Achilles, which is always kept in the thematic centre of the poem. It is anger which is, at first at least, fully justifiable and not simply based on the hero's qucrrelsome nature. According to Moorman "The actual issue here is the authority of Agamemnon, its limits and responsibilities, and more particularly the proper relationship between individual warrior and group commander in a time of crisis . . . The poem thus begins not simply with an argument over a girl but with a complex question of the disposition and use of power and authority". ttz In addition, in the lliad, we are informed of the wrath of Melea iger, Aeneas and Alexander (IX 527ff , XIII 460, VL326) "The relation of the plot of the llíad to that of other stories suggests that the Wrath of Achilles (together with much that depends upon it) is representative of a type; the tremendous wrath of a great hero was a common motif, a favourite of the story ¡slls¡5."133 132 ¡4-.tt't*, Cha¡les, Kings and Captains, Variations on Í[eroic |'heme, Kentucky, 1971, p. 4. 133 Page, Denys L ,History and the Homeric Itiad,Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1966,p.257. -704- Quarrels are remembered for a long time (XIX 63-64) and seem to the heroes sweeter than honey (XVIII 1,07-1,10), which perhaps explains their frequent brawls (I1,48-749, XXIII 438-M0, XXIII 482-484), that the elder and wiser heroes advise them to avoid (IX 257-258), because like Nestor, they loathecivil wars (rx 634). Gods often quarrel as well (XXI 385-387,391,-394). The heroes are also irascible, irritable and explosive : ' di,X iet, pr{ p èpéer(e, ocrótepoç öç re vér1crt'. (r32) 'rk. ËQar' öpvuto õ' crùdr 'OTì.floç :'r;rXDç Aiaç 2¿oú¡revoç 2¿aÀeæoîorv d¡reíycroOar èæéeoõr'. (xxm 488-489) ' prlrén võv p' èpéOr(e, yépov . ." (XXIV 560) which makes their brawls even more intense and full of pathos. Moorman reminds us that "there are in the lliad powers equal to and even more powerful than Zeus and Poseidon Blind folly (ate), Fear (phobos and deimos), Strife (eris), and Turmoil (kudoimos) - that control man in his hours of crisis "animal instincts" (that) later Greeks surely associated them with man's unruly animal spirit." t:+ And when such powers take control of the heroes' wits, the previously social beings become animals, who, having marked their territory, fight for it. Then, their feelings are expressed in angry gestures and changes of facial expressions (¡ævoç, 2¿óÀoç, Oupóç r 792-282), loud shouting, threatening actions and phrases, which end up in a bad fight (I 707-"104,242,245,303) or even death as we are told in XXIII 87-88, when Patroclus killed the son of Amphidamas over a game of dice; while Achilles is not far from it in I 793-797, when Athena 134 ¡46ott-, Cha¡les, Kings and Captains,Variarions on q Lleroic |'hcme, Kentucky, 1971,p.24. _105_ stops him from killing Agamemnon. To show that their ego has been hurt, the heroes usually withdraw with their companions from meetings and battles, as happens in the lliad (I306-307,11 95-98). The pride and egotism of Achilles in that brawl are displayed by the repetitive use of ' èTó' which appears thirteen times: èyó (I 152) eß6 (I 167), por (I 153), èpcíç (I 154), por (I 161), por (I 162), èpaí (I 766), ëpoí (XIX 57), eyó (XIx 60), ë¡reõ (XIX 62), ëpf,ç (XIX 64),ëyci(xlx 67), tæ (XtX 67).t3s As far as Achilles' retreat in isolation is concerned, Moorman indicates that it perhaps reflects "the withdrawal-return pattern which is an essential part of the myth of the questing hero. For, although most of the familiar stages in the withdrawal-return - the call to adventure, the crossing of the threshold, etc - are not to be found in the Ilíad , Achilles does indeed return to his people to bring victory out of 6lsfs¿¡." 13ó The heroes by temperament are abusive. Their outbursts of insults are a means of revenge and punishment for the person that has done something wrong, because it insults his honour and dignity. Almost all of the llíød heroes use abusive language. Achilles in I 223-237, 304-305, Ajax in XXIII a7J, Agamemnon in II221,-224. They use terms (adjectives and nouns) that refer to cowardice and women and simil"es with faint-hearted animals which aim at ridiculing the cowards (I 293, 1I207,205,I1I56,39, VI 490, VII96,IX 41, XI 385, XXII 125, XIII 163, XM26, XVII26, and those referring to animals XI 389, XIII 701 -704, xv 352-35 6).tT But insults are often most effectively used before and during the intense moments of battle in order to threaten, scare, and dishearten the opponents, and encourage themselves. Achilles insults Aen eas, who responds in XX 135 Avooraorcíôr¡, t.8., OeooaÀovirq, 1977. p. 44, 136 ¡4sorman, Cha¡les, Kings and Captains: Variations on a Ileroic'lheme. Kcntucky, 1971. p.15. 137 5"" also : Avo,otaorcíôr¡, I., p. 48. _106_ 799-258 while Paris and Diomedes abuse each other in XI 378-390. Finally, while the anger and the arguments of the heroes are very intense, usually due to their defiled honour (XIII 460-461, XXIII 488-490), they do not last for very long. Compensations for the reestablishment of the hero's image often bring an argument to the end, so then we have the scenes of reconciliation, full of regret and apology : Agamemnon and Achilles (XIX 56- 66,ft6-99). In the Akritic song the heroes are equally depicted as quarrelsome and explosive in nature, displaying no tolerance or patience in their behaviour. In their case, impulsiveness replaces logical thinking, quick outbursts impair slow and methodical consideration of situations, which boost their fury in battle. Swiftness underlines the hero's character in general. He is seen taking abrupt decisions, rushing into battle, quickly diminishing his opponents, and reacting very suddenly and irascibly to insults. His anger, however, is not simply directed against the enemy. Any form of hindrance to his high heroic claims are contested by him. Any form of authority, then, imposed on him - whether enemy or not - is vexing to him. Hence the contest between hero and King (or Captain and King) which has already been partly looked at in the beginning of the subchapter "The Primary Virtues". As indicated, the often provocative attitude of the King towards the hero is completely intolerable to the hero, and induces his immediate anger that is vividly illustrated. Provoked by King Alexander, Theophylaktos, in his anger, spectacularly kicks the table and jumps up, ready to accept any authority challenge: ' Kcrt Ker yup,ai OeoQóÀarroç cpróOr¡ Kü,r 0u¡ró0r1 rl,olrorúv tr¡ç túpÀcrç éôcorev, orcr nóôrû, rou eupéOr¡'. (Tou OeoQúÀcrtou, l. 77-72, fletpónouÀou, p. 52) Furthermore, the hero having been challenged, puts up a performance that 707 - intends to attract attention. As the main "acto- " of his heroic deeds, he needs the devoted attention of his audience, and he manages that by making noise and reacting violently. Not even Charos' presence can contain the explosive behaviour of the hero : ' flou t' drouoev o ÂrTevrdç, cpróðr¡ r e0u¡róBr¡, rÀo¡rordv rolv trÍpî.olv éôr¡rev rÀoxordv Kor rolv taépolv Kc[t rg. Kcrvcr,fooKoóteÀc, nera rcr orov q€poi. (Kuæprarr{ r\oyote2gvíø Baorcfi B$trto?rfrc4 'AetóÇ, t. 6, o.l5) Although no other heroic account can match the masterful exploitation of the Menis theme in the llíad, some significant similarities should be noted in the unfolding of the same theme in Akritic song. The songs which particularly start with the superiority contest between authority and the hero, appear to have the same pattern of anger. The hero is originally hurt and offended by the provocation of the King, but later on this anger is directed against the enemy which occupies the hero's thoughts. It seems as though the inducement of anger is necessary for bringing forth either a combination of the hero's withdrawal and return (Iliail in battle, or simply his heroic comeback, which is then used for the goocl of the community. The song of Theophylaktos falls under the second category, where the king's challenge is taken up by the hero, who shifts his anger from his own domain to his enemies and successfully completes the test. The irritability of the hero and his quarrelsome mood is of course noticed by his peers who ask him for the cause : 'vta 'vrcr, ' - ftciwrl, Trcr o' .apcÍOu¡roç, frcÍvvq, Tro ¡ral"óvetç - flo¡ç vcr plìv erp' crpcÍ0upoç Kq,r îolç vo ¡tn paÀóvco ;" (lletpóæouÀoç, r. 1, o. 210) Shouting, threatening, and abusive language are also part of the picture. The rejected Digenis becomes abusive towards his friend and delegate Õr2',toæcrnæoú, by calling him "wormed cheese" and "clirty onion". ' Ko,tépcr nou to¡r paópov pou, tupi ocrpcrt(rcro¡révo t(at rpo¡^r¡rúrv drono, t(ot eíocrt Bp The son of Armouris also threatens his father by saying that if he will be further provoked he will sink syria in blood (Tou Appoópn, p. zt6,l. 1g1-1g3). The abrupt, angry gestures of the hero often result in suddenly attacking people. Thus Digenis first hits the three "Katoí1yovot" and then asks them questions: ' flpóto ôtct ,rouç pouoroDvrúv t(or úotepø poxú roùÇ ; ' (Apæqr{ tr'¡ç Kópqç rou Âepd,vtr¡, l.'24,' llerpórouÀou, p. g) Finally, the heroic egotism behind the irascible behaviour is also here displayed by the often selfish statements, stressing the "I" (gyó). t '¡rm , ï10Ç, eyó rr o MnpooQópr¡ç €ïú) 7roç o.:vrpa ôe t QoBoúpcn.' é 98) Therefore, in order to make their presence felt, and to make an impact on others, the heroes in both Homeric verse and Akritic song display a quarrelsome and easily offended nature. It is almost as though they always need or find an excuse to become the centre of attention, and when they do, they "steal the show" with displays of anger, and abusive vibrant language. -109- HEROIC DEATH Death and Dying The reader of th'e lliad is consumed by the incredible variety of the scenes of fighting and dying and cannot deny a certain fascination surrounding the hero in his hour of fury, glory and death. The reader is overcome by the descriptions of heroic revenge that often reaches the limits of extreme harshness, when the heroes' minds become subject to dark forces which release all their formerly restrained evil passions. Reference can again be made to Moorman's identification of these powers in the lliad, which are described as equal to and even more powerful than Zeus and Poseidon : "First are the abstractions, partially personified as minor deities, of the passions - Blind Folly (ate), Fear (phobos and deimos), Strife (eris) and Turmoil (Kudoimos) - that control man in his hours of crisis. We should perhaps call them "animal instincts" or even the id; later Greeks surely associated them with man's unruly animal spirit".l38 Strife is present at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, and becomes responsible for the events leading to the Trojan War. Fear and Strife are present on the battlefield, while Strife and Turmoil are depicted as bloody figures on Achilles' shield. However, Blind Folly ('Atr1) appears to be a more influential force because it has the ability to blind people's logic and to make them utter words and to do things that they would not normally attempt. It is this dark force which leads to Hybris (öpprQ, pride and arrogance which defy even the gods, and brings severe repercussions and punishment. Agamemnon accepts the fact that he had been blinded by "Artl in XIX 86ff (Mrlvrõoç 'Aróppr1otd, as Achilles had originally recognized in I 412. Helen takes responsibility for the war and the Folly, which blinded Alexander and led 138 ¡4ssrm.n, Charles, Kings and Captains, variations on a Ileroic'fhcnrc,Kentucky, 1971,p.24. _110_ to this war, in her conversation with Hector (VI 355). But the most important case of Folly in the lliød is Achilles. Phoinix underlines the fact that Achilles has been overcome by Folly, and is not making any attempt of deliverance from her terrible ravages by praying to Zeus. "In time, of course, Blind Folly does exact her toll. Achilles, filled with the hybris that comes from Folly, is responsible for the death of Patroclus; his indulgence of his passions leads to disaster and almost to the destruction of his personalitytt. t3e And we can indeed follow in Homer "precisely the stages of the hero's descent into hybris; he moves from righteous indignation to cold, unyielding fury to blind vanity, and finallf , after the death of Patroclus, to bestiality".t+o Achilles drags Hector's body behind his chariot and gives it to the Achaean warriors to maltreat and later sacrifices twelve captive Trojans over the tomb of Patroclus (xxm vs-178). It is, however, very interesting that the Homeric heroes only kill, they do not torture. This attitude perhaps reflects the more general attitude to war in the Iliail, which Schein attempts to explain when he says that "For our understanding of the nature and significance of war in the lliad, perhaps the most important shared feature of the numerous scenes of killing and dying is that the combats are generally decided quickly, by one f¿¡¿l þl6v¡." l4l It is the continuous contrast between life and death, and the abrupt entrance from the first to the second, and the bravery shown at this critical moment which is the focus in Homeric verse, or as Griffin puts it, "Fate not fighting technique, is what interests the lliad; the hero, splendid and vital, going down into death."l42 139 ibid, p. 24. l4o ibid, p. 6. l4l Schein, Seth L, The Mortal Hero,IJniversity of California Press, 1984, p.76. 142 6¡¡¡¡, Jasper, Honrcr on Liþ and Death,Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980. p. 143 _111 _ Old men or wounded warriors in agony awaiting their last breath might be subject to pity, but they cannot be the objects of heroic poetry: "a wounded man either dies quickly or recovers and fights again. The incurable Philoctetes is left far from Troy, groaning on the island of Lemnos; the Achaean chieftains wounded in Book II are healed and will return to battle. This works with the removal of chance as a possible cause of a hero's death, and the virtual suppression of trickery and treason, and the fact that, in the poem, prisoners are no longer taken, all suppliants being killeal."143 It is the tragic fall of the brave victims and the superiority of the victors, who must establish their lead at once, that induce intense feelings of compassion. Furthermore, "this emphasis on killing rather than wounding shows that Homer is interested not so much in the technique of battle or the detailed anatomical description of wounds - vivid as this is - as in questions of death itself. Descriptions of warfare are essentially descriptions ef ds¿¡þ."144 However, according to Griffin, the lliad should not be called 'the poem of death' but the poem of life and death: of the contrast and transition between the two, because this is what the poet is concerned to emphasize, and on this he concentrates his energies and our gaze.l45 In the Akritic arena the hero also indulges in heroic feats of vengeftce that are vividly portrayed. His revenge is also extracted violently and actively in spectacular displays of fighting or kidnapping. There is no detailed account here of the forces taking hold of the hero's mind, driving him to exact a bloodstained revenge. Nevertheless a similar pattern of extreme behaviour is again observed, leading the hero to uncontrolable pride and arrogance (öpprQ that defy even God. Thus, Digenis, having declared his invincibility, is warned 143 ¡5¡6, pp. 90-91. l4 Schein, Seth, L., The Mortal ìIero,tJniversiry of California Press, 1984. p. 77 145 6¡¡¡n, J., Homer on Life and Death.,l980, p.95. _1,72 _ by Charos to stop his arrogant display of strength, b:cause the One that has sent him - God - is far greater than him: ' ficr, ooDç Ttcr, ooDç Arpírø ¡rou, papéø pq røu1cÍoot, e¡rev oe oev noróç éotetL^sv cræ' eoÉv æall,r¡róp ev'' ( O Oóvcrroç roD Âryevri A',l. 27-28, lletpórouÀou, p. 23) However, no Akritic hero matches the behavioural extremity of Achilles that leads to bestiality. Vengeance does not become sweet. There are no cases of extreme maltreatment or torture. Encounters are sudden and swift bringing a quick result. The hero either kills or he is killed; he either deprives other people of life or he is deprived of it; there is not much emphasis on wounded warriors. It is only Digenis, in his fatal encounter with Charos, who - having been wounded - stays longer under the limelight, guiding us through his last moments by boasting and reflecting back through his heroic life, lamenting his deceitful fall into the hands of Death. There is indeed, a clearcut distinction between life and death and there is nothing smooth about the transition from one to the other: "H peydln Luyro;pa roù avOprílnou Tro (ori Ksl ôpcÍor¡ rov rcÍvet vcl pn orÉqretar ro OcÍvaro Kcn vo prìv rpoetorpd,(etat yrü pro mOavri crvnperrírno{ rou. 'Eror o 0 aæpoetoípo¿oro, Kcr,r pcÍå.rotcr, ædvo or ooy¡reç ôrlprougyrrriç Xo;po;ç Krl eutu2¿íaç, ereí æou ¡ÀúOet óverpa yta õpúon { Kcrr rcató tqv r1pépa tou ytÍpou rou : O frúweç o povóyrcrvvsç K' o povsXóv o fidvveç, O frríweç etorpcÍorercrl vü, grcÍer 71upav rar yd,¡rouç, XcÍpoç orqv nópra éorerev Kr cx,tóvcrv Qopept(et.' (lloì.frr1, ArptttrcÍ dopata, o. 250 ap. 39. or. L4) ve 146 Avalv The sudden departure of the hero from the world to the underworld, is also metaphorically stressed by his abrupt meeting with Charos on the cross-roads, which comes to represent the ominous passage from life to death : ' Kcr,r nún Kû,r róve raptepei rcÍrol oro otaupoõpó¡u' (Booróç rar XcÍpoç f, l. 5. fletpónoul.ou, p.28) tqt It is also the furious nature and appearance of Charos that indicates even further this contrast between life and death which is also most preeminent in the Akritic song : ' M o XcÍpovtcrç eæépaoe n ritove pcvrao¡Évo(' (Booróç rar Xcipoç A', l. 7, lTerpórcouì.ou, p.27) Death and the tragic fall of the hero in his glory,leaving behind an impeccable record of heroism for posterity is a favourite theme in the Akritic folk tradition ; this becomes immediately apparent from the special attention given to a whole category of Akritic songs dedicated to Charos - Death. There is almost a balance between heroic activity and heroic death in Akritic sorrgr and the hero appears equally concerned about both. That is why he refuses to passively accept Death (Charos), choosing rather an active death, even though he realizes the fatal superiority of his opponent: ' X The contrast between life and death becomes even more significant and tragic, when the arena chosen for this fatal duel is the life-contributing threshing floor. But even before his final encounter with Charos the hero is aware that death constantly follows him like a shadow as is also noted by Anagnostopoulos : " O cÍvOpconoç, ónroç Qa,ívetcrr orcx, ôr¡potrrcÍ tpoyoóôra, êAer oaO{ eníyvorq, órt oro õpópo rnç (roriç rou røOr¡¡reprvcÍ oupæopeóetcn Kcr,r o 0úvatoç. H ncpouoícr rou Oavútou crroì.ou$eí 147 5."also: O @dvaroç rou aryevrl A'. 1.23, fletpónouÀou, p.23 -774 - nfurc ocrv ortú rnv av0pónrvr¡ (olú. Ie ptcr novttar{ napcrÀ}.ayri ro1) tpoyouôroó i O @cívotoç rou Aryevri', o Âtyevriç aneuOuvóp.evoç æpoç ro Xúpo, l.éet ' ' XcÍpe, vto é1etç ¡red e¡rév rcr ncÍvt' aroÀouOcÍç Lre Kt cw rd,0ou¡ror, ouyrdOeoan rt cr,v nepnanch, øroÀou0cÍç p€ Kr cw rei¡rar V cræoKo4tl10ó, yfveocn paÇtl,cÍpt p' i (Araôqpíø A0qvóv, r. A', o. 43, op. p', or. 29-31, IIpÊ?r. flol.ír¡, Arprcrd, óopøtc, o. 223-224, o,;p. 9, or. 28-3t¡tat Therefore, there are profound similarities in the depiction and treatment of heroic attitude during the bloody exaction of revenge in both the lliad and the cycle of Akritic folk songs. There is a similar build-up of inner forces governing the hero's mind and behaviour that are necessary for achieving relentless victory, which overwhelm the hero's logic making him believe in his own invincibility that leads to hybris. Also, a common swiftness of heroic encounters in both the IIíad and Akritic song points to a similar perception of the ultimate moment of heroic excellence - that of death and dying - which emphasises and underlines the contrast between life and death. Eternal Fame - Immortality Fame after death and immortality are basic and necessary characteristics of the heroes' mentality. Their sense of self-sacrifice and their eagerness to fight on the front line emanate from the splendour that accompanies heroic deeds, which are rewarded by the eternal recognition of their superiority in their society. Eternal fame determines their actions and general conduct in war, and is the main thought of the central heroes of the lliad : Hector (XIII 303-305), Agamemnon (II 7"1,9-722), Achilles (IX 472-473). Two ways of reminding the later generations of the fame of a hero were : a) the erection of a tomb, which seems to occupy Achilles' mind in)CflII 125-726, as well as Hector's (VII 86-92), and 148 Anagnostopoulos, p. 47 _115_ b) the continuation of the family name through male sons and descendants, since the fame of the father was reflected in the son or vice-versa (VI 475-481). Also the more sons one had the more chances of fame and glory he had : Priam had nine sons (XXIV 248-252), while Andromache had seven brothers (vI 421). However, the future fame of a hero's name was in jeopardy when injustice had been done to it, that had to be dealt with accordingly, with no blemish left on the hero's image. So, a perfect hero had to take an uncompromising and relentless revenge, which, in the case of Achilles, is achieved when he drags Hector's body around the walls of Troy in triumph. Taking revenge for a friend's or a relative's death was a duty of respect and dedication, which aimed to appease the anger of the dead and the avenger's fury, as Achilles emphasises (XXIV 591-593, XXIII 1921). The obligation of vengeance was strictly a family affair (Akamas XM82-486). The most worthy kind of revenge was in battle, and did not use guile. The pathos of revenge is highly exploited in epic poetry and becomes one of its central themes, because it is a wonderful opportunity to present the battle in its highest moments of fury (XIX 364-367,XXII312-313). The question of mortality and immortality is very significant in the lliad , since on the one hand "It is the pressure of mortality which imposes on men the compulsion to have ui¡¡uss" l4e and on the other hand, immortality is pursued and achieved only by a heroic death, which "is not the enemy of creativity but its cause, since the contemplation of death is the single factor that makes us long for immortality";l50 and it cannot be matched either by long 149 ibid, p. 93. 150 V-ermeule,E., Aspects of Death in Early Greek Arr and Poety, (Bcrkeley & Los Angeles, 1979). p.94 _71,6 _ and prosperous life or by the grim and wretched compensatons of the afterlife. (Odyssey, XI494-510). On the interesting subject of the Homeric afterlife, Schein mentions that "the main reason why winning honor and glory in war can endow life with meaning is that in the world of the Iliød there is no significant afterlife". l5l This idea is further emphasized by Vermeule who makes the distinction between the psyche and the body in the lliad, pointing out that the former is not important for Homer, while the latter receives a more appropriate treatment "the psyche is far less interesting to the poet than the mutilated body which he can control, or threaten with scavengers, or save for 5u.¡u1". 152 Thus according to this notion of an unsatisfactory afterlife, death on the battleground is preferred by all heroes, including Odysseus, in his inglorious struggle to return home (Odyssey, V 378-324). Achilles also complains to the gods about the insignificant death he may suffer in the raging waters of Xanthus, like a poor swineherd: Hector urges his men to fight bravely in front of the Achaean ships, stressing the fact that it is a fine death to die for your country : 15l Schein,Seth,L. TheMortalHero.lJniversityof CaliforniaPrcss, 1984,p.6tì. 152 ys¡¡stle,E., Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry. Bcrkclcy, Los Angcles, 1979,p.97 -717 - ' d^-îrÍ pcÍ2¿eo0' ènì vr¡uoìv aoÀÀêeç öç ôé rcev u¡æcrlv ÞXúUçvoç riè tuæeiç 0dvatov rcri æótpov ènionq, te0vcíro¡' ori oi cerrbç apuvopévrp nepì ncÍtpqÇ. (xv 494-4e6) Corinthian Euchenor, who knew his wretched fate from his father, the seer Polyidos, and had the choice of either dying in his palace from a severe illness or in Troy, chose heroic death on the battlefield. (Xttt 663-672) Finally, we find clearly expressed the heroic notion of death in the famous words of Sarpedon to Glaukos: epì tóvôe Quyóvte vcr,îo re ótotor ¡rc2¿oipr¡v ruôrcÍverpcrv' rv Oavóroro tòv oùö uncrl"ú(crt, trç r1pîv". (xrr322-328) It is, indeed, the words of Homeric Odysseus which remind us of the fact that only the men who can deny the pleasure and continuity of life are capable of heroic deeds (Odyssey, XM22-223). In the llíad, there are times when the Homeric heroes foresee their fall and defeat, but they remain unyielding guards and observers of their task. They do not betray their principles or lower their dignity,by withdrawing from battle. The fact that there is not even a faint hope of survival does not lessen their determination for fighting and self-sacrifice. Achilles finds out from his horse Xanthus, that he is destined to die in the Trojan War. As is expected, he is originally distressed by the fact, but he soon recovers and declares that he will continue the fight with rage, and will not stop until he has had enough of killing Trojans (until he is sated with battle): ' Tòu ô rip ùrò (uyógr npooéQ¡ nóôøç aióÀoç innoç 5aì línv g' Ëtt vûv 1e ooóoopev, öÞpip' 'nXiÀl,eû' dÀÎ,d tor ëyyúOev fr¡rap öÀéOprov cr¡,¡,ù raì ä¡.rnqç . . . ori friEor npìv Tç rlaç ctôr1v ðÀdocrt noì"é¡ioro". (XIX 404-423) 118 - This is not the only passage in the lliad that foretells the death of Achilles. In books XVIII 94-96, XXl276-278, XXIII 80-81, and XXIV 540-542, his premature death is mentioned perhaps in order to emphasize the fact that the hero voluntarily chose a short life and a glorious death rather than a long and insignificant life, as indeed Aristolte mentions in his Rhetoric 1359a ,' oTov 'ApÎ,lÉa åæcnvoûorv, ötr èpor!0r¡oe trõ ätaipcp flatpórÀ<¡l eiõoa öu ô€ï ariròv dnoOcrveîv è(óv (f,v. Toútql ôb ö pàv totoûtoç gcÍvatoç rcit l,tov rò [È (flv ou¡rQÉpov.' In the following lines, we also see Hector approached by death and deciding to fall for duty, honour and glory : ' ö æó¡or, T],púÀa õjf pr Oeoi 0cÍvcrtóvôe rq,À€ooav . vuv crùf€ pe polpcr rflÍcr,vÊr.pTì pùv dorouõí ye raì drÀeorõç ciæoÀoí¡rqv, d?,r,ù ¡É1a þé(crç tt rcrì èooopévotot nu0éo0ar." (xxrr 297-305) When it comes to Akritic songs, we are often deprived of the articulate and fully explanatory speeches of the heroes of the Iliad . The thoughts and goals of the Akritic heroes are not discussed explained and justified. They are rather reflected through their brief comments, but mainly through their actions. Issues of eternal fame and immortality are thus not explicitly revealed as the single preoccupation of the heroes; they are rather indirectly underlined by their conduct. The Akritic hero pursues fame and distinction from a very youn g age; he dedicates his whole life to the quest of glory ; and he faces death determined to enhance his greatness by acquiring eternal recognition beyond death. It has already been stressed that in the Iliad a sense of immortality is achieved through the erection of a tomb and the continuation of the family name by male sons. In the Akritic song the erection of a tomb takes, I believe, wider metaphorical dimensions. The hero in his "retiring years", is thus, not seen preparing his tomb, but he is ironically preoccupied with the erection of grand -179 - castle and and exquisite garden: ' Axpitøç rdotpov ê";aÇev, Arpitaç neprBól'tv, o' évsv opcíX, o évcrv l,rpdô o' évcrv 'ntõé(tov tóno Oocr tou róo¡rou tcr Qutd, ereí Qep' rcrt Quteúer, rc óocr tou róopou t' cr¡rneÀrd,, ereí Qep' Kl. øpneÀóver Kr óocr tou róopou tcr nouî,ró erei lrcx,v KcLt Qoû"eúouv.' (O @civaroç rou Âryevri A', l. 1.-5, lletpónouÀou, p. 22) ts3 In one version it is specifically mentioned that Akrites is actually building a castle with double and triple wall, nailed with iron, so Charos will not be able to find him: ' Arpír¡ç rcÍotpov n ôtæl.oóv tptæì.oúv r (Arpítøç rcÍo oooó 1.7, KaÀovúpou, p.250) Unfortunately, this tragically becomes his tomb as Nancy Sultan also indicates by stressing the contrast between ksenitia = life, and home = çls¿¡þ.15a On the other hand, when it comes to begetting male sons for the immortality of the family name, it is very interesting that only secondary heroes are blessed with them. The supreme heroes are seen leading an "unseasonal and sterile" life and they are "in a state of suspended prepubescence - unmarried, with no paternal or spousal responsiþili¡is5." 155 Digenis, Armouris, Son of Andronikos and all the other Akritai might come from brave fathers, but they themselves are never seen as heroic fathers. It appears superiority and utmost heroism should not and cannot be passed down to male sons. In a similar wayt in the Iliad , Hector, who is a father, is a brilliant warrior, but not a supreme hero. Only Achilles fulfils that role and in 153 5"" also: Mdrr¡, 8., O Ârlevriç n o XrÍpoç. flcpo.ÀÀa"yrj Kepcooóvtoç l. l-3, p. 67,and N.G. Politis, l9O9:2M, no.24) 154 Sultan, Nancy, "Vy'omen in 'Ak¡itic' song: The Hero's 'oúcr' Voicc", Journal of Modern Creek Studies, 1991. p. 160. 155 ¡6¡¿, p. 159. _720 _ the Iliad - despite the fact that Neoptolemos is m-'ntionecl once in XIX 326-7 - he is mainly presented as "childless". Acquiring eternal fame presupposes keeping the family name and reputation unblemished by often actively defending it; and it has already been demonstrated that the Akritic hero also takes an "uncompromising and relentless" revenge. 156 Therefore, the hero is preeminently preoccupied with pursuing heroic activity, never shunning it because of fear of death. There is rather on the hero's part a fear that death will catch him at home, taking him ingloriously away to an insignificant afterlife. It is thus not simply that the hero's return home means sterility and death,l57 but mainly that home = passive death without heroic fighting. And it is this fear of a meaningless fall that urges the hero either to promote and initiate a challenge such as hunting : lsa ' A2¿nd,oretav o Arpfteç pou vcr, nu^¡et ruvqyeúer' (O Ârywrlç rt o XcÍpoç, flapal.Àayri Kepcrooúvtoç l. 21, Mdrr1, p. 67) or to challenge Charos to a duel, thus turning a usually passive event to the most heroic duel of his life, that will grant him immeasurable fame and immortality. This continuous emphasis on activity versus inactivity, life versus death, underlines the interest in body versus psyche in the Akritic song. Although it is persistently quoted that Charos has come to take the hero's psyche away,r5e this psyche is not at all associated with the Christian notion of the soul. It 156 5.9 previous chapters on Descent and Heroic Conduct. 157 5u¡ta¡, Nancy, p.162. 158 5¡6r't, Nancy, p. 162 "In many songs the hero attempts to escapc dcath by lcaving home again and returning to the wilds t0 hunt." 159 I 6{vsroç rou Âryevr{ A', l. 30, lletpónou},ou, p. 23. Booróç xcr X<þç f, l. 9-10, flerpónouÀou, p. 28. Ârywri rot XrÍpovoç tlrÍÀr¡, l. 45, KaÀovapov, p.243. O Âryevrlç yulo¡roXef, 1.12, KcrÀovripou, p. 253. -721, - rather represents "gasp" and "breath" which signifies existence versus non- existence and life versus death. Thus, according to Anagnostopoulos : 'To 1ru2¿opci2¿r¡¡ra aæotel.eí rqv tel.eutaicr alcowóôr1 npooncÍOera tol) øvOpónou va vrrrloa ro XcÍpo KcLr rrìv aôuoóær1tr¡ poipa rnç Àri(nç ¡(o¿r rrlç 0 Itq, Arprtrra tpcrloóôto avaQépetat Kcrt to Oépa rnç Kü,r Xd,pou, an óæou ot ópot "2¿apoæcÍÀepd Kcn 'r(øpo oD avdyetar ot aplarótotouç 1póvouç Kot uroôr¡kóver rrlv eærOc¡vótrcr crlolvíc rou av0pónou, VCr vtrc{oet ro Odvaro Kol vcr rpatr¡Oei arópr1 otrl (o{. 160 The only mention of the Christian soul - which is expected to distinguish between good and evil for acquiring either Heaven or Hell - is incorporated in the end of the song Arpitaç Kdotpov éXtroe, Ilapal,Î.cryr{ Etvcroooú where Akritas is reminded by Charos that if he has not offered charity to others during his lifetime, he will go to the darkness and Xa,tpdvta of Hell : ' Kóppcr Vopí Kr' qv éôcoreç æapdõeroo 0a ÀrÍBr¡ç, róp¡rcl napa Kr'crv éôalreç, XpDoú l.crpncÍôo Lrrpoç oou, róppcl poú2¿o Kr' û,v êôorreç, æpootd oou, 0' vs ro Qépouv. n' aur<Í crv ôev rcr ércrveç, onç níooeç orct Xcx,rpóvtq'. (Arpítcrç rdotpov ë"¡rtoe, llcrpal,l,cryri ltvcroooú, l. 25-28, Køl.ovdpou, p. 250) Finally, there is no denying that the Homeric and the Akritic hero are determined from the onset of their heroic career to leave their work behind; and they both agree on the fact that immortality demands an active role on the battlefield rather than a long, prosperous but passive life. Their fall is thus more tragic, because they knowingly promote and arrogantly challenge their own heroic death. Both, abiding by the heroic code of conduct in battle, are constantly treading on the very fine line between life and death that govern their lives; because life gives them the opportunity of more heroic action but death is the one that grants them eternal fame and immortality. 160 Anagnostopoulos, p, ll9, see also Polites, N, Mu0ol.oyí,u,p.274. _722 _ Slaying by treachery In the heroic duels, death by treachery is in very low esteem, because victory is not a brave act anymore. The heroes prefer to fight honestly at greater risk, rather than use cunning and treachery. Hector, before his duel with Ajax declares that : dr],l, ori yúp d è0éÀo pcrÀeelv totoûtov ðóvtcr ömneúocrç dÀX " Fighting in this spirit not only despises guile and cowardice ; it is also constrained by an implicit notion of fairness"l6l, as Mueller indicates. Fighting in the IIiød, however, does not always comply with this ideal "notion of fairness". Mueller goes on to emphasise the fact that "the question of fairness arises wherever a warrior is taken by surprise."ló2 and then he mentions three incidents which reflect this idea: in IV 463, when Agenor hits Elephenor who is stripping a slain warrior, and again in XI 248, when Koön takes Agamemnon by surprise as he removes the armour of Iphidamas-which reflects the victirris lack of caution; in XIII 567, 650 when a Trojan warrior is caught by surprise by Meriones after his unsuccessful attack on an Achaean ; and finally, in XV 525, while Dolops is facing an attack from Meges, Menelaus kills him from behind. Usually, the heroes themselves complain of having been deceived in battle, as we see Agamemnon in the Odyssey - in the underworld - complaining because he died through treachery, and not bravely in battle like Achilles (Odyssey , XXIV 92-97). Antimachus' attempt to kill Menelaos by deceit is emphasised as a stigma and is described as "detrés' , ' vûv tæv ôù toû ncrtpòç l6l Mueller, Martin, The Iliad, London 1984, p. 78 162 ibid, p. 78. -723 - Also the treacherous act of Pandaros, who during the duel of Menelaus and Alexander wounded Menelaus by stealth - during a cessation of hostilities - is considered a dishonourable act by gods and men alike, and becomes a moral justification for the war of the Achaeans, with the aim of punishing the perjured Trojans (èniopror) : (rv 234-237) On the other hand, "ö ôól,oÇ and ambush in battle are considered as necessary military tricks and bring a lot of glory. In the lliad, Odysseus and Diomedes are praised for their famous night ambush (Book III) and in the Odyssey, Odysseus for the Wooden Florse, (VIII492-495). Because such an act demands courage, strength and determination, it is highly regarded in the /liød (I226- 228, XIu 277 -27 8, 2U-285). In the lliad, we also find heroes fighting in the front line and slain by treachery, usually by divine intervention. However, the trickery of the gods is a sPecial case, and it is perhaps reserved for special heroes. Patroclus is wounded at the back and disarmed by Apollo, during his duel with Hector, thus becoming an easy prey for his opponent. This intervention of a god in the duel, does not either lessen Hector's reputation or display the god's cowardice. On the contrary, Patroclus' bravery is emphasised, since the combination of god and treachery is needed to overcome him. It is a great sign of heroism for a mortal hero to be subdued only by an immortal. Achilles' measure of bravery is the fact that he can only be killed by the joined force of a man (Alexander) and a god (Apollo), as his horse Xanthus foretells: . t^ \ \ t ü,^^ ct, ool. 0D1ú)- ¡rópucpóv èotr Oer{ te raì There is no doubt that fair fighting was a highly esteemed presuppositon of Akritic encounters as well. Resorting to treachery was demeaning for the hero, and very harmful to his reputation; a source of shame that the hero voluntarily avoided for the sake of unblemished eternal fame. It has already been seen how the young Armouris, being aware of the rules of fair fighting, feels compelled to warn the unprepared for battle Saracens of his intention to attack them, not giving them the opportunity of saying that he was only able to overcome them by applying treachery (Tou Appoópr¡, 1.69-70, Kal,ovcÍpoy p.21.4). However, although fairness in fighting was imposed by the heroic code of ethics, the Akritic hero, in order to secure a fair fight and avoid being taken unjustly by surprise, often prefers to make an agreement by setting forth the rules governing the outcome/ expected to be followed by both opponents. Even when the opponent is Death himself, Digenis makes a pact with him, which should not be broken by either of them : __T,Ípr, Kcrr crv vrróç pe oD, va nøípvelç Kcr,r rqv Vq pou XcÍpe, Kcrr cr,v vrró oe yol, va laipolpcr,r rov róo¡ro'. (O @óvaroç rou Âryev( A', l. 30-31, fletpónouì,ou, p. 23) Again, trying to justify his own disadvantage in battle, the hero often complains of having been treacherously surprised by his opponent. In the following Akritic song, the hero, having declared that he has never been afraid of any brave man on the world, complains that Charos is trying to get him by "lootd (ambush) continually following him : Kr' cw popol,rioco ta pouvo, K' erceivoç popoÀder, Kr' crv néoo¡ v' clroKorpq0ó, yupeúet vcr þr' apnú(r1." (<ÞfÀct rø1,óç copioate 26-31, KaiovrÍpol, p. 242) _725 _ Employing ambush techniques however/ was by and large a usual habit of the cat-and-mouse Akritic encounters, which occurred sporadically and when need arose. Wounding caused by ambush is also emphasized by Petropoulos, who - in his introduction to the Song of the Wounded Yiønnis (O frdvvqç nlnlorcvoQ points out that : õpcr rì rnç arlpcÀcooiaç arpiq anó crnel,úteç eivcn ouvrl0ro¡ævo ot' rlos o N. llolitr¡ç (Ûrc).oyaí 7t). qyoryévoç fuet 1o Xcrpq,Krnproctró arprnró óvopa fidwr¡ç, tou Avtpovirou yroç'.163 Divine trickery, however, is by far the most interesting theme concerning death in the Akritic song. It again aims to explore and underline the supremacy of the hero targeted. There is again emphasis placed on the fact that divine intervention, as well as treachery, are required to overcome the ultimate hero. His unparalleled bravery is furthermore illustrated by the fact that Death himself becomes jealous of his oustanding achievements, and sets about defeating him : ' Zrll^eúet o Xcipoç ¡re lortú, pcrrpd, tóve Bt1Ài(er, r' eî.dpcooÉ rou tr¡v rapôtd rcrr tr¡v yulri tou nripe'. (O Âryevr{ç Vu1o¡lo?úei, l. 11.-72, Ka}.ovcípou, p. 253) Thus, a fully depicted account of the deadly strife begins to unfold. The hero who expects Charos to fight honourably like another valiant "man" is bitterly disappointed. Death is thus rather presented as dishonourable and unscrupulous in his morbid task - not at all abiding by the heroic code of ethics. In one version of the song of Shepherd and Charos, the hero tragically refers to Charos as a "man" when he bravely challenges him to a duel : ' p' cÍvtpcrç eoú, cÍvtpaç rt eyó, rt ot ôuó rcal,avtp 163 ¡ttp6nouÀoç, O fióvvr¡ç fll,r¡1o¡révoç, l. l-3, p. 40 -726 _ When, later, Charos is for the ninth time defeated (put down) by the hero, he gets offended and no longer "playing by human rules" grabs the hero by the hair. He, in turn complains and asks Charos to grab him by the arms, as all "rc.1.Ir¡róp1o" do. Charos bluntly declares that this is the way he grabs brave young warriors, beautiful girls, fighting men/ mothers and babies : ' flr<íver Ío vlo 'æoD rcr pcrÀItcÍ, X<Ípatç lov Yovsti(er. - AQqd p€, Xap' o,:lt ra pol.î"rd rar ntdo' ¡r' crnoó ru pnpo.roa Kcn ror€o<Íç oou ôei2¿vot To noç €lv ta naî,Àr1rcÍptc. - A¡¡ó rerôó tcr ¡núvo¡ yol oóÀcrv to ncrl'Ir¡rcÍpta, ærd,vcrl roæleç ó¡ropQeç Kt dvtpeç æoleptotcÍôeç, xan ¡ndvo Kcn po>pú æatôtú pa(i Lre rot ¡ravvúôeÇ. (ibid, l. 18-23, lletpóæoul.ou, p. 28) The defeat of even Death himself aims again to promote the greatness of the hero, who seems to be susceptible only to treacherous means - which mainly take affect on the hero's head. So, when God appears upset with the defeated Charos, for not being able to deliver Digenis' soul, he in turn, retaliates, and by becoming a golden eagle, starts digging into Digenis' head with his claw in order to take his soul : crÀr1ópata vcr rcdpr¡ç, VuXéç Trs vcr pou Brcíâ,I¡ç rnv reQaÀriv tou, BrcÍì,},n tr¡v yuXriv rou." (Atyevr{ rar Xdpolvtoç lldÀr¡, l. 44-47, Ka}.ovcÍpou, p. 243) A variation of this theme is also pointed out by Anagnostopoulos, where the hero finally falls ill when presented with a '0eót"qv' / an image of God: êç, rq,td rrìv nrÍÀn rou Kcrl p€ Ío rr¡Oeí, avéBr¡re orov oupc,vó p€ rrl rnv 'Oeótr¡v', ônI. rqv erróvcr rou Atyevriç éneoe pa,ptcÍ úppoloroç oro rpepcÍn : Toet æóvoo€v o Xúpovtq,ç, 7roç tv vo tov vrto{ott 2¿pouoóç øtóç efv'rlKev, otouç oupcrvoóç to' e(éqv . . rocrr nrrúver, lrKlcr,v' o XcÍpovtcrç rocn toútqv tn Oeótr¡v tou Ârwri qv áõer(øv toor néqtet oro rpeBcÍttv. 164 164 Anagnostopoulos, p. 105, see also floÀitr¡ Eil,oyai, (ent¡retpov), o. 259-60, cp.4, ot. 22,26, 33-34, and O xdpoç ¡rcúpa Qóp¡oev, l. 22-34, KcÀovrÍ.por.r , p. 245. -727 - Generally, there seems to be an agreement between rhe hero of the ltiød and the Akritic hero, as far as treachery in battle is concerned. There is also the same differentiation between a) treachery that takes advantage of the hero's momentary weakness or disadvantage during fighting that has already started, and b) employing ambush as a military technique of initially meeting and startling the enemy. Furthermore, divine intervention in the heroic death comes under the special case of the trickery of the gods/God, which is only resorted to when the hero to be subdued surpasses human limits. Humiliation of the dead on the battlefield Wounded Homeric heroes on the battlefield entreat their companions to take them away, so that their bodies will not fall to the hands of enemies. The wounded Sarpedon beseeches Hector in the following words : vaoîotv ècÍoqç pe rq,ì Àínor oiròv Homeric warriors placed much significance on the fact that the body of a slain companion should not be defiled, by falling in the hands of the enemy. That is why we often see fierce battles around a body (v szg-s7s. xIV 476-4zg). The battles around the body of an army leader were even more fierce and persistent. A bitter struggle for the body follows the death of Patroclus : '. toiç ncrvr¡pepioro' äptôoç pêycr . [È veircoç-oieì òpóper rigycrÀer1ç' rcpcÍtg ôè roì iôpói vroÀe¡rèç yoúvarcÍ te rvflpøi te æóôeç 0' unévepeé ërcÍotou yú.pêç. r' ðqea}.¡roí re nqldooeto papvc¡révororv dpQ' cryaOòv Oepd,novto noõóreoç Aforciõso". (xvrr 384-388) It was a great shame for the defeated to allow the body of their leader to be defiled and an even greater glory for the winner. The humiliation of the _728 _ leader was a humiliation and a shame for all his men. It was "t(crrq$eíq raì õverôoÇ. That is why they preferred to die fighting for the bocly of Patroclus rather than desert it : , , ... dl"l,'aùtoû.Tcr.lqpél,orvcr'répôrov ncror 1crvou ro Ktv fr¡uv dqap noî"ú eiq ' ( xvrr 476-417) In book XVII (À¡feveî.<Íou 'Aptoteiø), Athena in the form of Phoinix utters the following words to Menelaus about the fate of the body of Patroclus : pèv,ôú, , ooi \þvéfce, rarr¡Qeir¡ rai .överôoç éooercn, ei rc 'A2pl.floç tþauoû motòv ëroîpov r.ejy: Tpríxov rúvcç -{iæo _ro:4êeç ^ëIrrio.ouorv. cilå' Ë2geo rpateprõç, ötpuve ôb laòv öæcrvrcr." (XVrr ss6-ss9) while one of the Acheans urges them to fight over the slain body (XVII 41¡1- 47e). The actual defilement of the slain body usually refers to the decapitation of the fallen, and the thrusting of a stake in the head (as Herodotus also informs us in Book 7,224'226,9,78-79) - a very ancient Eastern tradition - or the throwing of the head to the dogs to devour : "Ffr,rq llcÍtporl,ov, ëneì ,^ ¡rèv rÀutù teóXe' _anr¡úpo, ë1.1 iv' dr öpotrv reQal.Ì¡v rcÍpor ö(êt Xc}.rc.õ, ròv ðiè véruv Tpolfrorv èpuoocÍ¡revoç ruoì õoirl". (xvII 12s-727) ' púÀrota õè Qaiõr¡roç "Err{Dp ' reQaÀÌ¡v ôé ä Oupòç civurye reoor, tupóv0' ancÀflç dnò ôerpfr{. (xvn 77s-777) Mueller enumerates for us the grisly scenes of injury and decapitation in the Iliad, and he rePorts that : "Decapitation occurs half a dozen times, sometimes as a form of mutilation. Aias Oileus cuts off the heacl of the dead fmbrios and throws it before Hector's feet (13.202). Agamemnon chops off Koön's head over the body of his brother Iphidamas (11 261). When he hews off the arms and head of Hippolochos, killing and mutilation are both present (11. 145). _729 _ The same is true of one of the most grotesque scenes in the lliad . Ilioneus is speared in the eye; as he falls backward, Peneleos cuts off his head and triumphantly lifts his spear, with the head stuck on it 'like a poppy' (1,4.499). The same Peneleos later severs the head of Lykon so that it dangles from the body by a mere piece of skin (16.339)." t0s In the lliad, there is also a deep respect for the bones of companions and ancestors who have died either in battle e¡ ¡e¡.1ó6 Nestor suggests to the Achaeans that after the war they should collect the bones of the fallen, and distribute them to their sons, when they go back to Greece (VII 332-335). In the Akritic Song, the bodies of the fallen are not respected either. They are subject to humiliation at the hands of the winning heroes, who treat them as spoils of war and proof of their victory. Mutilation of the bodies is again noted and is widely and unscrupulously exercised. Theophylaktos is thus seen wreaking havoc in the Saracen ranks (QouocÍtov) for three days and nights continuously, cutting up noses (poútteç)r67 and tongues (ylóooeç) : ' Õrepvrotqprú tou ¡røúpou tou, ¡rnaíver peo' oro QouoocÍtov nqltówer tpícr $póvu1ta, .nal.róvver rpelç "î$geç, r€ç rp€rç npepeç éroprev oúÀov ¡roútteç ro,t 1Àóooeç or poúrteç €v' rouç ôpcÍrovteç ot yl.óooeç ev' touç Àeóvteç oto yúpropc d annópou rou, oro rc},óopa, rou onaOtoú rou eí1e popcÍ lapcrrqvcÍ, yépovteç crpr Manipulation of the helpless body still exists with a specifically persisting fascination with the head - mainly decapitation is used - due perhaps to the 165 ¡4us1¡s., Martin, The lliad, tondon, 1984, p. 84. l6ó ¡"t"1tt¡us, Persians,l. 405, where the Salaminians fighr to protcct thc lombs ol their ancesl.ors: 'firaç te npoyóvolv vûv ünép nd,vtcov a'yóv.' 167 5." froyroul,ì,riç, Kóoroç., ErupoAoVxó rcu Ep¡uyr,euru<ó le(txó rr¡ç Kutrpntcr! dtaï..éxrou, Tó¡r.oç f Ot EL).rywrcéç k(etç, Aeurorota, 1990, p. (r5. -130- similar weapons still employed, such as : sword, spear and club. Beheading is also used as a means of killing, so Digenis having finally abducted the refused to him daughter of the Strategos, takes revenge by cutting his mother-in-law's head off : ' Kan píøv orøOtcí qç éõolre trlv reQaÀriv tr¡ç róBret' (Apncyr{ rr¡ç rópr¡ç roù ltpatr'¡1oú, l. 89, Ka}"ovd,pou, p. 231) or Porphyris gives a fatal blow168 on the head with a spear to his uncle that offended him, breaking his skull and causing his brain to come out : 'Mrav rovtcrprdru toù ldptoe nou núvro oto reQdl,tv, rr' eurúç eÉéFnv o pucrl,óç pa(í pe ro rcrurd,l,tv." (Tou llopQúprì, l. 116-117, Kcrî.ovcÍpou, p.219) Although there is no mention of the ancient Eastern tradition of thrusting a stake in the head, or of throwing the head to the dogs to devour, the Akritic hero appears to get greater pleasure from returning mutilated parts of the body to the person responsible for initiating and directing the attack against him - these happen to be either the opponent's father or the king. In the song of the Sons of Andronikos,"ro pcopóv' (the younger brother), having been offended by the insulting words of Krootqvtrriç cuts off his head and after taking his liver out,16e puts it etç 'rov otéttov (tray¡tzo and sends it to his father : 168 p¡ts¡¡5'powerful blow is often exaggerated, while the man who has sullcrcd it is considered unfortunate andtheonethatsurviveditlucky. Âtyeví1 rat XrÍpcovoç l-kiÀr¡, 1.94-96,Kcl,ovdpou,p.244. O Xrþç ¡raúpc Qópqoev. l. 82-83, KaÀovripou, p. 246,. idi 170 5""'fia6ouÀl,r{ç, Kóotaç, Tó¡ioç B',Ot ).anwxéç xu veo).artvrKéç Aé(etç, r\er¡rcr¡oío, 1989, p. 66). -131 - ' Aæoú t' crroóa ro popóv noÀÀú rou 'Kct,KoQúvn, rrlv re$ql"rñv rou, v ro pÀalrfv rou, v rúptv rou ro æé¡rnet'. rKou, l. 95-98, KøÀovcÍpov, p. 21,2) Porphyris, also, having slain the force sent against him by the King, loads nine baskets full of ears and noses and another nine full of hands and heads and sends them back to the king as a present, ironically stressing his superiority by sending his regards : ' Teraç Kcr,t octtpetiopcrtø néte tov BaorÀéov (Tou flopQúpq I-, l. 48-53, lletpónoul"ou, p. 48) In another version he again cuts his opponent's nose off and sends it to the king: ' Kcrl rópya Kq,l rn pútq rou, rou BøorÀtú tq otÉÀÀet va æór1 vct rov yanpeta to ôtnÀone(eÞéy*n". (ibid B', flerpónouì.ou, p. 46) Furthermore, the lesser heroes or victims/opponents are scarcely given a voice in the Akritic song, hence there are no explicit directions and provisions given by the fallen concerning their bodies after death.l?l Their appearance as well as their elimination is very stormy with the constant focus on the supreme hero, who survives all encounters until his deadly duel with death. Thus, fierce battles around the dead hero / leaders are not present because of the different nature and circumstances of Akritic fighting.tzz On the whole, the fallen bodies of opponents are not respected by either the 171 11r"." is however an unusual request made by the Ciant Crab whcn dcfcatcd by Digcnis, where it directs the hero to take his shell - in order to use it as a strong shiclrt tlrat cannot bc picrccd cithcr by a gun or by acanon. (Arlevriç rol Kópoupcç, 1.93-94,Iletpónoulou, p. l9). 172 gn the otlrer hand, very close simila¡ities as far as hurnili¿rtion ol thc dcad on the battlcfield is concerned - exist between the lliad and the Klepthic folk songs, whcre thcrc is scopc tbr sirnil¿u fighting ci¡cumstances. For example, groups ol heroes are seen fighting a multitucle of opponcnts and there is room for losses and defences on both sides. Sec: AvaotaorcÍônç, t Oeooulovirq, 1977, p. 162-3. 1,32 - heroes of the lliad, or the Akritai. There is an urge in both to manipulate the body as they see fit, in order to satisfy their feelings of anger and revenge. It appears there is such a build up of ioÀepoXapri'excitement inside the hero in his hour of 'glory', that the appeasement of his animalistic instincts does not come immediately after killing. Mutilation of the enemy body releases some of those feelings. It is also a more macabre but clear indication of total victory, and decapitation in particular, gives an easily identifiable 'spoil' of war. The Homeric and Akritic Hades Homeric epic excels in the art of describing killing and dying. Vermeule admits that : "I do not know how many people are killed in the llíad - Bassett counted 243 killed by name - and Homer the murderer never bores us. The battle - weapons are too simple to sustain, by themselves, the poetic interest of killing and dying on such a massive scale (for there are limits to the variety which even the most ingenious poet can impart to the flight of a spear, the thrust of a sword, the smash of club or boulder, a crushed shield or pierced mitra). It is consequently, the little individuals who must provide the interest, and express themselves and win poetic immortality through the breakage of their bodies."l73 On the other hand, Griffin has a very long and impressive list of the variations of death and wounding used in the lliad, which begins as follows: "When a hero dies, dark night covers him, he is seizecl by hateful darkness; he is robbed of his sweet life, his soul rushes forth from the wound; it goes down to Hades bewailing its fate, leaving behind his youth and strength. The doom of death covers his eyes and nostrils, his armour rings upon him, he breathes out his life in the dust, hateful fate swallows him up, he gluts the god of war with his blood ." t74 Thus, it becomes immediately apparent that Homer is most interested in the tragic comparisons between life and death, without entering 173 y"*.ule,E., Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry. Bcrkclcy & Los Angcles, 1979. p. 97. 174 6¡¡¡¡¡, Jasper, Homer on Life & Dearh. (Oxlortì, l9tÌ0). p.91. -133- into details of the afterlife. Consequently, in the Iliad we only get glimpses of the beliefs surrounding the Homeric Hades. The most extensive comes from Book XXIII 65fl which refers to Achilles' dream of the dead Patroclus, anxiously awaiting his burial, which will allow him to pass through the gates of Hades since: ' rñîrÉ p eigyouor r¡ru2¿aí, eiôo¡Àü rcrpóvtcov, ouõé p.e rcl pioyeoOcn unbp æota¡r.oîo èôorv, tiû.î,' aütcoç Achilles' reaction to his dream further emphasizes the confusion of contemporary beliefs as far as body, soul and mind are concerned : ' có æóror, rl þa ríç èotr rqì eiv 'Aíôcro õó¡rotor r¡ru?(ù raì eiõo¡l.ov, cirùp gpéveç our ëvt ndpnav." (xxlll 103-104) On this subject Vermeule comments that : "the realm of death is more a series of standard expressions and a few deliberately poignant contrasts than a serious focus of imagination" and while we tend to regard the psyche as the living element in a mortal, "Ffomer's object is the body (however) to which he does such things, with wit and skill as to leave on many occasions the impression that it, not the psyche is sell cnitóç." t7s A detailed description of the underworld is given in the Odyssey, Book XI (Néruto), but since Hades is the afterlife abode of the bravely fallen heroes on the battleground of Troy, it should also be taken into consideration. Here the general description of Hades is given - cold, empty darkness with pale, silent and weak shadows. A grim picture indeed is painted of the afterlife, which can be regarded as one of the motives of heroic conduct in the living, since it is the only place they can excel and leave their mark, in order to be always remembered. In the Nérurcr, the dead who are believed to be in a state of oblivion (Àú0n), 175 ysrm.tle,E., Aspects Af Death in Early Greek Art antl Poe try, Bcrkcley & Los Angcles, 1979, p.97 -1,34 - which makes them forget their previous life - perhaps when they drink blood - are presented as crying inconsolably about the life they have lost forever. The dead Agamemnon : ' rÀ¡rie l,ryécoç 0aÀepòv rcrtù õdrpu"veipolv" (XI 425) while the soul of Achilles: ' öÀoQupo¡revr¡ Ëæea ætepóevtcr rpoo'qúôct' (xI 472) and the dead Elpenor "answers bursting in tears" (XI 59) Finally the feelings of all mortals towards death are summed up in the words of Agamemnon, who regards Hades as hated by all men : ' . .'Aiõqç tor dpeiÀt1oç 1ìô dôdpaotoç roövercr raì r€ ppotoîot Oecõv Ë1fuotoç qnóvtov." (x 1s8-1s9) In Akritic song as well, killing and dying scenes become contrasting scenes of life and death, which underline the opposite domains of the world above and the underworld. This differentiation comes from the division of Cosmos (roolnroú oÚpæavtoQ, into the world above and the underworld, and according to Kapsomenos,lTó the "ÀcrtKú Qcrvtu,oiodtzz conceptualizes the underworld as a denial or a reversal of the world above - agreeing with Vermeule's earlier quoted comment on the Iliad; and he goes on to list the different and opposite characteristics of each: ArcÍvo¡ Kóopoç Kdto Kóopoç (rr¡ri 0dvatoç OoX (riî,roç) orotdõt (vú1tø) (éotrl - Ocrî,nopri rpúo - naycovrd, opopQtcÍ (pouvcÍ, rdpæor, oorr(pra (Boúpra, Qíôta, Àouì.oúôra) orouÀirtcr) Xo;pc- - euõat¡rovia Àúnq - õuotulícr rl.r¡pótr¡rø otépr¡or¡ 176 ¡ço*rtrÉuoÇ, Epatoo0ér¡ç f., 'O orÍvatoç oro ar¡pottró Tpaloúôt,' Apyato).oyía, Vol. ll, May 1984, p.65. 177 1¡i5 concept of the underworld is thus part of the popular uadition that also cncompases the Ak¡iúc songs, and is not only rest¡icted to ttre Akritic cycle. -135- ctl(€pcnófnlcr cx,l(porrìprao¡róç oùvfpoorú unopóv He further claims that the underworld is mainly described with negative expressions, emphasizing what it is not, rather than what it is, indicating that : 'Or cpvnflKoi autoí opropoí ô€í tpayoó& ôev uædpler Oeopia 0cvcÍ plo ¡rerøQuorrri æoù .vø õtrcrtóv oDolcotrKú rorlç avOpóæouç. \O¡ Kdtco Kóopot o nøyavtotrrr{ puOoÀofa yro rov Aôq, ,rou õev pæópe cræó rn Àcrirrd ouveiôqor¡ úotepcr cr,ró tóoor4 cnóveç .' 178 The Akritic hero's death is often metaphorically presented as coming in his iron palace, quilts and bed. The qualities of iron - durability, coldness and darkness - are thus implied as necessary both to sustain the strength of the hero's body and to indicate the cold, dark and harsh approaching death. ' Kr o oe otepø ncrÀdncx,, oe orep repú rcpeBpcÍôra,. (Âryevri l. 48-49, KaÀovcÍpou, p. 243) ' Yulopcrlef o Ârlevriç oto orôepó rpeBBcÍtr (O Âryev{ç oro orôepó rpeppcÍtr 1.1, KøIovcÍpou, p. 251) Death comes in the figure of Charos whose appearance is a clear indication of the grim afterlife. He is thus dressed in black: ' O XcÍpoç poupoQópr1oe paópa rcqaÀì,rreóer" (Âryevr! rcn XcÍporvoç lld,Àr1, l. 1, KcrÀovúpou, p. 242) and he is seen coming with his'corcépa" (army) affecting and upsetting life on earth: ' - Nt' ércrOsv to yr¡ìd pa¡o.', vro ex'v l(cr,l ¡^r.oupôou},í( ve - O Xdpov ép0ev rør õaBaiv' pe t' erervoú t' corépa'. ( O XcÍpoç r(cn t' ooréptcr rou, l. 1-9, McÍrr¡, p. 198) itg 178 iuio, p. 6s. 179 ¡¡p¡. |I. Âa¡lyiôTì, ap. 28. oel. 75, flóvtou. _736 _ Anagnostopouloslso gives us a detailed account of Charos' aPPearance : ' Xrcr arprtrrú tpoloúõrcr o Xcipoç naptotcívetør oov eúpc,lotoç Kctt õuvøtóç óvtpcrç, rsÇóç, (uæóÀr¡toç, (erdÀtrotoç, Kcx,t (eyupvol¡ævoç, tt€ pgj|';;u øotpa$tepú, U.€ otol,ri nl.ou¡notti, ó¡rorcr pe ScottcÍ KcLt P€ pcl"hcÍ (cwQó o6rv ftç artiveç tou lil"tou. flaptotdvetat aró¡rr1, oc¡ éva ¡r^eya?tóoaryo Kü,l unepguotró rl.úopø, lto'u oro nepncÍtr1pcÍ fou tpé¡rer n Tn Kcn oro oqúptypd tou n Odî.qooa. 'Etor o År1evr(ç, rcrtcÍ u¡v ríotr¡ roo Lcroú, fipotoovlrrpú(ovtcrç to Xcipo, o¡roÀolei ratcÍ ftç õtd:Qopeç nupaÀLn1éç : Ksvévcr õe Qoprierlra anó louç crvrpercopévouç top eíö éva (eorcÍl.tooxo ne(ó Kt appatrrrpévo, nríryet tou pítoou tcr, nÀouptó, rIç ctotpanriç rc, púrto.', tov eiôavt tct pdtro ¡rou rccrt ÀcÍpcoo'q rapõtú pou. l8l Tóp' eíE vcl Çuæól,qto Kcrr Ào¡rnpoSopepévo, Qoóeí roÐ niÀtou tcr nÀouptd, rrìç qorpcrTr{ç ta Fcitts.tsz êvaç, Kar tóp' évoç ÇeYuPvcoPêYor, , no.;rúnt Kctt r,p ncrtaer KcLt oerétcrt o tónoç, otoupi( Kcrl I 183 Iav crotpaæri 'v' to pÀeppct tou, oCI,v tt'l QoncÍ 11 paQr( tou oav õuo'pouvcÍ 'v' ol. ó¡rot tou, oqv rúotp' r'¡ reQcÀri xep.l84 We are also allowed a glimpse of the underworld, specifically a description of the passage to the underworld which is given by Charos to his newly defeated hero Mavroides and his girl. The hero is thus instructed to follow the road lEo ¡n"*ostopoulos, p. 74. 181 ¡Sugnsstopoulos notes further : ÍIoÀlc¡, AxptmtÍ dopara, o. 224-5, cp. l0 or. 17-20. npoBÀ. o. 225-6, cp. 11. ot.8-11, Araôr¡¡ric A0r¡vóv o.36-7, op. A', ot. 18-19, Also nol.c: o Advatoç tou Aryewl 8,1.19- 21, fletpórouÀou, p. 24. 182 ¡tu*nostopoulos notes further : Passow, o.306, op.430, ot.9-10, flpopÀ, flol,íq, Arcpnrcri, ciopara,a.225-6, ap. ll. or.l0, o.22'1, CIp. 13, ot. 9-10, llpopÀ. Op. IÀ. Y477: 'Tov ôe rcC óooe él,cpe fipoQóp€oç 0dvatoç rm ¡roipo xpctarrl ... npoB}". cró¡rr¡ Op.lÀ. E83, n.334, Eup.'AÀr.254'361. 183 Anagnostopoulos notes further : Âo.pnprÍrr¡ç, o. 84, o.p. 61, ar.7-9. 184 Anagnostopoulos notes further : Passow, o. 304, o;p. 428,ot.4-5, lloÀitr¡ , Ar e 0e v' cryrÀouOrioqç pattd, ¡rq pi(qç' orov népg - rúBo r(ou rì 0cÍl.crooq tov ôépvet ereí 'vø p¿ucr n otpd,ta pou Kcrl Àiyo nupc- rcitou ' ereí 'vor Kcr,l To oærdÀro pou TroD ncÍer tov KcÍtou - róo¡ro æou æúet otø TcÍptcrpcr rnç Tnç peç rouç q,no0opévouç rt 'óvteç 0a rôriç tr¡v nóptø tou l"c1tcÍpa 0a (er ærd,or1, tr eV aró ¡æou orotetvrl Kr' all ólou ü,pq1vrcro¡Évq, p€ rcr rougcÍipcr rov qvlpóv tr¡v é1ou ól.r¡ lcopévr1 tæ tcr pal^î,rd tr¡v roprtoróv tqv é1ou orenc,opévq.' (O Mcrupotõriç rr' o Xd,poç, l. 53-63, Kcrl.ovcÍpou, p. 248) Charos' tent is also mentioned when he himself forewarns Akrites of its scary and startling sight as follows : ' XcÍæ p', cÍQeç p' cç tcr paî"l.rd, ntao' p€ qç ro yê,pt r1 ôeí6e p€ rnv rêvra oou povd1oç p' aç nr¡yaivol - Av oe ôei(o tr¡v tévtø pou nol.ú Oevd, tpopcÍÉnç. Ol,o tpryúpo npúotvø K' q péon rou Boppévr¡". (Arpitcç Kdotpov êylnoe (l-lapal.l,a1ri Ðtvaoooó) l. 21-24, Kal.ovcÍpou, p. 250) Furthermore, 'Aôqç is associated with deprivation in an Akritic song from Pontus, where emphasis is placed on the fact that beautiful people go to the underworld without their beauty, and Maranton without his armour, so his mother, claiming that he is hurting because of thal, decides to take it there herself: Iov A&)æcÍve ot é¡ropQot X@piÇ rqv sl^r.opgótav, oov A&)ncÍ¿r Kcx,r o Múpcrvtov Xopiç appcrtoloiav r q pd,vcr r' r¡ XrÀdrÀepoç æcÍer rpoúer oov Aô' to nópraç ' Elrcr rn 'ou p' rG d,ppata, crvoi(tev o,ç epna,iv Finally, it should be pointed out that there is a striking resemblance between the Homeric and Akritic Hades. Both are conceived and depicted as the complete opposite of life where the souls of previously brave, beautiful and young people are leading a meaningless existence. It is, however, this deprivation of qualities and even identity in Hades, which urges both the Homeric and Akritic heroes towards heroic pursuits in the world above. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that 'Aônç is a major part of of the Modern Greek folk tradition, and is portrayed in rnany different kinds of songs, so its presence in the Akritic cycle is not unique or unusual, it is rather expected. Heroic expressions of emotion The foreknowledge of death and the firm decision to advance towards it is definitely a heroic element, but it should not be presumed that the Homeric hero is a kind of fearless creature with no feelings of regret or apprehension. As Finley admits: "The Homeric heroes lovecl life fiercely, as they did and felt every;hing with passion, and no less martyr-like characters could be imagined; but even life must surrender [s þs¡su¡".186 As Griffin also emphasizes : " It is clear in Homer that the soldier would, in general, prefer not to fight"laz as becomes apparent from the general attitude of the Achaeans who are always eager to return home, needing constant encouragement to face the enemy, 185 ¡¡oyúxÍtvoç, E.f., ' O OrÍvo,roç oro ar¡¡rotrró Tpo.1oúôú, ApTatoAoyía, 1984., p. 68- 69 186 Finley, MJ.,The World of Odysseus, Lonrlon, 1956, p. I 187 6r¡¡n, Jasper, Homcr on Life and Death. Oxlord 1980. _139 _ while on the other hand, women always try to prevent them from fighting - in Book VI, Hecuba, Helen and Andromache attemPt to stoP Hector from entering the fighting again. Again, if we look at the psychological dilemma of Hector before his duel with Achilles we will see that his approach to death, with all his weaknesses, reaches the highest point of bravery, because it reveals how dear to him was the life that he was ready to sacrifice: ' ô2¿Orlocrç E rÍpa ã"n .nP ' ei õé Kev doníôcr Pèv (xxll 98-1,23) Immediately after he regrets his very human thoughts and he decides on death. The deep grief for the life he leaves behind is illustrated in the following lines : ta tél.oç Ocrvdtoto rcÍl,uYe ntapévr¡'Atôóoôe BeBriret, Àrroûo' øõpotfrto rci fiÞnv'. (xxrr 361-363) Also Ajax is put to flight (xI 544f0, while Achilles himself is alarmed by the attack of the River Scamander and is told by Poseidon : ' nnÀ€iôq, pút' üp tr lír1v tpêe uú.ifi,;igft," and later on he is again worried by Agenor's spear and his determination to kill him. The same love for life is expressed in the death of almost all the Homeric heroes, including Patroclus; where we see a repetition of the words of Hector (XVI 855-857). A contradictory eulogy of Iife as irrepla&Ul. is also given by Achilles to Odysseus, when the latter was trying to persuade him to join in the battle (IX 401-409). -740 - That is why the conflict between love of life and love of glory demands a great sacrifice on the hero's behalf. The price one has to pay for denouncing the love of earthly possessions and human relationships voluntarily for the sake of glory, is indeed the highest form of heroism, and it is what Thucydides has deJcribed as : 'td te õervd rai nôéa ocrQéotata pyvóorcovrei raì õtù tanJro pf¡ drorpeæó¡revor ðr trõv rrvôúvcov', (Thucydides 2, 40.3) Death on the battlefield was indeed a great opportunity for praising dead heroes. We find Hecuba lamenting for Hector (XXII 437-436), as does Helen : "'EKrop, ë¡rr,õ eupcþ ôcepcov æol"ù Qilrate nd,vrolv i-Ar;iðop"-ãñ,'n ;äi ¿*'""; . . "f "ói;-d,ïä;;ü,-(xxrv 762-77s) while Briseis laments for Patroclus : ' IlcÍrporÀe por nl¿îotov relcrpto¡Éve. Oupr{ rQ d öpotov rl.sio^õerÀ{ te0vr¡óto ¡reil.tlov aiei". (xrx 287-300) But, even though lamentation was associated with women even men lament for their dead companions. The absence of women or the psychological needlss for relief of tension find the Homeric heroes expressing publicly their grief without being deprived of their manliness : "'Qç ëqcrO', oi õ' öpoÉøv cioÀì.éeç, tipXr ô' 'A1tì,ì,eú( (XXIII 12) ' "Qç Qdto, roîot ôè nd,otv óq' ipepov ôpoe 1óoto' (xxilr 108) ' tÉrcvov, ti rl"øíaç ; d ôé oe Qpévcrç ireto névOoç ;' (xvrrr 73) It was indeed considered as natural for men and heroes in particular to express their feelings through tears, a habit which is also noted by Dover, who declares that : "The Greeks were inclined to express grief noisily and extravangantly, 188 ¡'¡s¡stls , Rhetoric,l3 /0. 830: ' Kai ëv ¡¿vOeor rai 0pr'lvorç riloaúto4 ènrliyveraí. ttç riôovri ðrò rai toûd eiróto4 eipr¡tcr : "'Qç QrÍto toior ôè ndorv r)q' 'ipepov ripoe ^yóord' -747 - weeping when disappointed or humiliated or when asking for clemeñcy".l8e In a very interesting article, Ingrid Waern,190 deals with the "Crying Hero", in the Homeric epics. She originally notices that the heroes very often shed tears but only very rarely laugh. She intentionally overlooks the cases of crying for dead relatives and friends, and distinguishes the following various reasons for crying: a) Nostalgia is Odysseus' main reason in the Odyssey, but we also meet in the lliad, Nestor and Phoinix crying when they remember their homes: "'Oç ëQato rl,cricov, èni ôè otevóXovto, yépovreç, ¡rvrlod¡revor rù Ëraotoç ëvì ¡reycÍpotorv äÀernov' (xrx 338-339) b) Agony and anxiety in battle also induce outbursts of tears in the lliad. The Achaeans are seen as bursting into tears when the Trojans, having come over the wall, rush towards their ships: ' toúç oi y eioopóolvteç un' öQpúor ôcÍrcpua l,eipov". (xilr 88) Old Phoinix in 'flpeopeicr æpóç 'A1rÀì,éa' sheds tears when he is anxiously trying to persuade Achilles not to return home but instead to join in the battle and not allow the Trojans to destroy the Achaean ships : ' öVè [È ôù Freréerne yêprov innr¡ÀcÍta <Þoîvt( &Írpu' rivcræprdoaç' nepì yùp ôíe vquoív 'AXcr<õv.' (rx 432-433) c) Fear for their lives urges defeated opponents in battle to entreat their enemies for mercy with tears in their eyes. Hippolochos and Peisandros 189 'l-inta Dover, KJ., Greek Popular Morality in the of Plato antl Aristotla, Oxlord, 1974, p. 167. 190 Ingrid, "The Crying Hero", r¡anslarcd by Bao. t. Au(rÍvo.ç, Néa Eoría, (étoç EI., Tó¡roç -Vfaern, l25oç, teó2¿oç 1483, 15.4.89). -142- entreat Agamemnon in tears to spare their lives : "'Qç aß ye rÀcriovte npooauô(tr'¡v, Baorì.frcr ¡ætÀr2¿iorç Ëæéeoorv' a¡reiì,rrtov õ' ön' ci,rcouocrv"' (xr 136-137) Dolon, the Trojan warrior spying on the Achaean army/ is crying for mercy : pspp i *ö u!*]3,fi;"iryIti3åúï" ôeíouç' tò ö oo0pcrivovte rrlritqv, 0r¡v' ö õè õarpúocrç énoç qr5ôcr" (x374-377) A rare sight in the Iliad (noted in the Scholia)tet was Telamonian Ajax weeping as he is supplicating Zeus to scatter the mist which is covering the Achaeans so that they should at least die in shining daylight : "'Qç Qd,to, tòv õè ncrtÌ¡p öÀoQúpoto õcÍrcpu yêovroJ (xvrr 648) d) Anger for the insult suffered from Agamemnon, is the reason for Achilles'crying : L*priooç êtóparv .ioap'Ë¿r;""T;To,'îT;*ff" (r348-349) ' "l)ç Qrito ôcÍrpu Xécov, toû ô' Ërc},ue nótvtq, pritqp' (r3s7) ' rcrt þa núporO' crùtoîo rccOé(eto ôúrpu XéovtoÇ (r 360) Diomedes also cries from anger because at the funeral games of Patroclus, when he is about to win the chariot race, Apollo dashes the whip from his hand, and Eumelos is drawing far ahead of him : ' roio ô' dLTr' òq0a}.prõv Xúto ôarpucr Xcoopévoro" (XXIII385) And again, in the same race, Eumelos in turn is crying from anger when l9L \t¡o¡¡ Graeca in llomeri Iliadem (Scholia vetcra, H. Erbse, Berlin, 1969-1983). 'où 1àp êv dÀlotç er)pioxo¡æv cùtóv ôeôcrpurótc'. -743 - Athena intervenes smashing his chariot yoke, a..d he lands on the ground : L*puoqr nl.flooev, ocrî.epri ¡¿ oi '8:i:r;t ft""î (xx[r 396-397) e) In Book II (Âtdnetpø), Thersites cries out of grief and pain when Oydsseus hits him on the back with the sceptre, and he is not pitied by the rest of the Achaeans, who laugh at him : ö ô iôvóOq, OaÀepòv ôê oi ärneoe ôórpu' (rr266) 0 Tears of happiness are reservecl for the Odyssey and the return of Odysseus. In the llíød - the war epic - such tears are scarce. Similes are often used for the expression of the emotional moments of crying in the lliad . The Homeric heroes in their laments, are likened to women, without imparting shame to the heroes. Patroclus is likened to a little girl - again similes in the lli¿d often refer to youth - as well as to a dark-running spring, as he sheds soft tears of concern for the fate of the Achaeans : 'fldtporloç ô' 'A2¿tl"flt v õcirpua Oeppù 2¿éolv ri4 ff re rat' aiyil,tnoç nêr tòv ôè iôrbv rþrtrpe noõdprcr¡ç ôioç 'A1tÀÀeúç, raí prv Qolvliiraç Ënecr ntepóevtcx, npoor¡úôcr' 'rítcre ôeõúrpuoar, lløtpórÀeeç, t'¡úte roúpr¡, vqnin, fl e üpct pqrpì 0éouo' aveÀ¿o0ar rivc'ryer (xvr 2-8) Agamemnon is also described in the same manner when he sheds many tears at the thought that he must desert Troy with his army, unsuccessful and humiliated : ,oro.o ôcírpu xécov öç te rpúvn îi-;fJ;,i'l"tl (rx 13-14) The unrestrained expression of emotion of the Homeric heroes has often puzzled and provoked ancient and modern scholars (especially the Stoics). -744 - However, this natural expression of the heroes strong feelings and sensitivity, is definitely much healthier psychologically, ihan trying to appear unaffected by and detached from the horror and sorrow of war. Thus, finally, I believe that we can agree with and emphasize Moumtzakis' statement about the Greek heroes, that : "they become heroes without ever ceasing to be þ¡¡¡n¿¡".192 As has already been pointed out, the Akritic hero was "noÀepolcrprdç" for the sake of glory, but not to the extent of showing total rejection of life. On the contrary, every opportunity he gets he expresses his love for life, especially when he senses the presence of life-consuming Charos. And then, he does not refrain from showing his fear. So, when Digenis faces Charos he admits : ' Tov eíõave ru panrc^ Lrou Kqt l.óBalo n rapôtcÍ poù'. (Araôr¡pícl A0r¡vóv, t. A', o. 16-17, ctp. A' or. 20) re3 Fear also overcomes him, when on his way to hunt - in order to try and avoid ds¿¡þ19a - his head begins to hurt, his heart shakes and his knees tremble, so he has second thoughts about going on, because he realizes that death is near : ' A2¿núoretcrv o Arpíteç pou vcr ndler rcuvqyeúer. Ioo ¡reooorpan' 'r erpóQtqoev, C oo peoøotpd t' 'r en{yev, eæóveoev q regaî.tú t', tepu,(etv r¡ røpõtcÍ t' Kcn ouvrpopcí(v' tcr yóvøtø t', Kcx,t 'K enopeí va ndyet (O Âryevr{ç Kcrr o Xúpoç, lløpaÀÀoyri Kepa,ooúvtoç, l. 27-24, McÍrr¡, p. 67) The startling realisation of death further urges him to step backwards repeatedly sighing and lamenting the fact that he has to depart from beautiful earth, while he feels regrettably compelled to call to his wife so she can prepare his deathbed: 192 ¡4qDps(órcl, 4., EA).r1wrcr! Eku)epía, (apXaiot rcrt verórepot E).Ar¡veç), Oe¡oaÀovfr1, 1982, o.23. t93 ¡pqBrt' llol,itr1, Arprtrxri Ao¡ratc, o.222 rc ExÀoyaí, o. l0-5, o.p.78p 194 5u¡1un, N., p. 162. -745 - q,l TrDKvcx,vcx,otevd,(er : no4 0' crnoOdvol. ou,fpouv rü Oepia TrepXcpopútrc,, r' oppévrc, ¡rotpol,óyvav 0avcrrtróv rpapdtrv, r ßc,p1q,pí' tortoina. (ibid, l. 25-31, McÍrq, p.6T) ' A[í e¡æv tóv d,rÀepov, eyó 0e v' crcoOcÍvo¡ ! Aç lofpouv ro Vqld pootd Kcn rcr Trop1opopútta ( O @civsroç rou Âryevri A', l. 39-40, lletpónouÀou, p. 23) Love of the "èyróopra" (worldly things) is reflected through the various desperate attempts of the hero to either avoid death altogether, or to delay it for as long as he can. Akrites is thus seen building an iron castle in order to hide from Charos : _ n5pltne rciotpov êytoe, Xúpo5 va pnv tov eúpr¡ ôræ?r.oúv rpræÀoóv ro é1ttoi otôepolrapQo4révo" (Arpítaç KcÍotpov êy:noe ltapcÀ}"øyri Ðrvaoooú, r.r-2, Kaì,ovcÍpou, p.250) In another version the hero's zest for life is revealecl through his desire to disturb the natural elements and draw Charos' attention so that he will either be granted life or become his friend : ' Nd .r(€v n yrì æcrtripcrta Kl' o oupcrvóç reprÉÀra, va æórouv tcr røtripcrrcr, v va õóoo¡ oeíopa r' oupcvo Trcr vcr r' eroúd o Xd,povt v0 pou lapior¡ q (alri, ri Being in charge of the natural elements is also expressed by Digenis in the following songs where he seeks the opportunity to associate himself with ealh and life for the last time : , Kr o oupcrvóç repréIl,ra, cr '7rrsvcx, xq, reprcéÀÀtcr, ôrnl,olOó vc rccÍtool, , va, BycÍl.q paúpcr véOI, vcr rúpol_ 2¿_rgvr otcr Bouvd, Kq,r ro vepó'tor' rcÍpnouç ! " (O Odvotoç ToD Arye ri A', l. 6-i0, fletpónouÀou, P. 2s) The agreement made between Charos and Akrites before their duel about the terms of its outcome, underlines again the willingness of the hero to fight in -146 - order to retain life (O @dvoroç rou Aryev'{ A'1. 29-31, lletpónou].ou, p. 23). And having been defeated, the hero resorts to offering Charos numerous presents - silver, gold - as well as his most treasured possessions - his horse, bow, hunting dogs - and anything else he wanted, in exchange for life: ' XcÍpe $, êno.;çi aoqprrcd, pcrÀcÍpat' óocr 0ê1"erç, w 0él.qç Kctt ro óÀoyo p' ro 'r' é2¿et o BcotÀéoç ércrpe tr¡v octttct pou, ro oup' 'Tpcx,l(óoa rrl¡eç, êncp to rcuvrlTóorcuÀa p', énape rivtav 0é1'qç." (ibid, 1.33-36, p.23) Yiannis also asks Charos to let him enjoy life a little longer so he can get married and enjoy his wedding. Charos, however, relentlessly threatens to pursue him with his gruesome task, so the hero resorts to asking first his father and then his mother for some of their years and having been met with their refusal, his bride offers to give him some, reflecting the story of Alcestis (O OrÍvatoç rou Atyevrri E,l.72ff , p.26). At last when there is no doubt of death taking its toll, fhe hero is often seen repeatedly sighing for his impending departure: ' Tr vcr ritouv o vcrotevo1póç Kcx,t o pouppouptotóvøç ;' (Na'¡ev n yn natripcrto, l. 3, Kul"ovapou, p. 253) ' O Arpíreç oæio' rî,óoretor Kcr,t TruKvoctvctotevd,(et' (O Âryevrlç Kcr,r o Xdpoç, l. 25, MrÍrr¡, p. 67) But, even when he has passed into Hades, Maranton sighs heavily when his mother visits him, emphasizing the fact that he does not care about his delivered by her armour, but about the fact that he has left her alone behind: 'Kr o;nó paOécr 'orévo,(ev Kr qnó rapôicç efnev" (O Mdpavtov olov Aõ¡, l. 10, McÍrr1, p. 212) Furthermore, although we are not met with "showers of tears" shed by the Akritic heroes, tears of happiness are here also found, but are reserved for recognition scenes between fathers and sons: -747 - ' Aç tqv yapo.v o.r' tcr noÀ)"rÍ rcctripcrve to õcÍrpucx, rot) rac{pcwe Ío ôdrpucr tou raÀoprivav 1aÀútoa (O Ar2¿ptil.oltov, l. 37-38, Mcírcq, p. 191) Lamenting for the departing hero is again essential in the Akritic song as well, and it is undertaken either by women - girls, wives or mothers - or by the hero himself, who indulges in a self-praise lament while dying : tes ' ÕcÍte rcn méte, Qfî.ot pou, rct eyó ocç cQrlpé¡rar' (O Odvaroç rou Arlevni B',7ff , fletpónouÀou, p. 24) ße In fact, the hero although he expects his wife to carry on remembering and praising him through her lament, does not really tnrst her and finally, having received no satisfactory answer from her, he strangles her as he is taking his 197 last breath. Anagnostopoulo5 also comments on the subject as follows : ' Tr¡ oreípr¡oq qç rotvorvrrórqrq,ç rrlç Xrlpaç, ro roópro æevOoç Kol rrlv øyapia, noÀ}.éç Qopéç qnartóuv or iôtor or oú(uyor Kcn rcrpcryyéì^î.ouv wcil.oya pe érôqÀn (qÀotunfa. 'Eror o Âryevriç, ne0crí.vovtcrç, evôraQépetør ytcr ro roóBro név0oç Kctr rrlv oycrpía rnç Tuvcriraç tou, q onoícr, orrìv epótqori lou : - Av aæoOd,vo¡ Êpe raì,ú, rorov cÍvtpø 0e vcr ncÍperç ; Tou cr¡avtcÍ : - Av aæoOdverç, Aryevri, ta ¡rcrópa 0a Qopéool, vcr tpóer oévcr q pcrupn Tn rt epé ta pcrúpa, poóXa Etrlv tpítr1 ópoX KCtt tel"eutaio rou epótqoq, ótav æaipver lqv aæcÍvtr¡or¡ : - Av aæoOcÍverç Aryevri, tov d,pXo 0e va, nd,por, onoú v' r1 npórq pou to npóto pou rapcipr xo,pu- , lTl OKOÍ(I)V€I, nVrTOVrCx,ç lTlV Lre TCX, Xrprû, rOU, KCr,l. TCI,UÍOXpOV0 (e1ru1cirr.' (Ilol,ítr1, ArprtrrcÍ dopcrrcr, o. 242, up. 32, or,, 4 - 8, rqr 13- 4) As was noted in the discussion on marriage as a source of ties of friendship, Nancy Sultan also elaborates on the role of women/wives in carrying on the hero's kleos in the Akritic songs and the hero's mistrust of commi¡¡¡s¡¡.I98 195 5." also : Sultan, N, p. 163 19ó 5se also : <Þii'coç rclóç <,lpiocte, 1l'i, KaÀovri.pol, p.242 197 Anagnostopoulos, p. 256-257. 198 5u16¡, N, p. 164. _148_ In general, there seems to be an incredible honesty on the heroes' part - in the Iliad and the Akritic song - about their feelings towards life and death. An attitude which is emotionally frank, unpretentious and also touching, but one which does not at all deduct from their heroic character. MoTpc: "Fate, destiny, fortune, lot, share", are the English translations given for the Greek word poipa, and indeed a combination of all these explanations is needed in order to capture the essence of the ancient word. It is the "share" or "lot" of life experiences which has been assigned to all human beings, and which predetermines their fortune, destiny and fate. It is a force quite distinct and separate from the divine sphere, and one of the basic characteristics of the human poipø is the fact that it has an end, namely death, This is why the term poîpcr, is often used in that context (poîpcr Oq,vdtou), and as we can see from Book VI ("Erropoç rcri 'Avõpopd1rìç 'OprÀíc) it often replaces the word death : 'poîpav E ori ttvd Qrlpr neQuy¡,révov ëp¡revar ovõpcõv' (vr 488) As far as the relationship between poÌpcr and the Olympian gods is concerned we note the following lel ' a) the word is often accompanied by epithets most appropriate for the description of the gods: 'poîpcr rpato,rri" (V 83), while in some cases it appears as the subject of a verb, as a force which has some effect: '"Ev0 'Apcrpuyreiônv Atópea ¡roipa nêõr¡oe", (IV sl7) ' dÎ.},d ë poïpa õd¡.raooe raì ciplal,éoç 1ól.oç " Hprìç (XVIII 119) b) In the flatpórì.era (XVI 441ff), lioîpcr appears to be quite distinct from the gods. Zeus tries for a moment to at least delay "to nenpropévov', but 199 5se' Karpr.ôr{, E.1., H Atõaoxa).ía rov Opr1prcatv erav, A}qva, 1988. _749 _ in the end he complies with it, in order not to do anything against the will of the other gods. There is a similar case in XXII 768ff , where Athena is the one who persuades Zeus not to delay Hector's fate. c) Moîpa and the gods are two different forces which co-exist, but their relationship cannot be accurately defined. In the following two cases, poipa and the gods cooperate: ' då,Àd p€ poîp' ôl.où røi Âqtoûç Ërctcrvev uióç (xvr 849) ' dî,Àù Zeùç raì Moîpcr roì t'¡epoQoîtrç 'Eprvúç (xlx 87f0 And because of the distinction between MoÏpa and the gods, there is an uncertainty in people's minds about which events of their lives are determined by one or the other. It is then this element which gives some freedom to the individual, if not to choose his fate, at least to accept it of his own free will as indeed Achilles does : ' aridrø æOvaiqv, èneì oùr cip' äpeÀÀov ëtaíprp rrervo¡r"Évrp ëæapûvar' (xvIII 98ff) The same view is also expressed, in a similar way by Moorman, who stresses the fact that "Because there is room in the Homeric scheme of things for both free will and destinlr, man is able to a degree to be the architect of his own fate: he may or may not sacrifice his daughter or fight at Troy, or yield to Paris, or protect Helen. Yet having done so, he cannot escape the consequences of his action, the destiny that Fate imposes on þi¡¡."200 Going back to the issue of Fate governing the Horneric heroes' lives, Moorman maintains that it is not simply Moïpcr that predetermines the lives of mortals, but also Oéptç, the "female sense of orderliness", and that "these two forces, 2oo ¡4*rrnr1, Charles, p. 27 -150- Fate and Order, are constantly present in the poern; that they represent moral and ethical forces which the Olympian gods, because of their traditional armorality, cannot; and that they, and not the Olympians direct the destinies of heroes and natio¡s'r. 2ol For further discussion of the insoluble problem of the relationship between the Olympian gods and Fate, and their influence on the world order, a detailed account of the different ideas expressed on the subject can be found in Dietrich's book on Death, Føte and fþs Çsfl;. 202 The word poipø in modern Greek as well has retained the ancient Greek meaning of the ' 'lot' of life experiences which has been assigned to every human being' and it is again followed by the same ominous ramifications. So, poîpcl is again identified with death or specifically refers to the kind of death one will meet. Although the actual word poipa is not often directly used, there are certain expressions, circumstances and events, which are underlined by its presence. Thus it appears to be the determining factor behind the particular day of birth and death of a hero, and in the case of Digenis this happens to be Tuesday".2o: ' Tpftq yewriO' o Aryev{ç Kcx,r Tpitq 0o reOcívq' (O @dvcrtoç rou Atyevri B' l. 1, fletpónouÀou, p. 23) (Tpitr¡ fevvr{O' o Aryevriç, l. 1. KaÀovrÍpou, p. 250) Also, when later the same hero enumerates his heroic feats to his friends, he appears to be attributing to fate the fact that he killed the haunted deer protected by God, and he is eager to pay for this with his death (O Oóvclroç rou Âryw{ B', l. 13-16 lletpónou}.ou, p. 24). Birds are often the messengers of the hero's ¡roïpo in Akritic song and they 2ol ibid, p. 26. 202 p¡.g¡.¡ ,8.C., Dearh, Fate and the Gotts, London, Thc Arhlonc Prcss, 1965. 203 46ou¡ the signiflrcance of Tuesday and is association with thc lil'c of'Alcxanclcr rhc Crcat see: Ko.lovdpou, pp. 250-251. -151 - appear in order to foretell Akrites' death in the foLowing sonS: ' ara rel,óqõ'vcrv Kt éLelcrv : "Aup' snoOa,v' Arpíta(' (O @cÍvcrtoç rou Atyevti A', l. 8, fletpónoul"ou, p. 22) Charos seems to be carrying out or controlling the hero's fate of death. So when the hero/soldier challenges Charos he in turn informs him that he holds his shield, sword, red belt, and his wife's fate in his hands to wear black, so he better wait for him: ' - XcÍpovrcr, Kr eívtcr pou pootdç n e1ó va o' crvr¡¡révol - Bsotó oou vtópyø Kû,t onaOí Kcr,t rórrrvo Àoupioro paotó rat rorl yuvq,iraç oou ol,ópaupo, va ÞdÀn.' (Bóoroç rør Xd,poç B',1. 7-9, fletpónouÀou, p. 28) Charos is God's representative, ' Eôol p' crnéoterÀ' o @eóç vs ncÍpol tqv yuXri oou" (ibid I-, l. 9, lletpórouÀou, p. 28) who is praised as almighty, for nothing happens without him : 'Âo(cÍ(ol oe, rcrÀé @eé, æou oq,r orq yqÀro¡revo rapprci ÞouÀú ey yívetor ¡re ôf1olç oou eoéva'. (O Xdpoç Moúpcr Qópr1oe, l. 28-29, Kalovúpov, p 245) We would expect Fate to be assigned and determined by God. However, even though God helps Charos to carry his task through, the relationship between poipa and God is not very clear. God appears to know everything about the hero's life and death but he seems to be simply an executioner of what has already been arranged and predetermined. Therefore, there is again a very unusual relationship between Fate and God(s) both in Homer and the Akritic songs. And although Gods/God are approachable to a degree through prayer ancl supplication and can be appeased, the hero has no control or contact with this ancient, predetermined and preimposed sequence of events which is called ¡roipa. Now, as far as the Akritic songs are concerned it should be again indicated that these ideas -752 - expressed about poÌpc are part of the Modern Greek folk tradition in general, and their resurfacing in the Akritic songs is not unique, but rather to be anticipated. -153- CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to bring order to a general idea of similarities of the hero and heroic life in the lliad and the Akritic song - by also pointing out the differences - and to organize them into a system that will suggest and reflect reasons for their existence. The analysis and comparison that has been completed, under the chapters of Descent, Horses and Armour, Heroic Conduct and Heroic Death, showed that there are a number of areas of similarities between the lliød and the Akritic song in terms of theme, scene, treatment, behaviour and emotions. Further examination of these categories is now necessary to enable us to perhaps offer potential explanations or suggestions for the persistent resurfacing of these similarities. Theme The material which has been presented thus far constitutes grounds for the claim that there are a number of similar themes both in the lliad and Akritic song. When talking about themes, however, and reviewing their role and importance in the epic and the songs, it is helpful to define and differentiate between core themes, themes and story -lines : i. The core theme has been identified as the integrating theme of the whole work. It is mainly the underlying force that holds the work together and sets in motion the smaller components necessary for its completion. It is what the story is about and where the emphasis lies. It is not simply "a subject treated by âction",2Oa but the central subject and the basic ingredient of the story, put into 204 Shorær Oxford English Dictionary, Oxlord University Press, 1973 1,54 - applicatio^ by incorporating smaller themes and sub-themes with great flexibility. It is the backbone of the whole work, which although determining the outline, has the capability to grow and change in a more wider scale. ii. A theme works on a more limited spectrum, but its existence and importance is still vital in the whole story. It is rather a pre-existing entity which can stand alone as a motif that can be taken up and used accordingly, thus recurring when necessary. It is a subject that exists in its entirety, with a beginning, main body and an end governed bytetermined set of rules. There is not much flexibility in its application or room for change. On the whole, it can become a useful tool and a standard piece in trying to complete the heroic picture. iii. A story-Iine or a sub-theme is again smaller in scale. Specifically, it is a component of a theme, and in fact a number of them is necessary in order to constitute a theme. Their significance, therefore, should not be overlooked, since they are the most vivid and descriptive parts of the whole story. They are concrete proof of the underlying forces and motives of the story and the most palpable aspects of the subject. In trying to represent their role, we could perhaps imagine of having a stage and a theatrical performance which without the different acts and actors , would never work. Furthermore, the context of the story-lines appears to be even more fixed and preordained. Their rigid form, however, makes them ideal for a wider and more varied application. It should be pointed out that this division into core theme, themes and story- lines, has been made in accordance with their role in the lliad and the Akritic folk songs, while each one of them respectively may greatly vary in size, density and intensity. After close examination and deliberation the common "themes" in both the -155- epic and the songs that meet the previously mentioned divisions of "theme", are i. core themes : anger/ ii. themes: rightful ownership of armour, hero-king relationship, iii. storylines : absent father, present mother, acquisition of armour, pseudo-hero. Core Theme Anger and in particular the "Wrath of Achilles" is the core theme of the lliad . Every other theme or sub-theme is employed and incorporated in such a way that it reflects, explains and enriches the different aspects that constitute the core theme. There is a great continuation and coherence of subject matter in the Homeric epic, which does not at all lose sight of completing or fulfilling all facets of "anger". In the cycle of Akritic songs, however, there can be no mention of a unifying core theme. Heroic anger is, in fact, an aspect of the hero-king relationship theme, and also appears as a general behaviour characteristic of the Akritic hero, but it is not fully and conclusively exploited in any one particular song. A challenging potential explanation for the presence of a unifying core theme of anger in the Homeric epic, would be that it is the result of a "poet" (literary artist)20s who is using the core theme of anger in order to bring together a "corpus" of epic songs about the Trojan war. Themes Two major themes common to both the lliad and the Akritic songs are the rightful ownership of armour, and the hero-king relationship. As far as rightful ownership of armour is concerned , there is a striking resemblance in the different aspects or sub-themes incorporated into it, both in the Homeric 205 ¡'¡51stle, Poetics, 8 l45la, 22-9 -156- epic and the Akritic folk song. The paternal armour rightly inherited by the young hero, seems to fare similarly. Its acquisition - or reacquisition in the Iliad - is vital for the hero's heroic career, and is aided by the figure of the mother - hence the story-lines of the "acquisition of the armour", and the "absent father", "present mother", are incorporated. However, having followed a somewhat normal heroic course alongside the hero - at least for a little while - the paternal armour is taken up by the "philos" of the hero - t}:.e "pseudo-hero", as he has been defined - who is not in a position to do honour to it. Thus, they come back to the hero who is determined to die with it. The second major common theme of the hero-king relationship is also noteworthy, not simply because of its similar treatment in the epic and the songs, but also mainly because of its close association with the core theme of anger. In fact it is the pretext of anger - which takes the form either of a core theme in the lliad - or a sub-theme in the Akritic song. There is no doubt of the similarities of subject matter, when it comes to the antagonistic relationship between the first of the heroes and the first man of the state, which appears to follow similar fiery stages of development. Thus, we see the young hero, once fully aware of his invincibility and bodily strength, resisting the "humiliating" orders of a "lesser man". He, in fact, then feels compelled to publicly discard and disregard his authority. Lack of authority on the hero's behalf alone is infuriating for him; he is looking for an excuse and a chance to fully express his anger, When such an opportunity arises, the clash of heroism and authority comes into full swing. Egotism and self-interests do not allow either of the protagonists to withdraw their case, until either a crisis arises that requires both men to put aside their personal 157 - ego, or the man in authority - who is obviously older/ more mature and perhaps more reasonable - by offering a challenge, directs the young hero's energy and strength away from himself and the state and against an "enemy". Story-lines Employed under the repertoire of themes in the lliad and the Akritic cycle, are the previously mentioned story-lines of the "absent father", "present mother", "acquisition of armour", and "pseudo-hero". In reviewing their role in the epic and the songs, a definite link has been established amongst the first three story-lines/sub themes. The valiant father figure, necessary for descent purposes, appears to be at a distance from his heroically performing son. There is almost a deliberate statement made here about the role of the father, who is and should be away, when his son becomes a "man". Paternal direction, advice or criticism is perhaps only reserved for mediocre warrior-heroes. A supreme hero should stand alone against the most dire natural and human forces, despite glorying at other moments, in his lineage. On the other hand, there is always an emotionally immature side of the hero which still needs or cries for his mother who is never too far away - hence the "present mother" story-line. Her maternal instincts draws her close to her son, readily offering her emotional and material support. She is also perhaps present in order to publicly let go of the "baby son" who needs to prove his masculinity and heroism. It is almost as though the hero needs her approval and permission for going on, because she has control and power over him that needs to be released. Thus, she is either seen as the initiator of a challenge leading to the acquisition of the paternal armour - in the Akritic cycle - or she decides to use her persuasive divine powers in order to achieve the reacquisition of a brilliant set of armour in the lliad. Either wãf , the story-line of the "acquisition of armour" comes on the scene as a normal development, and is vital for proving heroism in the Akritic songs, -158- or for sustaining and upgrading the heroic fame of Achilles in the lliad. Again, this emphasis on reacquisition of a new set of armour rather than the first acquisition of the original paternal armour by the hero - which is somehow expected in the hero's life - shows signs of a highly organized material that is reworked and manipulated in such a way that it becomes part of the core theme of anger. Finally, the "pseudo'hero" story-line, significantly similar in both the epos and the Akritic songs, offers another twist to the theme of "rightful ownership of armour"; it explores the different aspects of the "philos" relationship and moves the action interestingly forward to the heroic "aristeia". In addition, in the lliad it contributes immensely to the completion of the anger core theme. It becomes a significant link of different aspects that generally promote action. There is, however, something almost theatrical about it, not simply because it is intriguing to watch, but also because the "philos" dressed up in the supreme hero's, heroic attire provokes dramatic irony. Scene The detailed comparative analysis under the different chapters of Descent, Horses and Armour, Heroic Conduct and Heroic Death, has revealed a strikingly rich repertoire of numerous common or similar scenes in both the Iliad and the folk songs of the Akritic Cycle. In particular, the hero or other heroic aspects are presented in a similar way, in a similar setting under similar circumstances. If a definition of a scene were required, we could perhaps refer to it as a theatrical act or scene which is recorded - or even "photographed" - so that it can be later replayed, imitated or reproduced on other performances with accuracy. This recurrence of scene, can of course, be either intentional or unintentional, while its duration, _159_ vividness, and importance may greatly vary. Nevertheless, there is an easily identified consistency of setting and action concerning the protagonists that cannot be mistaken or faulted. Furthermore, scenes can be either part of the general action, or they can be representative, demonstrative components of more intricate themes. Whatever their specific roles though, after close consideration of both the Homeric epic and the Akritic songs, the following common scenes have been found : 7. The genealogical inquiry In the chapter on Descent, the inquiry - direct question and answer - concerning the hero's genealogy can immediately be targeted as a common scene in both "songs". It is vital in both works, since in one representative scene, the very significant issue of lineage is not simply brought up, but immediately determined and verified. This scene is employed in such a way as to vividly contribute to the whole work; because it introduces a fiery dialogue between opponents that usually leads to a very lively bursts of self- praise from the hero. It is interesting to the researcher because it consequently reveals similar aspects of the personality of the Homeric and Akritic hero, and furthermore reflects a similar concept of values that require and demand such a demonstrative inquiry and an apt settlement of descent. 2. Horse DescriptionlHero-Horse Projection Similarities of scene are also immediately noted in the description of horses - under the chapter of Horses and Armour - in both the Homeric epic and the Akritic song. The splendour, speed, and breed of horses are projected in a very similar manner. Again there is consistency in the depiction of the hero and horse relationship during peace as well as war, These similar scenes observed, _160_ however, can be easily explained due to the importance of the horse in both the Homeric and Akritic environment. For they are somehow "expected" in a "horse-based" society. What is more striking is the similar scene of talking horses incorporated in both the /rtad and the Akritic song. Not simply because it reveals the existence of certain mythological elements in both, but also because it exploits and uncovers certain similar behavioural traits in the hero, that allow the development of the highly emotional bond between mount and rider. 3. The projection of Armour Similarity of scene is again noted in the projection of the armour both in the Homeric epic and the Akritic folk song. Splendour is again here attached to the inanimate heroic implements of war. The readers of both heroic "songs" are thus astounded by the glittering, fiery war-gear which creates the most extraordinary scenes. There is, therefore, an element of glamour attached to the heroes of both eras - Homeric and Akritic - which has the intention not only to charm the reader, but mainly to project a supreme hero in his hour of splendour and glory ; for such a projection is dictated and demanded by the societies towards which it is directed. 4. Arming scene Incorporated into the projection of armoLlr, or rather specifically attributed to it, is the most impressive arming scene that takes place just before the hero engages in his "aristeia". A very crucial moment, it is intensified and glamourized by the fiery description of the armour being donned. The similarities of the arming scene are not, however, confined to the shining armour. In both the lliad and Akritic song, the arming scene incorporates all 76'.1^- the necessary material and psychological weapons needed to ward off the enemy. The heroes are thus seen preparing their horses, taking/wearing their armour, and finally pleading for divine help and intervention, It is indeed a strikingly dramatic scene which sees the ultimate-looking hero praying helplessly for divine support. 5. Use of psychologicøl weapons The heroes of both periods are not restricted however, to the use of conventional offensive and defensive weaponry. In their hour of conflict they are seen to employ a most effective tool: their ability to use taunting, ridiculing and abusive language. It is indeed fascinating to watch the heroes of both different arenas, engaging in,with a similar context, war-of-words. This shower of exchanged threats and taunts, however, has chiefly as its objective to reduce the opponent to the weaker - from a heroic point of view - role of a woman. This association of sex and fighting is thus prominent in both the llíad and the Akritic song/ underlining again the similar lines of thought of these heroes, and the further implications that such a comparison has in the heroic society to which they belong. 6. Fighting scenes When the hero finally embarks on his aristeia, there are numerous similar phases or scenes detected both in the lliad and Akritic song. The furiously raging and killing hero appears to wreak havoc in the ranks of the opponents- fighting and death occur on the life-contributing threshing floor. The hero is angry, swift, relentless and merciless. Scenes of fierce fighting thus become gruesome scenes of killing but the hero continues his macabre task fully justified. The showdown proceeds, however, until the loss of "armour" throws into disarray and confusion the opposing forces, offering again another 762 - challenging and fiom a theatrical point of view, effective scene 7. Plundering The hero's state of excitement does not come to an abrupt end once he has completed his task. The "dark forces" occupying his mind and his whole being are not instantly released. They continue to take their toll by leading the hero to acts of mutilation and plundering. The hero feels the need to "take" something with him as a token of his victory. "Taking" lives does not suffice, so the hero enters another scene of mutilation - mainly decapitation - and plundering. Scenes of mutilation or general humiliation of the dead thus appear to have been common and necessary in both the lliad and Akritic song, in order to completely release the anger - "wrath" - that drives the hero to his hour of heroic extremity. Decapitation however, was only a partial bodily humiliation of the dead. The most devastating injury was aiming at defiling the hero's honour and reputation and was achieved by depriving the dead hero of his most prized and valuable possessions, his 'property" - mainly his armour and his woman/wife. These actions provide us with tragic scenes of heroic necessity and human drama. For these were the only "things" that could have continued to remind the people left behind of the once glorious fallen hero. 8. Death scenes The supreme hero's time of death is depicted in a very similar fashion in both the Homeric verse and the Akritic Cycle of songs. i fn. hero is thus seen expecting, challenging and dreading death all at once. At this crucial moment he is filled with determination, regret, remorse and helplessness -763- simultaneously He knows he might die, and he wants to come to a sudden but heroic death; and although he has a moment of clear vision before death in which he accepts it as a consequence of heroism he also confesses truly to love life on earth. Therefore, just before the dreadful moment of death, the hero indulges in a moving self-boasting and self-justifying premature lament, that aims to remind friends and companions of his record of past heroic achievements. 9. Hades As death draws near, the hero envisages the dreadful course of his future abode in the inglorious afterlife, and a description of Hades is hence given. When we are confronted with this scene in the lliad, as well as in the Akritic songs, we are struck by the existing similarities. The hero's mind is overcome by the dark, gloomy, shady, cold and unfriendly "grounds" of "Aôr¡ç where the souls are "living" in oblivion as mere shades with no "possessions" of any kind, no distinctions and recollection of their previous perhaps glorious, honourable, or heroic life. However, what is more exciting here, is not simply the similarity of the scene of the underworld in the epic of the lliad and the Akritic songs, but the fact that the fundamental concept of Hades has not changed at all even after the establishment of Christianity. For the Homeric epic and the Akritic cycle of songs do not simply reflect "a heroic concept of Hades" but the more generally accepted beliefs of the society they represent as a whole. 764 - Treatment In the course of this study, careful efforts have already been made to isolate and determine common heroic aspects of theme and scene. However, in order to achieve a more holistic image of our topic it is necessary to approach it from different angles, and mainly to focus on how the "singer" himself dealt with the material. It is thus fundamental to examine the way "he" chose to treat and view the already identified common themes and scenes; and for this reason, we have to consider similarities in description, presentation and attitude. When looking at the heroic material presented though, from a different perspective, it is expected that some information will overlap. This is understandable and easily explained when it is compared to a scientific experiment. In this case, when applying a range of different tests on a chemical compound, in order to provide a complete analysis, the scientist often encounters facts already uncovered in an earlier test and arrives at similar results. The same situation arises in our study. When we come to consider the way the heroic material is treated, we find that some of the similarities have already been identified in previous parts of the conclusion. Thus, despite the fact that the following topics have been determined as "similar treatment areas", only some of them will be dealt with here in detail : - hero and father association, - encouraging statements concerning genealogy, - horse description, - splendid arms projection, - sword, spear, and bow treatment, - absence of armour, - primary virtues, - friendship, - sense of Honour, - death and dying, - immortality, - poipa. '1^65 - Encourøging statements concerning Genealogy Having already examined under the theme approach, the hero and father association, as far as descent is concerned we will account now for the presentation of the encouraging statements received by the heroes of both the Homeric and Akritic era. For there is a preeminent urge on behalf of the back- up group of the hero, to remind him of his great ties of lineage at moments of grave danger. The utterance of such statements can of course be easily explained when the results they achieve are viewed. So, since such encouraging words improve the performance of the hero when he is going through a stage of lack of confidence, their use is to be seen not as unusual, but rather expected. Nevertheless, this emphasis on genealogy by the social group surrounding the hero, reflects the importance of descent as a social issue in both the lliad and the Akritic song; and furthermore, displays the similar attitude of the "singer" towards the employment of such statements under similar circumstances, since the message given in both heroic eras was to emulate and surpass one's paternal valour. Sword, spear and bow treatment Previous consideration of "Horse description" and "Arms projection" under the similarities of scene, leads us now to examine the treatment given to the offensive implements of war - sword, spear and bow - in the Homeric epic and the Akritic cycle. There is immediately to be noted a consistency of description and presentation of the use of the sword and the spear, in these heroic "songs" even though there is a considerable separating period of almost 2000 years. And, although these can be partially explained by the fact that they waged a similar kind of warfare, it is still surprising that these weapons continued to coincide with a similar system of heroic values, and to carry similar 766 - connotations, as far as their weight and significance in battle were concerned. For there is a definite attempt, in both heroic spheres, to assign to each weapon its importance, attributing great value to the sword first and the spear second, followed by the more ambiguous use of the bow. However, even this long - range weapon finally reaches justification when it is rightfully assigned its original hunting and competltive role. Absence of Armour The projection, depiction and function of the armour on the Homeric and Akritic battlefield has already been considered above in the similarities of theme and scene. However, the absence of armour from the fighting ground has not yet been fully dealt with. An extension of the heroic identity, the hero's armour appears to accompany him from the moment of maturity till death - as becomes apparent from the already-treated theme of "rightful ownership - and the devastating results of an unarmed opponent do not require an active imagination. Nevertheless, in the llind, and the Akritic song , this topic is not only treated similarly, but it reaches greater dimensions. For there is a mutual understanding and expectation of heroes when they are confronted with such an occurrence. There is almost a common set of heroic values which governs the behaviour of the heroes under such circumstances; and although there is often a fine line separating and distinguishing such events, the heroes of both eras are able to determine when this absence of armour indicates cessation of heroic activity, treachery, humiliation, or victory. Primary Virtues There is again devident coincidence between Homeric and Akritic society, as far as primary virtues of the hero are concerned. As a result, a very similarly clear picture is drawn of the perfect hero in both eras. The maturing hero is 767 - thus distinguished for his bravery - hence contempt for authority - lineage, warfare, merits, competitiveness in sport, health, size, bodily dexterity, strength; boldness and invincibility. There is a similar description of the hero following those general outlines, with the exception of beauty which does not appear to be preeminently linked with the hero in the Akritic song. Perhaps this can be accounted for if one takes into consideration the different realm of religious beliefs governing these two heroic spheres. In the lliad, the hero is often linked to the gods - god-like - who are anthropomorphic and therefore pronounced in beauty; in the Akritic song, we are dealing with a basically Christian society which does not identify beauty or any other bodily human attribute with the Almighty. Furthermore, race or ethnicity appear to come under the repertoire of primary virtues, since there is a distinct attempt to associate heroism with race, whether it happens to be Achaean, Trojan or "Greek". Friendship frien¿ship is again treated in a similar fashion in both the Homeric epic and the Akritic cycle of songs. Although the hero is bound in "friendship", or is on friendly terms with a number of people, through marriage, guest-friendship and general companionship, there is also an attempt to isolate the ultimate hero from the rest. Thus, in his hour of rage and heroic potential the hero is off-limits. He is withdrawn, unavailable, detached, or simply unapproachable. Nevertheless, he is still human, and needs to confide to a faithful companion - hence the depiction of the strong friendship between supreme hero and older friend. This relationship is very similarly projected in both Homeric and Akritic heroic spheres. However, although a vital relationship and powerful bond, it 168 - does not at all inhibit heroic action or impose a threat or a contest to the main hero. On the contrary, with the incorporation of the "pseuclo-hero" theme, it contributes considerably to the action - through anger and revenge - and uncovers a very sensitive, emotional and truly human side of the hero. Sense of Honour Similar treatment is also encountered in dealing with the not very abstract sense of honour, which seems to determine the conduct of the heroes of both Homeric and Akritic societies. This evident and well-defined driving force, well embedded in the social substratum, is expressed in very similar palpable terms in both the lliad and the Akritic song. Its limits and parameters very rigidly determine the heroic course and conduct and appear to push or direct the hero towards accepting challenges, denying any form of surrender, showing no signs of compromise and taking a fully f ledged and uncompromising revenge; in other words, fulfilling his heroic potential with no shame attached to his name for the sake of glory in the generations to come. Immortality The hour of inflicting and suffering death has already been discussed under the similarity of scene, but the issue of immortality has not yet been conclusively determined. The analysis, however, under the chapter of Heroic Death, has made it apparent that questions of eternal fame are basically treated in a very similar manner. For this is a common underlying force of both Homeric and Akritic warriors entering the heroic arena. They have chosen (or have been chosen) to lead a dangerous, challenging, short, but finally famous existence, which precietermines their denial of family life and responsibilities or simply of life itself, in the pursuit of heroism ancl eventual eternal fame. -769- However, the hero does not trust his successors or leave to chance his place in immortality. He is determined to contribute verbally to his own reknown, so he is often seen indulging in a self-praise even when this takes the form of a personal lament. Moípa Last but not least in the similarities of treatment is the analogous presentation of Moipcr in both the lliad and Akritic heroic song. This is not simply profound because the heroes of both of those eras seem to have an acute sense of its presence or role in the battlefield governing their lives and death - mainly their death, since it is identified with it - but chiefly because it reflects wider social beliefs about life and death in general. Moipa is therefore projected in its widely applied form as a dark ancient relentless and preordained force which minutely dictates life and death. Its relationship to gods/God is also ambiguous in both religious spheres and societies, underlining once again the depth of similarity in its treatment. Behaviour and Emotions Having already adopted a process of elimination of similarities - brought about by our holistic approach - when we finally come to consider similarities of behaviour and emotions displayed by the Homeric and Akritic heroes, we are faced with a long list, most aspects of which have already been exhausted under previous headings. Thus, from the common behavioural trends listed below, only a few will need to be dealt with here, in order to complete the examination of the various layers of similarity attribr.rted both to the epic of the Iliad and the Akritic song. After careful study, the following prevailing behaviour similar patterns have been icìentified : -770- - self-praising, boasting, - hero-horse emotional bond, - friendship, - hero-king relationship, - quarreling, - plundering, - humiliating the dead, and - love of life and hatred of death. Loae of life and hatred of death Love of life and hatred of death seem to be the very last aspects of common Heroic and Akritic behaviour that still require deliberation. There is a familiar grave echo attached to these similarities as far as the hero of both eras is concerned, because they are the last and most powerful conflicting feelings which govern his existence in his hour of glory and his hour of death, and that he freely and shamelessly expresses. For what makes the hero's fall most remarkable, memorable, and indeed tragic is not simply his determination to die in order to reach the realms of immortal glory, but the fact that he truly confesses how dear is the life that he has decided to leave behind, as opposed to the hatred of the meaningless "existence" that he will have to endure in the afterlife. This fully and freely expressed dilemma between heroic necessity and human emotions for the sake of immortality, is what makes the sacrifice of the Homeric and Akritic heroes most remarkable. Potential explanation for similarities Having now fully dealt with the context of heroic similarities in the /líød and Akrtic song, under the more specific categories of theme, scene, treatment, 777 - behaviour and emotions, we are in a better position to account for those similarities by offering a number of potential explanations for their frequent recurrence. The limited scope of this analytical str.rdy, does not allow, however the possibility of restricting and truly narrowing our speculations to a single "definite" answer. Nevertheless, the following explanatory suggestions do indeed enlighten our judgement by shedding light - on until now somehow shaded areas - of this heroic material. These are : - direct Homeric influence, - indirect Homeric influence, - heroic convention, and - the "Greek" ethos. Direct Homeríc lnfluence The possibility of accounting for these similarities by implying direct influence from the Homeric text presents certain problems. The difficulty here is that any attempt to reach a conclusion on this possibility must be inextricably linked with an examination of influences upon the Byzantine literary epic, and of course, with an examination of the relationship between the literary epic and the Akritic cycle. The reason for saying this is that the most "direct" Homeric influence on the Akritic songs would be by way of the literary epic (were it proven to precede the songs). This issue has been deliberately set aside in this thesis and must therefore remain open, as must to this degree, the possibility of direct Homeric influence on the Akritic songs. Indirect Homeric Int'luences It is similarly difficult to reach conclusion on indirect Homeric influence. In order to do this, one would have first to have lackled and decided upon direct Homeric influence, and secondly to have sought potential traces of indirect influence in the period of the Greek literary and oral tradition which lies between the time of the Homeric epic and the Akritic cycle. -772- This work lies well beyond the parameters of this thesis and must remain to be done in a later study. For the present, therefore, the possibilitiy of indirect Homeric influence must also remain open. Heroic conaentíon On the other hand, when we come to consider heroic convention as a potential justification of the striking similarity of material encountered in the lliad and the Akritic song, we are treading on firmer ground. One might then be indeed readily eager to explain those similarities by referring to the fact that we are dealing with a common ground of heroism, more specifically with two heroic societies that are portrayed in two very similar sets of heroic song. Heroic convention might thus immediately "take care of" all the details or aspects presented in the songs. And it does to a certain degree, for we are faced with similarity of warfare - use of similar armour, use of horse - similarity of extremity of encounters, "aristeia", similarity of heroic role and its fulfilment, in general, similarity of heroic conduct. However, these elements are not all that we are faced with. By themselves they could constitute a very repetitive mythological heroic tale. The most profound elements of both the Homeric epic and the Akritic song come from the fact that their heroes are not heroic prrppets of a bygone mythological era; on the contrary, they are living human beings reflecting a very real society with a well established set of values, which declare a profound similarity, but do not, of course, lack mythological exaggeration and fantastic elements. The "Greek" ethos We now come to deal with the contribution of the "Greek" ethos as a last 173 - potential reason for the distinct similarity of elements in the lliad and the Akritic song. By referring to "Greek" ethos, we do not mean anything other than the underlying existence of a continuous popular tradition which displays a particular and constant - to a degree - character. This ethos would account, to a great degree, for the primary existence of a well defined Weltanschauung governed by a similar set of underlying values. The existence of those values would of course be very difficult to discount, since they constantly manifest themselves in heroic conduct, behaviour, beliefs; and continuously influence and guide, not only the hero's way of thinking, but also demand of, and dictate to, the heroic "composer" a strict form of thematic scenic, and behavioural treatment, by limiting or indulging this composer accordingly. In sum, we note that Homeric direct and indirect influence may exist, but in any event we consider it unlikely that such influences could have dictated the whole framework and value system of the Akritic songs. On the other hand, we accept that similarities are far more likely to be a result of heroic convention stemming from two heroic societies. Here, however, there may be a temptation to account for all the similarities found in the lliad and the Akritic song, on the basis that they are both heroic products of a heroic society. 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Watts, N., The Greek Folk Songs, Bristol Classical Press, 1988. ERRATA p.8 t. r-2 FOR by now widely acceptåble monotonic syst€m. READ monotonic system used in Greek education. footnote 7 t.2 FOR Eoroóptr¡ READ Eurourpri P.9 L l0, FOR main theme READ theme l.l8 FOR varrous verslons READ versions p. 11 1.23 FOR - this time a single one - READ - this time a single one embodied in the emperor - r.25 FOR emeny READ enemy p.14 1.5 FOR Diomedes READ Glaucus p. 18 l. 18-19 FOR pride race READ proud race p.20 1.4 FOR strenghten READ strengthen p.22 1.14 FOR book XI READ book XV p.23 r. t9-20 INSERT for tlre importance of male offspring in the lliad, reference should also be made to IX 453-7 and xxrY 534-542. p.25 l. 10 FOR xtiÀær¡v Kuprar'rôr¡ç READ Stilpon Kyriakidis l. 1l FOR rl roirlorlç READ n nofqorç 1.23 FOR led READ drawn footnote 37 1.2 FOR QrÀol,oprnlç READ QtÀoooQtrriç p.27 l. 18 FOR armrng sence READ arming scene p. 36 1.9 FOR Al,rq Krprsriôou-Néoropoç READ Alki Kyriakidou -Nestoros t.26 FOR " O Mcrópo( READ the horse p. 40 1.2 FOR was READ va¡ied p.46 l. 1 FOR Lycaon's body (his son's) READ the body of Lycaon's son 1.3 FOR ten people READ ten thousand people p.47 t.2t &.22 CLOSE GAP p. 51 t.22 FOR bestfriend READ best friend p. 53 t. 1t FOR xtx362-2& READ xrx362-3& p.57 t.9 FOR K0fn0én READ K0qOsín t.22 &. t.23 CLOSE GAP P. 60 l. 15 FOR tToI READ toTt after quote on l. 19 INSERT for the normality of plundering and kidnapping rn thelliad, the case of Achilles and Lycaon (XXI77-9 & 100-2) should be noted. footnote 66 FOR Phaeacians READ Eumaeus p. 68 l. 18 FOR ol(ofirDfrç READ tolertcri t.20 FOR double their size READ too heavy for two ordinary men p. 69 1.5 FOR tTot READ eoTt p.72 l. r3 AFTER Achilles INSERT (rx 186-9) p.75 1.5 ITALICISE a¡isteia t.20 AFTER dlÂolv INSERT (vr 208, xr 784) p. 80 1.9 & l. 16 ITALICISE a¡isteia p.92 t.9 FOR appear to READ appea¡ often to p.94 l. r5 FOR projection READ self-projection p. 98 l. 13 FOR cowardnes READ cowardice p.105 1.5 AFTER thirteen times INSERT in books I and XIX l. 18 FOR Agamemnon READ against Agamemnon - enatapg2 - p. 106 1.16 FOR arc READ is p. ll0 1.4 AFTER Tnus INSERT (rx 496-518) p. ll1 1.5 FOR Book II READ Book XI p. l15 t.4 FOR nlne sons READ nine remaining sons l. l3 FOR XXIII I92I READ XXIII I79-I83 p. ll7 l.7andl.8 CLOSE GAP p.118 l. 13 FOR drÀ"eorõç READ drÀnrõç p. t20 l. 11 FOR home = passive death READ home is equal to passive death p. t22 l. l5 FOR three READ four p. r23 l. 1 FOR du¡ing READ aftgr l. t2 FOR book III READ book X p.124 1.6 FOR the unprepared for battle sa¡acens READ the saracens unprepared for battle p.I34 1.4 FOR xt425 READ XI39I P. 140 1.10 FOR dlovoîor" READ dycrvoïç p.146 r.23 - 1.24 FOR his delivered by her armour READ his armour delivered by her p. 150 1.7 FOR he better READ he had beuer p. 154 CLOSE GAP between l. 19 and l. 20 P. 161 1.24/2s FOR fully justified READ with no question of his justification p. 162 t.22 AF-TER of Death INSERT or at least his state of mind p. 166 t.26 FOR a very similarly READ a similarly -erraøpg3-