Te Kete Whanaketanga— Rangatahi

TE KETE WHANAKETANGA— RANGATAHI

A model of positive development for rangatahi Mäori

Hinekura Simmonds* Niki Harré† Sue Crengle‡

Abstract

This study was a three- part exploration of what indicates and contributes to positive development for Mäori youth (rangatahi). First, a literature review was undertaken to identify relevant themes. Second, we analysed data from the Mäori participants (N = 2,059) of a nationally representative youth survey (Youth’07). Third, we conducted focus groups and interviews with rangatahi (N = 8) and people who worked with rangatahi (N = 6). Indicators of positive development were collective responsibility, successfully navigating the Mäori and Päkehä worlds, cultural effi cacy, health, and personal strengths. Relationships, activities, cultural factors, education, health/healthy lifestyles, socio-historical factors and personal characteristics contributed towards positive devel- opment. This is presented in a conceptual model called “Te Kete Whanaketanga—Rangatahi” (The Developmental Kit—For Youth).

Keywords

youth development, positive development, Mäori, youth

* Master’s student, School of Psychology, University of Auckland, New Zealand. † Associate Professor, School of Psychology, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] ‡ Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand. 212 H. SIMMONDS ET AL.

Introduction study, and in keeping with a PYD perspective, we include a wide range of outcomes, including Positive youth development (PYD) is an those of particular relevance to Mäori. By doing approach that focuses on the potential of young so, we hope to provide useful insight into how people, rather than viewing them as problems to promote positive development for rangatahi. to be fixed (Damon, 2004). A great deal of The core questions for the current project research has investigated the features of PYD were therefore: and the characteristics and contexts that nur- ture these (for example, Benson & Scales, 2009; • What indicates positive development in Blum & Ellen, 2002; Damon, 2004; English rangatahi? & Wilcox, 2002; Farruggia & Bullen, 2010; • What contributes towards positive devel- Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel, & Paris, 2005; opment in rangatahi? Steinberg, 2008). However, there has been little Aotearoa New Zealand research from a PYD These questions were investigated in three perspective and even less that focuses on Mäori stages. First we conducted a literature review, (see Farruggia & Bullen, 2010). Cultural mod- then we explored data from Mäori participants els have been attempted elsewhere, such as the in a national survey of young people carried out research on African- American youth (American in 2007 (Youth’07), and fi nally we conducted Psychological Association Task Force on interviews with rangatahi and youth workers Resilience and Strength in Black Children and engaged with rangatahi. The procedure and Adolescents, 2008) and Chinese youth (Shek, fi ndings from each stage will be presented fol- 2006; Shek, Siu, & Lee, 2007). This article lowed by our proposed model for describing provides a framework for identifying the critical positive development for rangatahi. features that make up PYD for rangatahi and adds to literature on PYD for indigenous and minority youth. Stage 1: Literature review There are two key benefits to applying a PYD lens to rangatahi. First, as a counter- While our review included key international balance to the numerous reports that highlight studies on PYD (for example, Benson & Scales, areas in which rangatahi have more adverse 2009; Blum & Ellen, 2002; Damon, 2004; experiences and outcomes in life than other English & Wilcox, 2002; Fredricks et. al, 2005; youth (for example, Clark et al., 2008; Lock Steinberg, 2008; Steinberg & Duncan, 2002), & Gibson, 2008; Marie, Fergusson, & Boden, and we acknowledge commonalities between 2008a, 2008b; Oakley Browne, Wells, & Scott, Mäori youth and indigenous and minority 2006; for exceptions, see Tipene-Clarke, 2005; youth elsewhere, we paid particular attention Ware & Walsh- Taiapa, 2010). Second, to to studies from Aotearoa in order to build the broaden the focus from single outcomes, such fi rst stage of our project. Below we describe our as improving academic achievement or reducing key fi ndings in relation to indicators of positive youth pregnancy rates (Te Ora Hou Aotearoa development, contributors to positive develop- Incorporated, 2011), to the wider range of ment, and the interplay between the two. Table skills for living that young people are develop- 1 summarises the Aotearoa fi ndings. ing. Not only are single outcome perspectives We identifi ed fi ve core indicators of posi- limited, but they tend to miss culturally relevant tive development. Collective responsibility is factors such as contributing towards the family demonstrated when rangatahi are aware of (Durie, 2003) and navigating both Mäori and their responsibility for contributing to the col- Päkehä environments (Ormond, 2004). In this lective (Merritt, 2003; Rochford, 2004; Ware

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TABLE 1 Themes identifi ed in the review of Aotearoa literature as contributing towards and indicating positive development for rangatahi Indicators of positive development for rangatahi Theme Defi nition References Collective Aware of collective Merritt, 2003; Rochford, 2004; Ware, 2009; responsibility responsibilities Wirihana, 2011 Participating within their Durie, 2003 community Successfully Confi dent to navigate both Ormond, 2004; Van Meijl, 2002; Ware, 2009 navigating Mäori settings and Päkehä worlds Taking up new roles Te Ora Hou Aotearoa Incorporated, 2011 Cultural effi cacy Engagement as Mäori Grieves, 2007; Houkamau & Sibley, 2011; Keelan, 2001; Rochford, 2004 Health Emotional, physical and Durie, 2003; Ministry of Education, 2008; intellectual health Poutasi, 2009; Rochford, 2004; Personal strengths Confi dence, resilience, and Ware, 2009 humility Contributors towards positive development for rangatahi Theme Defi nition References Positive Familial relationships Clark, 2007; Clark et al., 2008; Durie, 1997; relationships Merritt, 2003; Poutasi, 2009; Turia, 2000 Non- familial relationships Barlow, 1994; Broughton & Durie, 2003; Evans & Ave, 2000; Merritt, 2003; Rimene, 1997; Tangaere, 1997; Ware & Walsh-Taiapa, 2010 Peer relationships Clark, 2007; Durie, 2003; Keelan, 2001; Ministry of Education, 2008 Activities Purposeful activities such Farruggia & Bullen, 2010; O’Connor, 2011 as sports, faith-based, arts activities Cultural factors Cultural development Broughton & Rimene, 1997; Cunningham, 2011; Durie, 2003; Hollis, Deane, Moore, & Harré, 2011; Keelan, 2001; Van Meijl, 2002; Ware & Walsh-Taiapa, 2010 Spiritual connection Durie, 1985; Keelan, 2001 Socio- historical History McCarthy, 1997; Ministry of Health, 1998 factors Community Borell, 2005; Durie, 2003; Ormond, 2004; Te Ora Hou Aotearoa Incorporated, 2011 Media Houkamau & Sibley, 2011; Van Meijl, 2002 Healthy environments Durie, 2003; Ministry of Health, 1998; Poutasi, 2009 Education Academic success Broughton & Rimene, 1997 School environment and Ministry of Education, 2008 relationships Health/healthy Physical health Poutasi, 2009 lifestyles Healthy lifestyles Clark et al., 2008; Durie, 2003; Poutasi, 2009 Equal access to health Broughton & Rimene, 1997; Clark et al., 2008; services Rochford, 2004

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& Walsh- Taiapa, 2010; Wirihana, 2011) and for navigating the Mäori and Päkehä worlds. are active participants within their whänau, Cultural factors, such as cultural activities, hapü or community (Durie, 2003). Successfully are also useful for developing these qualities navigating Mäori and Päkehä worlds involves as well as for cultural effi cacy, perhaps partly the young person showing confi dence in both because they provide a context in which being these settings (Ormond, 2004; Van Meijl, Mäori is normal (Broughton & Rimene, 1997; 2002; Ware & Walsh- Taiapa, 2010) or taking Cunningham, 2011; Durie, 2003; Hollis, Deane, up new roles such as a job, or moving out of Moore, & Harré, 2011; Van Meijl, 2002; Ware home (Te Ora Hou Aotearoa Incorporated, & Walsh- Taiapa, 2010). We found that, for ran- 2011). Cultural effi cacy is specifi cally related gatahi in particular, cultural factors also include to rangatahi Mäori identity (Houkamau & a spiritual connection (Durie, 1985) which can Sibley, 2011; Keelan, 2001; Rochford, 2004) support personal strengths and cultural effi cacy. and may be indicated by knowing te reo The fourth theme, socio-historical factors, Mäori, Mäori tikanga or positively identifying includes the impact that history, community, as Mäori. Health involves having emotional, media and the environment play in infl uencing physical and intellectual health (Durie, 2003; the development of rangatahi. For rangatahi, Ministry of Education, 2008; Poutasi, 2009; history includes the effects of colonisation Rochford, 2004), with academic success being and assimilation (McCarthy, 1997; Ministry one potential demonstration of intellectual of Health, 1998; Poutasi, 2009; Turia, 2000; health. Finally, from the Mäori literature, con- Van Meijl, 2002) and community incorpo- fi dence, resilience and humility are examples rates society’s response to rangatahi and its of personal strengths which indicate positive attitude towards them (Borell, 2005; Durie, development (Ware, 2009). 2003). Media is also important in transmitting In regard to contributors, the broadest dominant social perspectives (Houkamau & contributor that had implications for all the Sibley, 2011; Van Meijl, 2002). Finally, the indicators was positive relationships. Notably, physical environment can be relatively clean we found debate on whether these relation- or polluted (Durie, 2003; Ministry of Health, ships should be familial (Clark, 2007; Clark 1998; Poutasi, 2009). A socio- historical context et al., 2008; Durie, 1997; Merritt, 2003; that transmits positive messages can enhance all Poutasi, 2009; Turia, 2000) or whether posi- areas of development by encouraging rangatahi tive non-familial relationships are just as to view themselves as capable and valued by powerful in promoting positive development the broader society. From another perspective, (Barlow, 1994; Broughton & Rimene, 1997; collective responsibility is enhanced if ranga- Durie, 2003; Evans & Ave, 2000; Merritt, tahi see themselves as active participants in an 2003; Tangaere, 1997; Ware & Walsh- Taiapa, ongoing group narrative. Positive physical and 2010). Given this debate, we explored this in social environments can also promote physical some detail in our interviews in Stage 3 of the health and personal strengths. study. Positive peer relationships were also Academic success (Broughton & Rimene, shown to be important for desirable youth 1997) and the school environment (Ministry of outcomes (Clark, 2007; Durie, 2003; Keelan, Education, 2008) were part of the contributor 2001; Ministry of Education, 2008). we labelled education. This appeared to con- Activities were clearly important. In par- tribute in particular to intellectual health, an ticular, activities that provide purpose such as ability to navigate Mäori and Päkehä worlds, arts, faith-based groups, and sports (Farruggia and personal strengths. In addition, health/ & Bullen, 2010; O’Connor, 2011) were seen healthy lifestyles, such as equal access to health as promoting health and developing skills services (Broughton & Rimene, 1997; Clark et

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 3, ISSUE 3, 2014 TE KETE WHANAKETANGA—RANGATAHI 215 al., 2008; Rochford, 2004); good oral, sexual Procedure: The fi rst author searched through and reproductive health (Poutasi, 2009); and the questions used in the survey to fi nd those good nutrition, food safety, and not engaging in that corresponded most closely with the indica- health- risk behaviours such as smoking, drugs, tors and contributors of positive development alcohol and violence (Clark et al., 2008; Durie, identifi ed by the literature review. Variables 2003; Poutasi, 2009), were seen as infl uencing were created from one or more relevant items. physical health and personal strengths. Some of the indicators or contributors from the While we made a distinction between indica- review were measured by two variables, usually tors and contributors in order to build a useful due to the relevant survey items being different model, we recognise that development is an types of items (that is, continuous vs. categori- ongoing, cyclical process and constantly feeds cal) or not being suffi ciently correlated to be back on itself (Keelan, 2001). Thus an indicator treated as a single variable. Some were unable can often become a contributor to further devel- to be measured, as there were no appropriate opment and the presence of a contributor may items. The final indicator variables for this be seen as an indicator of positive development. stage of the research were collective responsibil- For example, we have described academic suc- ity, able to navigate the Mäori world, cultural cess as both a contributor to intellectual health efficacy, physical health, emotional health, and an indicator of it. Similarly, participation and spiritual health. The contributor variables in cultural activities can be seen as both con- were parental relationships, peer relationships, tributing to and indicative of cultural effi cacy. access to environments to learn culture, able We will take up this point again later. to learn culture, relationships with teachers, Having identifi ed these factors that appear school supports culture, and spirituality. A full to indicate and contribute to PYD in ranga- description of the items used, their response tahi, we then moved on to the second stage categories, the preliminary analyses used to that involved analysing a pre- existing database construct each variable, and the distribution in order to further examine the relationship of each variable is available from the authors. between the two. Results

Stage 2: Analysis of data from As noted, our key question focused on the rela- Youth’07: The National Survey of the tionship between indicators and contributors, Health and Wellbeing of New Zealand and so Pearson’s or Spearman’s correlations Secondary School Students were conducted to examine these relationships. We used a threshold of r = .25 and p < .001 in Method order to draw attention to relationships of at least moderate strength. Using these thresholds, Participants: This study utilised the data from the indicators that related with the contribu- 2,059 Mäori participants aged 12–18 years tors were as follows: collective responsibility (male = 1,044, female = 1,015) in Youth’07: The (parental, r = 0.27; peer, r = 0.26; and teacher, National Survey of the Health and Wellbeing r = 0.36 relationships); able to navigate the of New Zealand Secondary School Students. Mäori world (access to environments to learn This survey drew on a nationally representative culture, r = 0.29); cultural effi cacy (access to sample of secondary school aged students with environments to learn culture, r = 0.56; able 9,107 participants overall. Mäori participants to learn about culture, r = 0.33, and school were from both mainstream and kura kaupapa supports culture, r = 0.30); physical health schools. (parental relationships, r = 0.26); emotional

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TABLE 2 The relationships between the contributing items and the wellbeing indicators as identifi ed by the quantitative study Contributing item Contributes to the following indicators Parental relationships Collective responsibility; physical health; emotional health Peer relationships Collective responsibility Access to environments to learn culture Able to navigate the Mäori world; cultural effi cacy Able to learn about culture Cultural effi cacy Relationships with teachers Collective responsibility School supports culture Cultural effi cacy Spirituality Spiritual health Personal characteristics Personal strengths

health (parental relationships, r = 0.34); and given a $10 petrol voucher. Kai was provided spiritual health (spirituality, r = 0.83). These and a karakia followed. Participants wrote on results are summarised in Table 2. Post- it notes what they thought positive devel- opment “looked like” in rangatahi (equivalent to indicators of PYD) and what they thought Stage 3: Interviews with rangatahi rangatahi needed in order to do well (equiva- and youth workers lent to contributors to PYD). They put these on large sheets of paper and were asked to The qualitative study addressed some of the group the notes into topics. Each topic and its limitations of the quantitative study (explored components were discussed. The fi rst author in the discussion section) and aimed to further also prompted participants when necessary to understand the indicators of, and contributors consider the contributors and indicators identi- towards, positive development in rangatahi. fi ed in the literature review and how indicators and contributors were related. The sessions ran Method for approximately one to two hours and were recorded and transcribed. The interviewer also Participants and procedure: This stage consisted took notes. of interviews and focus groups with rangatahi All analyses considered the Post-it notes, the (male = 5, female = 3) and youth workers (male transcriptions and the interviewer’s notes. In the = 1, female = 5). Seven rangatahi were from fi rst instance, inductive thematic analysis was kura kaupapa; all were attending school in conducted as described by Braun and Clark Auckland. All youth workers lived or worked in (2006) using the indicators and contributors Auckland. Participants were recruited through identifi ed by the literature review. For example, snowballing, beginning with youth networks topics discussed such as whänau and signifi cant known to the fi rst author. One rangatahi and others were grouped under the indicator of four youth workers were interviewed a second positive relationships. We then considered top- time. ics that did not appear to fi t with the previously At the beginning of the interview, participants identified indicators and contributors. One were reminded of their rights to confi dentiality arose that was considered signifi cant enough and anonymity, informed they could leave at to create an additional contributor—personal any time, required to sign a consent form, and characteristics. This is differentiated from the

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 3, ISSUE 3, 2014 TE KETE WHANAKETANGA—RANGATAHI 217 indicator of personal strengths in that personal Indicators: Collective responsibility. characteristics represents the initial charac- Participants discussed this as someone who teristics an individual needs to have in order took responsibility for their whänau, group to produce positive outcomes. These charac- and community as well as received support teristics will be described later. Finally, we from them. The rangatahi focus group talked considered the data in relation to the connec- about being responsible for other classmates tions participants saw between the indicators who might be hungry, or opening your house to and contributors. others; and the youth workers described this in terms of a young person’s contribution to their Results whänau when whänau members need help. Successfully navigating the world was Table 3 shows the relationships between the described by the youth workers as rangatahi indicators and contributors identifi ed by the having the skills necessary to be able to navigate interviews. This is followed by more detailed between and within Mäori and Päkehä environ- discussion of participants’ views of these, with ments. One described this as “about building sample quotations. The indicator themes were up those skill sets and … being equipped, well consistent with those previously identifi ed: col- equipped to handle both worlds” (YW5). It lective responsibility, successfully navigating was also pointed out that rangatahi settings the world, cultural effi cacy, health, and per- are increasingly multicultural and rangatahi sonal strengths. All of the contributor themes may need to be able to navigate more than just previously identifi ed were present as well, with two worlds. the addition of personal characteristics. In the Cultural effi cacy was seen as demonstrated results below, we attribute quotes either to by knowing te reo Mäori and tikanga, knowing youth workers (YW) or rangatahi (R). The where one is from, and being proud of being individual numerical code of the participant is Mäori. It was also considered to involve a spir- given. The gender of the rangatahi is also given, itual connection. One rangatahi said: but not of the youth workers. In the case of the latter, there was only one man, as noted earlier. Like when we do kapahaka we feel like, spirit, Where appropriate we indicate whether a theme like you feel the vibe, like you know, like our arose from the youth workers or the rangatahi. ancestors have come to um, protect us …. If this is not indicated it arose from at least one Like you feel safe with it, cause you know that participant from each group. like, like it could be passed from you from

TABLE 3 The relationships between the contributing items and the wellbeing indicators as identifi ed by the qualitative study Contributing item Contributes to the following indicators Relationships Collective responsibility; cultural effi cacy; successfully navigating the world; personal strengths Activities Cultural effi cacy; physical and mental health; personal strengths Cultural factors Successfully navigating the world; cultural effi cacy; spiritual health; personal strengths Education Cultural effi cacy; intellectual health; personal strengths Health/healthy lifestyles Physical health Socio-historical factors Collective responsibility; personal strengths Personal characteristics Personal strengths

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generations and generations and all those peo- Having positive support was described as ple who have passed, like they’re there with strengthening rangatahi confi dence to pursue you, wherever you are. (R female 1) their goals, encouraging rangatahi to act on their sense of curiosity, increasing capacity for Being healthy was not spontaneously raised by collective responsibility, improving their skills the participants, although when asked directly, to navigate the world, and improving cultural rangatahi acknowledged the importance of effi cacy and overall health. both the physical and mental aspects of health. Activities were considered important to give For example: “Joining more sports teams to rangatahi something productive to do with their stay active. Yeah. That’s what um makes me time, as well as to learn skills such as time- develop in life” (R male 3). The youth workers management, commitment, and to develop acknowledged that achieving academically was their confidence. This meant that rangatahi an indicator of PYD, which has been defi ned would have something productive to look here as intellectual health. forward to. The main personal strengths described by both rangatahi and youth workers as indicators Being active in all positive things i.e. sports, of PYD were personal responsibility, curiosity, arts, music and culture because um, yeah and achieving goals. Other strengths mentioned that’s the same as like, being, having some- by the rangatahi were “kicked back” (a relaxed thing good to look forward to and having person), kind, friendly, positive, comfortable positive reinforcement in your life because, with themselves, confi dent, strives high and like, you could be down and out all the time wins, and as “pretty brainy” (can be achieving but then you’ve always got something good academically). to look forward to at least once, twice, three Contributors: As noted earlier, we were times a week. (YW1) particularly interested in exploring the type of relationships required for positive out- Cultural factors included being exposed to comes. Both the rangatahi and youth workers cultural experiences such as kapahaka, Mäori frequently discussed whänau members. For food, marae, Mäori tribes, having fun as ran- example: gatahi Mäori, Ahurei, Ngä Manu Körero, Te Matatini, köhanga reo, kura Mäori, mau räkau, Like you can have kids that have families that kï- o- rahi competitions, pöwhiri, mihi whaka- are there for them 100% and they know that tau, and waka ama. Understanding and valuing they’re safe and so they’re able to go out and culture was also mentioned. For example, it just explore the world and do everything that was pointed out by the youth workers how they want to and help whoever they want to important it was for rangatahi to know that and then there’s the ones who don’t who are being Mäori was positive, as one said: “That just trying to survive day by day. (YW1) your Mäori-ness is all right, it’s good” (YW1). Knowing one’s heritage was also seen as impor- Supportive adults such as coaches and teachers tant, as one rangatahi participant noted: were also seen as important, as shown here: If you know your past and you know where I think in that sort of situation [experiencing you come from, you have a good like fi rm racism at school], if they, as they did with me, base for your house, oh like, metaphorically um had a sounding board that they can talk your house, like a good base as your past and to around how that impacted them, then that your heritage and you can build on it with seemed to me to be important. (YW2) everything else you know. (R male 2)

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Cultural factors were seen not only as connected that may not be possible at home. Lastly, par- with an improved sense of cultural effi cacy, but ents’ experience of school was discussed as also an ability to navigate the world in general, important by the youth workers; a new theme spiritual health and personal strengths. that did not come up in the literature review Spirituality, another aspect of cultural fac- and was not part of the quantitative study. In tors, was described as important in terms of particular, parents’ negative experiences were being connected with one’s culture and con- seen as detracting from how rangatahi perceive tributing to who a rangatahi is today. This was school and the opportunities offered: “The seen as infl uencing personal strengths such as young people in that situation, tended to have confi dence and the cultural effi cacy indicator parents that, and grandparents, with little or of spiritual health. no, positive experience with schools or their With regard to education, it was suggested own education pathway” (YW3). that rangatahi should be suffi ciently comfort- There was very little spontaneous discussion able at school to make mistakes and learn from around health/healthy lifestyles and most of it them, developing personal strengths. This is only came when participants were prompted. described by a youth worker here: Nevertheless, hygiene and sports were men- tioned, and activities in general were described As long as that environment is a safe one, as important for mental health. These last fea- where they feel like they can make mistakes tures are captured here: “Oh it’s um getting fi t, and like they’re confi dent to make mistakes, yeah like mental health like activities and stuff. and um, and safe, then their learning will And um, um joining more sports teams to stay be enhanced yeah. I think that’s one of the active. Yeah. That’s what um makes me develop main things why our Mäori kids don’t succeed in life, and yeah” (R male 3). because they, they’re either um, too scared to In regard to socio-historical factors there was make mistakes, or then they make mistakes support for the role of community, media and and then they don’t want to try again because, history as infl uencing PYD. This contributor was because of their failures or they’re just in an primarily seen as infl uencing personal strengths. environment where um, you’re either there Community was also described as influenc- or you’re not there. You know, you get left ing collective responsibility. Community was behind. (YW5) sometimes described as detracting from PYD, such as in this example: “If you live on a street If school was not a positive environment for that does crime heaps then … it just becomes the rangatahi, then it was important that part of you …. Cause you, that’s all you see there were alternative options. Opportunities around you so that’s what you do, that’s the such as Alternative Education and the Youth thing” (R female 1). However, it was also seen Guarantee Scheme (which gives young people as enhancing PYD when the community took the opportunity to gain skills through the ter- responsibility for its rangatahi as shown here: tiary sector; Tertiary Education Commission, “The community teaches itself what is expected 2013) that currently exist for 16–17 year olds of the community and particularly young peo- were regarded as working well for rangatahi: ple ’cause … if you see that kid you say get your “Now the 16-year- olds are quite fortunate at ass home” (YW2). the moment, because there is youth guarantee In terms of media, the youth workers in everywhere. There’s a guaranteed course for particular were aware of how media presenta- every young person who’s not in school. And tions translated into how rangatahi perceived that is a free course” (YW4). Schools were also themselves. This is captured below. seen as a context to develop cultural effi cacy

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To understand what it means to be Mäori well said, having an “idea of where you wanna be” it’s what they hear on TV or what they read in (YW1). Resilience was also noted, as being able the paper, or what someone else says. And I to move forward and not get “sidetracked” think that, that’s got potential to be dangerous (YW2). These characteristics were seen as because then it is Mäori to be poor, and it is infl uencing how well rangatahi would actually Mäori to be a criminal, it is Mäori to smoke achieve their goals and as improving their sense weed and I’ve heard people say that, “Oh it’s of personal responsibility. just part of our culture to smoke marijuana.” (YW3) Results from all three stages and Related to this, the youth workers saw his- proposed model tory in terms of “past policies of dispossession and assimilation” as a negative infl uence on In this section we introduce our model for cap- PYD. However, they also discussed how an turing positive development in rangatahi. We understanding of their history and the negative then summarise the indicators and contribu- stereotypes in society could lead to personal tors identifi ed by our three- part study and the strengths. relationships between them. Personal characteristics thought to contrib- Te Kete Whanaketanga—Rangatahi (The ute towards PYD included having aspirations, Developmental Kit—For Youth; Figure 1) goals, dreams or targets, or as one youth worker uses a kete to depict rangatahi development. A

F IGURE 1 Te Kete Whanaketanga—Rangatahi: A conceptual representation of the contributors towards, and indicators of, positive development for rangatahi Mäori and the interwoven links between these

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 3, ISSUE 3, 2014 TE KETE WHANAKETANGA—RANGATAHI 221 kete has multiple whenu that must be woven • Cultural factors—access to environments together. These whenu represent the multiple to learn about culture and respecting and contributors to positive development. When a valuing culture. This contributes towards kete is almost fi nished, there are pieces com- cultural effi cacy, successfully navigating ing out the top which are then folded back in the world, health, and personal strengths. (Pendergrast, 2008). These pieces represent the • Education—the school environment, how indicators of positive development. The fold- school supports cultural development, and ing back in represents how rangatahitanga is a an alternative to school when necessary. time of weaving oneself together in an ongoing Education contributes towards cultural process of development. In addition, rangatahi effi cacy and personal strengths. are woven into a variety of roles. Some will be • Health/healthy lifestyles—access to health doctors, others labourers, some politicians, and services, and active and pro- social life- so on. Thus, it resembles the multiple purposes styles. These contribute towards overall of a kete. health. The indicator strands identifi ed by our study • Socio-historical factors—history, social were: attitude towards Mäori and rangatahi, community, and media. These contribute • Collective responsibility—responsibly con- towards collective responsibility and per- tributing towards the collective, including sonal strengths. whänau, community and society. • Personal characteristics—individual per- • Successfully navigating the world—having sonality characteristics that motivate the skills and confi dence to navigate both rangatahi to move forward such as resil- Mäori and Päkehä environments. ience and having goals/aspirations. These • Cultural efficacy—knowing te reo and contribute towards personal strengths. tikanga, wanting to share this knowledge with others, being proud of being Mäori, being spiritually aware. Discussion • Health—maintaining physical, emotional and intellectual health. In keeping with a PYD perspective, the current • Personal strengths—demonstrating con- project sought to identify how rangatahi could fi dence, achieving desired goals, personal develop positively, rather than highlighting risk responsibility, humility and curiosity. factors for adverse outcomes. We identifi ed a number of indicators of and contributors to The key contributors were: positive development. Of particular note we found that collective responsibility was identi- • Positive relationships—with parents, peers, fi ed as an important indicator, both in previous teachers, the wider whänau, and adults out- studies of Mäori youth (Durie, 2003; Merritt, side the immediate family. Relationships 2003; Rochford, 2004; Ware & Walsh- Taiapa, that challenge, nurture and support skills 2010; Wirihana, 2011) and in our interviews. development, collective responsibility and This demonstrates that positive development cultural effi cacy. for rangatahi can be, and is, seen in a broader • Activities—a wide variety of interesting cultural context that does not only focus on the activities including faith- based, sports, arts individual gaining the skills for personal success. or cultural. Activities provide rangatahi As shown previously (for example, Clark, with alternatives to antisocial behaviour 2007; Clark et al., 2008; Durie, 1997; Merritt, and an opportunity to develop skills. 2003), we found that relationships were

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particularly important. Parental relationships For the qualitative study, rangatahi inter- were correlated with a number of indicators in viewed were mostly from kura kaupapa, the quantitative study and were seen as highly whereas the majority of rangatahi attend main- signifi cant by participants in the qualitative stream schools (TeachNZ, 2013). In addition, study. Also of interest was interviewees’ discus- all of the participants were living in Auckland. sion of how parents’ experiences of school could Rangatahi from other parts of Aotearoa and affect rangatahi experiences. School, or school from a wider variety of mainstream schools are alternatives, played a key role, especially in likely to have important insights to add. cultural effi cacy, by providing contexts in which Other future research concerning Te Kete to learn about and experience Mäori culture. Whanaketanga—Rangatahi may involve creat- We have proposed Te Kete Whanaketanga— ing an assessment scale based on the contributors Rangatahi as a simple visual model for capturing and indicators we have outlined. For example, the key features of PYD that may appeal to a culturally appropriate scale measuring indica- marae, community groups, youth workers and tors of positive development in youth has been researchers. This can be used in conjunction created in China (see Shek, 2006; Shek et al., with our more detailed summary of the relation- 2007). A similar Aotearoa scale could provide ships between indicators and contributors. The useful and relevant insight into the current posi- detailed summary may be particularly useful for tion of rangatahi. those who wish to focus on one or two primary indicators as a starting point for considering likely contributors. Conclusion It is notable that there has been little research on positive development for rangatahi (excep- To promote positive outcomes for rangatahi, tions include Keelan, 2001; Te Ora Hou we must not only understand risk factors, Aotearoa Incorporated, 2011; Ware & Walsh- but also understand the routes by which they Taiapa, 2010) so it is likely that this model could develop positively. The current study com- be further refi ned. In particular, research could bined a literature review, the analysis of a large investigate how the indicators and contributors nationwide survey of youth, and a qualita- feed back on themselves over the 12 years that tive study to explore positive development span adolescence (12–24 years; Ministry of in rangatahi. We offer a new model, Te Kete Youth Development, 2013). Whanaketanga—Rangatahi, that can be used One limitation of our study was that the by both practitioners and researchers to inform quantitative component was conducted with PYD approaches and further explore how to a pre- defi ned data set. This meant that it was ensure our young people are given the oppor- diffi cult to capture some of the contributors tunities and support they need to fl ourish. and indicators in their entirety. For example, when looking at relationships, we could only fi nd questions relating to parental relationships, Acknowledgements peer relationships, a “signifi cant adult who is not related to you”, and teacher relationships. We wish to thank the Adolescent Health There were no items on wider whänau rela- Research Group for the use of the Youth’07 tionships such as cousins, aunties and uncles, survey data, the rangatahi who participated in which we have identified as important. We the Youth’07 survey, and the participants of recommend these are included in New Zealand the qualitative study. youth surveys that wish to capture the experi- ence of rangatahi.

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Glossary Ngä Manu national speech competition Körero with Mäori and English Ahurei Tühoe iwi kapahaka language categories competition Päkehä New Zealanders of European Aotearoa New Zealand descent hapü sub- tribe pöwhiri a traditional welcome iwi tribe rangatahi literally means “to weave kai food one”; a word to describe kapahaka a style of performing arts young people (generally 12 karakia prayer or 15 years to 24 years) kï- o- rahi a traditional Mäori ball game rangatahitanga period of youth, where young köhanga reo early childhood centres that people are learning to weave use a Mäori medium in the themselves together Mäori language Te Matatini national kapahaka kura kaupapa schools operating under a competition Mäori medium in the Mäori te reo Mäori Mäori language language tikanga for the purposes of this kura Mäori broad term for schools that article, it relates to Mäori are delivered in a Mäori law and order medium waka ama outrigger canoe paddling marae focal point of settlement for whänau family, extended family the hapü (before it becomes a hapü), mau räkau martial art based on can include non-related but traditional Mäori weapons connected individuals mihi whakatau a traditional welcome whenu the strands of fi bre prepared for weavi ng

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