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On-Line Networks, Social Capital and Social Integration: a Case Study of On-Line Communities in Malaysia

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ON-LINE NETWORKS, SOCIAL CAPITAL AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION: A CASE STUDY OF ON-LINE COMMUNITIES IN MALAYSIA A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology in the University of Canterbury by Wan Munira Wan Jaafar University of Canterbury 2011 P a g e | ii Table of Contents Contents Pages Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………ii List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………vii Dedications……………………………………………………………………………viii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….ix Abstracts………………………………………………………………………………..x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Malaysian Plural Society: Some Background 4 1.1.1 Demographic 4 1.1.2 Immigrant History: Two Important Phases 5 1.2 The Independence of Malaya and the Raise of 8 Class and Integration Issue 1.2.1 The New Economic Policy (NEP) 11 1.2.2 The Rights of Malays and Cultural Issues 14 1.3 On-line Communities: A New Integration 16 Solution? 1.4 The Research questions 17 1.5 Chapter Overview 18 CHAPTER 2: INFORMATION AND 21 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) POLICY IN MALAYSIA: AN OVERVIEW 2.0 Introduction 21 2.1 The Age of the Information Society 22 2.2 From Information to a Knowledge Society 25 2.3 Knowledge Society or Knowledge Economy? 27 2.4 ICT in Asia – A Brief Overview of Policy 29 Formulated in Selected Developing Regions 2.5 Vision 2020 and ICT Policy in Malaysia 32 2.5.1 The National Information Technology Council (NITC) 33 2.5.2 The Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) 34 2.5.3 The Progress of the MSC 38 2.5.4 The National Information Technology Agenda (NITA) 40 2.5.5 Demonstrator Application Grant Schemes (DAGS) 41 and the Emergence of On-line Communities in Malaysia P a g e | iii 2.5.6 The Progress of DAGS and On-line Communities 43 2.5.7 Bridging Digital Divide (BDD) 43 2.6 Overall Performance of ICTs Sectors: 1996 until the Present 44 2.7 Conclusion 48 CHAPTER 3: MALAYSIA ICT POLICY: INSIGHTS FROM 50 FOUCOULT’S GOVERNMENTALITY AND POWER/KNOWLEDGE 3.0 Introduction 50 3.1 Governmentality 51 3.2 Governmentality, Discourse and Power/Knowledge 55 3.3 Discourse, Power/Knowledge and Resistance in Society 59 3.4 Conclusion 69 CHAPTER 4: DISCURSIVE ON-LINE NETWORKS, SOCIAL 71 CAPITAL AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION ON ON-LINE COMMUNITIES: A THEORETICAL REVIEW AND PAST RESEARCH 4.0 Introduction 71 4.1 On-line Networks and Network society 72 4.2 Social Capital - An Important Asset of Networks 76 4.2.1 The Concepts of Social Capital 76 4.2.2 Social Capital and On-line Community 80 4.3 Race Relations and Pluralism: Working Concepts 82 4.4 Imagined Communities and Nationalism in Malaysia: 84 Integration Discourse 4.5 Ethnic Nationalism – Public Discourse 87 4.6 Studies of Social Integration and National Unity in Malaysia 89 4.7 ICT and Social Integration Theories 91 4.8 Conclusion 95 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODS 96 5.0 Introduction 96 5.1 Research Methodology – A Case Study with a Mixed Methods 97 Approach 5.2 Fieldwork Preparation (Stage 4) 100 5.2.1 Selecting a Case Study 100 5.2.2 Questions Design 103 5.2.2.1 Semi-structured Interviews 104 5.2.2.2 On-line Survey Questionnaire 105 5.2.3 Piloting and Testing 107 5.3 Interviews and the On-line Survey (Stage 5) 108 5.3.1 Interviews: Research Participants and Process 108 5.3.2 On-line Survey: Research Participants and Process 114 P a g e | iv 5.4 Analysis of Data (Stage 6) 115 5.4.1 Thematic Analysis 115 5.4.2 Quantitative Analysis 117 5.5 Conclusion 120 CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL CAPITAL AND SOCIAL 121 INTEGRATION IN SELECTED ON-LINE COMMUNITIES: AN EXPLORATION OF ADMINISTRATORS’ VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES 6.0 Introduction 121 6.1 The Six On-line Communities 122 6.1.1 VirtualFriends.net 122 6.1.2 USJ Subang Jaya 123 6.1.3 PJNet 125 6.1.4 FamilyPlace.com 126 6.1.5 MalaysiaMAYA.com 127 6.1.6 SARA 128 6.2 Theme # 1: On-line Social Networks, Social Integration and 130 Social Capital 6.2.1 Networking and Integration 131 6.2.2 From On-line to Off-line 140 6.2.3 Social Capital 143 6.3 Theme #2: Trust and Negotiation 146 6.4 Theme #3: Inter-ethnic Integration On-line and Off-line 150 6.4.1 Pattern 1: All Ethnic Groups 150 6.4.2 Pattern 2: Particular Ethnic Groups 153 6.4.3 Pattern 3: Domination of an Ethnic Group 155 6.5 Theme #4: Class Differences and Language Use 157 6.6 Theme #5: Culture and Religion 162 6.7 Theme #6: The Issue of Gender 166 6.8 Conclusion 170 CHAPTER 7: MEMBER EXPERIENCES ON ON-LINE 172 SOCIAL NETWORKING 7.0 Introduction 172 7.1 Demographic Statistics 173 7.1.1 Ethnicity, Age and Gender 173 7.1.2 Education Level and Occupation 177 7.1.3 Location 178 7.2 On-line Social Networks, Social Integration and Social Capital 180 7.2.1 Location, Mode of Connection, Duration and 180 Frequency of Accessing the Internet 7.2.2 On-line Communities’ Experiences 182 7.2.3 Networks and Interactions On-line 184 7.2.4 Social Capital 186 7.3 Ethnic Integration 189 P a g e | v 7.3.1 On-line and Off-line Communication 189 7.3.1.1 Making Friends On-line 190 7.3.1.2 On-line Meeting and Off-line Gatherings 192 7.3.1.3 Social Activities with Multi-ethnic Groups 194 7.3.1.4 The Importance of Ethnic Identity 196 7.4 Language Used and Ethnicity 198 7.4.1 Language Used and Inter-ethnic Communication 201 7.4.2 Ethnic Group, Language Used and Meeting On-line 203 Friends’ Off-line 7.5 Culture and Religious Observation 209 7.6 Gender Issues 211 7.7 Conclusion 214 CHAPTER 8: SOCIAL CAPITAL IN THE CONTEXT OF 216 MALAYSIAN ON-LINE COMMUNITIES: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 8.0 Introduction 216 8.1 On-line Communities, Social Networking and Identity 217 Formation 8.1.1 On-line Identity Formation 218 8.2 The Issues of Trust and Reciprocity in Virtual and Real Life 221 8.3 Culture and Religious Practices 230 8.4 Language and National Identity 235 8.5 Nation and Nationalism 242 8.6 On-line Networks for Information Diffusion and Bridging the 247 Generational Gap: Hope for Future 8.7 Conclusion 250 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 252 9.0 My Research Questions 252 9.1 The Four Research Insights 253 9.2 What is Next? 258 References 261 Appendices 280 P a g e | vi List of Tables Tables Pages 2.1 Summarize of National IT Strategies in Asia 32 2.2 Cellular Phone Users 45 2.3 Dial-up Internet Subscriptions 47 2.4 Number of Broadband Subscriptions by Technology 48 5.1 List of Early Proposed Communities 102 5.2 The Six On-line Communities 103 5.3 The Administrators of Six Selected On-line Communities 109 5.4 List of Early Proposed Government Representative Candidates 110 5.5 List of Participating Government Representatives 111 5.6 General Public Participants 112 6.1 Three Patterns of Ethnic Socialization and Networks in Six Selected 156 On-line Communities 7.1 Ethnicity 174 7.2 Ethnicity*Age 175 7.3 Ethnicity*Gender 176 7.4 Respondent’s Occupation 178 7.5 Regular Chatting 185 7.6 Ethnicity*Making Friends On-line 191 7.7 Chi-Square Test-Ethnicity*Making Friends On-line 192 7.8 Ethnicity*Interact and Communicate Off-line with Multi-ethnic Friends 193 Made On-line 7.9 Chi-Square Test-Ethnicity*Interact and Communicate Off-line with 193 Multi-ethnic Friends Made On-line 7.10 Ethnicity*Have Your Social Activities With People from Other 194 Ethnicities Increased Since Participation? 7.11 Chi-Square Test-Ethnicity* Have Your Social Activities With People 195 from Other Ethnicities Increased Since Participation? 7.12 Ethnicity*Do You Think Ethnicity Is Important When You 196 Communicate In An On-line Community? 7.13 Chi-Square Test-Ethnicity*Do You Think Ethnicity Is Important When 197 You Communicate In An On-line Community? 7.14 Ethnicity*Language Used 199 7.15 Chi-Square Test-Ethnicity* Language Used 200 7.16 Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit – Language Used in On-line 201 Communities 7.17 Test Statistics 201 7.18 Language Used*Interact and Communication Off-line with Multi- 202 ethnic Friends Made On-line 7.19 Chi-Square Test-Language Used*Interact and Communicate Off-line 203 with Multi-ethnic Friends Made On-line 7.20 Ethnicities*Language Used*Interact and Communication Off-line with 205 Multi-ethnic Friends Made On-line 7.21 SPSS Output for Loglinear Analysis 207 8.1 Cultural and Religious Issues and Social Capital 234 P a g e | vii List of Figures Figures Pages 1.1 Malaysia within the Asia Continent 4 2.1 The MSC Malaysia 36 2.2 MSC Malaysia Status Companies 39 2.3 NITA National IT Framework (NITF) 41 3.1 Discourse and Power/Knowledge in the Case of Malaysia ICT Policy 58 3.2 Discourse, Power/Knowledge and Resistance in the Case of Malaysia 64 ICT Policy 5.1 “Analytic Generalization” for “Multiple Cases within a Single Study” 99 6.1 The Proportion of Members in the Study from the Six Selected On-line 129 Communities 6.2 Types of On-line Communities 132 6.3 PJNet On-line Community Forum 136 6.4 VirtualFriends.net On-line Community Forum 137 6.5 Threads or Topic Discussed in PJ Talk and SJ Alert Web Forum 138 6.6 SARA Gathering and Events 142 6.7 Member’s Images on On-line Community – Extract from 169 MalaysiaMAYA.com 7.1 Age of Respondents 174 7.2 Gender Distribution of Respondents 175 7.3 Respondent’s Highest Education Level 178 7.4 Respondent’s Living Area 179 7.5 Main Characteristics of On-line Community Members 179 7.6 Location of Internet access 181 7.7 Popular Choices of On-line Activities 182 7.8 Reasons for Joining On-line Communities 183 7.9 Information and Trust 189 7.10 Language Used Amongst On-line Community Members 198 7.11 Comparison of Interaction between Two Groups Based on Language 208 Used 9.1 On-line Communities and Factors Associated With the Formation of 256 Bonding and Bridging Social Capital P a g e | viii Dedications This thesis is especially dedicated to my beloved husband, Hairil, who always with me in my ups and downs, who sacrifices a lot! Thank you for patiently listening to all my worries and stress.
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    KENYATAAN AKHBAR KETUA PENGARAH KESIHATAN SITUASI SEMASA DEMAM DENGGI DI MALAYSIA Jumlah kumulatif kes Denggi yang dilaporkan sepanjang tahun 2014 di seluruh negara adalah sebanyak 108,698 kes, meningkat 151% (65,352 kes) berbanding dengan hanya 43,346 kes yang dilaporkan bagi tempoh yang sama pada tahun 2013. Manakala jumlah kumulatif kematian denggi di seluruh negara pada tahun 2014 adalah 215 kematian berbanding dengan hanya 92 kematian yang dilaporkan bagi tempoh sama tahun 2013, iaitu peningkatan 134% (123 kematian). Ini merupakan angka bilangan kes dan kematian yang tertinggi yang pernah dicatatkan di Malaysia. Negeri Selangor mencatatkan kematian kes tertinggi iaitu 77 kematian diikuti oleh Johor 25 kematian, Perak dan WP Kuala Lumpur & Putrajaya masing-masing 21 kematian, Kelantan 17 kematian, Pulau Pinang 11 kematian, Negeri Sembilan 10 kematian, Kedah tujuh (7) kematian, masing-masing enam (6) kematian di Melaka, Sarawak, Pahang dan Sabah serta dua (2) kematian di Terengganu. Terdapat pelbagai faktor yang menyebabkan berlaku peningkatan kes denggi pada masa ini iaitu seperti berikut: 1. Faktor persekitaran yang tidak bersih dan menyumbang kepada tempat-tempat pembiakan Aedes seperti bekas polisterine, bekas plastik dan tayar terpakai. 1 2. Pergerakan manusia yang tidak terbatas dan lebih meluas terutamanya bagi pesakit yang telah dijangkiti virus denggi akan mudah menyebarkan virus ke tempat lain apabila pesakit melawat ke tempat baru. 3. Berlaku perubahan serotype denggi yang menjangkiti komuniti iaitu daripada DEN 2 kepada DEN 1 pada bulan Julai 2014 yang mana ini menyebabkan peningkatan kes serta kematian denggi. 4. Faktor cuaca contohnya hujan dan panas dimana bekas yang boleh menakung air akan menjadi tempat pembiakan Aedes, dan suhu mempengaruhi perkembangan nyamuk dan larva yang menyebabkan populasi Aedes meningkat seterusnya menyebarkan virus denggi.
  • The Role of Social Media in the Bersih Movement's Mobilisation

    The Role of Social Media in the Bersih Movement's Mobilisation

    School of Media, Creative Arts and Social Inquiry Personalised Communicative Ecologies: The role of social media in the Bersih movement’s mobilisation Ik Ying Ngu 0000-0001-6385-2831 This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Of Curtin University January, 2021 DECLARATION “To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for any other degree or diploma in any university”. Human Ethics (For projects involving human participants/tissue, etc) The research presented and reported in this thesis was conducted in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) – updated March 2014. The proposed research study received human research ethics approval from the Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee (EC00262); Approval Number #HRE2017-0273. Signature : Date :…1/2/2021… ABSTRACT This thesis examines how a social movement uses social media in mobilising individuals to engage in the development of electoral reform and democracy in Malaysia. The way individuals engage with social media in their everyday lives and what encourages them to communicate and participate provides continual challenges for social movement activists. My study uses Foth and Hearn’s (2007) notion of ecology as a foundation to explain the interdependencies of citizens, place, and technology in the context of a social movement. A communicative ecology model sees social media as an environment and argues that communication and information should not be studied alone because there are different people, media, activities, and relationships involved (Tacchi, 2004; Foth & Hearn, 2007; Strate, 2017).