Bachelor Thesis Biomedicin - Inriktning Fysisk Träning, 180 hp

Repetitive effect on muscle activation

Bachelor Thesis 15 credits in Exercise Biomedicine

Halmstad 2020-05-27 Victor Pettersson HALMSTAD UNIVERSITY

Repetitive climbing effect on muscle activation

Victor Pettersson

2020-05-27 Bachelor Thesis 15 credits in Exercise Biomedicine Halmstad University School of Business, Engineering and Science

Thesis supervisor: Charlotte Olsson Thesis examiner: Åsa Andersson

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Background. Climbing is growing as a recreational sport worldwide. Climbing is a physically demanding sport requiring well developed strength and endurance. Plenty of studies have been made in the area of climbing in order to understand how the body adapts, which muscles are being used and how to prevent injury. A lot of these studies uses electromyography (EMG), a tool that measures electrical currents in muscles to detect muscle activity, as measurement method in order to do findings within the area. Aim. The aim was to study differences in muscle activation in arm and leg muscles in climbers before and after 40 repeated attempts over two weeks on a boulder problem. Furthermore, correlation between climbing level and change in total measured muscle activation after repeated attempts was assessed. Methods. 15 participants (five women and ten men) participated in this study. Standardized electrode placements and maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC) were made for muscles; Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR), Bicep Brachii (BB), Rectus Femoris (RF) and Gastrocnemius Lateralis (GL) before each measurement in order to maintain good reliability. Participants repeated a specific , adapted to the participants climbing ability, 40 times, divided into four sessions over two weeks. Before the first measured attempt the participant got to practice the route twice to get familiar with the moves. Average muscle activation was calculated by dividing the total muscle activation from each muscle with the time it took to complete the climbing route. Peak muscle values were calculated by dividing the highest muscle activation value with the MVIC values to get a %MVIC value. Results. A decrease in average muscle activation for FCR and BB were found (p=0.038, 0.023) whereas an increase in average activation for GL was found (p=0.027). Peak muscle activation showed significant decreases regarding upper extremities FCR and BB (p=0.008, p=0.011) but no significant changes to lower extremities RF and GL. Total average muscular activation regarding all muscles combined showed a general decreased activation (p=0.001). Moderate correlation was found between red-point level and decrease in total average muscle activation (r=0.53). Conclusion. When repeating a climbing route, the climbers muscle activation differs in upper and lower extremities, with a decrease in upper extremities peak and average muscle values, and an increase in GL average muscle values. Repetitions improves technique and muscle memory which could be the reason for the overall decrease in total muscle activation. Hopefully, this study could enrich the climbing world with further knowledge in how to train for climbing.

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Bakgrund. Klättring som sport har växt mycket under den senaste tiden. Klättring är en sport som ställer höga krav både styrkemässigt och uthållighetsmässigt. Flertalet studier har gjorts inom området för att bättre förstå sig på hur kroppen anpassar sig till aktiviteten, hur och vilka muskler som aktiveras och hur man bäst undviker skador. Många av dessa studier har använt sig av elektromyografi (EMG), en metod som mäter elektriska impulser i muskler för att identifiera muskelaktivitet, för att göra dessa typer av undersökningar. Syfte. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur muskelaktiviteten skiljer sig åt i arm och benmuskler hos klättrare efter att ha repeterat en och samma klätterled 40 gånger, fördelat över två veckor. Om det finns samband mellan nivå av klättring och skillnad i muskelaktivering har även undersökts. Metod. 15 personer (fem kvinnor och tio men) deltog frivilligt i denna studie. Standardiserade placeringar av elektroder och maximala frivilliga kontraktioner (MVIC) gjordes för musklerna; Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR), Bicep Brachii (BB), Rectus Femoris (RF) och Gastrocnemius Lateralis (GL) före varje mättillfälle för att säkerställa god reliabilitet. Deltagarna repeterade sedan sin tilldelade klätterled 40 gånger, uppdelat på fyra tillfällen under två veckor. Innan deltagarna skulle mätas första gången fick de öva på klätterleden två gånger för att bli bekanta med rörelserna. Medelvärdet för den muskulära aktiveringen beräknades genom att ta den totala aktiveringen för respektive muskel dividerat med tiden det tog för deltagaren att klara av klätterleden. Den maximala muskelaktiveringen beräknades genom att ta det högsta uppmätta värdet under klättringen dividerat med MVIC värdena för att få ett %MVIC värde. Resultat. En minskning i medelvärdet för den muskulära aktiveringen upptäcktes för FCR och BB (p=0.038, p=0.023) medan en ökning skedde i GL (p=0.027). Maximal muskelaktivering minskade signifikant gällande övre extremiteterna FCR och BB (p=0.008, p=0.011) medan ingen signifikant skillnad förekom hos de nedre extremiteterna RF och GL. Total muskelaktivering gällande alla medelvärden för respektive muskler visade på en generell minskning i muskelaktivering mellan första och sista mätningen (p=0.001). Måttlig korrelation påvisades mellan klätternivå och minskning i total muskelaktivitet. Konklusion. När en klättrare repeterar en specifik klätterled ändras muskelaktiveringen hos övre och lägre extremiteter. En minskning i muskelaktivering för övre extremiteter och en ökning i muskelaktivering för GL hittades. Repetition medför en förbättrad teknik och muskelminne vilket kan vara anledningen till den generella minskningen i muskelaktivering efter repeteringen av klätterleden. Förhoppningsvis kan denna studie bidra med ytterligare kunskap till klättervärlden för hur man bäst tränar för klättring.

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Content 1. Background ...... 5 1.1 Climbing ...... 5 1.2. Climbing physiology ...... 6 1.3 Electromyography ...... 7 1.4 Electromyography in Climbing ...... 7 1.5 Repetition ...... 8 1.5.1 Repeated climbs ...... 9 2. Aim ...... 9 3. Methods ...... 9 3.1 Participants ...... 9 3.2 Testing procedures ...... 10 3.2.1 Standardizations ...... 10 3.2.2 Electromyography Electrode Placement...... 10 3.2.3 Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contractions ...... 12 3.2.4 Climbing ...... 13 3.3 Ethical and social considerations ...... 13 3.4 Statistics ...... 14 4. Results ...... 15 5. Discussion ...... 17 5.1 Method discussion & Limitations ...... 19 5.2 Conclusion ...... 20 6. References ...... 21 7. Bilagor ...... 26 7.1 Informerat samtycke ...... 26

4 1. Background 1.1 Climbing Climbing began as alpine in Italy and northern England in the early 19th century. It gained popularity first in the 1950s when people started to view climbing more as a sport. It was not until the 20th century that free-climbing, climbing without any aid from climbing-gear, began to rise (Saul, Steinmetz, Lehmann & Schilling, 2019). Today the world of climbing looks different from when it all started. Today over 25 million people world-wide are climbing regularly. The increase in active climbers has developed the sport into competitive and recreational activities. The amount of indoor climbing gyms that are being built has increased world-wide (International Federation of , 2019). Because of its growing popularity and worldwide spread climbing will be featured in the Olympics for the first time in Tokyo 2020 (The International Olympic Committee, 2016).

Climbing consists of different disciplines; ice, mountaineering, traditional, sport, speed and . The most commonly performed disciplines indoors are bouldering and sport-climbing. Bouldering is performed on walls with restricted height, between three to five meters without a rope but with thick mats underneath. Sport climbing is with a rope, where you protect yourself with preplaced bolts in the wall. There are subcategories of these disciplines depending on the equipment, risks, environment and norms (Orth, Davids, & Seifert, 2015).

To determine level of difficulty of climbing routes there are several different grading systems being used, depending on where you are geographically. In USA the is used, in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa the Ewbank System is used and in Europe the French Rating Scale of Difficulty (F-RSD) is used. The F-RSD uses alphanumerics to determine difficulty of a route. It ranges from 1 to 9c+ (a, a+, b, b+, c, c+) where 1 is the easiest and 9c+ is the most difficult (Orth et al., 2015).

Using grading systems to determine a climber’s level of skill is limiting, since there are several factors such as physical fitness, external conditions, psychological and tactical aspects that determine climbing ability (Draper et al., 2011). In order to reach a higher climbing , more advanced techniques and better usage of strength is required (Morrison & Volker, 2007).

5 1.2. Climbing physiology

How much force that can be exerted on a climbing hold depends on the properties and how many motor units (figure 1) that are recruited (Del Vecchio et al., 2019). When beginning regular strength training the gains of felt strength at the start will most likely depend on neural adaptation, such as an increase in recruited motor units and action potential frequency, not in muscular hypertrophy itself (Del Vecchio et al. 2019). Therefore, neural adaptations become an important factor for enhanced climbing performance and gained strength.

Figure 1. (A) The motor unit = A motor neuron with all its innervating muscle fibers (Purves et al., 2001)

Physiological factors that determine success in climbing have been assessed in several different studies. Forearm and hand strength, endurance, a more efficient climbing style to save energy, and a low body fat percentage are all different factors that contribute to success in climbing where forearm/hand strength and endurance are specifically important (Saul et al., 2019). In order to achieve greater climbing strength, it is important to increase strength to weight ratio (the amount of weight you can lift divided by your body weight) and time to exhaustion (Saul et al., 2019). When comparing climbers to non-climbers, climbers had greater hand grip strength and endurance in non- dominant hands (Saul et al., 2019).

The most important aspects of training for climbing involves regular finger training practice and eccentric-concentric training with dynamics (Saul et al., 2019). Repetitively training forearms will make them recover better during isometric movements, since oxygen utilization decreases for the same amount of work. Training forearms, shoulders and stabilizing muscles are of importance to prevent climbing injuries. Injuries can prevent the climber from training and therefore prevent success in climbing (Saul et al., 2019).

6 Previous studies have compared climbers to non-climbers regarding maximal force and motor unit recruitment in specific climbing muscles. Findings from these studies suggest that climbers have higher values regarding maximal voluntary contractions but also better muscle unit recruitment, due to better control of the nervous system (Esposito, Limonta, Cè, Gobbo, Veicsteinas & Orozio, 2009). The studies made by Esposito et al. (2019) and Saul et al. (2009) have helped to understand that the body adapts in different ways when training for climbing, by for example increasing grip strength and endurance. These types of muscle activation measurements can be done with electromyography (EMG).

1.3 Electromyography Electrical currents are generated when a muscle contract. These currents are referred to as the muscle action potential, which represents neuromuscular activities. In the biomedical field these signals can be measured with electromyography (EMG). There are two main types of EMG: surface and intramuscular. Surface EMG uses electrodes made of silver chloride which are placed over the muscle belly (Chowdhury et al., 2013). Surface EMG senses signals from the muscle fibers via the electrodes placed on the skin (Raez, Hussain & Mohd-Yasin, 2006). The intramuscular EMG is an invasive method that uses electrode needles to detect muscular activity. The needles are placed in the muscle that is being measured (Cavalcanti Garcia & Vieira, 2011).

Intramuscular EMG is less used within sports and medicine since the test-person needs anesthetics before electrode placement. Since surface EMG is considered an easier method it is more popular and accepted to use in physiological and clinical applications (Cavalcanti Garcia & Vieira, 2011). Using surface EMG can also be limiting since the electrodes only measure superficial muscles, and risk of contaminated signals from muscles nearby, also known as crosstalk, may influence the results (Pieter Clarys, Scafoglieri, Tresignie, Reilly, & Van Roy, 2010). In the sports field researchers have for example looked at the effect of fatigue on working muscles. (Chowdhury, Reaz, Ali, Bakar, Chellappan & Chang, 2013).

1.4 Electromyography in Climbing Several previous climbing studies have used EMG to investigate muscle activity during different aspects of climbing, with a majority in the area of injury prevention for climbing athletes (Koukoubis et al., 1995; Dykes et al., 2019; Baláš et al., 2017). These studies observed several different aspects of climbing injuries. Specific activity in forearms was analyzed in order to develop injury preventing

7 training programs, where training brachioradialis and flexor digitorum superficialis were found to prevent injury (Koukoubis et al., 1995). Another study showed no significant differences between taping and non-taping fingers when investigating if taping fingers had any effect on preventing flexor tendon pulley injuries (Dykes et al., 2019). Muscle activity in different shoulder positions during climbing was investigated to prevent shoulder injuries. The findings from this study showed that the naturally chosen position of the shoulder did not activate the stabilizing scapular muscles as much as the ergonomic position (Baláš et al., 2017).

Other climbing studies have used EMG to look at muscle activation patterns in different aspects of climbing. Muscle activation differentiates depending on wall inclinations, where overhanging walls increased muscle activation in trunk muscles (Park, Kim, Kim & Choi, 2015). Placing feet on very high holds to reach further during the next climbing move, also known as high stepping, with and without added weight showed an increase of the peak force asserted on the hand (Jensen, Watts, Lawrence, Moss, & Wagonsomer, 2005). Forearm muscle activity in differentiates compared to a handgrip dynamometer because of the different types of holds (Watts, Jensen, Gannon, Kobeinia, Maynard & Sansom, 2008). The use of footholds (the holds on the wall the climber places his/her feet on) differentiate between novice and intermediate climbers where the more experienced climbers made a greater use of footholds (Baláš et al., 2014). These different studies investigated what happens to the climber’s muscle activation when adapting the environment, such as changing wall inclination, or comparing different aspects. What has not been investigated, however, is what happens to muscle activation when repeating the same task over time.

1.5 Repetition Repetition is one of the keys to success. By repeating same bouts, same routines and same movements you gain experience and become stronger. Not only because of the hypertrophy from the exercise but also because of the improved motor unit recruitment in the muscles (Del Vecchio et al., 2019). This statement goes for every sport (Saul et al., 2019). The effect of repetition on muscle activation has been investigated in rowing. Participants in this study were told to practice the same rowing routine repeatedly for ten separate 16-minute sessions. The investigators found that repetition of the same routine led to a significant decrease in muscle activation due to improved muscle coordination which resulted in lower energy expenditure. (Lay, Sparrow, Hughes & Dwyer, 2002). If muscle activation also decreases when repeating climbing routes is still unknown.

8 1.5.1 Repeated climbs For many climbers completing routes with a specific difficulty is the main goal, for others it is the workout they get from climbing. In both cases repeating the same boulder problem can help them become familiarized with specific climbing movements and to gain strength. “Repeating a boulder” means that you climb the same route several times, spread out over time, in order to become familiar with the specific movements necessary to complete the problem. España-Romero et al. (2012) studied nine experienced rock-climbers who repeated the same route once a week, over nine weeks to see if repetition would lower energy expenditure. Expired air was measured during the nine attempts. Attempts one, four and nine were compared to determine differences between attempts. Results from this study showed a significant decrease of energy expenditure between attempt one and attempt nine. The study made by España-Romero et al. (2012) is the only study investigating how energy expenditure changed when repeating the same climbing route over time. However, it is unknown if repeated ascents on the same route also influences muscle activation.

2. Aim The aim was to study differences in muscle activation in arm and leg muscles in climbers before and after 40 repeated attempts over two weeks on a boulder problem. Furthermore, correlation between climbing level and change in total measured muscle activation after repeated attempts was assessed.

Will a climber’s muscle activation decrease in the specific climbing muscles; flexor carpi radialis, bicep brachii, rectus femoris and gastrocnemius lateralis, after 40 repetitions divided over two weeks on a boulder problem? Is there a correlation between a climbers climbing level and change in muscle activation after repeated attempts on a boulder problem?

3. Methods 3.1 Participants A total of 16 (six women and ten men) experienced climbers signed up for this intervention study after being recruited at local climbing facilities. One participant dropped out of the study due to injury outside of the study, which resulted in 15 participants (five women and ten men) completing the study. The inclusion criteria were that the participants should a) have been active climbers for a minimum of two years, b) be climbing a minimum of twice a week, c) be free from injury, d) have a red point ability of minimum 6b according to the F-RSD scale,

9 which is the most difficult level of climb succeeded (Orth et al., 2015).

3.2 Testing procedures 3.2.1 Standardizations The participants were delegated certain restrictions for optimal standardization. The standardizations were: no intense workout the day before testing, no caffeine three hours before testing and sticking to their normal diet during the intervention (Valenzuela, Villa & Ferragut, 2015). Participants were assigned a specific route well in reach of their on-sight level which is the climbing grade that has been completed on the first try, without observing or practicing the route beforehand (Orth et al., 2015). The participants were asked to bring their own climbing shoes and climb with the same shoes for every repetition. The participants who chose to use chalk were asked to use chalk for every repetition, and the participants who usually do not use chalk did not use it throughout the intervention. Data from participants regarding weight (kg), height (cm), sex (male-female), age (years), on-sight and red-point level (F-RSD scale) was collected before any measurements.

3.2.2 Electromyography Electrode Placement The present study used surface electromyography to measure muscle activity and collected data in Megawin 3.1 (Mega Electronics Ltd Kuopio, Finland). The muscle belly was palpated in order to determine where to place the electrodes for the following muscles (figure 2); Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR), Biceps Brachii (BB) Rectus Femoris (RF) and Gastrocnemius Lateralis (GL). Before electrodes were placed on the participants, their skin was prepared by shaving the electrode area and by using an alcohol wipe to rub the skin clean. The skin was rubbed thoroughly so that a slight irritation occurred. This was done in order to remove oils and dead skin to minimize disruption of the recorded signals. (Kasman & Wolf, 2002). The electrodes (Ambu® BlueSensor M, Denmark) were placed two cm apart, with the reference electrode placed close to the other two measuring electrodes with a 90-degree angle (Konrad, 2005).

There are four general rules to follow when placing electrodes; inter-electrode distances, muscle depth, electrode placements and recording stability. The general rule for inter- electrode distances means that you get a more exact area to pick up signals from the closer the electrode pair is. Muscles that are located underneath other layers of muscle cannot be recorded with surface EMG. It can pick up accurate signals from superficial muscles when placed correctly, therefore muscle anatomy knowledge is the key point to electrode placement (Kasman & Wolf, 2002; Hermenes, Freriks, Disselhorst-Klug & Rau, 2000). Recording stability is important to not contaminate the signals, therefore the electrodes were 10 strapped and secured to the limbs of the climber with tape and cut socks so that electrode movement was minimized throughout the activity.

There are specific regions on the muscle where greater signals will be detected due to larger motor unit yields. Adequate muscle unit yields can be found and measured almost anywhere on the muscle belly, though there are preferable placements, which were used in the present study and can be found in table 1. (Zaheer et al., 2012; Seniam, 2019).

Table 1. Standardizations for maximal voluntary isometric contractions and electrode placements.

Muscle Electrode placement MVIC-test

Flexor A third of a way between medial Hand-grip dynamometer with elbow Carpi epicondyle of the humerus and flexed at 90° (Brorsson, Nilsdotter, Radialis radial styloid process (Baranski & Thorstensson & Bremander, 2014). Kozupa, 2014).

Bicep On the line of medial acromion Flex the elbow at 90° with the Brachii and fossa cubit, at 1/3 from fossa forearm in supination, while applying cubit (Seniam, 2019). pressure to the forearm in the direction of elbow extension (Seniam,

2019).

Rectus Half the way between spina iliaca Extend knee while pressing against Femoris anterior superior and superior the leg above the ankle in the part of patella (Seniam, 2019). direction of knee flexion (Seniam, 2019).

At 1/3 of line head of fibula and the Gastroc heel (Seniam, 2019). Plantar flexion of foot while applying nemius pressure against the forefoot as well Lateralis as calcaneus (Seniam, 2019).

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Flexor Carpi Radialis Bicep Brachii Rectus Femoris Gastrocnemius Lateralis Figure 2. Recommended placement of electrodes (Seniam, 2019)

3.2.3 Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contractions Maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC) is a measurement made to determine the participant’s maximal muscle recruitment level. This was done in order to get a reference value for comparison with the muscle activation when performing the activity. EMG has been used in many studies which gives a lot of data to test its reliability and validity. Validity and reliability of EMG have been tested in several studies before and is considered to be good, as long as electrode placement and MVIC standardizations as presented in table 1. are followed (Lynn, Watkins, Wong, Balfany & Feeney, 2018; Marshall & Murphy, 2003, Seniam, 2019).

MVIC is considered to be a reliable method, where reliability increases with good standardizations (Larivière, Arsenault, Gravel, Gagnon & Loisel. 2002) Standardizations for MVIC were made for each muscle involved (see table 1); FCR, BB, RF and GL. MVIC was performed before the two testing sessions; the third and 43:rd attempt on the boulder problem. Three MVIC were performed for each muscle for five seconds. The first and last second was discarded and the remaining three seconds were analyzed. The participants were instructed to try their very best and push themselves as hard as possible. Between the measures there was a one-minute rest. To motivate the participants, they were given verbally encouraging feed-back. The mean value of the three MVIC results were later used as reference values (Balshaw, Fry, Maden-Wilkinson, Kong & Folland, 2017).

The average muscle activity values for each muscle was calculated by dividing the total electrical activation throughout the repetition, calculated as the area under the graph, with the time it took to complete the route, then dividing this number with the MVIC for the specific muscle. This will give a %MVIC/s value, which shows how much the muscle is activated throughout the climb. Peak values were calculated by dividing the maximal value during the measurement with the MVIC for each muscle resulting in a %MVIC value (Kasman & Wolf, 2002). In order to get a value for general muscle activation, average muscle activation for all

12 four measured muscles were added. This number was then divided by the total MVIC for all measured muscles combined, measured at the same day, to get a relative percentage activation per second value (%MVIC/s).

3.2.4 Climbing When climbing, arms and legs work together in order to perform dynamic moves to move upwards. Isometric contractions will occur during the ascend. When increasing climbing difficulty, climbing speed often decreases and isometric contractions occur more frequently. When repeating the same route, climbing speed will increase due to practiced movement (España-Romero et al., 2012). These facts were taken in consideration and therefore time was measured between the different attempts in order to normalize average EMG between attempts.

The climbers were assigned a specific route depending on on-sight level. Three different boulder problems were available, 6a-6b, 6b+-6c+, 7a-7b, on a four-meter-tall, 20-degree overhanging wall. The routes consisted of four hand movements and three feet movements. First the participants performed a standardized climbing specific warm-up led by the test-leader, involving mobilization of the shoulders, neck, arms, wrists and fingers and easier traverse climbing (Lopéz-Rivera & González- Badillo, 2019). After the warm-up the participants got a chance to view the problem before climbing it, and they got detailed tips on how the route should be climbed, also known as beta (Saul et al., 2019). The boulder problem was climbed twice before the EMG data was collected for the climbers to get familiar with the route, memorize the movements and ensure completion of the boulder problem (Valenzuela et al., 2015).

The participants then had two weeks to repeat the route 40 times, ten times twice a week. One repetition counted when the climber goes from the start holds to the top holds without falling. Once the 40 repetitions were completed, another as identical as possible EMG measure was done after the same standardized electrode placement and MVIC.

3.3 Ethical and social considerations Participants in this study were informed verbally and in written text about which procedures that would take place during the study. The personal data collected was handled confidentially and results were presented on a group level, so that data could not be associated with the participants involved. The data collected was coded and stored locked up so that only the test leader had access to it. The data was locked up to later be permanently deleted after ten years. Data collected on potential

13 dropouts were destroyed. Participants were informed that they had the right to withdraw participation at any time during the experiment without being questioned why.

Risks involved with participation could have occurred when performing the MVIC, when falling from the boulder problem or minor risks when preparing the skin for electrode placement. Preparation of the skin could have caused a slight skin irritation, which is harmless and will fade. Overuse from the MVIC and sprained ankles from falling were potential risks. A standardized warm-up was therefore performed to minimize risks of injury (Frankin, Gabbe & Cameron, 2006). Certified mats were placed to land on under the boulder problems to minimize the risk of falling trauma. The risks during the test were not considered higher than during a regular climbing session, and lower than the potential value that this study could bring. The study was therefore considered ethical.

This study could potentially enrich the climbing community with new ways to train for climbing. It might also increase the interest for further investigation within other sports on how repetitive movements will affect muscle activation (Lay et al., 2002). In the future this intervention could be developed and tested on a bigger scale, with more measurements, repetitions and participants, to get a more exact picture on how the muscles activation differs. In a bigger perspective this study might influence further studies who investigates muscular adaptations and differences when repeating more regular tasks, not only in sports.

3.4 Statistics The results from the EMG measurements were analyzed in SPSS statistics version 25.0. (IBM Corp. Armonk, New York, USA). The results are shown as means and standard deviations (SD), except for the ordinal values for red-point and on-sight level, which is presented with median and range. P- values of <0.05 was considered statistically significant in this study. Comparison of EMG measurements in the muscles FCL, BB, RF and GL were made to determine potential differences in % MVIC between attempts three and 43. Shapiro-Wilks test was made in order to determine normality where the majority of tests were not normally distributed. Non-parametric statistics were therefore used, and the Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to analyze significant differences regarding changes in muscle activation between attempts. Spearman’s correlation assessed levels of correlation between red-point level and total muscle activation percentage. Correlation coefficients were assessed according to table 2.

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Table 2. Size of Correlation Coefficient (Hinkle, Wiersma & Jurs, 2003)

Size of Correlation Interpretation

.90 to 1.00 (−.90 to −1.00) Very high positive (negative) correlation .70 to .90 (−.70 to −.90) High positive (negative) correlation .50 to .70 (−.50 to −.70) Moderate positive (negative) correlation .30 to .50 (−.30 to −.50) Low positive (negative) correlation .00 to .30 (.00 to −.30) negligible correlation

4. Results This study observed differences in climbers muscle activation in arm and leg muscles, before and after 40 repeated attempts on a boulder problem. The results indicate that repetition did effect muscle activation in several ways which are presented in table 4. Data from the 15 participants completing the study are presented below in table 3.

The mean (SD) age for the participants were 28.7 (10.9) years; weight 66.1 (8.8) kg and height 173.7 (10.2) cm. Median on-sight ability was 6b+ with a range from 6b-7a+, and red-point ability was 6c+ with a range from 6c-7b+ (table 3).

Table 3. Participants anthropometrics and climbing skill level.

n=15 Mean (SD)

Age (years) 28.7 (10.9)

Body weight (Kg) 66.1 (8.8)

Height (cm) 173.7 (10.2)

BMI (body mass index) 21.8 (1.3)

On-sight ability (F-RSD) 6b+ (6b - 7a+)

Red point ability (F-RSD) 6c+ (6c - 7b+)

15 All the participants decreased the amount of time it took to complete the boulder problem between the first and last measurement, from 13.7 (4.1) s to 9.3 (2.7) s (p=0.001; table 4). The average muscle activation decreased significantly in the two arm muscles; FCR from 19.53 (9.32) to 16.53 (8.75) %MVIC/s (p=0.038) and BB from 24.53 (13.03) to 19.53 (10.32) %MVIC/s (p=0.011). For the leg muscles investigated, no significant difference between the 40 repetitions was found in RF muscle activation (p=0.649), whereas GL increased in average muscle activation from 16.87 (7.89) to 19.53 (7.86) %MVIC/s (p=0.027). The total activation from all muscles combined decreased from 18.71 (6.37) to 15.36 (4.94) %MVIC/s (p=0.001;table 4).

Similar to the results for average muscle activation, peak muscle activation in the upper extremities was significantly decreased (table 4) for FCR from 63.20 (22.70) to 49.27 (17.27) %MVIC; (p=0.008), and in BB from 120.47 (53.60) to 92.13 (33.80) %MVIC (p=0.011). No significant changes were found in peak muscle activation for leg muscles, neither in RF (p=0.140) nor GL (p=0.140) as shown in table 4.

Table 4. Results for measured variables. n=15 3:rd try 43:rd try Change (%) P-value Time to ascend (s) 13.73 (4.15) 9.33 (2.70) -4.40 (2.35) 0.001

Upper Extremities

Peak FCR (%MVIC) 63.20 (22.70) 49.27 (17.27) -17.40 (28.50) 0.008 Average FCR (%MVIC /s) 19.53 (9.32) 16.53 (8.75) -24.50 (13.03) 0.038 Peak BB (%MVIC) 120.47 (53.60) 92.13 (33.80) -17.80 (28.00) 0.011 Average BB (%MVIC /s) 24.53 (13.03) 19.53 (10.32) -16.80 (25.57) 0.023

Lower Extremities

Peak RF (%MVIC) 91.27 (44.86) 83.07 (43.05) -1.80 (42.30) 0.258 Average RF (%MVIC /s) 14.40 (6.73) 13.93 (5.32) -7.86 (50.47) 0.649 Peak GL (%MVIC) 74.93 (22.59) 85.13 (34.59) 18.00 (41.20) 0.140 Average GL (%MVIC /s) 16.87 (7.89) 19.53 (7.86) 22.13 (28.99) 0.027

Total activation for all measured muscles

Tot activation (%MVIC/s) 18.71 (6.37) 15.36 (4.94) 17.73 (9.09) 0.001 FCR = Flexor Carpi Radialis, BB = Bicep Brachii, RF = Rectus Femoris, GL = Gastrocnemius Lateralis

16 A moderate correlation (r=0.53, p=0.044) between red-point ability and decreased total %MVIC/s was found (figure 3). The results show that the climber with higher skill level reduced muscle activation less than the less skilled climber.

Correlation red-point - total decreased muscle activation 40 35 30 25 20

15 r=0.53 10

5 % decreased decreased % muscle activtation 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Red-point (1=6b- 10=7c+)

Figure 3. Correlation between percentual change in total muscle activation compared to red-point level.

5. Discussion The main findings of the present study were that 40 repetitions of a boulder problem affect muscle activation in several ways. Upper extremities, FCR and BB, significantly decreased average muscle activation per second, whilst leg muscle GL significantly increased average muscle activation. All climbers decreased the time for completion of the boulder problem and showed a decrease in total activation for all measured muscles combined in %MVIC/s. Moderate positive correlation was found between decrease in climbers’ total muscle activation and their red-point levels.

No previous study has assessed muscular activation during repeated climbs. The results from the present study showed that both peak and average muscle activity significantly decreased in upper extremities BB and FCR. These results are similar to the results found in the rowing study by Lay et al. (2002) where significant decreases in average muscle activity were found for upper extremities after repeated bouts in rowers. The one study investigating repeated climbs found that energy expenditure was lower after nine repetitions of the same route (España- Romero et al., 2012). A difference between the present study and the study made by España- Romero et al. (2012) is that EMG looks at different parts of the body, whereas energy expenditure is measured in the whole body at once. The present study complements the

17 study made by España-Romero et al. (2012) by showing that peak and average muscular activation was lower in the upper body muscles. When repeating the same route 40 times the climber learns which moves that need to be done, and therefore climbs more efficiently.

However, contrary to the results in the upper body, the EMG muscle activity in the lower body showed no change in peak muscle activity, and instead an increase in average muscle activity in GL was found. More experienced climbers tend to make better use of footholds. Applying more force on the feet will put less demands on upper extremities. This results in a lower muscle activation in the upper extremities and a slight increase in leg muscle activation (Baláš et al., 2014). Even though average muscle activation increased for GL, the total average muscle activation for all measured muscles decreased as a total. Improved motor unit recruitment, memorization of movements and improved technique all together lowers the physiological demands. These factors improve due to repetition, which might be the reason for the decrease in total average muscle activation between attempts. (Del Vecchio et al., 2019; Baláš et al., 2014).

Previous studies examining the correlation between muscle activation and energy expenditure found that an increase in muscular activation also increased energy expenditure (Dickin, Surowiec & Wang, 2017). Studies in other sports have looked at the effect of repetition on muscle activation and found a significant decrease (Lay et al. 2002). The present study combined with the study made by España-Romero et al. (2012) supports the statement of Dickin, Surowiec & Wang (2017) and Lay et al. (2002), that repetitions does have an impact on muscle activation and energy expenditure.

Previous studies indicate that there are physiological differences between novice and experienced climbers (Saul et al., 2019; Doran & Grace, 2008). Experienced climbers show faster recovery, less lactate build up and lower heart rates than novice climbers (Saul et al., 2019). More experienced climbers also seem to be able to climb faster without increasing energy expenditure compared to novice climbers, due to metabolic adaptations (Doran & Grace, 2008). Since a previous study suggests that energy expenditure correlates with muscle activation (Dickin, Surowiec & Wang, 2017) this present study looked at correlation between the climber’s skill level (red-point ability) and total muscle activation. If more experienced climbers can maintain energy expenditure when climbing faster compared to novice climbers there should be a larger difference in muscle activation in less experienced climbers, which the present study suggests with the moderate correlation (r=0.53) between red-point level and

18 total muscle activation.

No previous study had been made on how a climber’s muscle activation changes due to repetition. The results from this study suggest that muscle activation does decrease with practice, which could be helpful knowledge when training for climbing. The present study could also awaken interest within other sports where similar studies could be made in order to better understand how the body adapts to repetition.

5.1 Method discussion & Limitations In order to observe if repetition influenced muscle activation the time aspect had to be taken in consideration. By dividing total muscle activation with the time it took to complete the boulder, the time aspect did no longer effect the results, and a value of how much activation per second was found. The amount of time spent climbing to complete the boulder problem decreased significantly in every participant between attempts three and 43. Observing total muscle activation without taking time in consideration would have given a greater decrease in muscle activation. This because the muscles are not active during the same amount of time and less isometric contractions took place (España-Romero et al., 2012).

There are limitations of the present study that should be mentioned. España-Romero et al. (2012) found a significant decrease in energy expenditure after nine repetitions so if 40 repetitions are necessary for a noticeable decrease in muscle activation is unknown. For further assessment more frequent measures should be made. For example, the EMG measurements could have been made every five or ten repetition for more accurate results, but also to see when repetition no longer has the same effect on muscle activation. The result from this study could awaken an interest in studying this phenomenon closer within the world of climbing.

Wall inclination affects the amount of force applied on the footholds, the more overhanging the less force applied on footholds (Baláš et al., 2014). If the present study had been done on a vertical wall and not a 20-degree overhanging wall, the use of footholds might have increased even further, and bigger differences regarding change in lower extremities, especially RF, might have been found.

Having only 15 participants with a wide variety of red-point abilities resulted in a non- homogenous group, which made correlations difficult to analyze. The correlation found in the present study regarding red-point-muscle activation might have been stronger if more 19 measurements had been done on a larger population of climbers. The participants signed the consent paper and were well informed about which standardizations that should be followed, though no controls were made to ensure that standardizations were followed except verbally asking. If participants increased their training load during the intervention, then factors such as improved strength could have affected the results. The participants had a responsibility to repeat the route ten times on four different days for two weeks. No one was there to make sure they did all the repetitions and therefore some values might be bias.

5.2 Conclusion

The conclusion of this study is that repeating a boulder problem 40 times over two weeks decreases the time it takes for completion, lowers the average and peak muscle activity in the arms but with little effect in the legs except for an increase in average muscle activity in GL. However, when adding all muscle activations together a total decrease in activation was found indicating that improvements occur in climbing technique and neuromuscular adaptation after repeating a boulder problem. Furthermore, a moderate correlation exists between change in total muscle activation during ascent and a climbers red-point level. This study could potentially enrich the climbing world with knowledge on how to train for optimizing performance in climbing and hopefully raise interest, also within other sports, for further investigation within this area.

20 6. References

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25 7. Bilagor

7.1 Informerat samtycke

Information till forskningspersonerna

Vi vill fråga dig om du vill delta i ett forskningsprojekt. I det här dokumentet får du information om projektet och om vad det innebär att delta.

Vad är det för projekt och varför vill ni att jag ska delta? ”Repetitive climbing effect on muscle activation” är en studie vars syfte är att se hur muskelaktivering skiljer sig vid repeterade försök på ett och samma boulderproblem. Vi vill att du ska vara med i denna studie då du uppfyller de krav som förväntas för att vara med i studien, det vill säga har varit en aktiv klättrare (minst två gånger i veckan) under två års tid, har en red-point på minst 6b enligt den franska graderingsskalan, är skadefri och är en aktiv klättrare på Halmstad Klätterklubb. Forskningshuvudman för projektet är Högskolan i Halmstad. Med forskningshuvudman menas den organisation som är ansvarig för studien.

Hur går studien till? Vid deltagandet av denna studie kommer det förväntas att du följer vissa standardiseringar. - Ingen intensiv träning dagen innan utförande - Inget koffeinintag tre timmar innan utförande Utöver detta skall din normala diet och träningsupplägg följas under de två veckorna du kommer vara med i studien. Innan utförandet av testerna kommer information om vikt, längd, on-sight nivå, red-point nivå och hur länge du klättrat att samlas in. Först kommer maximala muskelkontraktioner genomföras av fem muskelgrupper, underarmar, biceps, lats, lår och vader. Efter detta kommer du att bli tilldelad ett boulderproblem beroende på din on-sight nivå. Denna led kommer att få provklättras två gånger med förutbestämt klättersätt. Tredje mätningen kommer att mätas med hjälp av EMG (elekromyografi), då elektroder placeras på de utvalda muskelgrupperna. Inför placeringen av elektroderna kommer huden att förberedas med rakning och tvätt med desinfektionsmedel. Det kan förekomma viss rodnad på grund av detta, men som är ofarlig och går över. Det första besöket av två förväntas ta ca 90 minuter. Sedan kommer du att ha två veckor på dig att repetera leden. Två gånger i veckan ska du klättra din utsatta led tio

26 gånger, så att du kommer upp i totalt 40 repetitioner. En repetition räknas endast om leden fullföljs från start till slut, utan att ramla. Repetitionerna beräknas ta ca 15 minuter vid varje träningspass, beroende på hur du väljer att lägga upp det. Efter två veckor kommer den 41:a repetitionen att mätas där samma förberedelser genomförs. Andra besöket förväntas ta ca 90 minuter.

Möjliga följder och risker med att delta i studien Risker med att delta i denna beräknas vara minimala. De risker som finns är överansträngning av muskler vid maximala muskelkontraktionerna som behöver göras innan själva klättringen, eller skador i samband med eventuella fall från boulderproblemet. Innan placering av elektroderna kommer huden rakas och tvättas med desinfektionsmedel. Detta kan framkalla en viss rodnad som är ofarlig och går över. Det finns en risk för potentiella skärsår vid rakningen som vid uppkomst tvättas och plåstras om. Rakhyvlarna kommer vara oanvända och steriliserade. För att minimera de ovannämnda riskerna kommer en handledd uppvärmning att genomföras. Certifierade tjockmattor för landning från hög höjd är placerade under klätterväggen för att dämpa eventuella fall. Riskerna beräknas inte vara högre än vid ett vanligt träningspass i klätterhall. Skulle någon olycka ske där stukade fötter eller upplevt obehag förekomma avbryts studien och du har möjlighet att göra om dina mätningar om så önskas.

Vad händer med mina uppgifter? Detta projekt kommer samla in viss information om dig. Innan utförandet av testerna kommer datainsamling att ske. En invägning (kg) och längdmätning (cm) kommer att ske på plats. Du kommer även att få ut ett formulär där frågor berörande högsta on- sight nivå, red-point nivå (enligt franska graderingsskalan) och hur länge du klättrat (år) ska besvaras. Informationen som kommer samlas in om dig kommer att hanteras konfidentiellt, och resultat kommer endast att presenteras i grupp där dina resultat ej kommer kunna härledas till dig som person. Under tiden uppsatsen skrivs kommer den insamlade datan att förvaras på ett USB frånskilt från dina uppgifter för att minimera möjlighet till personidentifiering.

Dina svar och dina resultat kommer att behandlas så att inte obehöriga kan ta del av dem. Ansvarig för dina personuppgifter är Victor Pettersson. Enligt EU:s dataskyddsförordning har du rätt att kostnadsfritt få ta del av de uppgifter om dig som hanteras i studien, och vid behov få eventuella fel rättade. Du kan också begära att uppgifter om dig raderas samt att behandlingen av dina personuppgifter begränsas. Om du vill ta del av uppgifterna ska du kontakta Victor Pettersson på 0763137343. Dataskyddsombud nås på [email protected]. Om du är missnöjd med hur dina

27 personuppgifter behandlas har du rätt att ge in klagomål till Datainspektionen, som är tillsynsmyndighet.

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Ansvarig för studien

Ansvarig för studien är:

• Victor Pettersson - Student på programmet Biomedicin inriktning fysisk träning

Handledare:

• Charlotte Olsson - Högskolan i Halmstad

28 Samtycke till att delta i studien

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☐ Jag samtycker till att delta i studien Repetitive climbing effect on muscle activation

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29 Victor Pettersson

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