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A Reconstruction of Long-Term Pastoralist Ecology in the Kashmir Valley

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A Reconstruction of Long-Term Pastoralist Ecology in the Kashmir Valley THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY Mountain and meadow: A reconstruction of long-term pastoralist ecology in the Kashmir Valley Michael Spate A thesis submitted in fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Department of Archaeology December 2019 Statement of Originality This is to certify that to the best of my knowledge, the content of this thesis is my own work. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or other purposes. I certify that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work and that all the assistance received in preparing this thesis and sources have been acknowledged. Michael Spate 12/12/2019 ii Abstract The cultural history of the Kashmir Valley in the Western Himalayas spans at least 4500 years, beginning with some of the known Neolithic Agricultural villages in the mountainous regions of the northern Indian Subcontinent. The development of agriculture in the valley, and subsequent periods of cultural expansion have been attributed to economic growth that capitalised on warm-humid climate phases in the region, often followed by periods of supposed social collapse driven by the onset of cold-arid conditions. More recently, Kashmiri archaeologists have argued that these near- Malthusian interpretations result from a methodological focus on a handful of large sites, and that the Kashmir Valley contains multiple ecological niches suitable for a wide range of economic or ecological adaptation. This study therefore seeks to build on the growing palaeoenvironmental and archaeological data that suggests a more complex picture of social and ecological change in the valley. It investigates seasonally mobile pastoralism in the upland mountain flanks of the Kashmir Valley as a specialised and environmentally resilient adaptation, away from large agricultural settlements on the valley floor. Rather than using archaeological remains, this study draws on environmental signatures of pastoralist usage, enrichment or modification of environmental niches at middle and high altitudes, primarily on the western flank of the Kashmir Valley. These data include changes in pollen spectra, charcoal and fungal accumulation or sediment deposition that are indicative of pastoralist activity in mountain regions, and are interpreted through the lens of niche construction theory. The results presented here indicate that pastoralist land usage in the upland areas of Kashmir was spatially and temporally discontinuous, and likely entangled with other environmental and historical processes. The stronger signatures for pastoralism often appear contemporary with drier conditions and periods of regional agricultural intensification, indicating that upland summer season herding may be an adaptive strategy to mitigate other ecological or economic pressures. Seasonal exploitation of environmental niches by mobile agro-pastoralist groups across the “Inner Asian Mountain Corridor” enabled the development of systems of contact and exchange between pastoralist groups inhabiting the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, Pamir and Tien Shan ranges. In later periods these networks were central to the rise of historical “Silk Road” trade between China, Central and South Asia and beyond. The results of this study now permit consideration of the Kashmir Valley as a key node within these regional networks formed by Inner Asian pastoralists. iii Acknowledgments Producing this thesis was only possible through the support of many others. Thanks first to my supervisors, Alison Betts and Dan Penny. Alison has fostered my interest in Central Asian archaeology for many years, was the first to suggest I get on a plane to Kashmir and has steered my development before and throughout the course of this thesis. Dan has mentored me in the lab, helped me to untangle the masses of data I ended up with and put up with my annoying questions. My wholehearted gratitude goes to you both. Dr. Mumtaz Yatoo from the University of Kashmir helped develop the ideas within this thesis, made possible the fieldwork and was a constant friend and companion during my visits to Kashmir. I hope to one day repay this kindness. Professors G.N. Khaki and T.A. Rather at the Centre of Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir provided the official support that allowed us to undertake our fieldwork. Parvaiz Parray from the Jammu & Kashmir Forestry Department provided permits, vehicles, advice and a place to stay in the mountains of Budgam District. Dr. Ajmal Shah assisted with fieldwork, as did students from the archaeology program at the University of Kashmir − please continue with your efforts to record and protect Kashmir’s cultural heritage. Thanks is also due to Catriona Child and the Kakroo and Yatoo families for all of their hospitality, patience and help in Kashmir. My gratefulness also extends to dozens of others in the Kashmir Valley who guided us in the field, welcomed us into their homes or otherwise helped out, shukriyah. At the University of Sydney, I am indebted to Tom Savage and Bernadette Antonino from the School of Geoscience labs for all of their assistance over the years. Thanks is owed to the Centre of Classical and Near Eastern Studies Australia for providing me an office space. Thanks also to Jamie Fraser who was a sounding board over coffee breaks and to Tegan Hall who helped me to stop second guessing my methods or results. Kat McRae graciously took the time to read and comment on the entirety of this thesis. Erin Mein was a constant source of help in just about every aspect of this thesis. Dad retired from copy editing twenty years ago but was convinced to comb through this work. Generous grants from the Carlyle Greenwell Research Fund, the Near Eastern Archaeology Foundation and the Postgraduate Research Support Scheme, all at the University of Sydney, covered the costs of fieldwork and AMS dating. This work would have been impossible without this valuable sponsorship. Final thanks to my mum, dad and sisters for their support and encouragement over the years. This thesis is dedicated to Mumtaz Yatoo who taught me everything I know about Kashmir, and Erin Mein who had to suffer my constant repetition of it all. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Kashmir Valley ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Parameters of this study ....................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Organisation of this thesis ..................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Terminological and chronological conventions..................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2 Geographic, environmental and historical background ....................................................................... 11 2.1 Geography of Kashmir ......................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.1 Tectonic and geomorphological background ............................................................................. 11 2.1.2 Physical Geography .................................................................................................................... 13 2.1.3 Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 18 2.1.4 Biogeography.............................................................................................................................. 20 2.2 Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene environmental change............................................................... 25 2.2.1 Kashmir Valley ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.2.2 Regional palaeoclimate .............................................................................................................. 27 2.2.3 High resolution precipitation records from speleothems .......................................................... 28 2.2.4 Palaeoenvironmental summary ................................................................................................. 29 2.3 Archaeological
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