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Human-Monkey Conflict in Sri Lanka

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Human-Monkey Conflict in Sri Lanka Primate Conservation 2021 (35) An Ethnoprimatological Approach to Mitigating Sri Lanka’s Human-Monkey Conflicts R. Rudran1,2, S. J. Cabral de Mel3,4, A. Sumanapala5, R. K. de Mel3 and K. K. T. I. Mahindarathna2 1 Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA 2SPEARS Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka 3National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka 4Institute of Life Sciences and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia. 5Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka Abstract: Human-monkey conflicts became a serious problem in Sri Lanka due to extensive deforestation during and after the country’s 26-year ethnic war that ended in 2009. By 2015, these conflicts had affected most of the country’s administra- tive districts, and the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) was under severe public and political pressure to resolve the problem. To help the underfunded and understaffed DWC to address this issue, SPEARS Foundation, a local non-gov- ernmental organization, reviewed the complaint letters the agency had received from different districts. Next, it adopted an ethno-primatological approach to deal with the problem and conducted field surveys in several districts to interview residents and document their experiences with human-monkey conflicts. Those who lived in most of these districts followed Buddhism, which is steeped in the philosophy of compassion towards all living beings. In two districts, however, the interviewees were predominantly Hindus, whose religion also promoted reverence and respect for animals. Nevertheless, during the field sur- veys these people were dealing with problems of reclaiming the homes and croplands they had abandoned several years before, when they fled the war zone. Their hardships included clearing the jungle and defending their crops against monkeys and other wildlife that had invaded their abandoned properties during the war. While experiencing such threats to their survival, they seemed to have ignored their ancient religious doctrine of reverence and respect for living things. Ignoring these noble tradi- tions of peaceful coexistence could have been avoided if a comprehensive plan was available to mitigate people’s conflict with monkeys. This article presents such a plan, rooted in the country’s cultural attributes and strengthened by the views expressed by those interviewed during the surveys. Key Words: Field surveys, interviewee responses, evidence-based conflict mitigation plan, community participation Introduction elephants. Furthermore, all monkey species are endemic to Sri Lanka (Molur et al. 2003) and are also identified on the Sri Lanka’s monkey populations consist of four sub- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as either endangered species of the purple-faced langur (Semnopithecus vetulus), or threatened with extinction (Rudran 2019; Dittus 2020; three subspecies of the toque macaque (Macaca sinica) and Dittus and Watson 2020; Rudran et al. 2020). a single subspecies of the gray langur (Semnopithecus priam Despite their unique contribution to the world’s bio- thersites). The purple-faced langur and the toque macaque logical diversity and the threats facing their future survival, subspecies are distributed in all three climatic zones of the the people who complained to the Department of Wildlife country, while the gray langur is found only in Sri Lanka’s Conservation (DWC) about crop and property damage were dry zone (Fig. 1). Episodes of human-monkey conflicts clearly hostile towards these monkeys (Cabral et al. 2018). were, therefore, more widely distributed in the country than The harsh solutions many suggested to resolve human- human-elephant conflicts, which are mainly limited to the monkey conflicts also indicated a trend that was seriously dry zone (Prakash et al. 2020). Thus, human-monkey con- at odds with Sri Lanka’s deep-rooted culture of respect for flicts impact more Sri Lankans than problems caused by all living things. It was important, therefore, for the DWC 1 Rudran et al. Figure 1. Climatic Zones of Sri Lanka (from Karunaweera et al. 2014). to determine whether this trend was limited only to the complaints to the DWC between 2007 and 2015 (Cabral et complainants or reflected the views of a larger population, al. 2018). Before conducting a survey, our team used an before deciding to fulfill the agency’s official mandate to open-source GIS software (QGIS, 2015) to lay a 2 km × 2 protect wildlife. Taking the wrong decision would have km grid over a digital map of the district. The team then likely resulted in widespread backlash and condemnation of estimated the number of quadrats from which it could col- DWC, not only by conservationists but also by all Sri Lank- lect data during a six-day period. This estimate was based on ans who cherish their cultural roots. factors such as the condition of the road network available Since the DWC had practical limitations to determine to access different parts of the district and its human popu- whether the trend was widespread, the SPEARS Foundation lation density. If the district was large, the team planned stepped in to conduct field surveys in several districts and more than one six-day survey and determined the number of interview a large number of people to record their views on quadrats to be visited during each of them. human-monkey conflicts. The methods used to collect data About 50% of the quadrats chosen for data collection during and after the field surveys, and the results obtained included the residence of at least one person who had com- during both periods are presented below. This informa- plained to DWC. Quadrats from which there had been no tion should provide the DWC with valuable insights into complaints were chosen with the help of a random selec- Sri Lanka’s human-monkey conflicts, and how the agency tion tool in the QGIS software. If the randomly selected should deal with this culturally sensitive problem, while ful- quadrat without complaints fell on an area without houses filling its official responsibility to help conserve a unique (for example, forest/cropland) either the adjacent or closest component of the country’s wildlife. quadrat with a road network was selected. If the quadrat fell adjacent to or on a quadrat with complaint(s), the sub- Methods sequent quadrat selected for data collection was at least 2 km away. A team of university graduates familiar with this inves- During the survey, our team visited homes in each tigation’s data collection techniques conducted the field quadrat selected for data collection and conducted semi- surveys. The surveys focussed mainly on administrative structured interviews with occupants who were willing to districts that had submitted the largest number of public provide information needed to fill a standard questionnaire 2 Sri Lanka’s human-monkey conflicts Table 1. Number of people interviewed in 11 districts in Sri Lanka. (see Appendix). A similar, questionnaire-based survey of residents was used recently to investigate the island-wide District # % distribution of primates (Pastorini et al. 2021). The ques- Colombo 147 9.06 tionnaire used by our team collected data on people’s per- Kalutara 183 11.28 sonal background, their attitudes towards monkeys, and Kandy 282 17.38 when possible, estimates of financial losses these animals Matara 229 14.11 had caused through crop and property damage. Galle 240 14.79 Our team was unable to collect data for six days in some Gampaha 180 11.09 districts because of inclement weather, temporary shortage of project funds and inability to communicate with local Polonnaruwa 321 19.78 people due to language differences. The quadrat method Nuwara Eliya 11 0.68 of data collection was also not feasible in certain sparsely Badulla 2 0.12 populated districts with large plantations of export crops Jaffna 18 1.10 such as tea and cut flowers. When faced with such situations Kilinochchi 10 0.61 our team used the questionnaire to collect data opportunisti- Total 1623 cally when it met people with whom it shared a common language. The team was also unable to collect sufficient informa- Table 2. Age and education of Interviewees. tion on average monthly losses that interviewees sustained Age category # % Education # % due to crop and property damage. Its inability to obtain this (yrs) information was probably due to the relatively short dura- 18–25 75 4.62 None 21 1.3 tion of the interviews, when interviewees were unable to 26–35 223 13.7 Primary 191 11.8 calculate average monthly losses. To overcome this prob- 36–45 323 19.9 Secondary 1210 74.6 lem, after the surveys were completed our team mailed the 46–55 344 21.2 Tertiary 70 4.3 questionnaire to several divisional secretariats of the gov- ernment requesting them to distribute it to local communi- 56–65 349 21.5 Not listed 131 8.1 ties. This method of collecting data provided a larger pool >65 261 16.1 of crop and property damage information that is discussed Not listed 48 2.96 below. Table 3. Types of Employment of Interviewees. Results and Discussion Employment category # % Field survey details Unemployed 257 15.8 The SPEARS team conducted 13 field surveys of 11 Housewife 120 7.4 administrative districts from January 2016 to June 2018 Unskilled worker 78 4.8 (Table 1). During these surveys, the team used the question- Skilled worker 219 13.5 naire (see Appendix) to conduct 1,623 semi-structured inter- Entrepreneur 228 14.1 views and collect people’s personal data, including their Government employee 45 2.8 views about monkeys. Surveys conducted in the districts of Farmer 337 20.8 Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Jaffna, and Kilinochchi lasted less Other 139 8.6 than six days due to one or more of the reasons already men- Not mentioned 200 12.3 tioned.
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