Dravida Pozhil (Journal of Dravidian Studies)

Apr-Jun 2021 Quarterly Vol.1, Issue 2

Patron Dr. K.Veeramani 1. Preface from the Editors Chancellor MáÇa® FGÉ‹ MŒÉjœ Kfîiu 3 Editorial Board Prof. Dr. Kannabiran Ravishankar 2. Hegemony of Religious Texts and Prof. Dr. P. Jagadeesan Prof. Dr. P. Kalimuthu Development of Tamil Ritual System Prof. Dr. Sp. Thinnappan calledThamiḻ Arccaṉai Prof. Dr. Nam. Srinivasan - Prof. Dr. Vasu Renganathan 7 Dr. Soma Ilangovan Dr. V. Neru 3. âuhÉl ïa¡fK« Published by âU¡FwŸ vG¢áí« Centre of Excellence for 28 Periyar Thought - nguh. Kidt® â. jhkiu¢bršÉ Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science and Technology 4. jÄœ mf¥bghUS« òw¥bghUS« - (Deemed to be University) Vallam, Thanjavur - 613403 ãw¥gf« jÄHfkh? mayfkh? - Tamil Nadu, India. - nguh. Kidt®. â. KUfu¤jd« 43 Language Bi-lingual 5. jªij bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw Single Issue (India) Rs.200/- - nguh. Kidt® e«.ÓÅthr‹ 68 Annual Subscription (India) Rs.800/- Single Issue (International) $15 6. Annual Subscription Kjš bg© ïjÊaš MSikfŸ (International) $50 - Kidt® K.R.f©k 86 Designed & Printed at : PMIST Press 7. #hâí« rkj®kK« Vallam, Thanjavur - 613403 - njhH® R.m¿î¡fuR 98 Tamil Nadu, India. Tel: (91) 98401 32684 Email : [email protected] 8. âuhÉl¥ bghÊš 109 Visit our Website at MŒÉjœ - MŒtu§f« dravidapozhil.pmu.edu fšyiz, bgUik Kallanai (meaning Stone Dam) thŒªj bjhšmiz! fhÉÇ is an ancient Barrage Dam built of M‰¿‹ FW¡nf bt£L¥glhj unhewn stones across the River f‰ghiwfshš, 2000 + M©LfŸ Cauvery in Tamil Nadu, India. It K‹ng f£l¥g£l jL¥giz, stands today as a testimonial for the âuhÉl¡ f£Lkhd¡ fiy¡F Tamil-Dravidian architecture. The ï‹W« rh‹W gf®»wJ. ancient Tamil King KarikālCholan r§f¤ jÄÊ‹ g£od¥ghiy (approx. 100 CE) eulogized òfG« nrhHk‹d‹ fÇfhy‹ in Pattinappālai Sanga Tamil (âUkhtst‹ fÇfh‰ bgUts¤jh‹, Corpus, built this dam as a water 100 CE) f£Lɤj ïªj miz, regulatory structure to divert the excess water fhÉÇÆš ghí« btŸsÚiu of the River Cauvery to far reaching lands, for m‹nw kilkh‰¿, bjhiyÉš cŸs gy the sake of boosting irrigation and thereby Ãy§fS¡F« ghŒ¢á, nrhH eh£oš ghrd agriculture. When Aryan Kings of India used to ntsh©ikia¥ bgU¡»aJ. ïªâa MÇa build non-beneficial opulent temples for the sake mur®fŸ gyU« gaÅyh Ml«gu«Ä¡f of religion, the Dravidian Tamil King Karikālan Mya§fis kj« rh®ªJ vG¥ãaJ built this magnificent dam for the sake of social nghš mšyhkš, âuhÉl¤ jÄœ mur‹ benefit and upliftment. fÇfhy‹ r_f nk«gh£L¡bf‹nw ïªj¥ nguizia¡ f£Lɤjh‹. This dam is a civil engineering architectural fšyiz, FoKiw¥ bgh¿Æaš marvel, and is still operational after 2000+ years f£Lkhd¡ fiyÆ‹ bjh‹k Éa¥ng of continuous use. The British maintained and vÅD«, ï‹W« bjhl®ªJ ga‹gh£oš expanded this dam in the 1830s. Engineer Sir cŸsJ. 1830fËš M§»nya® ïjid¥ Arthur Cotton studied the dam thoroughly and guhkǤJ ÉÇth¡»d®. bgh¿ahs® r®. M®j® exclaimed, “This is a Grand Anaicut”. Thus the fh£l‹ mizia MŒªJ, “ïJbgU« Tamil word ‘Anaicut’ (Anaikattu meaning Dam) nguiz (This is a Grand Anaicut)” v‹W entered the English Dictionary, much alike the òfHhu« N£odh®. miz¡f£L (Anaicut) word ‘Catamaran’ (Kattumaram). Sir Cotton v‹D« jÄœ¢brhš, f£Lku« (Catamaran) benchmarked this ancient technique of dam v‹D« brhš nghynt, M§»y mfuhâÆš foundation over sand-bed and recommended V¿‰W. ïªj mizÆ‹ bjh‹ikahd a similar Anaicut construction on the Godavari kz‰gLif mo¤js¡ f£Lkhd E£g¤ij river, which is now called as ‘Sir Arthur Cotton r®. fh£l‹, nfhjhtÇ miz¡f£L¡F« Godavari Barrage’. (r®.M®j® fh£l‹ nfhjhtÇ jL¥giz) River Cauvery splits into two channels and ã‹ò ga‹gL¤â¡ bfh©lh®. forms the island of Thiru Arangam. It again fhÉÇahW, ïu©lhf¥ ãǪJ, âUtu§f« joins & splits at Kallanai. The northern channel Ôit cUth¡», Û©L« fšyiz is Kollidam (Coleroon) and the southern channel mUnf To¥ ãÇ»wJ; tl âU¡fhÉÇ retains the name Cauvery, and together they bfhŸËl« v‹W«, bj‹ âU¡fhÉÇ, fhÉÇ flow downstream via various canals & branches, v‹D« bgaÇnyna toÃy« KGtJ« transforming the delta into a Granary of Rice fhšthŒfshfî« thŒ¡fhšfshfî« ÉǪJ, and Grandeur of Agriculture. Truly, Kallanai is an jŠiria be‰fsŠáa« M¡F« fšyiz, apt monument for inclusion in World Heritage cyf kuò¡ fs¤âš nr®¡f¤j¡fJ! list. The awe-inspiring pictures of the dam and MW« mizí« bfhŠáL« glnk the river barrage adorn the cover page of this ï›Éjœ Kf¥ãš vÊš T£L»wJ. Dravida Pozhil issue. Preface from the Editors

orldwide Dravidian Tamil Populace worldwide. In this initiative, Dravida Pozhil and Distinguished Academic Scholars, seeks to enable a deep academic research, WGreetings & Vanakkam! maintaining global academic standards, and deliver the fruits of the research to our On the birth anniversary of Dr. B.R. common people and scholars alike. Ambedkar (Apr 14th 2021), this 2nd issue of Journal of Dravidian Studies (JODS) Towards this task, we already stated that, – Dravida Pozhil is being released with we will collaborate with global scholars and seeds of social justice ingrown in the research also provide opportunities for other scholars, papers. The 1st issue last January, was widely budding women scholars and blossoming received both nationally & internationally, with scholars from the underprivileged communities. many academicians providing scholarly review Keeping with our dreams & promises, this and wishes. We are happy with such a global issue carries fine research papers from two reception. Women Scholars. Let Feminism grow in leaps and bounds in the field of research as well. Continuous Improvement is the essence of Human Journey as studied in the field The 2ndissue contains 6 research papers of Anthropology. Surpassing previous from Tamil Nadu and the United States: accomplishments in the long journey of education, this 2nd issue blossoms with l Hegemony of Religious Texts and Tamil intricate research articles in the Dravidian based Worship vs. Sanskrit Ritualism. space. l Dravidian Movement & Thirukkural While showcasing the research capabilities Renaissance of the Dravidian Intelligentsia, we also need to integrate the Dravidian Thought & Philosophy l Tamil Themes – aka poruḷ & puṟa poruḷ – with the auspicium of renowned Scholars Native or Foreign?

3 l The Approach Methodology of Periyar Rationality, Culture, Civilization, Art, History, Language and Humanities are the l The first Women Stalwarts in Tamil many facets of the humankind, and Academic Journalism Research in those domains integrating with Dravidian Philosophy is our Mission. Towards l The Question of Caste vs. Equality achieving an egalitarian society, we are ploughing, seeding and cultivating the land The above Papers have been duly of Dravidian Research. Without any fear or reviewed by domain experts. We wish you favor, without any bias or premeditation, only a deep reading and a pleasant sharing with a fine sense of academic and professional experience. If you have any questions, ingenuity, we have embarked on this journey. please do not hesitate to reach out to us or the Authors themselves. Let us walk together on the road of research. Please join with us in this Dravidian Also, there was a symposium on papers Academic Journey. featured in the last issue of Dravida Pozhil, during Feb 2021 at USA. Scholars from Tamil - The Board of Editors. Nadu also joined that event online. A feature • Prof. Dr. Kannabiran Ravishankar of those proceedings is also listed in this issue. • Prof. Dr. P. Jagadeesan Such discussion should happen for every article • Prof. Dr. P. Kalimuthu and every issue of the Journal. Reading alone • Prof. Dr. Sp. Thinnappan never quenches the thirst of a researcher. A collective debate and discussion enhances our • Prof. Dr. Nam. Srinivasan knowledge. Knowledge enhancement is the • Dr. Soma Ilangovan way to Social Enhancement. • Dr. V. Neru

4 MáÇa® FGÉ‹ MŒÉjœ Kfîiu

ybfyh« guÉ thG« âuhÉl¤ mªj¥ gÂÆš, cybf§F« cŸs cjÄHh®ty®fS¡F tz¡f«! Jiwrh® tšYe®fnshL, âuhÉl« rh®ªj tšYe®fisí«, bg© m©zš m«ng¤fÇ‹ ãwªjehËny (V¥uš MŒths®fisí«, xL¡f¥g£l r_ 14), e«Kila 'âuhÉl¥ bghÊš'MŒÉjÊ‹ f§fËš K»œ¤bjGªJŸs ïsÃiy ïªj ïu©lh« ïjœ, r_fÚâ ɤJ¡fis¤ MŒths®fisí«, 'âuhÉl¥ bghÊš' jh§»¥ gh§Fw btËtU»‹wJ. br‹w MŒÉjœ C¡FÉ¡F« v‹W K‹ng Kjyh« ïjœ, gh® KGJ« guÉ, cyf brhšÈÆUªnjh«. brh‹d t©z« m¿P® bgUk¡fË‹ âwdhŒî¥ brŒí« e‹da¤â‹ go, ï›ÉjÊš ã‹}£l§fisí« thœ¤Jfisí« ïu©L bg© MŒths®fŸ, j« xUnru¥ bg‰wâš, e« ahtU¡F« k»œ¢á. MŒî¥ gil¥ãid tH§F»‹wh®fŸ. bjhl®¢áahd K‹nd‰w« (Continuous MŒîy»Y« bg©ikÆ‹ bt‰¿ Improvement) v‹»w khªjÉaš nfh£gh£o‹ bghÈf! t©z«, K‹ÅY« áwªJ bfh©nl bršY« ï¡ fšÉ¥ gaz¤âš, mL¤j ïjG« ïªj ïu©lh« ïjÊš, 6 MŒî¡ E£gkhd gy MŒî¡ f£Liufis¤ jh§» f£LiufŸ, jÄœ eh£oÈUªJ« tU»wJ. mbkÇ¡fhÉÈUªJ« ïl« bg‰WŸsd.

âuhÉl MŒî¥ òyikÆid, 4 kj üšfË‹ nkyhâ¡fK«, MŒîyF¡F¥ giw rh‰W« tifÆš, cyf jÄÊš mU¢rid vD«rl§»aš msÉyhd fšÉ¥òy¤ ju¤âny (Global ts®th¡fK« Academic Standards), gy fšÉahs®fis¤ 4 âuhÉl ïa¡fK« âU¡FwŸ vG¢áí« âuhÉl¢ áªjid rh®ªJ xU§F âu£o, ïªj 4 jÄœ mf¥bghUS« òw¥bghUS« - MŒÉjÊ‹ thÆyhf¤ âuhÉl¤ jÄœ¢ r_ ãw¥gf« jÄHfkh?mayfkh? fkhd bghJk¡fS¡F«, m¿P®fS¡F« 4 jªij bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw ga‹ÄF bghU©ikia tH§fny e« 4 Kjš bg© ïjÊaš MSikfŸ F¿¡nfhŸ. 4 #hâí« rkj®kK« 5 Jiw m¿P®fshš ÓuhŒî brŒa¥g£L bkhÊ, kÅj« ngh‹w e‹da§fËš, âuhÉl« btËtU« ï¡f£Liufis thá¤J k»œf. rh®ªj fšÉ¥òy MuhŒ¢ána e«ïy¡F! nkyâf Édh¡fŸ ïU¥ã‹, ja¡fnkJÄ‹¿ mâš fhŒjš ct¤jš ïyhj MŒî¢ v«iknah mšyJ f£Liuahs®fisnah Ó®iknahL, jÄœ¢ r_f¤ij¢ NœªJŸs neuoahf¤ bjhl®ò bfhŸf. gy g‰¿a§fËš, MH cG»‹nwh«; Éij¡»‹nwh«; Éis¡»‹nwh«. âuhÉl br‹w ïjœ¡ f£LiufË‹ Ûjhd X® MŒî¥ gÆ® brʤJ Éisa£L«! MŒtu§f«, mbkÇ¡fhÉš ã¥utǤ â§fËš eilbg‰wJ. ïiza tÊna âuhÉl MŒîfŸ gHFnth«. ï¡ fšÉ¥ jÄœeh£oÈUªJ« MŒths®fŸ gy® mâš gaz¤âš ahtU« ïizªâU§fŸ. fyªJ bfh©lh®fŸ. mª Ãfœî¡ F¿¥ò« ï›ÉjÊš ïl« bg‰WŸsJ. ïJ nghš - MáÇa®FG MŒtu§FfŸ bjhl®ªJ eilbgw nt©L«. l nguh. Kidt® f©zãuh‹ ïuÉr§f® MŒÉjiH thá¥gnjhL ËWÉlhJ, l nguh, Kidt® bg.b#fÔr‹ To¡ fyªJiu brŒtnj, m¿î bgU¡F« l nguh. Kidt® g.fhËK¤J bgUtÊ. m¿it ÉÇî brŒtnj khDl l nguh. Kidt® Rg.â©z¥g‹ ts®¢átÊ. l nguh. Kidt® e«. ÓÅthr‹ l kU. nrhk. ïs§nfht‹ gF¤j¿î, g©ghL, ehfÇf«, fiy, tuyhW, l Kidt®. th. neU

6 HEGEMONY OF RELIGIOUS TEXTS AND DEVELOPMENT OF TAMIL RITUAL SYSTEM CALLEDTHAMIḺ ARCCAṈAI Prof. Dr. Vasu Renganathan University of Pennsylvania, USA

Abstract divine/spiritual possession,conflicted with the later development of a Hindu ritual system Priesthood and the use of religious texts instigated by Vedic concepts of a North Indian in South Indian temples have undergone source. immense politicisation on various stages, and the evolution of related hegemonic traits Introduction into particular ritual systems has been fully dependent upon the dialogue produced by Rituals, priesthood and liturgical texts this politicisation process. As a result of this are integral elements of religion, and have textual phenomenon, the Sanskrit and Tamil played a vital role in shaping the Hindu way priesthoods emerged as two heterogeneous of life since the Vedic period.‘Priesthood communities that under went representation was the important carrier of intellectualism, and ‘re-presentation with enormous challenges particularly wherever scriptures existed, and by engaging in a discourse of Subject versus it would make it necessary for the priesthood subject. Representations of Tamil priests to become a literary guild engaged in originated mainly from Tamil nationalists, interpreting the scriptures and teaching their through re-presentations of Tamil bhakti content, meaning and proper application’ texts, whereas their Sanskrit counterparts, (Weber 1992, p. 118).Religious texts with which had been patronised heavily in the diverse forms, such as poems composed in past by both the British colonisers and India’s praise of God, liturgical texts, bhakti songs kings,used hegemonic ritual texts – written expressing poet saints’ devotion to God and in Tamil grantha script, but in the Sanskrit philosophical writings on a set of unique language – as the primary source of ritual themes from monism, dualism, meypporuḷ,the process in South Indian temples. The main ‘doctrine of denotation’, Śaiva Siddāntā,the objective of this work is to study the discourse definitive knowledge of Lord Śivaand other of Tamil nationalism and its development, related theological doctrines, not only shaped focusing on the hegemony of religious texts a strong community affiliation with divinities, of the past and how this shaped the current but also created diverse belief systems among ritual system in the temples of Tamil Nadu. religious practitioners, especially in the South In particular, an attempt is made to show Indian religious landscape. This system of how indigenous methods of worship from the religious edifices should be differentiated from ancient Tamil era,featuring predominantly earlier conceptions of a Sangam landscape, bodily performance, folk songs and the art of predominantly modelled on poems of war, love

7 and nature, didactic poems and to a lesser It can thus be said that Tamil nationalist extent religious poems on Tamil folk deities. sentimentarose from adesire to defend against the growing tendency to choose one As priesthood and methods of using text over another. What had emerged as religious texts in South Indian temples have Dravidianism turned into Tamil nationalism undergone immense politicisation on various with a focus on the hegemony of the Tamil stages, the evolution of any related hegemonic language, Tamil literature and subsequent trait into a particular ritual system has been religious developments based particularly on fully dependent on the dialogue produced by texts from the beginning of the Christian era. this politicisation process throughout history. The aim of this work is to show how Tamil A nationalist consciousness surfaced with literary and religious developments, more than the main objective of reconstituting the past the charisma of the poet saints or any other based on both religious and non-religious related group,were instrumental in forming Sangam literary texts – a process similar to a discourse of Tamilism, Tamil nationalism, that described by Uma Chakravartias follows: Tamilhood and Tamil bhakti – popularly known ‘perceptions of the past are constantly as Tamilar madham (‘the Tamil religion’) – being constituted and reconstituted anew’ relative to their Sanskrit counterparts. (Chakravarti 1990, p. 26). As a result of this exclusive textual phenomenon, In Michel Foucault’s (1983) terminology, the the two predominant linguistic groups, power relations between the two contesting Sanskrit and Tamil,were polarised, producing sects created a discourse designed to exert heterogeneous priesthood communities that power over the underprivileged class in the underwent representation, ‘re-presentation’ context of the religious mode of representation. and politicisation and overcame challenges by ‘Hegemony denotes a transformation from engaging themselves in a discourse of what within, both the subject and of its environment. Gayathri Spivak terms a ‘S/subject dichotomy’ Moreover, it implies a change in the critical (Spivak, 1988, p. 280).Representations of perspective of the theorist, who is solicited Tamil priests arose from Tamil nationalists’ re- to look at political emancipation from the presentation of the relevance of Tamil bhakti point of view of the most subordinated’ texts, whereas their Sanskrit counterparts (Urbinati 1998, p. 370).The Tamil mode of were represented by the hegemonic texts of religious representation is assumed to be in a Āgama scriptures, mainly transcribed in Tamil subordinate position,relatively powerless, with grantha script, but composed in the Sanskrit the celebrated Tamil nationalist movement language, which have the greatest scriptural solely responsible for deriving a discourse that authority and form the basis of ritual systems generated a sense of Tamil hegemony. It is in almost all major South Indian temples necessary to determine whether this discourse (see Spivak 1988, p. 70on the senses of should be acknowledged as a prevailing ‘representation’ and ‘re-presentation’ in the feature of the Tamils, to be attributed to – in context of Deleuze’s arguments). a Gramscian sense – the hegemonic groups in society. The notion of Tamil nationalism emerged largely through a combinationof the hegemony The efforts of the British to understand and of Tamil religious texts of the past with the interpret the Vedas and the Upanishads were transformative effect of the formation of a new largely circumstantial, based on the belief ritual system through Tamil religious poems. that such texts represented authentic local

8 knowledge and thus needed to be incorporated according to Thurston (1975),were non- into the colonial process of constructing a Brahman priests recruited largely from the state. ‘A version of history was gradually Veḷḷāḷa and Paḷḷicastes; they were Śaivites, established in which the Brahmans were vegetarian and celibate. Despite their self- shown to have the same intentions as (thus perceived religious intellectual standing, providing the legitimation for) the codifying as noted by Weber, they were constantly British’ (Spivak 1988, p.255). But neither the engaged in contest with their Sanskrit bhakti tradition nor the localised cult practices super ordinates. In some cases, they were of the Tamils became part of this process of obliged to follow certain restrictions on their colonial production. Subsequently, the spiritual devotional practices to ensure that the scope and devotional engagement of the Śaiva of these practices did not exceed that of and Vaiṣṇava Tamil traditions, developing Sanskrit rituals and customs. For example, mostly from 7 to 9 AD, along with traditions some temples, especially Śiva temples, as belonging to the early Christian era in the in Chidambaram, had an ongoing custom form of cult practices,had very little impact on that permitted only Sanskrit priests to begin the process of knowledge production by the rituals, while Tamil priests had only the right British, especially compared with the impact of to end them (cf. Ishmatsu 1994, p. 21). Sanskrit Āgamic texts. Along with the British, the Pallava and Cōḻākings sought to patronise Tradition of Chanting Śaiva Hymns in Śiva the paṭṭars, Brahman priests, offering them Temples of South India and Evidence from power and scriptural authority. This is Stone Inscriptions apparent from many Tamil stone inscriptions. One such inscription records the Pallava king The chanting of Śaiva Tirumuṟai hymns Peruñciṅka’s establishment of an estate called in temples as part of rituals is attested MūvāyiraVaḷākam, ‘3,000Regions’,around the to in many inscriptions from the Pallava Naṭarājā temple of Chidambaram, and his period onwards,confirming that a dialogue designation of the temple as under the sole between the two contesting methods of ownership of its Brahman priests (paṭṭars)1. religious practice had occurred historically. This inscription may be of particular interest Although this tradition was in place from to those seeking to understand how the the composition of the Śaiva hymns by the legendary tradition of MūvāyiraDīkṣitarkaḷ, 63Nāyanmārsuntil recent times, references in ‘3,000Diksidars’,came to belong to the inscriptions to the establishment of permanent Chidambaram Naṭarājā temple. grants by both the Pallava and the Cōḻā kings indicate that the Tamils’ method of In parallel with the Sanskrit tradition, ritualisation with a community of hymnists those who mastered Tamil religious texts involved the use of Tamil texts as well as and approached God mainly through praise poet saints’ expression of their devotion to poems composed in Tamil were variously God. An inscription made on behalf of Raja called otuvārs (those who chant Tamil hymns), Rajendra Cōḻā, for instance, records the king’s paṇḍārams (Tamil priests)and pūcāris (priests order to assign a daily allowance of paddy to of the Tamil clan gods). They also positioned each of 48 persons (piṭārarkaḷ) involved in themselves as the carriers of religious reciting the Tiruppadiyam (Śaiva hymns of the 63 intellectualism in South India, but with less Nāyanmārs) in the Śiva temple of Thanjavur, emphasis than their Sanskrit counter partson along with the two persons providing a drum their recognition and authority. Paṇḍārams, accompaniment.

9 …rājarāja tēvarkku yāṇṭu irupattoṉpatāvatu viṇṇappañceyvittu annelluppeṟavum varai uṭaiyār rājarājīsvarasrī uṭaiyārkkut avvavarkku aṭutta muṟai kaṭavārinṟiyoḻiyil anta tiruppatiyam viṇṇappañceyya uṭaiyār niyāyattāre yogyarāyiruppāraittiruppatiyam rārājatēvar kuṭutta iṭārarkaḷ nāṟpatteṇmarum ‘Viṇṇappañceyya iṭṭu iṭṭa avaṉe avvavar ivarkaḷilē nilaiyāy uṭukkai vācippāṉ oruvaṉum peṟumpaṭi nellup peṟavum āka ippaṭi uṭaiyār ivarkaḷilē koṭṭimattaḷam vācippāṉ oruvaṉum srīrājarājatēvar tiruvāymoḻintaruḷiṉapaṭi kallil āka aimpatiṉmarukkuppērāl nicatam nellu veṭṭiyatu. (ibid.) mukkuṟuṇi… (SII2 No. 65). Among these, aside from those who King Rajaraja Devar’s order in his are dead and those who have left the 29th regnal year is hereby to perform town, subsequent generations of people the Tiruppatiyam to Rajarajiisvarasri who chant Tamil Śaivā hymns should be Udaiyar. All of the 48 men [piṭārarkaḷ] offered the aforementioned amount of who perform the Tiruppatiyam, as well paddy. In the case of a lack of subsequent as the one who plays the hand drum generations capable of chanting Tamil Śaivā and the one who plays the stick drum, hymns], the people incharge should appoint totalling 50 people,must be offered those who are able to chant hymns and three quarters of the paddy. offer them the same amount of paddy. This is the writing made on stone by the order It is unclear whether the performance of of Udaiyar Sri Raja RajaTevar. Tiruppatiyam viṇṇappañceytal, ‘chanting of the hymns’, by a group of people called piṭārarkaḷ The determined efforts of India’s medie was the main event of the temple worship or valkings to promote the use of Tamil religious supplementary to the principal form of ritual texts can be taken as evidence of the carried out in Sanskrit. Yet the subsequent perceived authenticity of Tamil religious poems lines in this inscription record the donor’s as part of the Tamils’ religious life. However, as command that this custom be perpetuated mentioned elsewhere, the kings consistently down the generations, with donations issued patronised both traditions, Sanskrit and to all who engaged in the process; in the Tamil,and hence became responsible for the case of a lack of hymnists, according to the continued coexistence of the two competing inscription, the heir of the tradition should be ritual practices from the medieval period forced (āḷiṭṭutTiruppatiyamviṇṇappañceyvittu) to onwards. This is further substantiated by a continue. If the lineage were to end, it would reference in an inscription made at the order of be the utmost responsibility of those who the same king,Rajarajatevar, on the north wall managed (niyāyattāre) the ritual process to of the Tiruppundurutti temple Tanjore Taluk. find an appropriate hymnist (yogyarāyiruppār) This inscription, part of a very long Meykkīrtti, to maintain the tradition and dispense the ‘praise of God’, mentions the prosperity of the donations accordingly. two main religious groups, Tamil and Sanskrit, along with those from diverse other regions, Ivarkaḷil cettārkkum aṉātēcam such as the Kuccarar, Āriyar, Kōcalar, Koṅkaṇar, pōṉārkkuntalaimāṟu avvavarkku aṭutta Vaccirar, Kāciyar, Cōṉakar and Vantiyar. muṟai kaṭavār annelluppeṟṟut tiruppatiyam viṇṇappañceyyavum avvavarkku aṭutta Nāl vētat tarumaṟaiyo raivveḻvi muṟai kaṭavār tāntām yogyarī allātu viṭil yāṟaṅkamuṭaṉ ciṟappa varuntamiḻu māriyamu yogyarāyiruppārai āḷiṭṭut tiruppatiyam maṟu camaiyat taṟa neṟiyun tiruntu maṉuṉeṟiyun

10 tiṟampātu taḻaittōṅkak kuccararumāriyarum close connection with Tamil religious texts; b) kōcalaruṅ koṅkaṇarum vacciraruṅ kāciyaru to define the positions of political and non- māttararu....rumaṉaruñ cōṉaka vantiyaru political agents during the colonial and post mutalāya virunila māmuṭi vēnta riṟaiñci niṉṟu colonial periods to characterise the priesthood tiṟaikāṭṭavum. (SII5. No. 459: 4). and their intellectual involvement with the application of liturgical texts; and finally c) to Let the four Vēdas prosper, with all five hypothesise as to how the descendants of the types of fire ritual (Vēḷvi) in order; [let] the once religiously popular Tamil bhakti saints, precious Tamil along with Āryam and other namely the ōtuvārs, paṇḍārams and pūcāris,took religious doctrines such as Manu’s prosper up a ‘subaltern’ position that made their without fail. The kings of the Kuccarars, religious intellectualism less conspicuous than Āriyars, Kōcalars, Koṅkaṇars, Vaccirars, that of their Sanskrit Āgamic counterparts. Kāciyars, Cōṉakars and Vantiyars, who belong to two regions, should also achieve Mutual Responsibilities of Brahman Priests great prosperity and richness. and Clans (kuṭi) of the Sangam Period

It can be inferred from this inscription that The hegemonic position of Sanskrit and the religious rituals of diverse doctrines were the Brahmanic tradition can be traced back treated equally during the medieval period, to the Sangam period, when the legacy of with no contest over their relative domination the Tamil textual tradition prevailed over its or power. Therefore, conflict between the Sanskrit counterpart. Sanskrit doctrines and diverse belief systems must have arisenat the involvement of Brahman priests during the a later period, especially during the post- Sangam period were restricted exclusively to medieval and colonial periods. the performance of rituals and Vēdic rites on special occasions. This is evident from Sangam What is explored here, therefore, has poems, in which many references can be more to do with how the Tamil nationalist found to the participation of Brahman priests, movement (as developed by the members with such expressions as antaṇararumaṟaip of the Dravidian group during the colonial poruḷ,‘Brahman’s sacred doctrines’ (Kalitokai and post-colonial periods) and the hegemony 127);antaṇaraṟaṉ,‘Brahman’s virtue’ (Paripāṭal of Tamil religious nationalism (as developed 5);antaṇarvēḷvi,‘Brahman’s sacrificial fire’ from the medieval period onwards by a group (Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai 2); and so on. Similar of charismatic saint figures from the Śaiva references to Sanskrit tradition and the and Vaiṣṇava sects) countered the Sanskrit significance of its role in preserving linguistic tradition developing concurrently with a similar information can be found in the Tolkappiyam. scope and momentum and using mainly the One of the sutras in the Tolkappiyam states that Sanskrit versions of Āgamic scriptures. The the details of articulated sound and its quantity Sanskrit Āgamas proposed a system of worship are clearly discussed in the scriptures of the of Śiva in temples that closely followed the brāhmaṇās – takatteḻuvaḷiyicaiaril tapaṉātiaḷapiṟkōṭ rules established in the Kriyāgramadyotikā by alantaṇ armaṟaittē(Tolkāppiyam. Eḻuttatikāram. Agoraśiva, Kāmikāgama, Rauravāgama and 102-3). Meenakshi (2007) addresses the others (cf. Ishimatsu 1994). Therefore, this relationship between the Tamil and Sanskrit study has the three main following purposes: a) grammatical traditions, especially in terms to study closely the devotional practices of the of the assimilation of Sanskrit grammatical Sanskrit and Tamil traditions in relation to their knowledge into Tamil grammar. Based

11 on a number of references to traditional Aryanism and Dravidianism: Discourse on Sanskrit grammar as adapted in many Tamil Contest for Religious Hegemony grammatical manuals, she notes that almost all of the Tamil grammarians ‘appear to have Under enormous pressure from components been well-versed in Sanskrit as well’(ibid., of the Tamil nationalist movement, such as p. 155). It is important to note that during the Justice Party and the Dravidian parties, the Sangam period, the Sanskrit and Tamil the state’s intervention in religious matters traditions did not enter a process of textual became inevitable in both the colonial and contestation, nor was either dominant over the the post colonial period. The politicisation other. Instead, the priestly duties and other of religion was constituted by a discourse forms of involvement of Brahmans during the that involved both domination by elites and Sangam period were treated akin to the duties a struggle for power by the oppressed. The of any other clans (kuṭi), who were known to late 19th and early 20th centuries created an have been assigned to perform specific tasks appropriate environment for the development of their own. This is evident from references of both anti-caste sentiment and revivalist to the duties (toḻil) of these clans in many and nativist sentiment, which took the form Sangam poems – vēntutoḻil, ‘duties of a king’ of a politically dominating ‘self-respect’ (Puṟanāṉūṟu 285);aṟutoḻilantaṇar, ‘duties of movement in 1920 (Irschick 1986, p. 3).The virtue of Brahmans’ (Puṟanāṉūṟu 368); and purpose of this movement was to create an so on. It is also apparent from the following imagined Tamil community tracing back to an poem from the Nālaṭiyār, one of the didactic era popularly known as the Sangam period, works of the Sangam period, that these clans dated between ca 3 BC and 4 AD. This period were under a categorical obligation to carry saw limited Sanskrit involvement with the out their duties (kuṭipiṟappāḷar). Tamils, with the exception of the performance of rituals of fire (commonly known as vēḷvi) Uṭukkaiulaṟiuṭampaḻintakkaṇṇum for kings by Brāhman priests, whom Sangam kuṭippiṟappāḷartamkoḷkaiyilkuṉṟār texts described variously as aṟavōr, ‘righteous iṭukkaṇtalaivantakkaṇṇumarimā people’; ācāṉ, ‘teachers’; antaṇar, ‘Brahmans’; koṭippulkaṟikkumōmaṟṟu. (Nālaṭiyār 141) andpārppāṉ, ‘Brahmaṇa’.5

Even if they lose their clothes from their bodies, The most notable aspect of textual the clans must never fail to fulfil their duties. production in the Sangam period is that most Despite the dreadful nature of hunger, indigenous and unique classical Tamil literature lions never consume grass. on a number of distinctive topics, such as love, warfare and ethics, evolved without Clearly,the originally mutual and peaceful much consideration of religion. The Tamils’ relationship between the Tamil and Sanskrit indigenous thought processes appear to have traditions transformed into a much-debated divided human life into aham (internal, of the relationship of conflict from the medieval heart, relating to love) and puṟam (external, period onwards, especially after parallel social, political), and landscape into another religious texts by the Nāyaṉmārs and the five major types. Several similar mindsets was Āḻvārs emerged in Tamil to become carriers of advanced through the much-revered Tamil religious intellectualism alongside the Sanskrit literature of the Sangam period. In sum, these Vēdas. original and conceptually native traditions played an influential role in determining the

12 nature of the imagined Tamil community, and hymns in temples, using such terms as also suggested a position for contestation for Tirumuṟaipāṭutal and Tiruppadiyamceytal, the Tamil nationalists, largely to claim their ‘singing the Tirumuṟai’. Therefore, a authority. From the 18th century onwards,the ‘voice’ continued to be raised in favour of aspiration to achieve a native Tamil ideology this shadowed culture, which was mostly affected the way in which the Tamil hegemony understood through poet saints’ experience, took its new shape, and also constructed a bodily performances and spiritual possession. discourse based on the interaction of the However, control of the HR&CE Department two contending agents, namely Aryans and was later taken over by the rival party All Dravidians, throughout history.6 India Anna DMK, whose sympathy for the Tamil version of ritual performance did not Discourse on the two concurrent ritual stretch to a willingness to engage in conflict patterns based on these two distinct textual on its behalf. Understandably, the changes traditions generated many bipartite positions subsequently made to temples and temple on the subjects of authority, power, dominance worship reflected sentiments more in favour and dignity; in most cases, the underlying of Brahman priests and their Āgamic mode impetus was to safe guard the rights of of worship than of Thamiḻarccanai. In each tradition–both religious and cultural. addition, Āgamic schools were established In particular, many types of literature and by the government to train priests inĀgamic scripture from both traditions were used to scholarship, so their roles in the temples create a dialogue that played a significant role were further cemented. Interestingly, in the contest for domination. In response, however, although these schools were the British, with inputs from the Justice Party, restricted to Brahmans, both Āgamic Sanskrit formed the Hindu Religious Endowment texts and Tamil religious texts were included Committee in 1926, constituted by a number of in the schools’ curriculums. Notably, Āgamic governing bodies, whose primary function was Sanskrit texts were taught to Brahman to control the priest community in temples. scholars by Brahman priests and Tamil texts Consequently, the government was able to by non-Brahman paṇḍārams(Fuller 2003, p. reform temple culture, including its most 95). Importantly, these schools had begun acclaimed step of allowing the untouchable to challenge ‘priestly competence’, which Harijansand low-caste Nāḍārsto enter temples according to Husken, was put into question (Fuller 2003, p. 3). at the end of the 19th century and publicly discussed throughout the 20th century (cf. In 1951, this committee was reformulated Husken 2013, p. 77). as the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments (HR&CE) Department. One of the Therefore, conflict between the major innovations resulting from this change hegemonies of Sanskrit and Tamil can was the implementation of a new method be understood at both a linguistic and of worship known asThamiḻarccanai,‘Tamil a religious level. At the linguistic level, worship’, which involved the chanting of members of the Tamil nationalist and Tamil religious poems from the medieval revival movements subscribed to the use period, alongside Sanskrit mantras. As of ‘pure Tamil words’ and avoided the mentioned elsewhere, accounts of Tamil use of borrowed words from Sanskrit; worship were very similar to the medieval and at the religious level, they promoted kings’ descriptions of the chanting of Tamil the practice of Thamiḻarccanaialongside of

13 Sanskrit-based rituals. This dual mode of 1975, pp. 45-46, cited in Stein, 1978, p. 32). knowledge production with in the Tamil and The 63 Śaiva Nāyanmārs who lived during Sanskrit societies led to the formulation of two the medieval period between the 5th and10th hegemonic contenders, each using religious centuries AD were primarily responsible for texts as their primary source of contention. formulating a new monotheistic ritual basis for Tamil religious nationalism. Mandelbaum Bhakti, Rituals and Divine Possession (1966, p. 1174)links the Brahmanic and domestic ritual patterns identified by Stein Despite the domination of a single elite with transcendental’ and ‘pragmatic’ functions, group, Tamil society had always been pluralistic respectively. Among the crucial characteristics in its practice of religion and culture. Burton of ritual’s pragmatic function, as noted by Stein, for instance, notes three levels of ritual Mandelbaum, are ‘being possessed’ and affiliation observed in Tamil Nadu over time.7 ‘speaking through the deity’.The unique The first level of religious activity comprised features of divine possession in Tamil religious domestic rituals pertaining to clan and place tradition can be traced back to the Sangam tutelaries, usually led by the non-Brahman period, especially via the unique Tamil pujāris, also known aspaṇḍārams; the second expression cāmiāṭi,‘god dancer’. In parallel, the level involved pilgrims worshipping Śivāor poet saints of the medieval period expressed Viṣṇu, led by Brahman priests and strictly a relatively similar spiritual experience in line following Āgamic practices; and the third level with their obsessive engagement with God was dominated by guru networks culminating through textual encounters, which is termed in any of the premier temple centres in South āṭkoṇḍār (‘one who took over the body’) India. The domestic rituals at the first level can in Tamil poems. Nammāḻvār,one of the 12 be linked with two distinct textual patterns: Vaiṣṇava saints,primarily composed verses one performed by pujāris,who chanted folk expressing the most fervent and sincere love versions of Tamil poems ascribed to the for Viṣṇu. He was the first to use the Tamil clan gods Vēlaṉ, Aiyaṉār, Māriyammaṉ and termāṭkoṇḍār, describing a state of mind MaduraiVīraṉ; and the other performed by constituted by complete subjection to the paṇḍārams and ōtuvārs,who mostly chanted divine,to express his love for the Lord. His Tamil religious poems chosen from the works of 1,102 verses (Tiruvāymoḻi,9 meaning ‘utterance the 63Nāyanmars. The former predominantly of the holy/sacred’), composed somewhere involved bodily performances on the part of the between 880 and 930 AD (Ramanujan 1981, p. devotee, such as frenzied dancing, fire walking xi), are, like the other saints’ works, believed and tongue piercing, which generally occurred to have been uttered by Viṣṇu through the in a state of trance with accompanying folk poet. ‘Anyone who engulfs in his poems can songs and the passionate playing of drums. immediately realise why the poems are at The latter type of worship, however, was once philosophic and poetic, direct in feeling extremely formal, as Tamil literary poems were yet intricate in design, single-minded yet sung to the accompaniment of melodious and various in mood’ (Ramanujan 1981, p. xi). coordinated music, fervently heightening the The name āḻvār (lit. ‘immersed ones’) links Tamil religious mood. the Lord’s joyful sleep in an ocean of milk with the saints’ profound enjoyment of the Lord’s The liturgical texts used for worship by love; so does the term bhakti, a blissful state paṇḍāramswere commonly chosen from the experienced by the saints in which the mind scriptures of medieval Śaivā saints (Thurston, is totally filled with the love of the Lord. A.

14 K. Ramanujan interprets this state of mind as body. The human body, according to Mauss, that of saints ‘taken over’ by the love of God should not be viewed simply as the passive (Ramanujan 1981, p. 83). recipient of ‘cultural imprints’, but regarded as a developable means of achieving a range Notably, the ‘indigenous’ attribute of of human objectives, from styles of physical possession by God,āṭkoṇḍār, which was unique movement through modes of emotional being to the Tamil ritual mode, legitimised the to kinds of spiritual experience (e.g., mystical argument for the development of a separate states such as ‘possession’ and ‘takeover’).The method of worship in the Tamil language,using inability to enter into communion with God specifically Tamil religious texts and folk songs; is a function of untaught bodies, according that is, approaching God through the Tamil to Mauss (quoted in Asad 1993, p. 76). The textual traditions of bhakti and music, rather than concept of possession, a fundamental notion of through the Sanskrit method of integrating the Tamil bhakti and the associated folk tradition, Āgamic texts with the varna form of worship. is comparable to the idea of ‘communion with Strikingly, Mandelbaum (1970, p. 412) who God’, tapping the divine potential of the human describes the practice of possession as a body. The idea of ‘God’ in the context of shaman’s calling, observes that ‘being possessed ‘possession’ may also be linked with the world had no hereditary features. Nor was this practice of ‘spirits’, normally termed āvi in Tamil. Tamils attributed to any specific caste group; instead,it tend to comprehend the act of possession as was regarded as analogous to Dravidians, the capture of human body by spirits, using their clans and subsequently the folk beliefs the unique expressions āvipiḍiccirukku and surrounding them. Therefore, the assumption cāmipiḍiccirukku, meaning ‘the spirit/deity that the varṇa system, as Dumont (1980, p. 73) detained (the body)’. This phenomenon is claims, provided a universal model for worship addressed from the perspective of Tamils’ throughout India is questionable, especially if indigenous ritual practice from ancient times such a model had any implications for Hinduism to the present. in a religious sense. In addition, on the grounds that caste has no bearing on ‘communion Music, Ōtuvār Tradition and Search for with God’, it is reasonable to assume that the Method of Indigenous Worship system of caste division was associated only with profession, not religion. This is supported Āḻvār texts have been passed on from by Sangam texts that categorised people generation to generation with an emphasis exclusively using the term kuṭi. on music (icai) and mime (avinayam) rather than poetry (Ramanujan, 1981, p. 135). The tuṭiyaṉpāṇaṉ paṟaiyaṉ kaṭampaṉeṉṟu Tiruvāymoḻi and similar Tamil religious texts are innāṉkallatukuṭiyumillai. regularlysung in temples by ōtuvārs. It is often ….. (Puṟam. 335). believed that their style of singing with rhythm and melody is more appealing than a simple warrior, singer, drummer and carpenter rendering of the texts, and better conveys the are the best among all the divisions of texts’ spirit than their meaning. The idea of people [kuṭi]. antāti,10 denoted by a Sanskrit term describing a return from the end to the beginning, and ‘Communion’ with God, as Mauss(1979) regularly found in Āḻvār poems, facilitates notes in his work on ‘body techniques’, recitation with an aesthetic appeal. represents the divine potential of the human

15 Another relevant point to be drawn from Indeed, Ramaswamy (1992) states that this Ramanujan’s work on Tamil hymns is his revivalism had its origin in 1920,in the then account of shifts’ that took place during Tamil revivalist movement called neo-Saivism, the bhakti period. He argues that the whose proponents in turn believed that the compositions of both the Vaiṣṇavā (Āḻvārs) practice of using Tamil rather than Sanskrit and the Śaivā(Nāyanmārs) during the bhakti for divine worship started during the Pallava period caused shifts ‘from hearing to speaking; (ca 6th to 9th centuriesAD) and Cōḻā (ca 9th watching to dancing; a passive to an active to 11th centuriesAD) dynasties. mode; a religion and a poetry of the esoteric few to a religion and a poetry of anyone Therefore, the two legitimate groups who can speak…. From the sacrificial-fire contending for religious hegemony, domination rituals (yajñā or hōma) to worship,pūjā’.¹ In and power were associated with the following addition, the ritual methods of ‘singing of traditions, respectively: the practice of the Lord’, dancing and pūjāhave continued Thamiḻarccanairituals as performed by to date in temples and other sacred places paṇḍārams and others by chanting songs from in Tamil Nadu, keeping these changes alive; the Tamil bhakti texts of Tēvāram, Tiruvācakam similarly,ĀṇṭālTiruppāvai rituals continue to be and Tirumantiram; and the Sanskrit rituals performed with an abundance of mysticism performed by Brahmin priests, otherwise and devotional commitment. known asāryappaṭṭarkaḷ and strictly following the rules of the Āgamascriptures. However, Whereas Āgamic manuals became the it is evident from Fuller’s account of these basis for all of the rituals conducted by two competing traditions in Tamil Nadu that Brahman priests, the Śaiva textual canon,the the practice of Thamiḻarccanaihad never Tēvāram, and the Vaiṣṇavā textual canon,the been successfully implemented in temples Prabhandams, became the basis for the in Tamil Nadu, and that the Brahman priests traditions of paṇdārams and otuvārs, respectively. continued to conduct their worship in Sanskrit, According to Davis (1991), the Brahman priests disregarding the efforts of the government led who perform these rituals claim that they have by the Dravidian political party (Fuller 2003, understood the Sanskrit Āgamas either directly p. 116). from the Āgamic texts – composed either in Sanskrit or in Tamil Grantha script – or from a A popular form of resistance to the long tradition of gurus(Davis, 1991; Ishimatsu, proposal for a mode of worship in the Tamil 1994). The same is true of the co-existing language came from Dakshinamoorthy Tamil tradition: saints’ devotional experience Bhattar, a Brahman priest who challenged the was originally rendered inbhakti poems, and government’s orders on the groundsthat the later transmitted orally from generation to efficacy of ritual depended on the particular generation by paṇṭārams and ōtuvārs. sounds of Sanskrit, and that there would be a ‘disaster’ if he ‘dared to perform the arccanai in Therefore, the output of the medieval Tamil’ (Presler 1987, p.117; see also Harrison saint poets was delivered by paṇdārams with 1960, p.130). The focushereseems not to be a shift from composition to recitation, without the relative authority and power of Sanskrit affecting the texts original transcendent spirit. and Tamil priests, but solely the hegemony This transformation became the foundation for of the respective languages and scriptures. the development of a new method of worship Accordingly, the hegemony of the literary called Thamiḻarccanai, as noted elsewhere. genres of both the bhakti tradition of the Tamils

16 and the corresponding Āgamic tradition of the Pandits and Shastris [traditional specialists in proponents of the Sanskrit language continued the sacred texts, almost invariably Brahmans] to develop throughout history in terms of their were assigned to share responsibility for religious engagement within society. judgments by signing the final document’ (Derrett, 1961-2; cited in Rudolph and Rudolph Colonial and Post-Colonial Modes of 1967, p. 282). Knowledge Production The colonial method of knowledge The Brahmanic religious tradition probably production through the Brahmanic approach took precedence over the Tamil bhakti tradition obviously closed the door to the customs, in part because the British chose Brahmans habits and cultures of the local bhakti tradition and their scriptures, such as Arthasastra, as of the Tamils for almost two centuries, at local agents in their formation of the colonial least until the evolution of the neo-Saivite Indian state. Eugene F. Irschick notes that movements formulated by Śaiva saints such as this behaviour was part of astrategy forest Ramalinga Aṭikaḷ and Maraimalai Aṭikaḷin the ablishing a hold on local regions and gaining second half of the 19th century. Therefore, political legitimacy;accordingly, the British the impetus for the post-colonial mode of attempted to re-establish and repair religious knowledge production emerged with the centres such as temples in local areas. He propagation of Dravidian and Tamil nationalism further highlights an attack by the Kaḷḷars by the neo-Saivites, followed by the Justice (a non-Brahmin caste group) on the British and Dravidian political parties. armed forces after Colonel Heron took images from the Kaḷḷartemple inKōvilkuṭiin 1755 Implicit versus Explicit Agents in Contest (Irschick1994, p. 20). Irschickgoes on to over Hegemony say that the Britishgave Brahmans the sole jurisdiction over handling images in temples. From the point of view of the Tamils, the This clearly suggests that the British implicitly explicit agents in the conflict over the idea of an authorised the Brahmans to perform their indigenous mode of knowledge representation religious duties, and this authority seems were the intelligibility of the ritual text and to have remained in place to date. Lloyd L. intimacy with God in one’s own language. Rudolph and Susanne HoeberRudolph (1967) From the perspective of the Sanskrittradition, also confirm that the British completely these agents were the sacredness of the ignored local customs and habits, instead sounds of Sanskrit and the authenticity of the dependingheavily on Brahman pandit stomake Agamic scriptures. The implicit agent in the final decisions (Rudolph and Rudolph 1967, conflict was the safeguarding of the indigenous pp. 279-93). ‘The English began with the Tamil bhakti tradition, which is claimed here clear intention of applying, for most purposes, to have lost its voice due to the domination Indian law to Indians. Governor General of Sanskrit practices. ‘Social scientists would Hastings in 1772 had ordered that ‘in all suits say that it was precisely these kinds of village regarding marriage, inheritance, and caste and temple contestations that had formed and other religious usages and institutions the basis of the previous system – no single [succession was added in 1781] the laws of group could dispense with any other group. the Koran with respect to Mohammedans, and In this structure, consensus and balance were those of Shaster [sacred law texts] with respect realised through conflict; everyone knew to the Hindus shall be invariably adhered to that there were others who would enter the

17 contest’ (Irschisk 1986, p. 23). Brahmans or by building 1,000 temples (verse 1860) (see Appadurai 1981 and Dirks 1987). The origins of this conflict between the Throughout this chapter, Tirumūlar reiterates indigenous Tamil system and the Brahmanic his claim that the ritual practices of Śaiva system of ritual practice can be traced back devotees and Śiva bhakti are far superior to to the medieval period, especially between the ritual practices of hōma (vēḷvi)performed by the 6th and 10th centuries AD. Evidence can the Brahmans. This clearly indicates that the be found in the songs of Tirumūlar, a Tamil conflict over religious hegemony between the Saivite who founded the yogic ritual system Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic traditions had of worship in a text entitled Tirumantiram, begun as earlyasTirumūlar’s compositions,in ‘sacred mantras’, in the 6th century AD. the medieval period. This conflict continues Among the much acclaimed practices of Śiva to date, as discussed earlier in reference to bhakti, according to the Tirumantiram,was the neo-Saivite and Dravidian movements (see the exercise of devotion to Śiva by revering Ramaswami 1992, p. 138). Śaiva saints (non-Brahman saints), who were popularly known for their dedicated and Cōḻā Temple Architecture and Evolution of untiring performance of worship to Śiva. Many Indigenous South Indian Temple Culture legends tell us how the practices of Śiva bhakti in the Pre-Colonial Period were carried out by kings and elite groups simply through the respectful treatment of and South Indian historiography has always admiration for Śaiva saints. Tirumūlar devotes defined a power relationship between temples a separate section entitled Mahēṣvara’, ‘Pūjāto and the imperial kingdom. Nicholas Dirks and the great Lord’,to the significance of Śiva bhakti Arjun Appadurai discuss the autonomy and and them portance of admiring Śaiva saints. sovereignty of temples in the context of pre- According to Tirumūlar, making offerings to colonial India (see Appadurai 1981 and Dirks God in temples has no potential, but making 1987). Dirks notes that the most significant offerings to Śiva bhakti is much like offering characteristic of temple culture in pre-colonial to the divine directly (verse 1857) (Velupillai India is that sovereignty is essentially procured 1995). The chapter goes on to say that when in temples, where the deity is the paradigmatic a Śiva bhakta consumes the food offered sovereign. However, this sovereignty was by a devotee, the pleasure he receives is re-created in colonial and post-colonial India indistinguishable from that received by any through the establishment, as mentioned other agent in the three worlds (verse 1858) earlier, of endowment bodies such as the (Renganathan 2014) (see Appadurai 1981 Hindu Religious Endowment (later the HR&CE and Dirks 1987).This idea is very similar to Department). As explained by Franklin Presler, the custom of annadānā (offering food to the bureaucracy began to play a major role in poor) performed during the ritual of homa in determining power. This section shows that Vedic culture. In the latter case, however, unlike the role of bureaucratic context, the offerings are made only to Brahmans; no earlier mode of procuring sovereignty for a others, according to custom, are entitled to deity protected the indigenous characteristics receive it. of texts.

However, Tirumūlarclaims that the value The polarisation of Sanskrit and Tamil of an offering to one Śiva bhaktacannot by rituals and priesthood can be extended further, matched–either by making offerings to 1,000 to the consummation of images in temples in

18 pre-colonial South India. The Liṅgā and the Chidambaram, which is believed to have a dancing form of Śiva representdistinct patterns much longer history than any other Śaiva of worship in Śiva temples, originating in the temples of the Cōḻā period. This temple Sanskrit and Tamil traditions, respectively. It is exhibits an unusual way of representating claimed in this section that this polarisation of Śiva: in a dancing posture, in contrast with images and their co-existence in Śiva temples the usual Liṅga form. The Brahadiswar of South India evolved as a consequence of temple in Thanjavur, constructed between ca Sanskritisation. Turning from the few rock-cut 995 AD and 1010 AD by Rajaraja I,offers a examples of the Pallava dynasty (600 AD to representative example of Cōḻāarchitecture. 800 AD) (Barrett 1974, p. 16) to the structural Here, the Liṅga is the main deity, and the temples of the Cōḻā kings (from 866 AD to subshrines are housed in individual mandapas, 1280 AD) (Balasubramaniam 1979; Barrett, such as the dancing image of Śiva, which 1974, p. 17), these images show an enormous is housed in the northeast corner of the scope and are extraordinarily complex. One courtyard (Pichard1995, p. 101). The Sanskrit of the notable features of Dravidian temples is term ‘Naṭarājā’, meaning ‘King of Dancers’, the development of outlying elements such as is frequently referred toin the inscriptions circumambulatory paths and manḍapās (halls). carved on the walls of the temple by the Tamil term aḍavallān, meaning ‘one who is capable After the Pallavas initiated their enterprise of dancing’. This conception of Śiva in His of building stone-cut temples, forms of worship dancing form is unique to the South Indian and the perception of God in the Dravida architecture of Śiva temples.14 This distinctive region under wentradical transformation with representation of Śiva is well attested to in the changes in dynasties, kings and patrons. As Tamil hymns of the Tirumantiram composed patrons indifferent periods made changes and by Tirumūlar, but nowhere in this work does additions to existing temples, the temples’ Tirumūlardiscuss the worship of Liṅgā. This symbolic vocabularies became ever more gives sufficient reason to believe that Tamil complex.12 Tamil hymnists and kings played a hymnists developed the relevant conceptions significant part in shaping temple architecture and their symbols, and the Tamil kings gave a and image worship during the Cōḻākingdom, form to them. Therefore, the intentions of the which lasted from approximately the 10th to kings of the medieval period should be kept in the 13th centuries AD.13 mind when discussing the development of a dialogue over contesting hegemonies. Despite some minor differences in their depictions of Hindu mythology, gods and Rūpāand ArūpāForms of Worship in the sculptures, the Hindu temples of the Cōḻāperiod Naṭarājā Temple of Chidambaram: A generally manifest the decorative veneers Subject for Tamil Nationalism of gopurās (gateways), manḍapās (halls), prakarās (circumambulatory paths) and The dancing image of Śiva is a perceivable tanks. The divine space extending from the ‘form’, known asrūpā in Sanskrit.15 This image garbagraha to the urban space through the housed in Cit-Sabhā is, as observed by Smith gateways is attributed the symbolic meaning (1996, p. 82), the heart of the world and of a Temple town’ by George Michell (Michell the heart of the individual self –cit means 1993, p. 13). ‘consciousness’ and sabhā¹ means ‘hall’ (thus ‘hall of consciousness’). To the right of One exception is the Nataraja temple of Naṭarājā is an empty space called rahasyā.

19 This space designates the formless nature latter reference can be taken to indicate that of Śiva, and is referencedby the Sanskrit an understanding of the dancing form of Śiva term arūpā, the opposite of rūpā. The arūpā existed prior to its materialisation in temples. form of Śiva is also called ākāśā, indicating However, the earliest attested statues of that ‘space’ is the other manifestation of the dancing Śiva are found in Śiva temples, Śiva in Chidambaram (see Smith 1993, p.62; mostly in the niches of temple walls in the Smith 1996, p. 83). The ritual of worshipping Chalukya period (ca 6th to 8th centuries AD), ‘space’ developed a new architectural the Pallava period21 (ca 6th to 8th centuries AD) vocabulary: that ofChidambararahasyā(‘Secret and the Cōḻāperiod(ca 9th to 12th centuries of Chidambaram’). AD).22 A Kanchipuram Kailāsanāta temple built during the Pallava dynasty also exhibits The third form of worship is Liṅgā, which icons of the dancing Śiva, but in the pose of neither conforms to any conceivable object16 ūrdhva-tāṇḍava,23 ‘fierce dance’ (ca 700-728 nor represents formlessness. Liṅgā, then, AD), which is believed to have a North Indian is a form without a conceivable form, and origin. The well-known Chidambaram dance can thus be understood as rūpa-arūpa,‘form ānandatāṇḍava, ‘dance of bliss’, is discussed and formless’. Substantialevidence of the in detail in the Tamil hymns of the Śaiva former two types of worship of Śiva in saints. With the progression from the Pallava Chidambaram,rūpa and arūpa respectively, can dynasty to the Cōḻā dynasty, many new forms be drawn from the Tirumantiram. In many of developed in and around the temple complex, his verses,Tirumūlaremphasises that the Lord resulting in the evolution of complex symbolic emerges in Chidambaram as aform (uru), as vocabularies commensurate with the radically formless (aru) and in all-pervading divine changing rites of patronage and personal form (Para Rūpam)17. As shown below, textual devotion.24 evidence of the manifestation of Lord Śiva in these distinct forms in Chidambaram can Based on textual and inscriptional evidence, also be found in the works of the much later Kaimal (1999) and Zvelebil(1998) observe Śaiva hymnists Appar, Māṇikkavācakar and that for the later Cōḻās,images of the dancing Cuntarar,who are generally assumed to have Śiva with a tiger, a skull, a drum, snakes, lived between the 8th and 9th centuriesAD.18 fire and Apasmara, the demon of ignorance, became emblems of victory over rivals. The Image of Dancing Śiva and Origin of use of the image of dancing Śiva as a symbol Emblem of Victory of Tamil Kings for victory by the patron Cōḻā kings may explain the practice – popular from around There is evidence that the image of dancing the 9th century AD to the 10th century AD– of Śiva gained currency in southern India even attributing to this image the status of the main earlier than the 8th century AD, during the deity in the Naṭarāja temple of Chidambaram. Sangam period, which fell between ca the Coomaraswamy’s summary of the essential 3rd century BC and the 5th century AD.19 significance of the image of the dancing Śiva One Sangam epic,Silappathikaram, composed and Kaimal’s account of this image as an object inapproximately the 5th century AD, makes of victory offer evidence of the development reference to the dancing form of Śiva in the of a new practice. context of Śiva's celebration of the destruction of demons.20 Although no mention is made In Māṇikkavācakar (ca 9th century AD), we in this work of the city of Chidambaram, the find an explicit reference to the idea of the

20 Chidambararahaśyam of the Chidambaram of Tamilisation of Aryanbeliefs in the medium Naṭarāja:‘aṟiyānēyāvar kkumambaravā of Tamil, especially to avoid the use of the ambalattemperiyōn’(‘My majesty! No one unfamiliarand incomprehensible Sanskrit knows your Formless Form in Ambalam – language. However, the immense effort made Chidambaram’, Tiruvācakam, Māṇikkavācakar, to use Tamil religious texts featuring the Aryan verse 22) (Veluppillai 1993, p. 99).Other uses ideologies of Śivā and Viṣṇu to assimilate the of this vocabulary of formlessness (arūpa) can foreign with the native were still futile in the be found inTirumular’sTirumantiram.25 One is context of the rituals of South Indian temples. quoted below. Therefore, the conceptualisation of Śiva in Uruvinṟiyēninṟuuruvampuṇarkkum His concrete ‘blissful dancing form’ instead of the karuvanṟiyēninṟutānkaruvākum abstract form of Liṅga constitutes yet another aruvinṟiyēninṟamāyappirānaik indigenous idea that emerged exclusively from karuvinṟiyāvarkkumkūṭaoṇṇātē. (2840:6) the south, and the hymns that designate them confirm the existence of a unique mode of Form, there is none; He befits all of the forms. worship that, as discussed earlier, is nothing Cosmic Egg, there is none; He prevails all. other than bhakti and was later attributed to the Him, the elusive Lord without a Form, indigenous worship method of Thamiḻarccanai, Impossible for anyone to reach, principally determined by such processes without His quintessence – the karu. as Tirumuṟaipāṭutal and Tiruppatiyamceytal, praising God using the hymns of the celebrated As this verse occurs in a chapter of the Tamil poets. Presumably, this suggests that Tirumantiramentitled ‘Corūpautayam’, ‘Genesis the object of worship as well as liturgical texts of the magnificent form’ (verses 2835 to from the bhakti hymns are unique to Tamil, 2846), it is reasonable to assume that the and that they constitute and authenticate conceptualisation of Śiva in the form of indigenous religious culture – a topic of Chidambararahaśya was in practice from the enquiry for research on Tamil nationalism time of the inception of this temple between and support for the religious customs of the the 7th and 9th centuries AD – a period Tamils, who attempt to perceive or approach attributed to the Tamil saints Appar, Sundarar God through their native experience of divine/ and Sambandar.Although the dates of these spiritual possession by chanting Tamil religious texts are debatable, it cannot be denied that poems, particularly with music. the patterns of belief reflected in images of Śiva had a definite impact on the architecture Concluding Remarks of Śiva temples – mainly in the way in which the image of dancing Śiva,sabhās and the The influence of the Sanskrit language on Ether are manifested and conceived in parallel the Tamil tradition and the very frequent use with the textual manifestations and their of Āgamic rituals in South Indian temples subsequent architectural representations. It made the legacy of the medieval bhakti may not be an overstatement to conclude that poets and their poems ineffectual in temple the Tamil poet saints conceptualised Śiva’s new worship. Not only priests but also religious forms in their texts and the kings materialised scriptures and their hegemony were brought them in their architectural construction. The into focus in Tamil nationalist sentiment. new forms developed by the medieval Tamil Soliciting support from superordinates became poet saints undoubtedly reflect the process inevitable for the contending DMK, resulting

21 in a gradual transformation of extreme Tamil religious tradition had gained power, it superordinate-subordinate relations between is still in a thoroughly thriving position. the communities into more equal ones (see Rudolph and Rudolph 1967, p. 79).As a result Primary Sources of the weakening of direct conflict with super ordinates, Tamil nationalist efforts began to NālāyiratTivyapPrapantam with commentary concentrate on the distinguishing features of by Dr. S. Jagathratchagan and English the textual traditions of the past, rather than translation by Sri Rama Bharathi, 3rd edition defending their position exclusively based on Chennai: āḻvārkaḷāyvumaiyam, 2002 ritual methods in temples. Pattuppāṭṭumūlamumuraiyum. Edited by Therefore, the failure of attempts to Po. Vē. Cōmacuntaraṉār. SISSWPS: Tinnevelly, popularise Tamil hymns in temple rituals 1966. under the name of Thamiḻarccanai, as Fuller notes, indicates the continued dominance Puṟanāṉūṟu., with AuvvaiDuraisamip of the colonial and pre-colonial processes of Pillai’s commentary, Tirunelveli Saiva Sanskritisation over the Tamilisation efforts SiddantaNūṟpatippukkaḻakam: Tirunelveli, made by poet saints. In other words, the Madurai and Coimbatore, 1972. weakening of anti-Āgamic rituals reflects not only the failure of Tamil nationalism, but also South Indian Inscriptions, vol. II to VIII and the continued subalternity of Tamil priests. XII, Archaeological Survey of India: Madras, Therefore, the weakened hegemony of Tamil 1916. religious intellectualism can be inferredfromthe status of medieval Tamil religious texts and Tirukkōvaiyār, MūlamumUraiyum, with a from the folk customs of the ancient past. modern commentary by Muttappan, Pala. As already stated, one reason for this state (Uraiyāciriyar). UmāPatippakam:Ceṉṉai, 2006. of affairs was the enormous attention paid by the state to developing Āgamic schools to Tirumūlar.Tirumantiram.Translated and with educate more Sanskrit priests inĀgamic texts, notes by B. Naṭarājan.Madras: Sri Ramakrishna without any parallel effort to educate Tamil Math, 1991. priests in Tamil religious texts to exercise Thamiḻarccanaiand promote the traditional TolkāppiyamPoruḷatikāramwith Iḷampūraṇar’s methods of worship, dominated by types of commentary. Edited by Ti. Ve. Kopalaiyar and bodily performance such as divine/spiritual Na. Aranamuruval, Tamil Man Patippakam: ‘possession’. Therefore, although from Chennai, 2003. Foucault’s standpoint, adiscourse was produced by Tamil nationalists(the subordinates), a TolkāppiyamEḻuttatikāramwith Iḷampūraṇar’s Tamil hegemony did not evolve due to the commentary. Edited by Ti. Ve. Kopalaiyar and continued dominance of superordinates. The Na. Aranamuruval, Tamil Man Patippakam: emergence of Tamil nationalist sentiment, but Chennai, 2003. not Sanskrit nationalism, positioned Tamil as subordinate and Sanskrit as superordinate. Secondary Sources Subsequently, the formation of a new method of worship called Thamiḻarccanaiin conflict with Aiyer, S. 1932. South Indian inscriptions, Vol. Sanskrit rituals suggests that although the 7. Calcutta: Central Publication Branch.

22 Aiyer, S.1937. South Indian inscriptions, Vol. Davis, H. R. 1991. Ritual in an oscillating 8. New Delhi: Manager of Publications. universe: worshipping Śiva in medieval India. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Appadurai, A.1981.Worship and conflict under colonial rule: a South Indian case.Cambridge: Derrett. J. D. M.1961-2. The administration Cambridge University Press. of Hindu law by the British. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 4,24. Asad, T.1993.Genealogies of religion. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. Dirks, N. 1987.The hollow crown: ethnohistory of an Indian kingdom.Cambridge (UK): Balasubramaniyam, S. R. 1971. Early Cambridge University Press. Cōḻātemples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I (A.D. 907 – 985).New Delhi: Orient Longman. Dumont,L. 1980. Homo hierarchicus. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Balasubramaniyam, S. R. 1975. Middle Cōḻātemples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I (A.D. Fergusson, J. 1899. History of Indian and 985 – 1070).Faridabad: Thomson Press. Eastern architecture, Vol. 1. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company Publishers. Balasubramaniyam, S. R. 1979. Later Cōḻātemples: Kulottunga I to Rajendra III (A.D. Foucault, M.1983. The subject and power. 1070 – 1280). Faridabad: Thomson Press. In H. Dreyfus and P. Rabinow,Michel Foucault: beyond structuralism and hermeneutics (2nd Balasubramaniyam, S. R. 1995. The oldest edition). Chicago: The University of Chicago Chidambaram inscriptions.Journal ofAnnamalai Press,pp. 208-226. University, 12(1944), 55-91. Fuller, C. J. 2003. The renewal of the Barrett, D. Early Cōḻā architecture and priesthood: modernity and traditionalism in sculpture (866 – 1014AD). London: Faber a SouthIndian temple.Princeton: Princeton andFaber Limited. University Press.

Carman, J. B., and Narayanan, V. (1989). Harrison, S. 1960. India: the most The Tamil Veda: Piḷḷan’sinterpretation of the dangerous decades.Princeton: Princeton Tiruvāymoḻi. Chicago: University of Chicago UniversityPress. Press. Hultzsch, E. (ed. and trans.). 1891. Chakravarti, U. 1990. Whatever South-Indian inscriptions: Tamil inscriptions happened to the Vedic Dasi? Orientalism, of Rajaraja,Rajendra-Cōḻā, and others nationalism, and a script for the past. In in the Rajarajesvara temple at Thanjavur. K. Sangari and S. Vaid (ed.). Recasting Calcutta:Government Press. women: essays in Indian colonial history. New Brunswick: RutgersUniversity Press. Husken, U. 2013. Contested ritual mediation: Brahmin temple priests in South Coomaraswamy, A. K. 1970.The dance of Shiva India. In K.Lundby (ed.),Religion across media. (1918). In M. Manoharlal (ed.),The dance of Shiva: New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.,pp. fourteen Indian essays(2nd edition), pp. 83-95. 71-86.

23 Ishimatsu, G. 1994. Ritual texts, authority, Peterson, I. 1989. Poems to Śiva: the hymns of and practice in contemporary Śivatemples in the Tamil saints. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Tamil Nadu.Unpublished thesis. University of Press. California, Berkeley. Presler, F. 1987. Religion under bureaucracy: Inden, R. et al. 2000. Querying the medieval. policy and administration for Hindu temples New York: Oxford University Press. in South India. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. Irschick, E. F. 1986. Tamil revivalism in the 1930s. Madras: Crea-A. Price, P. 1996. Revolution and rank in Tamil nationalism.The Journal of Asian Studies,55(2), Irschick, E. F..1994. Dialogue and history: 359-583. constructing South India, 1795 – 1895.Berkeley: University of California Press. Ramanujan, A. K. 1981. Hymns for the drowning: poems for Viṣṇu by Nammāḻvār. Kaimal, P. 1999. Shiva Naṭarāja: shifting Princeton: Princeton University Press. meanings of an icon. Art Bulletin, 81(3), 390- 419. Ramaswamy, S. 1992. Passions of the tongue: language devotion in Tamil India,1891-1970. Kramrisch, S. 1944. The superstructure of Berkeley: University of California Press. the Hindu temple.Journal of the IndianSociety of Oriental Art,12, 175-207. Renganathan, V. 2008. Rūpā, Arūpa and Rūpa-Arūpa: the three forms of Śiva worship Mandelbaum, D. G. 1966. Transcendental at the Naṭarājā’stemple of Chidambaram, and pragmatic aspects of religion. American South India and their impact on the temple Anthropologist, 68,1174-91. architecture. InS. Agesthialingom, V.S. Arulraj, S. Chitraputran and A. Karthikeyan (ed.), Prof. Mauss, M. 1979. Body techniques. InM. S. V.Shanmugam’s 75th Birthday Celebration Mauss, Sociology and psychology: essays (ed. Volume.Annamalai Nagar:Annamalai University and trans. B. Brewster).London: Routledge Press, 566-596. and Kegan Paul. Renganathan, V.2014.Being Meenakshi, K. 2007. Relationship Kṛṣṇā’sGōpi:songs of Anṭāḷ, ritual practices between Sanskrit and Tamil grammars. InS. and the power relations between God and Kumar(ed.),Sanskrit and other Indian languages. devotee in the contemporary Tamil Nadu. New Delhi:D. K.Printworld(P) Ltd. InForum for World Literature Studies, 6(4), 649-674.Available: http://www.fwls.org[Last Meister, W. M. 1986. On the development accessed on August 24, 2017] of a morphology for a symbolic architecture: India.Res, Anthropology and Aesthetics, 12, Rudolph,L. I. and Rudolph, S. H. 1967. The 33-50. modernity of tradition: political development in India. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Michell, G. 1977. The Hindu temple: an introduction to its meaning and forms. Chicago: Smith, D. 1993. Chidambaram.In G. Michell The University of Chicago Press. (ed.), Temple towns of Tamil Nadu. Bombay:

24 Marg Publications. umperālee ḻutakkaṭ avarkaḷ ākavumippa ṭikkutirumā ḷikaiyilekalv eṭṭikkoḷḷ akkaṭav Smith, D. 1996. The dance of Śiva: religion, arkaḷā kavumka ṭavatākavumco ṉṉom. ‘The art and poetry in South India. Cambridge: proceeds of these lands and other related Cambridge University Press, 1996. properties in the town are hereby offered to the paṭṭars of the god TillaiNāyakam of Spivak, G. 1988. Can the subaltern speak?In Caruppedimangalam, and this is exclusively C. Nelson and L. Grossberg (ed.),Marxism and presented under the auspicious name of the interpretation of culture.Chicago: University TillaiMuvāyiraviḷākam. The right is hereby of Chicago Press. granted to document this fact in stone inscriptions’ (SII.8.43.6). See also SII.7.7 Stein, B.(ed.). 1978.South Indian temples: for donations offered in conjunction with an analytical reconsideration.New Delhi: Vikas. duties assigned to priests in theŚiva temple at Tirukkovilur, Krishnagiri Taluk, Selam Shulman, D. D. 1980. Tamil temple myths: district. sacrifice and divine marriage in the South Indian Śaiva tradition. Princeton: Princeton University 2. An account of the traditions of ōtuvārs Press. and paṇḍārams can be found in Stein (1978), Breckenridge (1978) and Thurston (1975). Thurston, E. 1975. Castes and tribes of Southern India, Vol. 1 (1909).Delhi: Cosmo. 3. Tirumuṟaiotuta ṟkuriyakōyilma ṇṭapattukkuvi ṭṭanivantam…. ‘Offerings made to temples to Trawick, M. 1988. Spirits and voices in Tamil chant Tirumuṟai hymns…’ (SII.12.231). songs. American Ethnologist,15(2), 193-215. 4. See Ramaswamy (1997, pp. 24-29) for Urbinati, N. 1998.From the periphery a discussion of the emergence of neo-Śaivism of modernity: Antonio Gramsci’s theory and its impact on colonial narratives. of subordination and hegemony. Political Theory,26(3), 370-391. 5. Cf. māmutupārppāṉ maṟaivaḻ ikāṭṭiṭa…, ‘with aged Brahman pointing to the Veluppillai, N. 1995. Source and commentary, path of the Vētas…’ (Silappatikaram 50); PanniruTirumuṟaikaḷ– Tirumantiram(2nd and ‘aṟampuriarumaṟ ainaviṉṟanāviltiṟ edition). Chennai: Tamil Nilayam. ampurikoḷkaiantaṇīr’,‘vocally talented are the Brahmans who engage in the virtue and chant Weber, Max. 1992.The sociology of religion. the celebrated Vētas’(Aiṅkuṟunūṟu 387). Boston: Beacon Press. 6. Ramaswamy (1997, pp. 68-78) constructs Zvelebil, V. K. 1998. ĀṉantaTāṇṭāvā of Śiva a bipartite division between Dravidianism and –SadāntaMūrtti.Chennai: Institute of Asian Hinduism, and argues, following Harrison Studies. (1960, p. 127), that this division led to the notions that Tamils were not Hindus and that 1. Iṉ nilattukkuvanta ṉ aūrileeṟṟiiṟ Hindus were mainly Aryans. ukkavumiṉ nilaṅka ḷoḻuku mmaṭakkumpiṟakkumiṭ attutillainā yakaccarup petimaṅ kalattukṣ asyaṉ 7. Stein (1978, p. 28) bases his descriptions apaṭṭarkaḷ periltillai muvāyiraviḷ ākameṉṉ on Buchanan’s report of 1800.

25 8. Periyapuranam, composed by Sekkilar, in 13. See Balasubrmaniyan (1971, 1975, 1100 AD, provides biographical sketches of all 1979) for the chronology of Cōḻā kings and 64 Tamil Śaiva saints. The most notable are their efforts to build and renovate temples. Tirumūlar, Māṇikkavāsakar, Appar, Cuntarar and Campantar. The three Śaiva canons, 14. One of the references to Naṭarājā as Tirumantiram by Tirumūlar, Tiruvāsakam Āḍavallān in the inscriptions is as follows: by Māṇikkavāsakar and Tēvāram by Appar, ‘taṭṭamoṉṟu Āḍavallāṉeṉṉuṅ kallālniṉṟēnāṟ Cuntarar and Campatar, along with a later patiṉkaḷañceykāl...’. ‘On the 14th day 13th-century work by Meykkaṇḍār, constitute of the 26th year [of his reign], the lord the basis of the Tamil Śaiva Siddāndā tradition ŚriRājaRājaDēvā gave one sacred diadem as developed during the medieval period. (tiruppaṭṭam) of gold, weighing 499 kaḷañcu by the stone called (after) Āḍavallān’ (Hultzsch 9. The term tiru means ‘sacred’ or ‘divine’. 1891, p. 3). This prefix is commonly applied in Tamil to names of places with historical relevance 15. See Renganathan (2008) for a detailed due either to visits from renowned saints or account of the three forms of worship of Lord to the places’ special mention in religious Śiva in the city of Chidambaram. literature; names of popular religious works; names of people with divine qualities, etc. 16. Although the form of Liṅga has been The Śaivā saints celebrate 274 holy places interpreted in various ways, we confine and the Vaiṣṇavās celebrate 108 places, such ourselves to its concrete form, which cannot as Vaikuṇḍam, ‘Heaven’. Terrestrial places be compared with any perceivable object. are usually called pāṭalpeṟṟapatikaṅkaḷ or pāṭalpeṟṟastalaṅgaḷ, ‘places that have received 17. Tirumantiram (2790, p. 69, ninth tantra). a mention in poems’. ‘For Rishis Patanjali and Vyagrapada 10. All of the Tiruvāymoli poems are sung In the splendid Temple of Chidambaram such that the last word of each poem becomes He danced as a Form, a Formless and a the first word of the next, creating a garland Cosmic Form, of poems to offer to the Lord. With the Divine Grace of Sakti He danced, He, the Citta, the Ananda; gracefully 11. See Renganathan (2014) for a detailed stood and danced’ (unless otherwise noted, account of the Tamil rituals performed translations of Tamil hymns in this work are exclusively based on the Vaiṣṇavā text of the rendered by the author based on consultation ĀṇṭālTiruppāvai. with Smith 1996, Peterson 1989 and Shulman 1980). 12. ‘None of the present structures in the Naṭarājā’s temple complex can be dated before 18. See Zvelebil (1998) for the dates and the later Cōḻā period (1070-1279 AD). The works of the Śaiva hymnists. accession of Kulōttuṅka I to the Cōḻā throne in 1070 AD seems to have given a new impetus 19. By the 3rd century BC, three of the that led to the reconstruction of previous four great dynasties (mūvēntars) were already and erection of new structures in the ancient known. However, the Pallava dynasty was not temple site’ (Mevissen 2002, p. 61). mentioned in the Sangam literature, and the Cōḻā dynasty emerged in full strength only from 866 AD to 1014 AD (Barrett 1974, pp. NambiyāṇṭārNambi, Cēkkiḻār, Appar and 16-17). Campantar. See also Tirumantiram.

20. The Tamil epic Cilappatikaram, composed About the Author: in about 450 AD, refers to Śiva’s dance to celebrate his destruction of the three cities of Dr. Vasu Renganathan has been teaching demons (Cilappatikaram, 6.4.44-5). Tamil language and literature at the University of Pennsylvania, USA since 1996. He earned 21. Fergusson (1899, p. 326), calls the his Masters from the University of Washington, stone-cut temples of Māmallapuram ‘raths’, Seattle and Ph.D. in medieval Tamil language and and states that they are the oldest examples literature from the University of Pennsylvania. of their class known. He also has another Ph.D. in linguistics from the Annamalai University, India. 22. See Kaimal (1999) for a discussion and examples of the image of dancing Śiva in the Dr. Renganathan began his teaching career Chalukya and Pallava dynasties and early Cōla in 1989 and previously taught at the University temples. of Michigan, Ann Arbor and the University of Washington, Seattle. In addition to teaching, 23. Kaimal’s illustrations from Badami he has also worked on various curriculum temples show Śiva with multiple hands and in and instructional material development a fierce mood (Kaimal 1999, p. 395). Similar projects. Vasu also served as the Chairman gestures are given in pre-Aryan sources to of the International Forum For Informational Rudra-Śiva, whose occurrences can be traced Technology In Tamil (INFITT) and currently back to the Indus Valley and Harappa culture. serving as one of the Executive Committee ‘Rudra appears primarily as a fear-inspiring members of the South Asian Language deity whose shafts of lightning slay men and Teachers Association (SALTA). Vasu is also in cattle’ (Rigveda 1.114.10) (Yocum 1982, p. 16). the International Advisory Board member for However, no dancing form was attributed to the Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Śiva at this time. Teaching, (e-FLT), Singapore.

24. Meister’s argument for a complex His research interests include: History and evolving symbolic vocabulary of temple of Tamil language and literature, History architecture reflecting characteristics of of the Tamil Religious developments from the changing dynasties (Meister 1986, pp. medieval period, Language of Sangam Tamil 33-50) is substantiated by evidence from literature and Tamil inscriptions, Teaching Cōḻā architecture; the rūpa-arūpa method of and learning of Tamil language and Impact of worship is one example. Technology in the pedagogical methods. Some of his Publications include: Tamil Language 25. See Zvelebil (1998, pp. 40-43) for the in Context: A comprehensive approach to dates between the 7th and 11th centuries learning Tamil and An English Dictionary of AD of important references to both the Tamil Verb (Associate Editor). dancing Śiva and the Citambaram site by poet saints such asMaṇikkavācakar, Tirumūlar, t

27 âuhÉl ïa¡fK« âU¡FwŸ vG¢áí« nguh. Kidt® â. jhkiu¢bršÉ jhT® muR fiy m¿Éaš fšÿÇ,òJ¢nrÇ.

f£Liu¢ RU¡f«: bjh©L M‰¿dh® bgÇah® v‹gij¡ f£LiuÆ‹ K‰gFâ És¡F»wJ. F¿¥ghf, jÄœ bkhÊ k‰W« jÄœ ïd¤â‹ 1949ïš gy jÄH¿P®fisí« x‹WT£o¤ mU«bgU« fUñyüš âU¡FwŸ MF«. âU¡FwŸ khehL el¤â, mj‹ gadhf¤ ï‹W jÄÊ‹ jÅ milahskhfnt âU¡FwŸ - gF¤j¿î ciu òyt® FHªij kh¿É£l âU¡Fwis, kj« flªJ, thœÉaš _ykhf btËÆ£lijí«, 1953ïš FwŸ üyhf, jÄœ k¡fËilna bfh©L nr®¤j kÈî¥ gâ¥ò btËÆ£L, ɉgid¢ tuyhW, bgÇJ« âuhÉl ïa¡f¤J¡nf cÇaJ. nrhjid¡F¥ ã‹, 6 mzhÉÈUªJ 4 mªj tuyh‰iw, ïªj MŒî¡ f£Liu gy mzhthf Éiy Fiw¤J, ïyhg« fUjhJ ÉÇjuîfnshL, ÉÇthf MŒ»wJ. bjhl¡f¡ bgÇah® btËÆ£l âU¡FwŸ R¤j¥ (br«) fhy§fËš bgÇah®, f«guhkhaz«, gâ¥ò tuyh‰iwí« gâî brŒ»‹wJ. bgÇa òuhz« ngh‹w üšfis¥ gykhf f£LiuÆ‹ ã‰gFâÆš, bgÇahUl‹ v⮤jij¥ nghynt, âU¡Fwisí« xUáy ïizªJ gaz« brŒj m¿P® m©zh, ã‰ngh¡F¢ áªjidfŸ bfh©oU¥gjhf fiyP® fUzhÃâ ït®fŸ FwS¡F¢ brŒj v©Â¢ á¿jhf v⮤jhY«, 1902¡F¥ ãwF g§fË¥ãidí«, mt®fŸ M‰¿a gy FwŸ gh.nt. kh¡f (eha¡f®) mt®fË‹ e£ò gÂfisí« juîfnshL MŒ»‹wJ. »£oaj‹ _ykhf, gÇnkyHf® ciufŸ ntW; tŸSt® âU¡FwŸ ntW v‹W _y K‹Diu: üiy neuoahf thá¤J¤ bj˪J, FwË‹ ÛJ jh‹ bfh©oUªj Ku©ghLfis¡ cyf mu§»š jÄHid¤ jiyÃÄu¢ fisªJ bfh©lh® bgÇah®. m‹¿ÈUªJ brŒj x¥g‰w üš âU¡FwŸ. âuhÉl âU¡Fwis¤ jÄœ¥ bghJbtËÆš gu¥ò« ïd k¡fS¡F¤ jŤj milahs¤ij¤ Ka‰á¥ goÃiyfshf, brh‰bghÊîfŸ, jªj üš, gF¤j¿î¢ áªjidahs®fis¡ jiya§f¡ f£LiufŸ, m¿¡iffŸ, FwŸ f‰f¤ ö©oa üš, âuhÉl®¡FÇa üš kÈî¥ gâ¥òfŸ, âU¡FwŸ khehLfŸ v‹W v‹w bgUikia¡ bfh©lJ. ï§F v§‡d« gy¥gy tÊfËš bfh©L br‹W, ghuâjhr‹ 'v‹ fU¤âš' v‹D« jiy¥ãš 28 mikªj fÉijÆš âU¡FwŸ F¿¤j j‹ m‹iwa NHÈš mŒnuh¥ãa®fË‹ v©z§fis¥ ã‹tUkhW ghLtJ cl‹ MŒÉ‹ _y« âuhÉl« v‹D« jŤj v©z¤j¡fJ. milahs¤ij¤ bj‹dh£L¥ gFâfŸ bg‰wjhš òâa btË¢r« »il¤jJ. tŸSt®¡F ÃwÄšiy kjK« ïšiy kndh‹kÂa« Rªjudh®, mnah¤âjhr¥ kj§f£F m¥ghÈUªnj FwŸbrŒ JŸsh® g©oj® ngh‹nwh® ï¢brhšÈ‹ MH¤ij, cŸsáW kj§F¿¡F« brh‰fŸ bfh©nl tÈikia k¡fŸ k¤âÆš vL¤Jiu¤jd®. ctifbahL j¤jkJ kj¤âš nr®¤J ïj‹ ãwF m©zhÉ‹ Ka‰áahš bjŸËit¤j Ú¿Ljš âUk© rh®¤jš RakÇahij ïa¡f« âuhÉl ïa¡fkhf¥ brG«ã©o mk®ªjhid¢ nr®ªjh bd‹dš bga® kh‰w« bg‰wJ. jªij bgÇah® jÄœ jŸËit¤j kubg‹W ngrš ahî« ïy¡»a§fËš Tw¥g£LŸs MÇa¢ rh®ò¡ rÇba‹W njh‹wÉšiy v‹fU¤âš fU¤Jfis v⮤J¥ ngátªjh®. ( ghuâjhr‹ fÉijfŸ ) m¤jF NHÈšjh‹ âU¡FwË‹ kj§f£F m¥ghÈUªJ brŒj Fwis¤ bgUikiaí«. mj‹ ca®Éidí« òǪJ âuhÉl ïa¡f¤jh® vâÇfis mʤbjhÊ¡F« bfh©L tŸStiu âuhÉl¥ bgÇah® (MÇa kj¢ rh®òila üšfŸ) ngh®thshf¤ v‹W« FwŸ #hâ, FwŸ kj« v‹W« j§fis j« ifÆš vL¡»‹wd®. milahs¥gL¤â¡ bfhŸs nt©L« v‹W nkilfËš ngr¤ bjhl§»dh®. mj‰fhd mŒnuh¥ãa®fŸ 16,17,18M« bjhl® gaz¤ijí« bjhl§»dh®. E‰wh©LfËš ïªâahî¡F tUif jªj ãwF ïªâa tuyhW«, jÄœ ïy¡»a§fS« òyt®fË‹ å£L¥ guizfËš kiwªJ Äf¥bgU« kh‰w¤ij milªjd. »lªj FwŸ üiy k¡fŸ k‹w¤â‰F¡ ït®fË‹ tUifahš jÄHf¤â‰F m¢R bfh©L tu¥ bgU« Ka‰á brŒjh®. ïaªâu§fŸ »il¤jd. gid XiyfËš m¥nghJ jh‹ j‹Dila brh‰bghÊîfËš Kl§»¡ »lªj jÄœ ïy¡»a§fŸ m¢R âU¡FwŸ g¡â üyšy; flîis¡ fh£L« tot« bg‰wd. jÄœ ïy¡»a üšfË‹ vªj Éjkhd kj üY« mšy; c©ikahd gâ¥ò tuyh‰¿š KjÈš m¢R tot« xG¡f¤ij¥ nghâ¥gjhf ïU¡»wJ FwŸ1 bg‰w üš âU¡Fwns MF«. 1812ïš _y« v‹D« fU¤Jfis¥ ngádh®. k£L« Kjš gâ¥ò üyhf btËtªjJ. jÄHf¤â‰F tUif jªj mŒnuh¥ãa¥ âU¡Fwis¥ bghJbtË¡F¡ bfh©L ghâÇkh®fS« âU¡FwËš Tw¥g£LŸs tU« Ka‰á¥ goÃiyfis¢ brh‰bghÊîfŸ, mw xG¡f¢ áªjidfËš j« fU¤âid¢ jiya§f¡ f£LiufŸ, m¿¡iffŸ, kÈî¥ brY¤âd®. mj‹ Éisthf mŒnuh¥ãa gâ¥òfŸ, khehLfŸ tÊ v§‡d« bfh©L bkhÊfËš bkhÊah¡f« brŒa K‹ br‹wh® v‹gij ï¡f£LiuÆ‹ K‰gFâ tªjd®. 19M« ü‰wh©L ïWâÆš És¡F»wJ. ã‰gFâÆš ïtUl‹ ïizªJ 20M« ü‰wh©L bjhl¡f¤âš jÄHf gaz« brŒj m©zh, fUzhÃâ ït®fË‹ tuyh‰¿š áy ÃfœîfŸ mu§nf¿d. g§fË¥ãidí« mt®fŸ M‰¿a fh§»uR ïa¡f« gh®¥gd¤ jiyt®fŸ gÂÆidí« vL¤Jiu¡»wJ. bfh©l ïa¡fkhf cU¥bg‰wJ. bgÇah® m¡f£áÆÈUªJ btËna¿¢ RakÇahij FwS« bgÇahU« ïa¡f¤ij¤ bjhl§»dh®. ïisPuhf ïUªj m©zhÉ‹ kdij ï›Éa¡f¡ bjhl¡f¡ fhy§fËš bgÇah® bfhŸiffŸ <®¤jd. ï›Éa¡f¤âš f«guhkhaz« ngh‹w üšfis v⮤jij¥ ïizªJ bjh©lh‰w¤ bjhl§»dh®. ngh‹nw âU¡Fwisí« MÇa¢ rh®òila 29 üš v‹W v⮤jh®. mªüÈš Tw¥g£l 4 FwŸ ïªJ kj¡ f©ld¥ ò¤jf« fU¤JfŸ kj¢rh®òilait vd¢ rhodh®. v‹gijí«, mJ r®t kj¤âYŸs ã‹d®, 1902¡F¥ ãwF gh.nt. kh¡f (eha¡f®) r¤J¡fis všyh« nr®¤J mt®fË‹ e£ò »il¤jJ. bgÇahÇ‹ vGj¥g£LŸs kÅj j®k üš beU§»a e©g®. âU¡Fwis MHkhf¡ v‹gijí« všnyhU« czu nt©L«. f‰wt®. bgÇahU¡F¤ âU¡FwŸ ÛJ ïUªj fU¤J Ku©ghLfis¡ fisªjt®. bgÇah®, 4 x›bthUtD« eh‹ ïªJtšy; âU¡FwË‹ gÇnkyHf® ciuia¡ f‰wâdhš âuhÉlnd - âU¡FwŸ ÉU«ãna tªj Éisî. mij ÉL¤J, âU¡FwŸ v‹W¡ T¿¡ bfhŸtâš bgUikaila _y¤ij¡ f‰W tŸStÇ‹ c©ik¥ bghUis nt©L«. Éóâiaí« ehk¤ijí« m¿f v‹W m¿îW¤âdh®. ã‹dnu FwŸ É£blhÊ¡f nt©L«. òuhz§fis¥ üiy ntW nfhz¤âš go¡f¤ bjhl§»dh®. go¡f¡ TlhJ. Ú v‹d kj« v‹whš gy c©ik¡ fU¤Jfis m¿ªjh®. FwŸ kj«, kÅj j®k kj« v‹W brhšÈ¥ gHf nt©L«. âU¡Fwis¥ g‰¿ bgÇah® 'ï‹W« ïuhkhaz¢ r«ãujhakh?' v‹D« 'ÉLjiy' 14.11.1948 ïš btËÆ£l 'âuhÉl® f£LiuÆš ('ÉLjiy' 05.11.1948) vL¤Jiu¡F« fHfK« âU¡FwS«' v‹D« f£LiuÆš áy fU¤JfŸ tUkhW.2 nkY« áy fU¤Jfis¤ jU»wh®.3

4 f«guhkhaz« ngh‹w MÇa 4 cy»‰nf bghJthd m¿î üšfËš tÈíW¤j¥g£LŸs És¡f¤ijí«, mj‰fhd muáaš MÇa¥ g©òfS¡F¤ âuhÉl ehL Kiwfisí«, k¡fË‹ thœî g‰¿í« M£g£oUªj rka¤âš âuhÉl®fis vL¤J¡ T¿íŸs ekJ âU¡Fwis eh« mjÅ‹W ÉLÉ¡f¤ âuhÉl¥ bgÇah® kâ¥gâšiy. eh« go¥gJÄšiy. xUtuhš njh‰WÉ¡f¥g£l üšjh‹ âU¡FwŸ MF«. 4 ïuhkhaz¤âš K£o¡ bfhŸs KªJ»nwhnka‹¿ âuhÉlÇ‹ 4 k¡fŸ ahtU« xnu #hâ v‹»wJ FwŸ. âU¡Fwis¥ g‰¿¢ á¿J Tl¡ ftiy bfhŸStâšiy. vdnt, ïÅ 4 m¿Édhš cŒ¤Jz®ªJ x¥ò¡bfhŸs¡ ek¡F xU be¿ üš, tÊfh£o üš Toadî« ïa‰ifnahL ïU¡»wbj‹whš mJ âU¡FwnsahF«. ÉŠPhd¤â‰F x¥g ïiaªâU¡f¡ mij ekJ k¡fŸ go¡f nt©L«. Toadî« Md fU¤Jfisna bfh©L khzt®fS« òyt®fS« XŒî ïa§F»wJ FwŸ. neu§fËš âU¡FwŸ ãu¢rhu« brŒa nt©L«. fh§»uR¤ âuhÉl®fS« 4 âU¡FwËš fhz¥gL« ÚâfŸ, ï¥gÂia nk‰bfhŸs nt©L«. m¿îiufŸ, el¡f¡ ToaJ«, elªjhš c‰w gy‹ ju¡ ToaJ«, V‰f¡ 4 mUik¤ âuhÉl k¡fns! âU¡FwŸ Toajhfî«, ï‹W e«khš el¤â¡ cy»š cŸs všyh ïr§fS¡F« fh£l¡ Toadthfî« ïU¡»‹wd. mjhtJ byÅÅr«, nrhõÈr[« M»aitfisÉl ca®ªj 4 kÅj rKjha¤â‰nf eštÊ fh£o, j¤Jt§fis¡ bfh©l, k¡fË‹ e‹bd¿ô£o, e‰g©òfisí« ešthœî¡F Md Úâ üyhF«. xG¡f§fisí« f‰ã¡F« tifÆš ïÅnaD« âuhÉl®fŸ go¤J mj‹ vGj¥g£l üšjh‹ âU¡FwŸ. tÊ¢br‹W bghJ¥g M‰¿dhš eh« 30 vtU¡F« moik¥g£oU¡f kh£nlh« f£lha¥gL¤jÉšiy bgÇah®. "FwËÈUªJ v‹gJ k£Lkšy. v§F« e«ik Vkh‰w c§fS¡F nt©oaij V‰W¡ bfhŸS§fŸ, KoahJ. nt©lhjij¤ jŸËÉL§fŸ v‹Wjh‹ TW»nw‹. eh« âUtŸStiu kfh‹ v‹nwh 'KRÈ«fns, »¿¤Jt®fns áªâí§fŸ' mtjhu¥ òUõbu‹nwh x¤J¡ bfhŸs (05.11.1948 'ÉLjiy' -

"»¿¤Jt®fsh» É£ljhnyna 劉d« jk¡F V‰òila fU¤Jfis Ú§fŸ ca®ªjt®fŸ v‹W fUâ¡ k£L« jh‹ V‰W¡ bfhŸs nt©L« v‹»w bfh©LÉlhÔ®fŸ! Ú§fŸ FwŸ kj¡fhu®fŸ, gF¤j¿î¢ áªjidnahL âUtŸStiu igãS¡F Énuhjkhf¡ FwËš x‹W« mQF« Kiw V‰òilaJ. ïnj f£LiuÆš »ilahJ. gh®¥gd®fË‹ jaî¡fhf MÇa¡ fU¤Jfis tŸSt® v§‡d« nt©o¢ RakÇahijia ïHªJ ÉlhÔ®fŸ! v⮡»wh® v‹W, áy FwŸfis¢ rh‹W fh£o, c§fŸ e‹ikia¥ ghJfh¤J¡ bfhŸtjhŒ j‹Dila fU¤ijí« ÃiyÃW¤J»wh®. ïUªjhš #hâ rka ngjÄ‹¿¥ ghLgL« âuhÉl® fHf¤âš nrU§fŸ. âuhÉl® eh‹ MÇa¡ fU¤Jfbsšyh«, mj‹ fHf« âUtŸSt® Fwis¥ ã‹g‰¿ j¤Jt§fŸ, bfhŸiffŸ M»ait bašyh« elªJ tU« fHf«. ïªeh£oš kDj®k« xU T£l¤â‹ ca®î¡F«, ntbwhU xʪJ, kÅj¤j‹ik V‰gl¥ ghLg£L T£l« ntjid¥glîkhd KiwÆš tU« fHf«, mj‰F¡ FwŸjh‹ tÊfh£o; mik¡f¥g£oU¡»‹wd v‹W T¿ vªj K‹nd‰w¤â‰F« ÉnuhjÄšyhkš mitfis, MÇa¡ fU¤Jfis mitfS¡F gÂah‰¿ tU« fHf« v‹gij c§fËš MjhukhŒ ïU¡»‹w kj«, flîŸ j‹ik, cz®ªJ Md cjÉiaí« mj‰fˤJ òuhz§fŸ ngh‹witfis xÊ¡f nt©L« MjÇí§fŸ"4 v‹W« ãu¢rhu« òǪJ tUtjhš, vd¡F tŸSt® cŸsK« mt® üÈ‹ c©ik¡ 劉d« âU¡Fwis mobah‰¿, FwŸ fU¤J« bjËthf¤ bjÇ»‹wJ. kj«, kÅj j®k« üš, âuhÉl tÊfh£o üš, thœÉaš be¿ üš v‹bwšyh« T¿¤ Mfntjh‹, eh« tŸStiu, mt® âU¡Fwis k¡fŸ k‹w¤â‰F bfh©L ïa‰¿a âU¡Fwis¥ ngh‰W»nwh«. br‹wt® bgÇah®. ïªj¥ go všnyhU« ngh‰Wtjhš FwS« ehD« (bgÇah®) jh‹ âU¡FwŸ xU kj¤ij¤ jGÉnah, xU kj¤â‹ ca®î¡fhfnth vGj¥g£l 'FwS« ehD«' v‹D« jiy¥ãš bgÇah®, üš v‹¿šyhkš, k¡fË‹ thœ¡if¡F, jh‹ âU¡FwŸ f‰wijí«, mjid ntW k¡fŸ j§fSila thœ¡ifÆny ifahs f©nzh£l¤njhL go¡f¡ f‰W¡ bfhL¤j nt©oa tÊtiffŸ g‰¿ vGj¥g£l gh.nt. kh¡f (eha¡fiu)í« Ãidî üš v‹W M»wJ. FwsháÇa® fhy¤âš bfhŸ»wh®. nkY« tŸStiu¥ g‰¿¡ TW« ïªJkj« v‹gJ ïšiy. ïªJ kj« v‹W áy fU¤JiufS« áªjid¡FÇad. ïUªâUªjhš âU¡FwËš X® ïl¤âyhtJ ïªJ v‹w brhšiy¡ F¿¥ã£oU¡fyh«. âU¡FwËš cŸs všyh¡ fU¤Jfisí« Mdhš, 1330 gh£LfËY« X® ïl¤âyhtJ V‰W¡ bfhŸs nt©L« v‹W ïªJ v‹w brhš fhz¥glÉšiy. 31 âU¡FwË‹ Kjš m¤âaha¤âš flîŸ ÉU¥ò, btW¥ò ïu©L« thœ¤J v‹W X® mâfhu« ïU¡»wJ. mâš ïU¡fhjtD¡F¤ jh‹ kd mikâ ïU¡F«; cUt tz¡f¡ bfhŸiffŸ ïl« bgwÉšiy. ÉU¥ò, btW¥ò ïUªjhš kÅjD¡F kd nkY« ïªJ kj¡ flîis¥ g‰¿a òfHhu« mikâ ïU¡fhJ v‹W TW»wh®. mªj¥ g¤J¥ gh£LfËY« »ilahJ. mL¤J, FwŸ KGtâYnk, 1330 ghlšfËYnk, X® ïl¤âyhtJ tŸSt® 'flîŸ' v‹w jd¡Ftik ïšyhjh‹ jhŸnr®ªjh®¡F mšyhš brhšiy¡ F¿¥ãlÉšiy. jÄœ bkhÊÆš kd¡ftiy kh‰wš mÇJ. cŸs ešy brh‰fis všyh« - ca®ªj brh‰fisbašyh« jkJ üÈš ga‹gL¤âa v‹w gh£il, flîsoia¢ tŸSt®, 'flîŸ' v‹w brhšiy k£L« nr®ªjhbyhÊa, e‹Åiy ïšiy; gukÅ‹ ga‹gL¤jÉšiy. âUtoia milªjhšjh‹ ghg§fŸ xÊí«; nkh£r thœî »£L« v‹w m®¤j¤âyh tŸSt® flîŸ thœ¤J¥ tŸSt® TW»wh®? ïšiy. ghoÆU¥gbjšyh« x›bthU e‰Fz§fis it¤J, mªj¥goahf el¡f nt©L« kÅjD¡F ftiyfŸ Ú§f, âU¥â v‹gj‰fhfnt g¤J¥gh£oY« g¤J Éjkhd v©z« V‰gl nt©Lkhdhš, bghJ Fz§fis¡ T¿dh®. cilikjh‹ mj‰F kUªJ v‹W Tw¥gL»wJ. Vbd‹bwhš bghJ cilik¤ kÅj‹ v¥goÆU¡f nt©L« v‹gij¡ â£l¤âš kÅj®fS¡FŸ ngj« ïšyhkš fh£Ltj‰fhf¤jh‹ thœÉ‹ tifia, brŒa Ko»wJ. Ãiyia cz®¤Jtj‰fhf¤jh‹ v£L, x‹gJ fU¤Jfis it¤J tŸSt® flîŸ ngjÄšyhj ïl¤âš kÅj‹ ahiuí« thœ¤J¡ T¿ÆU¡»wh®"6 gh®¤J¥ bghwhikíw KoahJ. Mfnt, kÅj‹ kd¤ âU¥âail»wh‹. ï¡fU¤ij¤ ï¡fU¤JfË‹ bjhl®¢áahf, bgÇah® jh‹ tŸSt® m¡ FwËš TW»wh®. 22, 23.05.1950ïš bg§fqÇš Ãfœ¤âa brh‰bghÊÉš ('ÉLjiy' 01.06.1950) flîŸ mij¥ g‰¿ gÇnkyHf® tlt®fSila thœ¤âš ïl«bgW« _‹W FwŸfis MÇa®fSila 32 mw§fis it¤J¡ vL¤J¡ fh£o j‹Dila fU¤ij T¿dh®. Mdhš, tŸSt® mw« v‹W btË¥gL¤J»wh®. brhštJ v‹dbt‹whš, k¡fS¡FŸ m‹ò, xG¡f«, mUŸ ïU¡f nt©L« v‹gjhF«. f‰wjdhš Ma gabd‹bfhš - thy¿t‹ e‰whŸ bjhHhm® vÅ‹. ï¢brh‰bghÊÉ‹ bjhl®¢áahf¤ âUtŸSt® v⮡F« MÇa¡ fU¤Jfis xU kÅj‹ ešy m¿îilatdhŒ _‹W FwŸfis¢ rh‹W fh£o bkhÊ»wh®.8 ïšyhâUªjhš, ešy m¿î¡F m¡fU¤JfŸ tUkhW: M£g£oU¡f Éšiyahdhš - m¿nthL elªJ bfhŸshÉ£lhš mt‹ v›tsî ãw¥bgh¡F« všyh îÆ®¡F« - áw¥bgh›th go¤J ïUªjhY« v‹djh‹ m¥go¥ãš brŒbjhÊš nt‰Wik ah‹. mtD¡F¥ ga‹ V‰g£lJ v‹W TwKoí«? v‹W ãw¥ãdhš ngj« ïšiy; ngj« nt©Ljš nt©lhik ïyhdo nr®ªjh®¡F f‰ã¡fî« TlhJ; mL¤J brŒ»‹w ah©L« ïL«ig ïy. bjhÊyhY« ngj§fŸ f‰ã¡f¡ TlhJ v‹W 32 - MÇa¡ bfhŸifÆ‹ mo¥gil¡nf mo ïl¤âny 'kÆ® ڥ㋠cÆ®thHh¡ ftÇkh' bfhL¡»wh®. ngh‹W khd« Ú§Fkhdhš kÅj‹ ïwªJÉl nt©L« v‹»wh®. mL¤jgoahf, tŸSt® MÇa® brŒí« ntŸÉia¡ f©o¡»wh®. kÅjDila jÅ thœÉš mtkhd« neÇo‹ cÆ®Él nt©L«. cÆiu Él mÉbrhǪJ MÆu« nt£lÈ‹ - x‹w‹ khd« bgÇbjd Ãid¡f nt©L«. cÆ®brF¤J c©zhik e‹W. ïªj¡ FwŸ bghJthœî g‰¿aJ. bghJ mjhtJ, flîŸ bga® T¿ cÆ®¡bfhiy thœÉš vªj k¡fË‹ ešthœî¡fhf òÇí§ bfhLŠbraiy¡ f©o¡»wh®. eh£ony K‹nd‰w¤â‰fhf¥ ghLgL»whndh, ehY tUz¤ij ÃiyÃW¤Jtj‰fhfî«, mªj k¡fshnyna btW¡f¥glyh«. gy MÇa®fË‹ ca® thœî¡F Mjhukhí« bjhšiyfS¡F« Mshf neÇlyh«. ïUªJ tU« ntj§fisí« - mjhtJ, Mdhš jh« gL»‹w ghLfŸ mil»‹w ntj¤ij¥ go¡fhÉ£lhY« F‰wÄšiy; mšyšfŸ e‹ik¡fhf¤ jh‹ v‹W fUâ xG¡fkhf el¡f nt©L« v‹W tŸSt® ntiy brŒjhš jh‹ mt‹ v©Âa ntâa¤j‹ikia¡ f©o¡»wh®. fhÇa«

âuhÉl‹ g¤âÇifÆš btËtªj âU.É.f - bgÇah® ïuhkrhÄ ï‹W bg£o¢ brŒâ "âU¡FwŸ 1330 gh£L¡F« Fwis¡ ifÆš VªâíŸsh® bgÇahÇ‹ ciuíl‹ ešy »nsR fh»j¤âš R¤j¥ ïa¡f« cyf¥ bghJ ïa¡f«, âU¡FwŸ gâ¥ghf m¢á£lJ. všyh jÄœeh£L¥ cyf¥ bghJüš. vdnt jh‹ mJ bgÇahÇ‹ g¤âÇiffËY« R¤j¥ gâ¥ò - Fiwªj Éiy ifÆš 剿U¡»wJ. ïJnth òJik ky®»w v‹W ghuh£l¥bg‰wJ. jÄœ k¡fŸ ahtU« fhy«. vdnt, ò¤Jyf¤â‰F V‰w t©z« go¤J czu nt©L« v‹D« neh¡f¤njhL Fwis neh¡f nt©LtJ e« flik." v£lzh Éiy V‰gL¤âíŸsJ. ï«khj« 27.28M« njâfËš el¡F« âUth§T® ehty® nrhkRªju ghuâah® - "ahuhÆD« rKjha¢ Ó®âU¤j kfheh£L¥ gªjÈš âU¡Fwis¥ go¡F« K‹d® MÇa ehfÇf« »il¡F«. âuhÉl‹ gâ¥gf«" ('âuhÉl‹' fythj jÄœ ehfÇf« x‹W jÄHf¤âš 28.12.1929)17 jiyÃÄ®ªnjh§»¤ jiH¤âUªjJ v‹gijí«, âU¡FwŸ mªj¤ jŤjÄœ âU¡FwŸ khehLfŸ el¤jš :- ehfÇf¤â‹ tÊtªj ca®jÅ¢ áw¥ò üš v‹gijí« cz®ªJ Mfnt©L«. ït‰iw jÄHf tuyh‰¿š Äf K¡»a Ãfœthf¡ czuhjh® âU¡Fwis¥ go¤J¥ ga‹ F¿¡f¤j¡fJ br‹id ãuh£ntÆš bgÇah® ïšiy." el¤âa âU¡FwŸ khehL - 1949M« M©L rdtÇ 15.16M« ehŸfËš eilbg‰wJ. bj. bgh. Ûdh£á Rªjudh® - "»¿¤Jt‹ ïjid, irt á¤jhªj ü‰gâ¥ò¡ fHf x›bthUtD¡F« ÉtÈa üš v¥gonah, btËplhd brªjÄœ¢ bršÉ ã¥utÇ khj mJnghš âU¡FwS« jÄHdJ âUkiw ïjÊš jiya§f¡ f£Liu btËÆ£lJ. üyhf És§F« thŒ¥ig mila£L«. mâš FwŸ F¿¤j m¿P®fË‹ fU¤JiufŸ g©il¤ jÄHdh»a tŸStdhš Äf¢ RU¡fkhf¡ Tw¥g£LŸsd. vGj¥g£l üš ghku®fS¡F« ïÅ¥ ga‹gl£L«. tŸSt® jªj jÄœ üyh»a 'thœ¡if be¿ tF¤j tŸSt® âU¡Fwis k¡fS¡bfšyh« vL¤J kh©ò' v‹D« m¤jiy¥ãš mikªjJ XJ§fŸ! kÅj¤ j‹ikÆš midtU¡F« m¤ jiya§f¡ f£Liu. ï¡f£Liu¡ g‰Wjš V‰gl¥ ghLgL§fŸ!" F¿¥ãÈUªJ áy brŒâfŸ tUkhW:18 á. ïy¡Ftdh® - "ï‹iwa muáaš ï«kheh£o‰F tuyhW f©l¿ahj c©ikÆnyna kj¢ rh®g‰wjhf nt©Lkhdhš KiwÆš k¡fŸ Tod®. Äf¢ áw¥ghf khehL mj‰F¤ âU¡Fwns tÊfh£o." eilbg‰wJ. ï«kheh£oš g§F bfh©L áw¥ã¤j jÄH¿P®fŸ, jÄœ¥bgÇah® V. r¡fut®¤â eÆdh® - "âU¡FwŸ âU.É.f. (tunt‰ò¡ fHf¤ jiyt®), ehty® jÄHÇ‹ ngu¿Éš Éisªj jÅ¥bgU«üš... v°. nrhkRªju ghuâah® (kheh£L¤ âw¥ghs®), ïªâah KGtJnka‹¿ cybf§»Q« g‹bkhÊ¥ òyt® bj.bgh. Ûdh£á Rªjudh® gu¥g¤jF« bfhŸif - nfh£ghLfŸ kȪJ (Kjš ehŸ kheh£L¤ jiyt®), o.v°. fªjrhÄ »l¡»‹wd. FwËš m‹ò tÊÆnyna kÅj (KjÈah®) (âUtŸSt® gl¤ âw¥ghs®), kh. ïd¥ g©ig ehfÇf¤ij¡ fh¥gh‰w Koí«. ïuhrkh¡f«, á. ïy¡Ftdh®, âU¡FwŸ ïšiynaš ehfÇf« mʪJ jÉL bgho å. KÅrhÄ, V. r¡ut®¤â eÆdh® (ïu©lh« M»ÉL«. 36 bgÇah® <.bt.uhkrhÄ - "jÅ¢áw¥ò 2. M£á k‹w§fËY« cW¥ãduhf thŒªj âU¡Fwis midtU« ngh‰¿ tUnth®¡F« fšÉ¡ Tl§fËY« mj‹go ešthœî thH nt©L«. eh£o‹ _ fšÿÇfËY« jiytuhf tUnth®¡FÇa iy KL¡FfŸ njhW« âUtŸSt® fHf§fŸ jFâfËš âU¡FwŸ òyikí« njh‰WÉ¡f¥gl nt©L«. âU¡FwŸ x‹whf t‰òW¤JkhW M£áahsiu fU¤JfŸ gu¥g¥gl nt©L«." nt©L»‹wJ.

á.v‹. m©zhJiu - "âU¡Fwis¡ 3. âUtŸSt® ÉHhî¡bfd xU ifnaªâa t©z« ïÅ g£o ehis¡ F¿¥ã£L, muR ÉLKiw bjh£obašyh« bršnth«. ïj‹ òfiH¥ ehsh¡» mªehis ehbl§F« gu¥ònth«, âU¡FwS¡F¤ ju¥g£oU¡f bfh©lhLtj‰FÇa V‰ghLfis¢ nt©oa - Mdhš ïJtiu ju¥glhk‰nghd brŒa nt©Lbk‹W murh§f¤jhiu¡ ïl¤ij¤ jÄHf¤âš X® mŒªjh©L¡ nf£L¡ bfhŸ»‹wJ. fhy¤âš eh§fŸ bg‰W¤ jU»nwh«. 4. âU¡FwŸ g‰¿a ÉHh¡fŸ, khehLfŸ ï«kheh£o‹ bjhl®¢áahf, KjÈat‰¿‹ Ãfœ¢áfis âU¡FwS¡F¥ ò¤Jiu vGJtj‰fhd m¿É¡FkhW«, xÈgu¥òkhW« âU¢á mŒt® ml§»a òyt® FG x‹W thbdhÈ Ãiya¤jhiu¡ nf£L¡ cUth¡f¥bg‰wJ. mâš RakÇahij¡ bfhŸ»‹wJ.19 bfhŸif¥ g‰whs® òyt® FHªijí« xUt®. mtÇ‹ ÓÇa Ka‰áahš âU¡FwS¡F¥ ï¤Ô®khd§fË‹ tÊahf¤ jÄœeh£oš, gF¤j¿î neh¡nfhL ò¤Jiu vGj¥bg‰wJ. gŸË fšÿÇfËš âU¡FwŸ f£lha¥ m›îiu òyt® FHªij ciu vd miH¡f¥ ghlkh¡f¥gLtj‰fhd murhiz bg‰wJ. 1949ïš btËtªjJ. ïªüny btËÆl¥g£lJ. m‹iwa fšÉ mik¢r® âU¡FwŸ ciu tuyh‰¿š gy âU¥g§fis mÉeháȧfŠ br£oah® fšÉ mik¢ruhf cUth¡f¡ fs« mik¤J¤ jªjJ. ïUªj nghJ ï›thiz ãw¥ã¡f¥g£lJ; jÄHfbk§F« âU¡FwŸ ïa¡f§fS«, eilKiw¡F« tªjJ. khehLfS«, eilbg‰wd. Vuhskhd âUtŸSt® fHf§fŸ njh‰w« bg‰wd. ïjid¥ nghynt, m©ikÆš r_f¤ j‹dh®ty® xUt®. jÄHf ïisP®fŸ ÉUJefÇš 3.4.1949ïš, á. ïy¡Ftdh® k¤âÆš xG¡f« Ó®FiyªJ É£lJ. jiyikÆš âU¡FwŸ khehL x‹W xG¡f¡ fšÉ¡fhd milahskhf¤ eilbg‰wJ. bgÇah® cŸgl gy® âU¡Fwis¡ f£lha¥ ghlkh¡f nt©L« ciu Ãfœ¤âd®. ïâš áy Ô®khd§fŸ v‹W tH¡F bjhl®ªjh®. m›tH¡F K‹bkhÊa¥g£ld. mit tUkhW : kJiu Úâk‹w¤âš ÉrhÇ¡f¥ bg‰W Úâgâ kfhnjt‹ mt®fŸ 17.4.2017 m‹W 1. ï¥bghGJŸs fšÉ¤ â£l¤âš Kjš tuyh‰W¢ áw¥òÄ¡f Ô®¥ò x‹¿id ca®Ãiy tF¥ò (ghu«) bjhl§» tH§»dh®. mj‹go Û©L« gŸËfËš ïs§fiyP® (B.A.) tF¥ò Koa âU¡FwËš 108 mâfhu§fS« cŸsl¡»a âU¡FwŸ KGtJ« go¤J Ko¡F« e‹bd¿¥ ghl¤â£l¤ij cUth¡»aJ. tifÆš go¥goahf¥ ghl¤â£l« tF¥ò 6 Kjš 12 tiuíŸs khzt®fŸ tF¡FkhW«, mj‰bfd¤ jÅ Édh¤jhŸ, fšÉ¡ f‰F«goahf (tF¥ã‰nf‰g 15 (nõ¡°ãa® nghy) V‰gL¤JkhW« mâfhu§fŸ) murhiz ãw¥ã¡f¥g£L fšÉ¤Jiw mâfhÇfisí« gšfiy¡ eilKiw¡F tªjJ v‹w brŒâí« ï§F fHf§fisí« ï«khehL nt©L»‹wJ. ÃidîTu¤j¡fJ. 37 劉d« jªij bgÇah® mt®fŸ bfhŸS« ghkuÇl« br‹W gF¤j¿î âU¡FwŸ be¿Æid¢ brh‰bghÊî, ïjœfŸ, ngR»nwh«. m¿¡iffŸ, khehLfŸ tÊahf k¡fŸ k‹w¤â‰F¡ bfh©L br‹wh®. âU¡FwË‹ ï¤jifat®fËl«, eh« kiwªJ »l¡F« caÇa fU¤JfŸ ghku k¡fS¡F« ï«kh¡f¤ij - Fwis¡ fh£L« kf¤jhd br‹wila Äf¥bgU« tʤjl¤ij gÂÆid nk‰bfh©LŸnsh«. cUth¡»¥ bgUik bg‰wh®. ekJ g bt‰¿ bg‰whšjh‹, k¡fË‹ á.v‹. m©zhJiuí« FwS« :- cilikahF« - ïªj¤ jÄœ m¿î¡ fsŠáa«. âuhÉl® fHf¤â‹ bgU« jiyt®fËš xUt® m¿P® m©zh mt®fŸ. FwŸ Vªâ¢ bršnth«, ehL efubk§F« bgÇahÇ‹ mobah‰¿ mtÇ‹ ghriwÆš g£o bjh£ofbsšyh« ekJ g©ghL vJ ts®ªjt®. ïtU« âU¡FwŸ gÂÆid v‹gij k¡fŸ m¿a¢ brŒnth«. nk‰bfh©lh®. 'âuhÉl ehL' v‹D« ïjÊš btË tªj 'âU¡FwŸ - âU¥gÂ' mw«, bghUŸ, ï‹g« vD« mÇa v‹D« f£LiuÆÈUªJ áy gFâfŸ ï§F K¥bghUis k¡fŸ czu k£Lkšy, Efuî« R£l¥gL»‹wd. gÂah‰w nt©L«. òâa g - Mdhš ekJ giHa gÂÆ‹ bjhl®¢ájh‹ - K‰¿Y« òâjšy. "tŸSt® jªj âU¡FwŸ, jÄH®¡F k£Lkšyhkš g©òl‹ thH ÉU«ò« m¥g¡F eh« e«ik¤ jahǤJ¡ midtU¡F« X® tÊfh£oahf mikªâU¡»wJ. bfhŸtj‰F, FwË‹ mUik bgUik g‰¿ m¿P® T¿íŸs fU¤Jiufis v©Â¥ âU¡FwŸ ó#h khl¤J¡F k£L« gh®¥gJ, K¡»akhd Kjš ntiyahF«." jahÇ¡f¥g£l Vlšy. òidªJiufŸ beËí« òuhzkšy. thœÉny, öŒikia mtutU« bjhl®ªJ nguháÇa® Rªjudh®, j¤jkJ âwid¢ rÇahf¥ ga‹gL¤â, k‰wt® mUªjÄœ¥ òyt® m›it JiurhÄ, òyt® thœÉ‹ nk«gh£oidí« kâ¤J xGFtj‹ K.tujuhrdh®, m¿P® uh.ã.nrJ¥(ãŸis), _y« bgw¡ToaJ v‹w bgUbe¿ia¡ R.nt. eluhr‹ ngh‹nwh® T‰Wfis Ãidî fh£L« üyhF«. T®»wh®.

eh« ïJfhW«, m¤jF òuhz VLfË‹ ïWâÆš, "ò©g£l beŠRl‹ cŸsd® ãoÆÈUªJ ehL ÉLgl nt©L« m¿ªnjh®, m¿ahjh®¡nfh FwŸ X® òâ® ! v‹gj‰fhd gÂòǪJ tªnjh«. m¥g bjhl®ªJ« elªJ tU»wJ. g©il¤jÄHÇ‹ kd¥ò©Q«, gaÅš ü‰fis k£Lnk m¿ªjjhš, k¡fŸ kd¤âny m¥gÂílD« ïJnghJ eh« tŸSt® _©L»l¡F« kUS«, ngh¡f¥gl nt©L« jªj âU¡Fwis x›nth® ïšy¤âY« - eh« nk‰bfhŸS« gÂ_y«. Fonaw¢ brŒjhf nt©L«. x›bthUt® kd¤âY«, mtUila mw ciufis¥ thœf tŸSt®! ts®f FwŸ be¿!"21 gâa¢ brŒa nt©L« v‹w ÓÇa gÂÆidí« nk‰bfh©LŸnsh«. m©zhÉ‹ cŸs« ft®ªj caÇa üš âU¡Fwns MF«. âuhÉl ehL, KubrhÈ k¡fŸ k‹w¤âny cyî»nwh«.... f£L¡ ïjœfËš âU¡FwË‹ fU¤Jfis fijfis e«ã¡ fU¤ij¡ FH¥ã¡ vL¤Jiu¤jh®. j‹Dila M£á¡ fhy¤âš 38 br‹idÆš eilbg‰w ïu©lh« cyf¤ m©zhÉ‹ caÇa F¿¡nfhŸfËš jÄœ kheh£oid¢ áw¥ghf el¤âdh®. x‹W âU¡Fwis thœÉaš üš M¡Ftnj. (1968 rdtÇ 3-10) m«kheh£oid x£o âUtŸSt® /âU¡FwŸ cyf¥ nguhrh‹ tŸSt®¡F¡ fhy¤jhš mÊahj áw¥òfis¢ v‹gij cy»‰F¢ brh‹dh®. âU¡FwŸ brŒjh®. br‹id bkÇdh fl‰fiuÆš üš x›bthU jÄH® ïšy§fËY«, th‹òfœ tŸSt®¡F¢ áiy it¡f¥g£lJ. cŸs§fËY« v‹W« thH nt©L« v‹W« mauhJ ghLg£lh®. m«kheh£o‰F xJ¡f¥g£l ÃâÆš, kheh£L¢ bryî nghf vŠáa %. x‹gJ 劉d« bgÇah® ghriwÆš cUthd ïy£r¤ bjhifia, br‹id, m©zhkiy, m¿P® m©zh, âU¡FwŸ be¿ cy»š kJiu M»a _‹W jiyaha gšfiy¡ guîtj‰F¥ bgU« g§fh‰¿íŸsh® v‹gJ fHf§fS¡F jyh _‹W ïy£r« %ghŒ ehl¿ªj c©ik. Ãâia it¥ò Ãâahf it¤J, âU¡FwŸ MŒî ïU¡ifia cUth¡»dh®. m› fiyP® fUzhÃâí« FwS« :- MŒî ïU¡ifÆš _¤j jÄH¿P®fŸ òyt® K. r©Kf« (ãŸis), Kidt® f.j. âuhÉl¥ ghriwÆš bgÇahÇl« gƉá âUehî¡fuR, Kidt® ï. Rªju_®¤â. bg‰wt®. ã‹dhËš m¿P® m©zhÉ‹ Kidt® F. nkhfduhR, (br‹id), KJbgU« mutiz¥ãš ts®ªjt®. jÄHf¤âš òyt® j©lgh njáf® (m©zhkiy) âuhÉl M£áia m©zhÉ‹ kiwî¡F¥ Kidt® â. KUfu¤jd« (kJiu) ngh‹nwh® ãwF jiyikna‰W tÊ el¤âat®. gÂah‰¿, F¿¥ãl¤j¡f âU¡FwŸ MŒî jÄHf muáaš tuyh‰¿š jd¡bf‹W üšfis¤ jªjd®. XÇl¤ij¤ j¡f it¤J¡ bfh©lt®. ïtU« âuhÉl¡ bfhŸiffËš g‰W¡ bfh©L, "m©zh jiyikÆš muR¥ bghW¥ng‰W j‹ K‹id¤ jiyt®fË‹ mobah‰¿¤ ïUªjnghJ, fšÉ mik¢ruhf ïUªj jÄHf¤âš âU¡FwŸ be¿ gu¥ò« ehty® beŠbrÊa‹ mt®fŸ, irt á¤jhªj gÂÆš g§fh‰¿at®. ïtuJ M£áÆš ü‰gâ¥ò¡ fHf¤Jl‹ ïizªJ jÄHf¤âš âUtŸStU¡F / âU¡FwS¡F¢ brŒj cŸs _‹W gšfiy¡fHf§fËY« g£l« áw¥òfËš F¿¥ãl¤j¡f brašghLfËš bg‰W¢ bršY« khzt®fS¡F, g£lkË¥ò xU áy tUkhW: ÉHhÉš jÄœehL bjŒåf¥ nguit mik¥nghL ïizªJ, âU¡FwŸ K.t. âuhÉl K‹nd‰w¡ fHf« 1967ïš bjËîiu¥ gâ¥ig, gÇR¥ gâ¥ghf 1967, 1968, jÄHf¤âš m©zhÉ‹ jiyikÆš 1969 M»a _‹W M©LfŸ khzt®fS¡F¥ M£á mikªjJ. ï›tik¢ruitÆš gÇrhf mˤjd®. ï›tifÆš 20,000 bghJ¥g¤Jiw mik¢ruhf, fUzhÃâ âU¡FwŸ gofŸ khzt¢ r_f¤â‰F¢ bghW¥ng‰wh®. m¢rka« jÄHf¤âš br‹W nr®ªjd."22 cŸs mid¤J bghJ¥g¤Jiw mYtyf§fËY« âUtŸSt® cUt¥gl« m¿P® m©zhJiuÆ‹ Ka‰áÆdhY« it¥gj‰F Miz ãw¥ã¤jh®. ïtnu, fÉP® ghuâjhr‹ cWJizíl‹ XÉa® jÄHf muR¥ ngUªJfËš tŸSt® glK« ntQnfhghš r®kh _y«, âUtŸStU¡F¢ Fw£gh x‹iwí« ïl« bgw¢ brŒjh®. rka¢ rh®g‰w tŸSt® XÉa« Ô£l¥ bg‰wJ. ã‹d® eLtzuá‹ x¥òjš bg‰W mŠrš jiy 4 âUtŸSt®

4 âUtŸStU¡F¡ f‰nfh£l« âUtŸStuh©L 2050M« M©o‹ mik¤jnjhL mšyhkš FwnshÉa« ÃiwÉid (2019) ahU« áªâ¤J¥ v‹D« brh‰nfh£lK«. FwŸ üY¡F gh®¡fhj NHÈš, br‹idÆš bgÇahÇa fiyP® ciu v‹D« bgaÇš ciu üš cz®ths®fË‹ T£lik¥ãd® (bghÊy‹, x‹iwí« btËÆ£lh®. á. Fz¤bjhif, bydh Fkh®, jf^® r«g¤, Kidt® K¤jÄœ, nfh. ã¢ir tŸËehaf«, ã‹d® fiyP® 2000 M©o‹ nj. m‹òeâ, f.bt. beLŠnruyhj‹ - üš bjhl¡f¤âš FkÇKidÆš Éntfhdªj® cUth¡f¡ FGÉd®) "âUtŸSt® 2050 k©lg¤â‰F mU»š ãu«kh©lkhd 133 - MŒîfŸ milîfŸ" v‹D« üÈid mo cau tŸSt® áiy x‹iw ÃWÉ, 984 g¡f§fËš (murusî - uhaš irR) cyfbk§F« Éa¡F« t©z« fhy¤jhš btËÆ£LŸsd®. btËpL ghtynuW mÊahj xU bgU« gÂia¢ brŒjh®. jÄœ¡fs«, br‹id.

ïªÃfœÉ‹ bjhl®¢áahf, fiyPÇ‹ ïªüÈDŸ âU¡FwŸ 2050 M©LfŸ muáaš thœÉ‹ k‰bwhU ikš fš flªJ tªj mo¢RtLfË‹ Mtz¥ tŸSt® áiyâw¥ò ÉHhÉ‹ áw¥ò gâîfŸ ïl« bg‰WŸsd. fhy¤jhš mÊahj btËplhf ïu©L üšfŸ jÄœ ts®¢á¤ Äf¥ bgÇa MtzkhF«. JiwÆ‹ btËplhf btËÆl¥g£ld. x‹W, nkdhŸ Jizntªj® Kidt® ï. ïªüš bjhF¥ò Ka‰áÆdhš eh« m¿ªJ Rªju_®¤âÆdhš bjhF¡f¥g£l FwsKj« bfhŸtJ - bgÇah® bfhŸifÆš g‰Wila v‹D« üyhF«. jÄHf¤âš áwªj eh‰gJ T£lik¥ãd® mt® âuhÉl®¡FÇa üš jÄH¿P®fË‹ FwŸ F¿¤j MŒî¡ âU¡FwŸ v‹W KG¡fÄ£lij Ãidî f£LiufË‹ bjhF¥ghF«. k‰bwh‹W, T®ªJ ï‹iwa jiyKiwÆd®¡F¡ bfh©L jÄHf¤âš cŸs x‹gJ üyf§fËš cŸs nr®¡F« m¿a Ka‰áÆ‹ btË¥ghnl ï› FwŸ üšfË‹ g£oaš ml§»a üš Mtz üš. x‹W. ï›Éu©L gÂfSnk fhy¤jhš mÊahjit MF«. ïWâahf, jÄœ¢ r_f¤âš k©o¡ »lªj MÇa¢ áªjidfS«, gF¤j¿î¡F x›thj 劉d« âuhÉl (fHfkhdJ) ïa¡fkhdJ, fU¤Jfisí« ö¡» v¿tj‰fhf, jÄœ ïd xU ü‰wh©L fhykhf jÄHf¤âš k¡fŸ k¡fis K‹nd‰wkila¢ brŒtj‰fhf¤ 40 bjhl§f¥bg‰wJ RakÇahij ïa¡f«. fhy¢ 7. nkyJ. bjhFâ 5, j¤Jt«, g. 2646 - 2647 NHÈš âuhÉl® fHfkhf kh‰wK‰W«, ã‹d® âuhÉl K‹nd‰w¡ fHfkhfî« ãǪjJ. 8. nkyJ. g. 2648 - 2649 jÄœ¢ r_f¤âš jh‹ fhÿ‹Wtj‰fhf¤ jÄœ ïy¡»a§fËš x¥òa®t‰w ïy¡»akhf¤ 9. nkyJ. bjh.1, rKjha«-3 (ïu©lh« âfG« âU¡Fwisí«, mj‹ MáÇa® tÇir), g. 53 âUtŸStiuí« jd¡FÇa fUÉahf vL¤J¡ bfh©lJ. j« bfhŸiffis 10. nkyJ. bjhFâ-6, »s®¢áfS« k¡fŸ k‹w¤J¡F bfh©L brštj‰fhf brŒâfS«, g.4661 mªüiy¥ ga‹gL¤â¡bfh©ld®. mjdhš V‰wK« f©ld®. âU¡FwŸ üY« jÄHf 11. nkyJ. g. 4684 k¡fËilna bršth¡F bg‰w ïy¡»akhf¤ âfœªjJ - âfœ»wJ. 12. nkyJ. g¡. 4684

ïU¥ãD«, 13. nkyJ

ïªÚ©l tʤjl¤ij ÃidªJ áªâ¡F« 14. nkyJ nghJ, âuhÉl ïa¡f¤jh® FwŸ be¿¥go j« muR¡ bfhŸifia V‰W¡ bfh©lduh? 15. nkyJ. bjh.6, mj‹ tÊ elªjduh? k¡fËilna »s®¢áfS« brŒâfS«-1 ïjid xU thœÉaš üyhf¡ bfh©L (KjštÇir), g.3126 nr®¥gâš bt‰¿ f©lduh? gŸË, fšÿÇ khzt®fŸ KGikahf - MHkhf¤ 16. m. ïiwa‹ (bgÇah® ngUiuahs®) âU¡Fwis¡ f‰»‹wduh? - ïjHhs® bgÇah®, g. 522 f‰ã¡f¥gL»wjh? ï›Édh¡fS¡F jÄœ¢ r_fK« MŒîyfK« jh‹ Éil jUjš 17. nkyJ. g. 114 nt©L«. 18. thœ¡if be¿ tF¤j tŸSt® kh©ò, mo¡F¿¥òfŸ: brªjÄœ¢ bršÉ, áy«ò 24, guš. 6(1949), g¡. 217-227 1. e. m¿Kf«, âU¡FwŸ g‰¿ jªij bgÇah®, tŸSt« ïjœ 17, g.25 19. thyhrh tšyt‹, âU¡FwS« RakÇahij ïa¡fK«, âUtŸSt® 2. nt. MidK¤J (gâ¥), bgÇah® <.bt.uh. 2050 M©LfŸ - milîfŸ, (bgÇah® áªjidfŸ, Kjš tÇir bjh.4, kjK« cz®ths®fŸ T£lik¥ò btËpL), flîS«, g.1933-1944 g.370

3. nkyJ. bjhFâ 2, ïa¡f§fŸ 1 (Kjš 20. âuhÉl ehL (14.1.1949). g. 3 tÇir) g. 985 21. nkyJ 4. nkyJ. bjhFâ 2, rKjha« 1, g¡ 57-58 22. t. R¥igah, âU¡FwŸ gÂna 5. nkyJ. bjh.5, j¤Jt« -1, g.2642 fHf¤â‹ jÅ¥bgU« gÂ, brªjÄœ¢ bršÉ, áy«ò-47, 6. nkyJ. g.2641-2646 guš.6, (1973), g. 321 41 Jiz üš: 1. tŸSt¢ á¡fšfŸ 2. âU¡FwŸ fh£L« jÄH® rKjha« FL«g«, muR 1. jªij bgÇah®, âU¡FwS« (br‹id ikyh¥ó® âUtŸSt® r§f¤âš bgÇahU«, bgÇah® RakÇahij¥ ãu¢rhu Kjš gÇR bg‰w üš) 3. âU¡FwŸ gâ¥ò ÃWtd btËpL, bgÇah® âlš, br‹id 7. tuyhW (jÄHf muá‹ áwªj üY¡fhd òâa gâ¥ò - 2001. Kj‰gÇR) 4. âU¡FwŸ be¿ És¡f¡ f£LiufŸ (jªij bgÇah® vGâa âU¡FwŸ MáÇa® F¿¥ò: f£LiufË‹ bjhF¥ò¡F¥ gâ¥gháÇa®), 5. ïy¡»a ïjœfŸ tÊ âU¡FwŸ MuhŒ¢á. Kidt® jhkiu¢bršÉ, òJ¢nrÇ jhT® ït®, mŒ«gJ¡F« nkš f£LiufŸ muR fiy m¿Éaš fšÿǤ jÄœ¤JiwÆš vGâíŸsh®. br«bkhʤ jÄHhŒî gÂòÇí« nguháÇa® Mth®. òJ¢nrÇ muR k¤âa ÃWtd MŒî¤ â£l§fËY« fiy fšÿÇfËš ïUg¤ijªJ M©Lfhy g§nf‰WŸsh®. âU¡FwŸ f£LiufŸ, gâ¥ò gƉá mDgt« cŸst®. áwªj âU¡FwŸ üšfŸ, MŒî üšfŸ bjhF¡F« gÂÆš MŒths®. ït® vGâíŸs üšfshtd: bjhl®ªJ

42 jÄœ mf¥bghUS« òw¥bghUS« - ãw¥gf« jÄHfkh? mayfkh? (òidî«, Édhî«, Éilí«) nguh. Kidt®. â. KUfu¤jd«

f£Liu¢ RU¡f«: bkhÊfË‹ nt‰Wik, g©gh£L nt‰Wik MfhJ v‹gij v¥gonaD« ÃWîtnj jÄœ mf¥bghUS« òw¥bghUS« - xU áyÇ‹ kd¥ngh¡fhš Éisªj ãw¥gf« jÄHfkh? mayfkh? (òidî«, MŒî¥ngh¡F v‹gjid¢ rh‹WfŸ Édhî«, Éilí«) v‹D« ïªj MŒî¡ fh£o És¡F»wJ. üÈ‹ cŸsl¡f«, f£Liu, jÄœ ïy¡»a üšfË‹ tuyhW üÈ‹ neh¡F, ïªâah Ãytf¤jhY« v¥gobašyh« vGj¥g£oU¡»wJ v‹D« x‹W vd¡ f£lik¡f Kidí« Mœªj m¿Kf¤ij¡ bfhL¡»wJ. jÄœ üyháÇaÇ‹ f‰gidÆš, jÄœ-ãuh»Uj ïy¡»a üšfË‹ tuyhW vGâa áy bkhÊfËilna Ãyî« ïy¡»a nt‰Wik m¿P®fisí«, mt®fË‹ bkŒahd v¥go MŒîbe¿¡FŸ tuhkš ïU¡»wJ? neh¡f¤ijí« MH§fh‰ gh®itahf¢ v‹W mL¡fL¡fhd Mjhu§fis vL¤J R£L»wJ. 1985ïš btËtªJ, cybf§F« it¤J, üyháÇaÇ‹ T‰W v¥go¤ jtwhF« ãugykhd MuhŒ¢á üš - ‘The Ethos of Indian v‹gjidí« ï¡f£Liu R£o¡fh£L»wJ. Literature: A Study of Its Romantic Tradition’ (ïªâa ïy¡»a¤â‹ g©gh£L ïa¡f be¿- rk°»Uj«, ãuh»Uj«, jÄœbkhÊ mj‹ fhjš fhk xG¡f be¿) v‹D« MŒit _‹wD¡F« cŸs ïy¡»a bkhÊÆaš vL¤J¡ bfh©L, mªüyháÇa®, m¿P® âU. ntWghLfis MHkhf És¡», K.S. Srinivasan T¿ÆU¡F« MŒî¡ fU¤JfŸ bjhšfh¥ãa¤â‹ tÊna, jÄœ v¤Jiz rÇah? v‹W Édh¡fŸ _yK«, juîfŸ ca®thd bkhÊ v‹gjid ÃWî»wJ _yK« ï¡ f£Liu MŒ»‹wJ. ï¡f£Liu. ãuh»Uj bkhÊ ï‹W v¥gobašyh« kh¿íŸsJ v‹gjid¢ R£o¡fh£o, jÄG¡F¤ üyháÇa® áßÅthrdhÇ‹ bjhl®ãšyhj ãuh»Uj bkhÊÆid¤ jÄœ (ãiHahd) neh¡f«: "ïªâa k©zf¤âš, bkhÊnahL ïiz¤J, mjid v¥goah»Y« ïªâa¥ g©gh£lf¤âš, ïy¡»a§fË‹ rk°»Uj¤njhL ïiz¡f KaY« üyháÇaÇ‹ njh‰w¤âš xUik k£Lnk c©L, g‹ik òidî¤j‹ikia Édh-Éil-juîfŸ ïšiy vd¡ fh£L« Ka‰áahF«" v‹D« _ykhf, MHkhf És¡Ftjhf ï¡f£Liu csÉaš c©ikia cz®¤J« ï¡f£Liu, mikªJŸsJ. 43 1.0. jÄœ üšfË‹ tuyhW v§‡d«? áyU¡F üšfË‹ tuyh‰iw tiujÈš bgW«, fh£L« neh¡fK« (aim/purpose) Kamil Zvelebil, George L. Hart, A.K. #tA®yhš neU Ãidî¢ bršt« Ramanujan, Herman Tieken, Friedhelm (Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund) v‹D« Hardy k‰W« (khzh¡f®¡F¥ ghl« el¤â, ÃWtd¤âÈUªJ MŒths® bfhil jÄœ ïy¡»a tuyh‰iw tiuªJ tÂf (Fellowship award) bg‰W MuhŒ¢á Ãfœ¤â neh¡»š btËÆ£nlhU« cŸsd®. kJ. ï›tÇaüiy btËÆ£LŸsh®. üÈ‹ g¡f r. Ékyhdªj‹, r.nt. R¥ãukÂa«, msî 244. ïªüÈ‹ MáÇa® K‹dnu á. ghyR¥ãukÂa«, f. bgÇa fU¥g‹ 1971ïš fhÉa ïuhkhaz« v‹D« bgaÇš (jÄH©zš)..., mil¡fyrhÄ). xUüš btËÆ£LŸsh®. ïªüYŸ ït® jÄœüšfË‹ tuyh‰iw tiuªnjhUŸ thšÛ», f«g® M»nah® tH§»a ïy¡»a¢ gyU¡F« mQFtÊfŸ - rh‹W tÊfŸ áw¥òfisí« x‰Wik¡ fU¤Jfisí« jh« (Approaches) gythf, ntW ntwhf ïUªjd; És¡»íŸsjhf¡ T¿íŸsh®. ïU¡fyh«. mQFtÊia¥ gh®it (View) vdî« F¿¥ãlyh«. gil¥ãy¡»a¥ ï§F És¡f¥gl vL¤J¡bfhŸs¥g£l gh®it, rka¥ gh®it, tuyh‰W¥ gh®it üÈ‹ jiy¥ãid¤ jÄÊš v§‡d« (ïªâa¥ ã‹òy«, MÇa«, âuhÉl«....) fhzyh«? Ethos v‹gJ 'g©gh£o‹ r_fÉa‰gh®it (kh®¡áa«, ntgÇa«...) xG¡fbe¿': ‘The moral ideas and attitudes vdbtšyh« üšfË‹ tuyh‰iw that belong to a particular group or society’. tiuayh«; tiuªJŸsd®. Mjyhš üÈ‹ jiy¥ò 'ïªâa ïy¡»a¤â‹ 44 g©gh£L ïa¡fbe¿'. Romantic tradition 6. The Triveni of Indian Literature v‹gJ fhjš, fhk xG¡fbe¿; mšyJ fhj‰ 7. The Idyllic Universe of Muktaka fhk xG¡f kuò be¿ vd¥glyh«. Mjyhš 8. The Sublimation of Love ïªj üÈ‹ jiy¥ig ïªâa ïy¡»a¤â‹ 9. The Avalanche from the South g©gh£L ïa¡fbe¿ - mj‹ fhjš fhk 10. The Language of Intellectual Devotion xG¡fbe¿ mšyJ mj‹ fhjš fhk xG¡f 11. Indian Poetics: Alankaras kuòbe¿ MŒî vd mik¤J¡ bfhŸsyh«. 12. Modern Indian Langauges: Their Common Legacy ïªj üš EtY« fU¤JfŸ jÄH¿PÇil¢ 13. The Grammar of Indian Langauges : bršYjš nt©L«; mt®fsJ MŒÉš ïl« Structural Affinities bgWjš nt©L«. ïJnt ï§F, f£LiuÆ‹ 14. Poetry, the Soul of Indian Arts neh¡f«. üyháÇa® áßÃthrdh® ï›thŒit 15. The Meaning of Meaning: Layers of tiuªjâ‹ neh¡f« ïªâa k©zf¤âš, Suggestions ïªâa¥ g©gh£lf¤âš, ïy¡»a§fË‹ njh‰w¤âš bghJik k£Lnk c©L; xUik Appendices k£Lnk c©L; g‹ik ïšiy vd¡ fh£L« Ka‰ána MF«; bkhÊfŸ nt‰Wik l Chart Showing Evolution of Indian g©gh£L nt‰Wik MfhJ v‹gJ« neh¡f« Languages MF«. mtuJ fU¤jh¡f« ‘Indianness of l Map Showing the Ancient Trade and Indian literature’, ‘Common features in the Cultural Routes cultural matrix’ vd¥gLgit. l A Select Bibliography

ït‰¿‹ vâ®kiw¡ fU¤jh¡f§fŸ, 1.2. áßÃthrdhuJ üÈ‹ neh¡F : ‘Multliplicity of languages represents multiplicity of cultures’, ‘Unity in diversity’ ïªâa« fhzš: XÇU ü‰wh©Lfshf vd¥gLtdth«; ïit f‰gidah«. nkiyehLfËÈUªJ tªJ nghd mYty®, ïit ïªâa¥ bghJik¡F« xUik¡F«, rka¥ gÂahs®, fšÉahs® gy® ïªâa¥ Indianness¡F« vâuhditah«. g©ghL, tuyhW, ïy¡»a§fŸ g‰¿ ï¡fU¤jh¡f§fË‹ mo¥gilÆnyna MŒªjd®; tiuªjd®. ïªâa ïy¡»a§fË‹ ïªüyháÇa® rk°»Uj ïy¡»a§fisí« tuyh‰iw tiuªnjh® ïªâa ïy¡»a§fŸ ãuh»Uj ïy¡»a§fisí« jÄœ vd¥gLgit rk°»Uj bkhÊÆš ïy¡»a§fisí« MŒªJ fhQ»wh®; fh£l njh‹¿aitna; ‘Indian Literature a synonym Ka‰á nk‰bfh©LŸsh®. MáÇaUila for Sanskrit literature' vd¥ ngáíŸsd®. mQFtÊÆidí« neh¡f M¡f¤âidí« ï¥ng¢R Fiwíilanj; òuhz§fŸ mtuJ üÈ‹ cŸsl¡f« (Contents) msÉš Égnj. ãuh»Uj§fŸ, jÄœ M»a fh£L»wJ. fhzyh«. bkhÊfËš njh‹¿a ïy¡»a§fis mt®fŸ f©L bfhŸshjJ Fiwna vd ïªüyháÇa® üÈ‹ cŸsl¡f«: R£o¡fh£o nkY« bršY»wh®. nkiy m¿P®fŸ üšfËš 'ïªâa«' (Indianness) 1. In Quest of ‘Indianness’ c©lhÆD« mJ KGik cilaJ m‹W 2. A Glimpse Across the Vindhyas v‹gJ ït® fU¤J. 3. The Prakrit Lyric: Bardic Poems of Love 4. In the Land of Murugan: Anthologies of ïªj 'ïªâa¤âš', ãu»Uj« Love Poetry (ãuh»Uj«), jÄœ M»a bkhÊfËDila 5. Sanskrit Poetry: Romance in Devabhasha ïy¡»a§fË‹ tuyhW« ïiz¡f¥g£ 45 oU¡f nt©L« v‹gJ ïtuJ fU¤J. antiquity of both the languages, 'ïªâa«' v‹D« fU¤jh¡f¤â‰F could it be that creative minds did not ïití« j¡fd v‹gJ ïtuJ neh¡f«. interact, what with frequent travel ïit ïiz¡f¥glÉšiyahdhš in pursuit of wealth or knowledge ï›Éy¡»a§fŸ ma‹ik bgw¡TL«. of which early literature speaks so 'ïªâa«' v‹D« fU¤jh¡f« FWF«, áijí« often? ‘Writing history in separate v‹gJ ïtuJ neh¡f«. ïªâa k©zf¤âš longitudinal sections’ says Will njh‹¿a ïy¡»a§fËš ït® bghJikna, Durant, ‘does injustice to the unity of xUikna fhz Mir¥gL»wh®; fh£l human life’. Whereas specimens of Ka‰á nk‰bfhŸS»wh®. 'rk°»Uj«' early literature that have survived mšyJ 'jÄœ' (Sanskrit or Tamil) v‹gJ do, in fact, give unmistakable proof TlhJ; 'rk°»UjK« jÄG«' (Sanskrit of common ethos and shared values and Tamil) v‹gnj ïªâa¤â‹ ngh¡fhf – even quaint fetishes – attested in ïU¤jš nt©L« v‹gJ ïtuJ fU¤J. each of the languages then in use Éš oôu‹£ (Will Durant) v‹D« tuyh‰W¥ (Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil), it is the bgU«nguháÇauJ jÅik¥ g©ghL v‹gJ longitudinal view that informs the ïšiy; ïd§fËilna cwî ÃfœªJ writer when for instance, comment bfh©oU¡F« v‹D« fU¤ij¢ R£o¥ gy is made on social life in ancient Tamil ntWntW ïªâa ïy¡»a§fËilna cwî country, on the basis of what is called c©L v‹gij ïªüyháÇa® tÊbkhÊ»wh®; Sangam poetry, the origin of which j‹ f£lik¥ò¡F¢ Rij njL»wh®; MÆD« is a mystery to historians themselves. ntWntW tuyhWfS« cŸsd mšyth! The reconstruction of social history ïd§fËilna cwî« c©L; Jwî« c©L. on the evidence of old Tamil poems x‰Wikí« c©L; nt‰Wikí« c©L. of love or war, can be and has been tuyh‰¿š fhy§fŸ cŸsd; f£l§fŸ more misleading than to construe cŸsd. ïit j«KŸ bfh©lití« life in Elizabethan England on the cŸsd; bfhL¤jití« cŸsd. tuyhW basis of Othello or Hamlet Poets are ngRtd ïitna. 'xUikí« bghJikí« not reporters, the travesty is not their k£Lnk c©L; ïªâa« vd x‹W k£Lnk if their descendants in the twentieth c©L' vd ïªüyháÇa® ngRtâš, M¡f« century mistake lyrical poetry for brŒtâš bkŒ«ikí« c©L. bghŒikí« historical chronicle.” c©L. bghŒik flªJ bkŒ«ik ehLnth«. - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.4) ïªâa tuyh‰¿š gšntW fhy§fS« gšntW f£l§fS« cŸsd mšyth! gy üyháÇa®, MÇa« âuhÉl«, fhy§fË‹ btË¥ghnl gy ïy¡»a§fŸ. tltf« bj‹df« vd nt‰Wik ngR« rk°»Uj« jÄœ ïilnaahd cwîfŸ tuyh‰wháÇa®fis kW¡»wh®; btW¡»wh®; g‰¿a áßÃthrdhÇ‹ cŸs¥òG¡f« mtuJ âuhÉl bkhÊfË‹ ïy¡fz§fis tiuªj tiuthš btË¥gL»wJ: fhšLbtš fU¤JfŸ f©L fy§F»wh®. âuhÉl v‹D« brhšY¡F those driven away “Whether it was a consequence v‹D« nt‰W¥bghUŸ rk°»Uj bkhÊÆš of this view or not, culture has been c©L vd vL¤J¡fh£o¡ fy§F»wh®! viewed and documented vertically, jÄœbkhÊí« jÄÊy¡»a§fS« r§f resulting in tomes on literature, in ïy¡»a§fS« ãw bkhÊ¡ fy¥ghš isolation, e.g., Sanskrit or Tamil, not M¡f« bg‰witna vd¡ fh£Ltnj Sanskrit and Tamil. Considering the ïªüyháÇaÇ‹ neh¡f«. 46 “Perception in perspective finds plays strange tricks even on those support in recorded evidence, when who seek knowledge.” looked at collaterally. Until about a - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.6) thousand years ago all expression of thought in India was confined to three ï¡fU¤jh¡f§fis itÔf«, gî¤j«, languages – Prakrit, Tamil, Sanskrit, rkz«, r®thf cyfhaj«, rh§»a«, nahf« ( no modern Indian language has Kjyhdit ntW ntwhfnt fh©»‹wd. any heritage of literature pre - tenth fUk Éid¡ nfh£gh£o‰F mo¥gilahd century A.D). Was it not therefore mÊah M‹kh¡ fU¤jh¡f« v§nfh inevitable that the three linguistic v¥nghnjh ahuhnyh ïªâa k©zf¤âš traditions influenced one another at njh‹¿aJ; ntj§fŸ fhzhjJ. âÇt®¡f every turn, if not in continuum? rJ®t®¡f¡ fU¤jh¡f§fËšjh‹ History records the presence of v¤jid v¤jid óršfŸ! nkh£rt®¡f« Jaina monks and Buddhists in the j®kh®¤j fhk§fis¤ Jif¤J mšynth deep South as early as the 2nd v¿ªjJ! mŒ«bghU©ikfŸ (ój§fŸ) century B.C. Their hand in the eh‹F v‹nghU« cŸsdnu. ït‰iw¥ classics such as Cilappathikaram and gF¤j¿Éaš Ts« v‹»wjšyth! Manimekalai emanating from Tamil land in the 4-5th century A.D. is rk°»Uj« ãu»Uj« cwî : duly recognised in literary history.” - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.7) ('ãuh»Uj bkhÊ' vd¢ br.g. fHf¤ jÄœ¥ngufuhâ Kjš ãw® R£L« tH¡if tuyhW ngR« ïªâahÉ‹ g‹Kf¥ ïªüyháÇa® ãu»Uj bkhÊ vdnt gh§»id xUKf¥ gh§fhf¡ fh©gnj tiuªJ brš»wh®. mtuJ tH¡F ï§F« áßÃthrdhÇ‹ F¿¡nfhŸ. rk°»Uj« nk‰bfhŸs¥g£LŸsJ.) ï›îwî g‰¿¢ ãuh»Uj« jÄœ M»at‰¿‹ ïy¡»a§fŸ áßÃthrdh® ï›thW F¿¥ãL»wh®: xUKf« bfh©lit v‹gJ ït® fU¤jh¡f«. nkY« áy rh‹WfŸ ngR»wh® “Towards an Indian ït® : View: A reassessment of the Indian perception is over-due; it “Chronologically one other must include a readiness to reckon possibility is of greater significance. with realities as manifest in It was in 1881 that Weber published tradition. For instance, the recurring a German translation of the Prakrit theme of Karma in the literature of Gathasaptasati the oldest anthology every language, the motivation of of lyrical poems in India. If the the four goals of life and their paths West had been exposed to this (dharma, artha, kama & moksha), earlier than to Jones Sakuntalam the belief in five elements, (earth, the European introduction to Indian water, fire, air, space ) and in rebirth, literature would have been very should all be seen as part of the different. Even if it is quite possible life that shaped India. In any case, the two languages might have been the empirical approach is a feeble perceived as twins, each with a telescope with which to perceive an corpus of writing characteristics of ancient culture. itself, yet consanguineous. Chance - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.6)

47 ãu»Uj¤ij¢ rk°»Uj¤â‰F “If identical thoughts / passages ïizahf ca®¤â it¤J« ït® ngRtJ occur in any two works, there are ngh‰w¤j¡fnj. Mdhš mt‰iw twins four possibilities: vd¡ F¿¥gJ v©Qj‰F cÇaJ. mit i) Work A has influenced B companians vdî« glyh«; anti-companians ii) Work B has influenced A vdî« glyh«. ãu»Uj« non-sacred iii) Both have drawn upon a mundane bkhÊ jhnd. jÄG« m¥go¤ jh‹ common source, gh®¡f¥gL»wJ; bkhÊ tuyh‰wháÇa®fŸ iv) It is just coincidence. tuyh‰iw K‹bdL¤J¢ brštij Coincidence can occur but not so ïªüyháÇa® f©L bfhŸsÉšiy v‹gJ often, so extensively. So, similarities Fiwna. ïªâa¥ òy¤âš, k©zf¤âš deserve scrutiny. It is not important, mj‹ g©gh£L M¡f¤âš vG« Édh¡fŸ, however, to establish the superiority á¡fšfŸ áy c©L vd¡ fh£o ïªüyháÇa® of this or that tradition, linguistically âif¥ig btËÆL»wh®. speaking; nor even to assess the ‘debt’ which one tradition owes to “Questions that still assail the the other. The appreciation of the mind are i) in what does the entire close and continuous interaction culture of India constitute? ii) how among the traditions that have come does intense awareness manifest down to us, transcending barriers itself? iii) how does one recognise of every kind linguistic , geographic, uniformity in treatment when the ethnic is its own reward.” vehicles of expression are many and - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.8) distinct?” - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.2) ï› MŒî be¿Kiw áw¥ghdnj. MŒî¡FÇa rh‹WfË‹ jFâfS« xJ¡» "ïašfŸ gythÆD«, tªj tÊfŸ, ãwªj it¡f¤j¡fdnth? MdhY« MŒî¢ tÊfŸ gythÆD« ‘entire culture’ x‹nw; gy rh‹WfË‹ tuyh‰W©ikfŸ MŒÉš mšy; cultures v‹D« g‹ik ïšiy" vd¡ bfhŸs¤j¡fd. ïªüyháÇa® bršY« fh£Ltnj ïtuJ neh¡f«; Ka‰á. tuyhW tÊÆš br‹W gh®¡fyh«. cl‹gLkh v‹gJ mŒa¤âY« mŒank! ït® j« neh¡f¤â‰F V‰g tuyh‰iw 1.3. ïªâah Ãytf¤jhY« x‹nwah« : kh‰W»whnuh; kW¤âU¡»whnuh! fU¤J MŒî¡F cÇaJ. ïªüyháÇa® áßÃthrdhÇ‹ neh¡f« ïªâa k©zf¤â‹ bghJikia, 'ïªâa k©zf¤âš ïd§fŸ xUikia tiuªJ fh£o, mj‹ g©gh£L¥ gythÆD«, ïd§fŸ bfh©l g©ghLfŸ bghJikia, ïy¡»a¥ bghJikia gythÆD«, g©ghLfŸ bg‰w bkhÊfŸ vL¤J¡fh£LtJ mšyth! ïªneh¡f¤ij¡ gythÆD«, bkhÊfŸ gil¤j ïy¡»a§fŸ fh£L« Kj‰go ïªâa tlk©zfK«, gythÆD«, (ïit tuyh‰W©ikfŸ bj‹dfK« cwî¤jil ïšyh Xuf« vd¥ ngrÉšiy) mt‰WŸ bghJik vd ÃWîtjhF«. 'ïU Ãytf§fËilna c©L; xUik c©L; ïªâa« c©L' ngh¡Ftu¤ij¤ jL¡F« ɪâa kiy, vd¡ f£lik¥gnj ïªüyháÇa® neh¡f« g©gh£L bkhÊ cwÉidí« jL¤JŸsJ' mšyth! ïªneh¡f¤ij¡ f£lik¥gj‰F vd tuyh‰wháÇa®fŸ ngáaij mt® f£lik¤j MŒî be¿Kiw ïªüyháÇa® kW¤Jiu¡»wh®. ɪâa« Ñœ¡fh©gjhF«: flªJ ngh¡Ftu¤J ïUªjik¡F¢ 48 rh‹Wfshf¡ ».K.î¡FÇa ïuhkhaz« ghlšfis k£L« nj®ªJ m«k‹d® kfhghuj« jU« F¿¥òfisí« fîošaÇ‹ üyh¡»dh®. (mt‰iw KjÈš ãu«kh jhnd m®¤jrh¤âu« ngR« fU¤ijí« rh‹whf¡ M¡»ÆU¥gh® - k‰w ãw üšfË‹ fij fh£L»wh® ïªüyháÇa®. ïit tuyh‰W¡F ngh‹W!) ('vGüW' v‹D« v©, ü‰gh¡fË‹ cÇa c©ik¢ rh‹Wfshfî« ïU¡fyh«. bjhF¥ò¡F nk‰bfhŸs¥g£l Kiwv©. ».ã-¡F cÇa f£L¡fijfshfî«, ü‰gh¡fË‹ bjhF¥ãš 7,70,700, 7000 v‹D« ã‰nr®¡ifahfî« ïU¡fyh«. thšÛ»ah® v©fŸ M£á bfh©oU¡»‹wd.) Ahy ngR« ïy§if, ïuhtz‹ bj‹df¤jt®fŸ k‹d® bjhF¤j ïªüY¡F 'vGüW' v‹gnj mšy® vd¤ bjhšÈaš tuyh‰wháÇa® bgauh«; 'gh vGüW' v‹gJkh«. tlbkhÊ¥ xUt® vL¤J¥ ngáíŸsh®. fîošaU« bga® 'fhjhr¥j râ' v‹gjh«. 'r¥j' VG; 'râ' üW bj‹dh£lt®, jÄH® v‹D« ng¢R« - ï¥ãu»Uj üÈ‹ ãu»Uj¥ bga® 'r¤jrhÆ' c©nl! mf¤âa® bj‹dhL nghªjnghJ 'Sattasaai’ v‹gjh«. ï¤bjhif¥gh¡fË‹ mtU¡F ɪâakiyÆš á¡fš, jilne®ªj üny ïªâa k©zf¥ g©gh£L¥ òy¤âš fijí« c©nl! gHªjÄHf¤ij¤ j« fhjš, fhk« (fhj‰fhk«, fhk¡fhjš!) g‰¿¥ ngh¡»š ntwhf¡ f£lik¡f ïªüyháÇa® ngR« bjh‹ik Kjš üš vd ïªüyháÇa® Kid»wh®. nk‰f©l rh‹WfŸ cjînkh!! ïy¡»a tuyhW ngR»wh®. ï¤bjhif üÈ‹ M¡fK« jh¡fKnk ïªâa ïy¡»a thÂf«, bghUç£lš, bfhŸif gu¥gš tuyh‰¿š fhjš, fhk ïy¡»a§fŸ njh‹w nt©o x£lf C®âÆ‹ tÊ tlk©zf¤j® thŒ¥ig ts®¤jdth«. ï›th¡f¤ij bj‹df« jÄHf«, nghªjd® vdî« tiuªJfh£lny áßÃthrdhÇ‹ ïªüÈ‹ üyháÇa® ngR»wh®. rkzU« gî¤jU« bghU©ik. mikâ nt©onah, rka« gu¥gnth, ïy§if Kjyhd mašehLfŸ bršynth, ».K. Kj‰ 1.5. jÄœ ãu»Uj bkhÊfËil ïy¡»a áy ü‰wh©LfŸ bjhl§»¤ bj‹df« x¥òik : tªJŸsd® v‹gJ tuyh‰W©ikna. ».K. Kj‰bfh©L jÄHf¤âš bj‹gL« ãuhÄ jÄHf k©Â‹ jÄHÇ‹ gHªjÄœ¤ bjhif vG¤J¡ fšbt£LfŸ ï›tUif¡F¢ üšfsh« v£L¤bjhif, g¤J¥gh£L¡fŸ rh‹whf É»‹wd. (MÇa ntjtÊ¢ rka¥ ghL« fhjš, fhk¥ bghU©ikí« ãuhkz®fS« ahfKiwÆid¤ njhËš (kw« cŸgl) ãu»Uj r¤jrhÆ ghL« RkªJ jÄHf« nghªJ C®fË‹ Xu§fËš bghU©ikí« x¤jdnt; bgU«gh‹ik xJ§» thœªJ tªJŸsd® v‹gJ« x‰Wikíilad vd ïªüyháÇa® ngR»wh®; tuyhwhF«.) ïªüyháÇa® rkz gî¤j®fË‹ mt® ngh¡»š fh£L»wh®; FWªbjhif, tUifia¢ áw¥ghf vL¤Jiu¡»wh®. mtuJ beLªbjhif(mfeh}W), mŒ§FWüW, neh¡f¤â‰F ïJ Jiz. âU¡FwŸ M»a üšfËÈUªJ 15 gh¡fis¢ rh‹Wfshf mt® bkhÊ 1.4. ãu»UjbkhÊ üš r¤jrhÆ : bga®¤J¤ jªJ fh£L»wh®; r¤jrhÆ, jÄœ¤ bjhifüšfËilna x‰Wikí« c©lh«; 'Ahy' ‘Haala’ v‹D« rhjthfd x¥òikí« c©lh«; xUikí« c©lh«; k‹d® (».ã.20-24) mtuJ fhy¤J¥ òÅj bghJikí« c©lh« vd¡ fh£Ltnj ï§F rk°»Uj¤â‹ ÛJ fr¥ò¡ bfh©L mtuJ neh¡f«; cWâ brŒ»wh®. xJ¡»¥ ãu»Uj¤â‹ ÛJ ÉU¥ò¡ bfh©L m«bkhÊÆš C®¥òw¥ g£objh£ofËš mL¤J ïªüyháÇa® brhštJ, tH§»a eh£L¥òw¥ ghlšfis¤ bjhF¤J brštJ ï¥bghJik x‰Wik v§‡d« xU üyh¡»dh® v‹gJ fij; tuyhnwh? ï«bkhÊfËil tªjd vd És¡Ftnj xUnfho¥ ghlšfËÈUªJ vGüW M«. 49 1.6. x¥òik MŒî be¿ : Jif¡»wh®. 'r¤jrp, jÄœ¤ bjhif üšfŸ M»at‰¿ilna x‰Wik¢ rh‹WfŸ ïUntW bkhÊfS¡»ilna Ãiyí« Ãiwa cs. kâthzÇ‹ Mªâu eh£L bghJik¡TWfŸ v§‡d« njh‰w« mfeh}W v‹D« üY« rh‹whf É»‹wJ' bg‰¿U¡fyh« vd m¿a üyháÇa® v‹»wh® mt®. tltf bj‹df¤âilna ïªbe¿Kiwfis¤ jU»wh®: ngh¡Ftu¤J Ãiwa ïUªjd vdî«, rkz®fns ï¥ngh¡Ftu¤J¡F¥ “There are, of course, four bgUªJizahf ïUªjd® vdî« MáÇa® possibilties: (1) sheer coincidence; rh‹WfSl‹ ngR»wh®. ».K., ».ã. Kjš (ii) both have derived from an older ü‰wh©LfËš jÄHf¤âš eh£l¥g£l common source; (iii) Tamil influence gy¥gy ãuhÄ¡ fšbt£LfS« cwî¡F¢ on Prakrit; (iv) Prakrit influence on rh‹whf É»‹wdth«. Tamil.” - (áßÃthr‹, g.40) 1.8. x¤j MŒî be¿: bga®fŸ x‰Wik: (i) j‹dh¡f¥ bghJik (Orthogenetic aspect); eh‹fhtJ be¿¥go, ãu»Uj« fhjš fhk (ii) K‹id¥ bghJik¡ TW x‹¿‹ mf¥bghUis¤ jÄG¡F¤ jªjJ; jÄœ ã‹id M¡f«; bfh©lJ v‹gnj tuyh‰W©ik v‹»‹wh® (iii) jÄœ, ãu»Uj¤J¡F¤ juš; MáÇa®. ïj‰F ïUbkhÊ ïy¡»a§fSŸ (iv) ãu»Uj« jÄG¡F¤ juš v‹gd jÄÊš gh¥gil¤njh® bghJik'na (common És¡f be¿. authorship) j¡f rh‹whf cŸsJ v‹»wh® mt®. ïªj¥ 'gil¤njh® bghJik' v‹gJ 1.7. x›thj MŒî be¿fŸ : gil¤jt®fË‹ bga®fŸ x¥òikíilik (similarities) bfh©lit v‹gjhF« nghY«. Kjšbe¿, j‹dh¡f¥ bghJik tuyh‰W¢ gHªjÄœ¤ bjhifü‰ òyt®fŸ 437 ng®fŸ rh‹WfS¡F khwhf cŸsJ. V‹ vÅš, vd MáÇa® fz¡»L»wh®. ït®fSŸ 'ït‰¿ilna x‰Wik¡ TWfŸ gy cŸsd' 10 ÉG¡fh£od® x¤j mašbkhÊ¥ v‹»wh® MáÇa®; xJ¡F»wh®. bga®fis¡ bfh©lt®fŸ v‹»‹wh® üyháÇa®. ï›bth¤j bga®fË‹ nkY« ïu©lh« be¿, 'K‹id¥ bghJik Ñu‹ (24), ehf‹ (15), rh¤j‹ (19), j¤j‹ (6) ã‹id M¡f«' 'j‹Dz®îŸs¡ f©z‹ (34) v‹D« ãu»Uj¢ brh‰fS« fU¤jh¡fnk (personal influence)' vd¡ T¿ jÄœ¥òyt®fŸ bga®fshf cŸsd vd mjid¡ fÊ¡»wh® MáÇa®. nkY« mt® fh£L»wh®.

'_‹wh« be¿ jÄœ, ãu»Uj¤â‰F¤ 1.9. mašbkhÊ¥ bga®fŸ : jUtj‰F thŒ¥ãšiy; jÄœ¢ rh‹WfŸ r¤jrhÆ¡F¡ fhy¤âš, ã‰g£lit rkz gî¤j ãu»Uj mašbkhÊ¥ Mjyhš' vd mt® ngᤠjŸs¤j¡fJ bga®fŸ vit vit vd¥ g£oaÈ£L tif v‹»wh®. gHªjÄœ¤ bjhif üšfS¡F¢ bjhif¥gL¤â¤ jU»wh® MáÇa®. mt‰iw r§f« vd¥g£lJ x‹W« ïUªjâšiy. ï§F¡ fh©gJ MŒî¡F¤ njit¥gL«. r§f« v‹gJ tuyh‰¿š f‰gid¡ f£Lkhd«. ï¤bjhif üšfŸ ».ã. eh‹F “I. Common names of poets in ü‰wh©LfS¡F cÇait. jÄœ bfhL¤jš Tamil and Prakrit v§nf ïaY« vd MáÇa® jh« f©blL¤J¡ The corpus of Sangam poetry bfh©l tuyhW R£o _‹wh« be¿ia¡ deserves to be viewed in the national 50 perspective for one important reason (19), Dattas (6), etc. The Kannans above all common authorship. An (Pkt. Kanha for Krishna) lead with aspect which has not so far attracted 34 poets of that name. the attention of scholars is that the names of Tamil poets found in the The following table gives colophons have much in common some names with a distinct with the rest of India; the similarities Sanskrit flavour. (jÄœ¥ bga®fŸ are worth nothing, even if they are ï¡f£LiuaháÇa® tiuªjit). manifest in about just one tenth of the names that figures in the Tamil form Sanskrit form anthologies. Nallaccuta ( nar) ACYUTA An oft repeated name in Sangam (ešy¢Rjdh®) poetry is of Kapilar who is credited Uloccana(r) LOCANA with 235 songs out of a total of (cnyh¢rdh®) 1947 in the Aham anthologies. The Damodara (nar) DAMODARA word is patronymic; Paripadal (jhnkhjudh®) refers to eleven Kapilas. ( The Deva (nar) DEVA founder of the Sankhya system (njtdh®) was evidently a respected figure in Karuvoor Pavuttira ( nar) POUTRA ancient South India.) A long poem (fUñ® gɤâudh®) of 261 lines, Kurinjippattu is said Kesava( nar) KESAVA to be Kapila’s the occasion for (nfrtdh®) the work having been the need to Biramacari BRAHMACARI educate the Aryan King, Prahatta (ãu«k¢rhÇ) (Brihaddatta) on clandestine love, Birama(nar) BRAHMA Kalavu of the Tamil people, which (ãukdh®) is in no way inferior to gandharva Govardha (nar) GOVARDHANA marriage as the epilogue says. It (nfht®¤jdh®) also speaks the trivarga as the goal. Vanmiki (yar) VALMIKI (Kapila was possibly a Jain; he is (th‹Û»ah®) referred to as antanalan in Pur. Sattinatha (nar) SATTINATHA 126.) At any rate, the word is not (r¤â e¤jdh®) traceable to any root in the southern Markandeya (nar) MARKANDEYA languages, etymologically. (kh®¡f©nladh®) There are atleast a dozen other Mateerthan MAHATEERTHA names of this kind, ranging from (khÔ®¤j‹) common ones such as Kesava and (Kapila (r) KAPILA Damodara to the unique ones (fãy®) such as Valmiki and Markandeya. The name of Palitta (Skt. Padalipta) In the traditonal list of 473 names of the author of ‘Tarangavai kaha’ occurs Sangam poets, what often shows is the as Paliyattanar or Palattanar. The name convention of attaching to one’s name the of Gunadhya (author of Brihatkatha) name of the gotra to which he belongs - a occurs as such, along side a number distinct feature, which is non-Dravidian of Kiras, (24) Nagas (15) Sattas culturally.

51 II. Poets whose names include (ngadh®) Peyya (Pali) venerable indication of their gotra Terataran (theratara = reverend (njuju‹) Kallil Attiraiyan (Atreya) (fŸËš) More light is shed when Tamil names are Kasipan Keeran (Kasyapa) perceived as mutation or regional version of (fhág‹) Prakrit. Sometimes one is a literal translation Kosikan Kannanar (Kausika) of the other. (nfháf‹) Vatuli Narcendanar (Vatoola) IV. (a) Poets with Prakrit names Neidar gargiyar (Gargya) (tatsama) Kauniyan bhoodattanar (Kaundinya) (fîÂa‹) Tamil Prakrit Sanskrit Kadambanoor Candiliyan (Sandilya) (fj«lndh®) Mayendan Mayenda Mahendra (khna©l‹) N.B. ‘Kapila’ itself might be just a gotra Mavalattan Mavalatta Mahabalastha name. (khty¤jh‹) Vannakkam Vannagga Varnaka The influence of Jaina and Buddhist (t©z¡f«) inclination is manifest in more than eighty Tittan Titta Teertha names. (â¤j‹) Potanar Pota Pota III. Jaina and Buddhist names held (nghjdh®) by Sangam poets Malla(nar) Malla, Malloka Mall (kšydh®) Kiran (Ñu‹) (24) Damappa Kannanar Dhammappal Kanha Darmapala Krishna Sattanar (Sartha = Caravan leader; (jhk¥g f©zdh®) (rh¤jdh®) (19) also derivable from sasta= Palatta(nar) Palitta Padalipta wise man). (ghy¤jdh®) Bhoota nar Palliatta(nar) (ójdh®) (11) (gšÈa¤jdh®) Mosi (7) (Mokshin = one who seeks Kannatta(nar) Kannautta Karnaputra to renounce) (f‹d¤jdh®) Naganar Sadeva(nar) Sadeva Sahadeva (ehfdh®) (15) Sahalasa(nar) Sahilla(ssa) Saghilla (?) Mallanar (kšydh®) b) Names which are evident translations of Prakrit Dattanar names of poets, some of whom figure in ‘G.S’. (j¤jdh®) bodhiyar Parkappan Mahibhopaala (nghâah®) (gh®fh¥gh‹) Vannakkan (4) Erumai Veliyan Mahisasura (t©z¡f‹) (Vannagga (Pkt) one who sings in praise (vUik btËa‹) Peyanar Nedun Kazhutta (Paranar) Sugriva

52 (beL§fG¤j guz®) traditionally listed in ‘G.S’ and Sangam poetry Kadala(nar) Mahodadhi shows that many of them are common. (fjydh®) Lanai(yar) Hasti, Nagahasti V. Names which are common to (ahidah®) Sangam poems and ‘G.S.’. Venkorran Karkadharman (bt©bfh‰w‹) “Could it be that the songs from Kuruntohai, Orer ulavar Hala Narrinai, Ahananooru and Purananooru cited (Xnu® cHtdh®) in the table above were wholly independent of Prakrit? Or, do they represent the works of N.B. The antiquity of the custom of those very poets who figure as authors in the literally translating a word, - each element in colophon of the Prakrit gathas, compiled by a compound word - is evidenced here. Lastly, Hala much earlier? In any caste, why do those a piece of direct evidence lends weight to very names figure here?” - (The Ethos of Indian the view that Prakrit gathas were, infact, the Literature, pp. 42-47) source and inspiration for the Tamil love-lyrics. A comparative analysis of the names of poets 1.10. jÄœüšfŸ bfh©lit: rkz® g§fË¥ò :

jÄœ¢ r§f¥ gh¡fis¢ rkzrka« j‹DŸ th§»¡ bfh©lJ (Sangam poetry and Jaina Proselytisation) v‹D« fU¤jh¡f¤ij it¤J mj‰fhd rh‹Wfis nkY« jªJ bfh©L brš»wh® üyháÇa®. tlòy¤J¥ bga®fsh« kîÇa®, eªj®, ghlÈ, nrh‹ MW, t§f«, fhghÈf®, f§ifahW, euªj«ky®, ïkakiy M»ait jÄœ¤bjhif üšfËš ïl« bg‰WŸsikia mt® R£o¡ fh£L»wh®.

rkz®fŸ, Jwî, Cœ Kjyhd fUJnfhŸfis¥ ngh‰WnthuhÆD« ïšthœ¡if nt©lh« vd¡ fonth® mšy® vd MáÇa® fU¤Jiu¤J mikâ TW»wh®. nkY« bjhšfh¥ãaK« ïšthœ¡if ngᤠJwî¡F« JizÉ»‹wjh«. nkY« bjhšfh¥ãa« rkzÇ‹ khòuhz« v‹D« üiy x¤J¢ brŒíËaš M»at‰iw M¡f« brŒjjh«. MáÇauJ ï¡fU¤Jfis¡ fh©f: 53 “Erotic Poetry – Vehicle of Jaina ideas: of chapters on poetics and prosody in a work There is one more point. Sangam poetry and of grammar, which Tolkappiyam is, seems to Jaina proselytisation have been viewed and follow a Jain dictum, echoed in Jinasena’s treated as if they were distinct and unrelated ‘Malpuranam’ viz. that grammar, prosody and phenomenon in the early history of the South. poetics all together go to make what is known Instead, if the former is recognised as an as ‘vangamay’. In this context, the terms ullurai integral part of the latter, many aspects of our and iraichi in Tolk. can be seen as counterparts cultural tradition will fall into pattern, ceasing of paramatta and hiyaali. (p.32)” to be old bits in a puzzle. The names that are - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, pp.47 and 48) seen as common to Tamil land Prakrit (Table V) would also become meaningful. jÄœüšfË‹ tuyh‰¿š e¡Ñu® v‹gh® mf¤âa«, bjhšfh¥ãa«, khòuhz«, Evidence there is, internally in Tamil ïirEQ¡f«, ójòuhz« vd¥gL« literature itself. it is not without significance ü‰g£oaš jU»wh®. ït‰WŸ mf¤âa« jÉu, that Sangam poetry contains references to ãw rkzrka üšfŸ vd MáÇa® ngᢠpersons and places of the North-eastern region brš»wh®. gHªjÄHÇ‹ üyh¡f¤â‰F¢ rkzÇ‹ - the Mauryas and Nandas (Aham 251), Patali g§fË¥ig¡ T£o ciu¡»wh® MáÇa®. (putra) and River Son (Kur 75), Kapalikas and Vanga (Narr 189). By what coincidence does 1.11. r§f§fŸ tÊ¥ g§fË¥ò : the river Ganga figure far more often than Kaveri? When a girl’s tresses are described as jÄœ üyh¡f§fË‹ tuyh‰¿š having the fragrance of narandam (Kur 52) - the K¢r§f§fŸ g‰¿a fU¤jh¡f« FH¥gny naranda grass that is grown in the Himalayas, brŒ»wJ. tuyh‰W©ik¡F ï¡fU¤jh¡f« (not in the South), - and when Tamil poets V‰òilik bgwÉšiy. jÄG¡F, mâš talk of heavy rain as imayam pilakkum mazhai üyh¡f¤â‰F¢ r§f« mikªâU¡f thŒ¥ò (that which cleaves the Himalayas) or of kadum ïšiy vdî«, rkz® jk¡F cÇa rka¢ pani (severe cold), such references are as r§f¤âš gÂah‰¿¡ bfh©L jÄœüšfS« incongruous as it would be for a Hindi poet ïa‰¿ÆU¤jš nt©L« vdî« to refer to daffodils or pansies. Clearly, the ïªÃiyna jÄœ¢r§f tuyhwhfyh« vdî« early migrants to the South were reminiscing ïªüyháÇa® És¡f« jU»w®. És¡f« nostalgically, while yet writing in Tamil. (This MŒî¡FÇaJ. is in contrast to ‘G.S’. in which the setting is the region between Narmada and Rewa rivers, 1.12. jÄÊš âiz¡ fU¤jh¡f« mŒa« : with no reference to Ganga or Pataliputra.) mL¤J mf¥bghUŸ òw¥bghUŸfËš Besides, in Tokappiyam, the chapter on mo¥gilahf tH§F« 'âiz' v‹D« poetics (poruadhikaram) ends with the note brhšyhuhŒ¢áÆš MáÇa® ïw§» m¢brhš that clandestine love and domestic bliss must jÄÊš bghU©ikÆš g‹ikí«, FH¥gK« culminate in an exercise towards renunciation jU»wJ vd e¡Ñu® És¡f¤ij vL¤J¡fh£o, (cirappu). This must seem odd in an essay Mjyhš âiz ãu»Uj¤âÈUªJ tªj brhš on erotics of moral edification by means of vd¥ ngR»wh®. (V.nf.ïuhkE#id, (The erotic narrative which is manifest alike in the Interior Landscape) kW¡»wh®; r. itahòÇ¥ Tamil songs, which now and again project the ãŸisia¢ (History of Tamil Language and notion of fate (Pal) in unexpected turn given Literature) rh‹W fh£L»wh® MáÇa®.) to the romantic mood. Again, the old mixture

54 rkz kuã‹ 'eaj«kfnAh' v‹D« üÈš nt©lhkh«. tlòy« òw¥bghUisí« 'mf«kóÄ' (land of inaction and perpectual jªjJ. òweh}‰¿‹ m›itah® ghlšfŸ, enjoyment) vd M£á fhz¥gL»wJ. ghÇ g‰¿¡ fãy® ghoa ghlšfŸ M»ait ï›th£á mŒªâiz¥ ghFgh£il¡ ãu»Uj¥ ghlšfis x¤JŸsd. nAk¢rªjuh fh£L»wJ vdî« MáÇa® ngᢠbrhš»wh®. v‹ghÇ‹ r¥jhDrhrd v‹D« üÈ‹ (mt® üš g¡.51.) áy ghlšfSl‹ òweh}‰W¥ ghlšfŸ x¤JŸsd vd¥ ngR»wh® ïªüyháÇa®. 'bjhšfh¥ãa«' eh‹F Ãy§fS¡F¤ bjŒt§fŸ f©L brhš»wJ; f©l nkY« brš»wh®; ïUÉidfŸ, bjŒt§fŸ všyh« jÄHf¤â‰F m¥ghyhd Ãiyahik, ï‹gJ‹g§fŸ, tlòy¤âÈUªJ ïw¡Fkâahdit; thœÉ‹ ãw¥ò ïw¥ò, kzK« bjhif üšfbsšyh« bfh©lit jh«; kiwî« M»a fU¤jh¡f§fis¥ ghiy Ãy¤â‰F¤ bjŒt« Tw¥glÉšiy. òweh}W rkz®fËlÄUªJ bg‰W¤ j‹D£ Mjyhš 'ghiy' v‹D« brhš tlòy¤J¥ bfh©LŸsJ v‹»wh® mt®. ãu»Uj¤â‰F cÇajhfyh« vd nkY« mL¡F»wh® MáÇa®. òweh}‰¿š gî¤j« :

“Traditionally, these gods are identified as rkz rka¤â‹ bfhil, jGtš ngh‹W Vishnu, Kumara, Indra and Varuna respectively gî¤j rkaK« Éfhu§fË‹ tʤ j‹id – which seems to be an acknowledgement m¿Kf¥gL¤â¡ bfh©L òw¥bghUS¡fhd of the early induction of the non-Dravidian ghlšfŸ áyt‰iwí« tH§»íŸsJ vd pantheon. MáÇa® vL¤Jit¡»wh®. ahJ« Cnu; ahtU« nfË®... v‹D« ghlY« (192) 'ehlhF In parenthesis, it is necessary to add that x‹nwh...' (187) v‹D« ghlY« gî¤j¤â‹ ‘Tinai’ in the sense of land has no etymological bfhil vd¡ fhzyh«. derivation in Tamil. Nor is Pillai a Tamil word; it is a Prakrit word (Pala) which means the bund “A song glorifies an elderly woman who of a river or lake, along which travelers walked rejoices on hearing of her young sons’ death (ef: Pokkellam Palai.) Hence, it is that Palai has while facing an elephant, her joy far exceeding no deity assigned. There are other gaps are what she felt when he was born (Pur.277); well; for instance; ‘in spite of the extensive another song is addressed by a poetess to the commercial contact with the countries of king in praise of his wounds on the chest which the middle East and far East. Sangam poets speak of his valour (Pur.93). The oft-quoted dealing with the theme of separation or Palai song (Pur. 295) which portrays the resurgence completely ignored the sea voyage and its of lactation in an aged mother on seeing her description’. Why?” son fallen in the battle field (without fleeing) is - (In the Land of Murugan, The Ethos of Indian also by the same poetess, avvai. Literature,p.52-53) Some highly eulogistic ones belong to 1.13. òweh}‰¿š rkz gî¤j¤â‹ Kapilar, who often uses clever turns of phrase jh¡f« : and thought which anticipate what later rhetoricians cite as model figures of speech fhjh r¥jrâ vd¥g£l r¤jrhp, (alankara). Pur. 107 is one such; ‘Why do jÄG¡F mf¥bghUËy¡»a« jªjJ; poets praise the king, Pari? He is not alone in òw¥bghUËy¡»a« g‰¿ mŒaK« generous gift. Look at the rain (mari) which 55 protects the world’. Elsewhere, he tells the (nada konro….) which is a literal translation Sun, in apostrophe, ‘you are no match to of game va Yadiva ranye, occurring in my king, Ceran; he is limitless in power and Dharmmapada (Arhantvagga:9); it declares charity whereas you shine only during the day’. that it is the good and the noble who make a (Pur. 8). country what it is, whether it be a village or Whether they be songs in praise of the giver forest, low-lying or plateau. or of the warrior, these poems in Puram style bear the stamp of Prakrit influence, as much It is worth recording the texts. as those in Aham style. The last cited song of nada konro kada konro Kapila has its parallel in ‘G.S’. 5.67 which is in ehlhF x‹nwh fhlhF x‹nwh praise of King Salivahana. Old Prakrit texts avala konrao misaiya konro emphasise the importance of pleasing the king, mtšMF x‹nwh ÄirahF x‹nwh everywhere. The celebration of valour cited in evvali nallavar adavar Pur.277 or 295 can be seen as cognate with v›tÊ ešyt® Mlt® the Prakrit couplet (cited from old classics) avvali nallai valiya nilane in Hemachandra’s ‘Sabdanusasan’. (IV. 351) m›tÊ ešiy; thÊa Ãynd. (Puram, 187) wherein a woman rejoices over her husband’s death in battle, thus: ‘he would have been put game va yadi va ranne to shame by my friends had he come home nine va yadi va thale defeated’. Yattharahanto viharanti Purananooru (GwehD}W), like the Aham Tam bhumim ramanlyyakam (Dhammapada) anthologies, has many a Jaina thought of philosophy or ethics embedded in poetry, - the (This was spoken by the Buddha when notion of fate, the impermanence of life(anitya), Visakha asked him about the forest in which irony of joy and sorrow manifest side by side, Revata, brother of Sarputta, had taken abode.)” etc. (Pur.194) highlighting the phenomenon of - (In the Land of Murugan, The Ethos of Indian life and death, of wedding and funeral occurring Literature, pp.55-56) day after day, and its parallele, Subh. 1473, are typical (See. P.99).” (In the Land of Murugan,The 1.14. mf¥bghU£brh‰fŸ mayf« Ethos of Indian Literature, pp.54-55) jªjit :

Dhmmapada in Puram (Gwk;) : mf¥bghUŸ jÄG¡F cÇanjh v‹D« mŒa¤ij vG¥òtnj üyháÇa® neh¡f«. There are patently Buddhist ideas as jÄœ mf¥bghUŸ üšfËš cÆ®¢ well, which is not surprising; anitya itself brh‰fshf tH§» tªj 'mf«, »Ht‹, is one. Viharas of the Buddhists are known fhk«, fhjš, klš, mz§F, ghz‹' M»a to have existed in the Tamil region as early brhšyh£áfŸ ãu»Uj bkhÊÆÈUªJ as 1st Century B.C. and many a poet styles fl‹ bgw¥g£ldnt vd¤ jÄiH¡ himself as Buddha (nar) or satta (nar). Two fldhËah¡»¥ ngR»wh® üyháÇa®. fsî illustrations may suffice. Pur. 192 (yadum v‹D« brhšY« jÄœ bkhÊah¡fkh«. oore, yavarum Kelir) which is commonly (mtuJ üÈš 56, 57, 58 g¡f§fŸ bršf.) quoted as illustrative of Tamil liberalism is mf¥bghU£ ghlšfË‹ nkyhd but an echo of a passage in Hitopadeia. By áw¥ghd cW¥ãdŸ ehlfk§if - njhÊ far the most powerful attestation of Buddhist vd¥gLgtŸ MthŸ. ãu»Uj bkhÊ¥ indoctrination through poetry is Pur. 187 gh¡fËY« rk°»Uj bkhÊ K¡jf¥ 56 gh¡fËY« ï¤njhÊ Kiwna Sahi vdî« ii) The poetic output in early Tamil bears Sakhi vdî« gil¡f¥g£LŸshŸ. (g¡.59). internal evidence of ideas traceable to gil¥bgh‰Wik fhz nt©Lkh«. Prakrit texts,

1.15. jÄœ, j‹ gil¥ò¡ fhzÉšiy: iii) Typically Jaina institutions like sallekhana (self-immolation) and nimitta (omens) find 'ãu»Uj« bfhL¤jJ, jÄœ bfh©lJ' place in Sangam poetry. v‹D« neh¡f¡ fU¤ij Ãiyeh£l üyháÇa® jk¡nf‰w rh‹Wfis¡ iv) Tolkappiyam glorifies the idyllic life of the FɤJŸsh®. mt® it¡F« Koî, gHªjÄœ; Gandharvas and seeks to universalise mf¥bghUŸ ïy¡»a§fŸ jÄH®¡F cÇa the cult of Himalayan tribes, (its aintinai, ïa‰if thœÉÈUªJ gil¡f¥g£lit five tracts, bear a striking resemblance to mšy v‹gjhF«. mit jÄG¡F, jÄH®¡F those of bhogabhoomi in Magadah). cÇait mšyth«; ã‹ndh® (ï‹iwnah®?) khwhf¥ òidªj tuyhW; f‰gid tuyhwh«. v) the codification of poetics and prosody in Tamil begins with porul adhikaram which üyháÇa® áßÃthrdh® f£oíiu¤j embodies Jaina doctrines. KoîfŸ jh« v‹d? vi) The entire matrix has become part of 4 jÄœ mf¥bghUŸ mo¢brh‰fŸ Tamil heritage.” ãu»Uj«. - (The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.59)

4 jÄœ¥gh¡fŸ M¡f« ãu»Uj üšfshš. FWªbjhif¥ ghlš 401, e‰¿iz¥ ghlšfŸ 52, 143 M»ait 'mÆnjf«k' 4 rkz be¿fŸ jÄœ¥gh¡fËš cŸsd. v‹D« M£áia¥ ga‹gL¤âíŸsd. ï¢brhšyh£á ãu»Uj bkhÊ¡F cÇait 4 bjhšfh¥ãa« jÄHf« ngrÉšiy; vd MáÇa® ngR»wh®. ïkhya« ngR»wJ. “One more point: the refrain ayide kamma 4 bghUsâfhu« rkz¡ fU¤jh¡f«. occurring in Sangam poetry (Kur. 401, Narr. 52, & 143) shows how an entire phrase in Prakrit 4 nk‰f©litna jÄœ kuò. stands incorporated in Tamil songs of the early era. It is an exclamatory thought, which literally “For, there is no evidence that the conventions means; look, hey! Karma (is this), ayi and de of Aham poetry were drawn from real life in being expletive particles to call attention. It is ancient Tamil country. Possibility they were, well to remember that the purpose of Paliltta, but probably not. It is only the commentators the author of Narr.52, and other poets was of today who seek to reconstruct the past precisely to call the attention of Tamil people to on the basis of literature. But the significant Karma and allied concepts. (nanru nam pale is facts which point to a single direction deserve another refrain of similar thought). reiteration. Some more words that pertain to the course i) Nearly all the key-word (90%) in the of love and worthy of scrutiny, may be seen in romantic vocabulary of Tamil happen to App. I. ii. What is striking is that most of the be in or from Prakrit. words that constitute the vocabulary of romance

57 are not Dravidian, linguistically speaking: they says, ‘it is also true that there are many have no cognates in other Dravidian dialects. similarities between Tamil and Prakrit and (They are not listed in the DED).” - (The Ethos that Dravidian langauges, Tamil, Telugu, of Indian Literature, p.58) Kannada etc. have long been known as Prakrit. 1.16. jÄG« xU ãu»Ujnk : If, therefore, a study of the Tamil language ïWâahf ïªj ïaÈš üyháÇa®, can be informed, by the approach that it was áßÃthrdh® jh« MŒªJ f©l at one time defineable as a Prakrit, - like KoÉ‹ Kothf tlòy¥ ãu»UjK« Maharashtri, Sauraseni or Magadhi, - the jÄG«, ïy¡»a§fËY« rka¤âY« result would be different, and meaningful. The e«ã¡iffËY« x¤jdnt, x‹nw vd mere recognition that it might have been thus És¡F»wh®; tlòy¥ ãu»Uj« ngh‹W would suffice. For, similarities and parallels jÄG« xU bj‹òy¥ ãu»Uj« vd (such as those cited in Appendix) would K‹it¡»wh®. jÄœ âuÉo-ãu»Uj« come to the fore, displacing differences and vd tH§f¥glyhkh«. MÇa« âuhÉl« distance. It should then be easy to perceive ïUntW ïd§fŸ vd¥ ngRtJ that structurally Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and xJ¡f¤j¡fJ. ãu»Uj¤ij, jÄiH, 'MÇa« Kannada are no different from Hindi, Telugu, âuhÉl« M»at‰¿‹ ïU FL«g§fŸ Malayalam and Gujarati in certain essentials, vdyh«' v‹»wh® mt®. mt® tiuªjjid¡ which are discussed in chapter 13. Tamil is fhzyh«. admittedly ancient; in the period when modern Indian languages (apabhramsas) had not yet “Tamil and Prakrit developed, Tamil stood alone as a full-grown member, alongside Prakrit, equaling Sanskrit as The internal evidence in the language and a literary medium. A fresh study of its linguistic literature of early Tamil being what it is, one characteristics, in comparison with old Prakrit might ask, - stirring up the hornet’s nest - ‘it is overdue; it might well pave the way for the is possible to look upon Tamil as yet another wider study of the modern Indian languages Prarkit’? that are derived from the two families, ‘Aryan’ and ‘Dravidian’. When the out-dated notion of Aryan and Dravidian races is overthrown, when the History records the long and influential prevailing concept of the distinct linguistic contact of the Prakrit-pali group in South families India is set aside - even for a India; internal evidence, manifest in Sangam while, - and when the mind reflects on the poetry, is proof of the extent of influence commonality of style and substance in songs - in literature, religion and beliefs. Would that represent the earliest literary output in it then be wise, or necessary, to look upon the country, the point of focus would shift the language, i.e., Tamil as having flourished and fall on the interaction between Tamil and in isolation? To took upon Tamil as a purely Parkrit. In the new picture that emerges, Dravidian language would be to place it the term ‘Dravidi-Prakrit’, (employed as late alongside other members of that linguistic as the 19th century by Rajendra Lal Mitra, family, viz., Kui, Kurukh, Munda, Gondi etc. the philologist, to denote Tamil) would overlooking its unique and leading position. stand out as on a placard. Mitra was not For, divested of the grammar of the Indo- alone; T.V. Mahalingam, the archaeologist Ayan speech and bereft of the loan words

58 that belong to Prakrit-Sanskrit, it is debatable mašbkhÊ¥ bga®fŸ ó©nlh® gyU« if Tamil would have had the status which ah®? maynuh? mašbkhÊÆdnuh? it enjoys, compared to those of its less- rkznuh? gî¤jnuh? ãw rka¤âdnuh? privileged sister-dialects.” - (In the Land tltf¤jnuh? bj‹df¤jnuh? jÄHnuh? of Murugan, The Ethos of Indian Literature, ït®fŸ v§‡d«jh‹ jÄÊš fhjš fhk mf¥ pp.59-61) ghlšfŸ ghod®? ghl¥ òyik bg‰wd®?

2. jÄÊa« fhzš ma‰bga® ó©nlh® g£oaÈš bjhšfh¥ãa®, e¡Ñudh® bga®fŸ 2.1. gHªjÄH® thœÉš mašbkhÊ¥ üyháÇauhš nr®¡f¥glÉšiy. 'Ñu‹' bga®fŸ M£á, v§‡d«? v‹D« brhš mašbkhÊ v‹»wh® MáÇa®. 'fh¥ãa«' v‹D« brhšY« mašbkhÊ¢ gHªjÄœ¤ bjhif üšfis¥ ghoa brhš jhnd. 'bjhšfh¥ãa®', 'e¡Ñudh®' òyt®fŸ 473 ng®fŸ vd ïªüyháÇa® v‹D« bga®fŸ tH§F« tuyhW jh‹ fz¡»£LŸsh®. mt®fSŸ g¤J v‹d? ÉG¡fh£od® bfh©l bga®fŸ jÄœ mšyh¥ ãwbkhÊ¥ bga®fshd - ãu»Uj« rkz®, gî¤j® ».K. Kjš rk°»Uj¥ - bga®fis x¤JŸsd vd mt® ü‰wh©LfËnyna jÄHf« tªjd®. rka« nkY« vL¤J¡fh£L»wh®. ï¥bga®fis¤ gu¥gš mt®fsJ neh¡fkhF«. tlïªâa jÄHf« òFªj rkz gî¤j®fns k©zf¤â‹ órÈÈUªJ btËnawš bfh©Ltªjd® vdî« mt®fns jÄœbkhÊ nt©oí« mikâ ehoí« ehLflªJ m¿ah, gil¤âuh ïy¡»a§fisí«, rka, flštÊ mašehLfŸ bršyî« mt®fŸ g©gh£L¡ fUJnfhŸfisí« bfh©LtªJ ».K.Ényna bj‹df« òFªâU¡fyh«. ïw¡»d® vdî« MáÇa® F¿¥ãL»wh®. rkz® thœ¡if tÂfkh«. tÂf« ghoa òyt®fË‹ mašbkhÊ¥ bga®fis¢ M‰wî« bghUç£lî« mt®fŸ bj‹df« rh‹whf¡ bfh©L jÄœ, ïy¡»a¡ òFªâU¡fyh«; ɪâa« flªâU¡fyh«. fU¤jh¡f§fis¡ fldhf¡ bfh©lJ vd tÈíW¤J»wh® mt®. j« rka« gu¥g tªJ òFªj rkz gî¤j®, j« ãu»Uj bkhÊia¥ bj‹df¤j®¡F¥ ï¥g£oaÈ‹ tuyhW rÇahfyh«; gu¥g nt©oa, f‰ã¡f nt©oa TLjyhfî« ïU¡fyh«; T£lyhfî« njitÆš - f£lha¤âš ïUªâU¥g® ïU¡fyh«; âÇòfSl‹ ïU¡fyh«; mšynuh! tªâw§»a mayf¤j® ït© nr®¡ifí« ïU¡fyh«. Koehfuhauh? - mašbkhÊia¤ - jÄiH¤ - jhK« f‰f Koehfdhuh? jhnkhjudhuh? - jhk¤jdhuh? nt©oa f£lha¤âš ïUªâU¥gt® ãu«k¢rhÇ, ãuhkz®, thšÛ»ah®.... ghoa mšynuh! 'bfhL¤jY« bfhŸsY«' òyt® bga® m¿ah¥ ghlšfËš ïit m›tayuJ gÂahf ïUªâU¤jš nr®¡f¥g£oU¡fyhnkh? ghlšfË‹ nt©L«. bj‹df« - jÄHf« òFªj rkz 'bfhS¡fŸ' j¡f tuyhW bfh©litahf¤ gî¤j ãw may®, jÄHf« Fona¿d®; bjÇaÉšiy!. FoòFªjd®; FoÆw§»d®. ã‹d®¡ fhy« flªjJ, jiyKiwfŸ gy gy br‹wd; mašbkhÊ¥ bga®fŸ ó©l maÈd ü‰wh©LfŸ br‹wd. ».K. flªjJ; ».ã. bkhÊah® - ãu»Uj¤jh®, fhjh r¥jrâia¤ tªjJ; elªjJ. m› may® v‹dthÆd®? j«Kl‹ bfh©L tªJ jÄœ¥ghlšfŸ jÄH® MÆdnuh? ï¤jifnahUŸ ïa‰¿¤ bjhF¥ò¡F cjÉdnuh? üyháÇa® xUtnu fãynuh? ghÇia¥ ghoatnuh? fU¤J ï›thW MF« nghY«! bjhšfh¥ãa® ï¤jifa maynu 59 Mfyhnkh? mayÇ‹ tÊtÊÆdnuh? ã‹d®¤ jÄHf« nghªJ jÄHuhÆd® vdyhnkh? jÄHuhÆd®; Mdhš jÄHayf« òFªJ FoÆw§»a m›tay® rkzuhf, gî¤juhfnt thœªjd®. fhy« mašjÄœ f‰f ïy¡fz« njit¥g£lJ. MÆu« M©LfŸ (».ã.1000) bjh£lJ. mayf¢ rkz¤ bjhšfh¥ãa®, j« may® jÄœ¤ jhŒikbahL ïy¡»a§fŸ f‰f¤ bjhšfh¥ãa ïy¡fz« ïa‰¿dhnuh? Fɪjd: áy«ò, nkfiy, bgU§fij mayf¢ rkz gî¤j¤njhL òFªJ, jÄHf ÓtfáªjhkÂ..... ïy¡fz§fŸ bgU»d: k©zf¤âš j« rka¤ij mt®fŸ gu¥ãd®; bjhšfh¥ãa«, ah¥gU§fy«, e‹}š, jÄHiu¢ rkz®, gî¤juh¡»d®. jÄH® åunrhÊa«...... gHªjÄœ¤ bjhif üšfËš áy® gy® V‰wd®; rkz® gî¤j® MÆd®. jÄœ¤ jhŒikbahL Toa ït®fsJ mayf¤âÈUªJ tªJ òFªj may®¡F - g§fË¥ò ïUªâU¡fyhnk; rkz gî¤j® rkz® gî¤j® ãw®¡F jÄœ¢ rkz® gî¤j® tªjd®; bfhz®ªjd®; f‰wd®; f‰ã¤jd®; jÄœ f‰ã¤jd®. jÄœ ïy¡»a« f‰ã¤jd® gil¤jd®; gu¥ãd®; ts®¤jd®; nk‰f©l Mjš nt©L«. Kªija ïy¡fz kug¿ªJ ïy¡»a§fŸ ïy¡fz§fŸ mt®fS¡F¤ - Iªâu« m¿ªJ mt®fŸ jÄÊy¡fz« njit; jÄH®¡F¢ bršt«. gil¤âU¤jš nt©L«. ït‰whš rkzuhš jÄœ ma‹ik bg‰wJ jiyKiwfŸ gy flªjjhÆD« rkz vdš, ãu»Uj« MdJ vdš, fhœ¥ò¡ gî¤j« jGÉa jÄHU« jÄHf« ïw§»a f£lik¥ò¡ fU¤jh¡f«; Ts«! mayU« rkz gî¤j rka§fŸ jªj bgaiu - jiyKiwfS¡F m¥ghš K‰ghš ó©l 2.2. jÄœüyf¤âš mofŸ Ú£á: bgaiu, bjhl®ªJ ó©L tªâU¡f nt©L«. fãy® rh‹W vdyhnkh? fhjh r¥jrâ vGüW ghlšfshY« ehyofshY« brŒísh¡f¥g£LŸsd. fãy® 1947 ghlšfË‹ g£oaÈš vGüW ghlšfS« VGjÅ üWfshfî« 235 ghlšfŸ ïa‰¿at®. mt®, K‹ f£lik¡f¥ g£LŸsdth«. bghU©ik jiyKiwfË‹ tÊ jÄHf¤âš thœªJ, tF¥ò c©nlh? bjËÉšiy. ï¤jifa 'jÄœik' bg‰wduh? mšyJ jÄHuh« fhjh r¥ârâna gHªjÄœ mf«òw« mt® rkz« jGɤ jÄœik fh¤jduh? jÄœ¤bjhif üšfis, v£L¤bjhif bjhšfh¥ãaU« v§‡dkhdt®? g¤J¥gh£L¡fis <‹bwL¤jjh«. ïªj tuyhW V‰f¤j¡fnjh? ï›thW mašbkhÊ¥bga® ó©nlh®¡F tuyhW c©L. mayuhÆD« jÄHuhÆD« jÄœ v£L¤bjhif g¤J¥gh£L¡fŸ mt®fŸ 'jÄœik' bfh©nlh®. mt®fis¥ eh‹fo¢ brŒíŸfshf M¡f« ãu»Uj¤âd® v‹nwh, ãu»Uj fhjh bgwÉšiy. brŒísofŸ _‹W eh‹F r¥jrâia¤ j«Kl‹ bfh©L tªnjh® mŒªjofshfî« (mŒ§FWüW), eh‹F v‹nwh TWjš c©ik tuyhwhFnkh? Kjš v£lofshfî« (FWªbjhif), x‹gJ ï›tašbkhÊ¥ bga®fŸ tH¡»‰F tªjd; Kjš gâÅu©lofshfî« (e‰¿iz), gy ü‰wh©LfŸ tuyhW bfh©ldthF«. gâ‹_‹W Kjš K¥g¤njhuofshfî« ï¥bga®fŸ 'fhjh r¥jrâ'ia¢ RkªJ tªjd (mfbeLªbjhif), ãw gygy vdš tuyhwhfhJ. g¤jofshfî« üwofshfî« (g¤J¥gh£L, gâ‰W¥g¤J, fȤbjhif, gÇghlš, rkz®fŸ ».K.Éš fUehlf«tÊ òweh}W) f£lik¡f¥g£LŸsd. tªjd®; gî¤j® Mªâu« tªjd®. nk‰f©l üšfË‹ tÇfË‹ bjhif jiyKiwfŸ gygy flªjd. ït®fŸ K¥gâdhÆu¤J¡F nkš; ghlšfŸ 60

nguh. KUfu¤jd«, j‹ nguháÇa KUfu¤jd« bg‰w áw¥ghd ÉUJfŸ e©g®fSl‹ nr®ªJ, 'Phy¤ jÄœ¥ áy: 1) jÄHhfu® - F‹w¡Fo Mâd« g©gh£L MŒî k‹w«' v‹D« jÄHhuhŒ¢á 2) jÄœ¢br«kš - kJiu fhkuhr® ïa¡f« x‹iw 1989ïš njh‰WɤJ¤ jÄœ gšfiy¡fHf« - jÄHf muá‹ M¡f«. M®ty®, MáÇa®fË‹ òyik ts®¢á¡fhf jŠir jÄœ¥ gšfiy¡fHf¤â‹ jÄœ M©LnjhW« jÄœ MŒî¡ fU¤ju§FfŸ ts®¢á ïa¡f¤â‹ Kjš ïa¡Feuhf¥ el¤â tªJŸsh®. 50¡F« nk‰g£l üšfŸ gÂ(1981-1983)¡F miH¥ò¥bg‰W, jÄH® btËÆl¥g£LŸsd. ïªâa k©zf¤âš thG« m©il ehLfËš jÄœ ts®¢á el¤j¥g£l gy khehLfËš g§nf‰W¡ v‹D« bghUËš MŒî nk‰bfh©L, f£LiufŸ tH§»anjhL knyáah, ïy§if, á§f¥ó®, knyáah ehLfŸ br‹W bkhßáaR, mbkÇ¡fh, fdlh M»a ehLfËš MŒî Ãfœ¤â, jÄH® thG« m©il eilbg‰w jÄœ khehLfËY« g§F bg‰W ehLfËš jÄœ¡fšÉ v‹D« m¿¡if MŒî¡f£LiufŸ tH§»íŸsh®. nkY« gy tiuªJ, üš M¡f« brŒJ Ko¤jh®. t

67 jªij bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw

Kidt® e«.ÓÅthr‹ ïa¡Fe®, bgÇah® áªjid cauhŒî kŒa«, bgÇah® kÂa«ik m¿Éaš k‰W« bjhÊšE£g ÃWtd«, tšy«, jŠrhñ®.

f£Liu¢ RU¡f«: MjÇ¡F« mQFKiw V‹ bfh©lâšiy jªij bgÇahUila brašghLfis v‹gjidí« ï¡f£Liu MŒ»wJ. ïa¡f«, c‰W neh¡», mtÇ‹ mQFKiwia ïjœfŸ, ïa¡f¤jtÇ‹ FHªijfŸ v‹W cy»‰F cz®¤Jtnj ï¡f£LiuÆ‹ gšntW bga® N£lšfËš, bgÇahÇ‹ neh¡fkhF«. bfhŸifia¢ brayh¡f¥ mQFKiwia MŒ»wJ. gz¤â‹ gšntW tÊKiwfŸ c©L. fhy¤â‰nf‰g, Ûjhd bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw, bkhÊia¥ NHY¡nf‰g, vâÇfË‹ Éôf¤â‰nf‰g g‰¿a mQFKiw, ãwiu¥ ghuh£Ltâš mQFKiwfis kh‰wnt©o tU«. j‹ bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw, nghuh£l mQFKiwia¥ bgÇah®, gf¤á§»‹ 'eh‹ mQFKiwfis MŒªJ, nkY«, g¤âÇif, V‹ eh¤âf‹ Mnd‹' v‹D« ò¤jf¤ij¤ ãu¢rhu«, trî vâ®bfhŸsš, fU¤JÇik, jÄÊš bkhÊbga®¤J btËÆ£lj‰F¥ fU¤J khWghL bfh©lt®fSldhd cwî ã‹d® jh‹ if¡bfh©lhuh v‹gjid v‹W bgÇahÇ‹ gšntW mQFKiwfis MŒî neh¡»š ï¡ f£Liu MuhŒ»wJ. x¥ã£L, všyh mQFKiwfË‹ cUáahɉF¢ brštj‰F K‹ò«, br‹W mo¤js¤âY«, c©ik v‹»w moehjnk tªj ã‹ò«, bgÇah® nk‰bfh©l jªij bgÇahÇ‹ Mjhu mQFKiw v‹W bghJîilik¥ ãu¢rhu¤âš V‰g£l ï¡f£Liu ÃWî»wJ. kh‰w¤ij neh¡», 'FomuR' ïjœ tÊahd mQFKiwfis MŒ»wJ. neh¡f« jªij bgÇah® áªjidahs®; ãu¢rhuf®; 'khWjš F‰wÄšiy v‹D« nfh£ghL' fs¥ nghuhË. 95 M©L fhy« thœªjt®. bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiwahf És§»aij mWgjh©L fhy bghJ thœî¡F¢ brhªj¡fhu®. ÉtÇ¡F« ï¡f£Liu, r_f¤ JiwÆš, jd¡F¢ rÇ v‹W g£lij¤ ja§fhkš kj¤ JiwÆš, muáaš JiwÆš, fšÉ- vL¤Jiu¤jt®. bgU«gh‹ikahd k¡fŸ fiy ïy¡»a¤ JiwÆš, bghUshjhu¤ V‰f¤ ja§F»‹w fU¤Jfis ïilÉlhkš JiwÆš v‹W gšntW mQFKiwfis ãu¢rhu« brŒjt®. v⮥òfS¡F k¤âÆny neh¡F»wJ. xUehS« t‹Kiwia thœªjt®. vâ®Ú¢rš ngh£nl gH»at®. 68 ïa¡f« el¤âat®. Jnuh»fshš J‹g¥g£lt®. ga‹gL¤JkhW bgÇah® nf£L¡bfh©lh®. Vuhskhd mDgt§fis¥ bg‰wt®.

njhH® g.éthdªj« ïªüÈid <.bt.»UZzrhÄí«, g.éthdªjK« bkhÊbga®¤jh®. “c©ik És¡f«” k‹Å¥ò¡ nf£L ÉLjiy bgW»wh®fŸ. m¢rf¤âš gâ¥ã¡f¥g£lJ. gâ¥gháÇa® jªij bgÇah® vGJ»wh®, “ïªj¥go ïU <.bt.»UZzrhÄ. ãÇ£oZ murh§f« njhH®fS« k‹Å¥ò¡ nf£L¡ bfh©L ïªâa‹ Õdšnfh£ 124-V br¡õ‹go ÉLjiy milªjh®fŸ v‹gj‰F mt®fns uh#Jntõ¡ F‰w« Rk¤â, bkhÊbga®¤jj‰fhf KG #th¥jhÇfŸ mšy v‹gijí«, njhH® g.éthdªj« mt®fisí«, bgU«gh‹ikahd msî¡F ehnd ãuRǤjj‰fhf <.bt.»UZzrhÄ #th¥jhÇ v‹gijí« KjÈš bjÇɤJ¡ mt®fisí« ifJ brŒJ áiwÆš mil¤jJ2. bfhŸS»nw‹” v‹»‹wh®. ò¤jf¤ij btËÆl tÈíW¤âat® bgÇah®; k‹Å¥ò¡ bgÇah® RakÇahij ïa¡f¤â‹ jiyt®. nf£f¢ brh‹dt® bgÇah®. vdnt, 'ehnd RakÇahij ïa¡f¤ij¥ g‰¿ r®¡fhuh® #th¥jhÇ' v‹»‹wh®. ïjid, ‘bgÇahÇ‹ kdâš v¥gonah j¥ò mã¥ãuha« m¿î ehza«’ v‹W«, ‘jiytU¡FŸs V‰g£LÉ£lJ. RakÇahij ïa¡f¤ij jiyáwªj g©ghL’ v‹W« ghuh£L»‹wh® v¥goahtJ ml¡» mʤJÉl nt©L« âuhÉl® fHf¤ jiyt® ».åuk mt®fŸ.4 v‹W Ô®khŤJ É£lh®fŸ. ïjid bgÇah® bjǪJ bfh©lh®fŸ. bgÇahU¡F ïa¡f¤â‰F Mg¤J tªjnghJ bgÇah® uÎahÉÈUªJ gz« tUtjhfî«, bgÇah® v‹d brh‹dh®? v¥go elªJbfh©lh®? uÎa x‰w‹ v‹W« rªnjf¥g£l ãÇ£oZ ïa¡f¤âš fyªJ ntiy brŒj bjh©l®fËš r®¡fh®, bgÇahiu¡ f©fh¡f khj« ïUüW áy® c‰rhf¤ij¡ fh£o¡ bfhŸS« KiwÆš %ghŒ bryÉš RU¡bfG¤J á.mŒ.o. r¥- jiy-fhš bjÇahkš ntfkhf¥ ngádh®fŸ. ï‹°bg¡liu ÃaĤjJ. mij¥ gh®¤j nghärh® r®¡fhU¡F F¿¥ò mD¥ãdh®fŸ v‹W ngádh®. “ïa¡f« bgÇah® mD¥ò»‹w foj§fisí« ts®¢áaila Koahkš nghfî«, r®¡fhÇ‹ bgÇahU¡F tU»‹w foj§fisí« fLikahd ml¡FKiw¡F MshFnk ïufáakhŒ cil¤J¥ gh®¡f xU á.mŒ.o. r¥- v‹»‹w ga¤J¡F« ïl« jªjjhš, ïa¡f¥ ï‹°bg¡l®, å£L thrÈš nghä° nrtf®fŸ, ãuKf®fË‹ ïu©blhU nahrid¡F mYtyf thrÈY« nghä° nrtf®fŸ, ïz§», ïij¥ g‰¿ r®¡fhÇnyna áy bgÇahÇ‹ elkh£l¤ij - ngh¡Ftu¤ij¥ ã‹ bghW¥òŸs mâfhÇfis¡ f©L ngr bjhl®ªJ ftÅ¡f áy nghä° fh‹°lãŸfŸ nt©oa mtáa¤â‰F cŸshnd‹” ÃaÄ¡f¥g£ld®. åL« mYtyfK« gyKiw v‹W bgÇah® xËî kiwî ïšyhkš nrhjid ïl¥g£ld.3 ïa¡f¤ij ml¡f btË¥gilahf¤ bjÇÉ¡»‹wh®fŸ. nt©L« v‹w v©z¤njhL bgÇah® ÛJ« j§if f©z«khŸ ÛJ« gy tH¡FfŸ, ‘bghW¥òŸs mâfhÇfis¢ rªâ¤J¥ mguhj§fŸ, j©lidfŸ. ïa¡f¤ij¡ ngánd‹’ v‹W TW« bgÇah®, v‹d ngádh® fh¥gh‰w nt©L«; bfhŸifÆid¥ gu¥g v‹gijí« tÇir¥gL¤â mL¡F»‹wh®. 70 4 "vd¡F« uÎahɉF« gz¥ Éõa§fËš ntW #hâ kj¡fhu®fŸ kd« ngh¡Ftu¤J ïšiy. ò©gL«gonah mtkhd¥gL«gonah mtkhd« V‰gL«gonah v‹W ïšyhkš 4 ãu¢rhu r«gªj« VJ« ïšiy. #hâ kj f©ld§fŸ brŒJ bfhŸsyh« v‹W« Koî¡F tªnj‹. 4 RakÇahij ïa¡f« r£l kW¥ò ïa¡fkšy. r®¡fhnuhL ïªj khâÇahd xU rkhjhd« Koî¡F tuhj g£r« r®¡fhU¡F« ek¡F« 4 r®¡fhnuhL x¤JiHah ïa¡fkšy. å© bjhªjuî« kd¡ fr¥ò« V‰g£nl ÔU« v‹»‹w ÃiyÆš, k‰w Mjhu§fS« 4 r£l¤ijí« rkhjhd¤ijí« kâahj Ka‰áfS« ÃiyikfS« ïUªjjhš, eh‹ ïa¡fkšy. ïªj rkhjhd¤J¡F tunt©oajhƉW. Mfnt, ïj‹ gy‹ v‹dthdhY« mj‰F 4 ïa¡f« bjhl§»aJ Kjš ï‹Wtiu gy ehnd bghW¥ghË v‹Wjh‹ brhšy nt©L«.” khehLfËš Ô®khÅ¡f¥g£L ïU¡F« ntiy¤ â£l« Ô®khd§fŸ ahî« r£l bgÇah® gÊia ah® nknyí« nghlÉšiy. tu«ã‰F c£g£L el¤J« fhÇa§fns". c©ik Ãytu¤ij btË¥gilahf vL¤Jiu¤JÉ£L, “áy ïisP®fS¡F ïJ v‹w Ãaha¤ij - c©ikia nftykhf¤ njh‹wyh«. eh« ïa¡f r«gªjkhf vL¤Jiu¤JÉ£L nkY« xU fU¤ij¥ ekJ bfhŸiffËnyh â£l§fËnyh, vijí« gÂnthL brhš»‹wh®. “k‰w r£lÉnuhjkhf É£L¡ bfhL¤J rkhjhd« brŒJ bfh©ljhf mšyJ uh#JntõK©Lg©Qtj‰fhf vd¡F¥ glÉšiy; Mjyhš ah® v¥go gâ¥ã¡f¥g£lbj‹nwh, ngr¥g£lbj‹nwh, Ãid¤jhY« - ek¡F x‹W« KG»¥ nghŒ VjhtJ fh£l¥gLkhdhš mj‰F¥ gâš brhšy¡ ÉlhJ v‹W ijÇakhf¢ brhšY»nw‹" flik¥g£oU¥gjhfî« x¥ò¡ bfh©nl‹." v‹Wiu¤j bgÇah® r®¡fhUl‹ rkhjhd« brŒJ bfh©ljhš ïa¡f« m⮪J bgÇahÇ‹ m¡fiwí« ïa¡f¤â‰F nfL nghF« v‹W ahuhtJ Ãid¥gh®fshdhš, ne®ªJ Él¡ TlhJ v‹w bghW¥òz®¢áí« mt®fS¡F¢ rkhjhd« brhšÈ¡ bfh©L fhz Ko»wJ. neu¤ij¡ bfL¤J¡ bfhŸtijÉl, r‰W bghWikahŒ ïUªJ ghU§fŸ v‹W brhšÈ bgÇah® k‹Å¥ò nf£lh®, ÉLtJ ò¤ârhȤjdkhd fhÇakhFbk‹nw ã‹th§»É£lh® v‹W áy® Tw¡ TL«. Ãid¡»nw‹.” mj‰fhd¡ fhuz¤ijí« bgÇah® És¡F»wh®. bgÇahU¡F ïa¡f¤ij¡ fh¥gh‰w “ïuh#Jntõkhd Éõa« v‹W r®¡fh® nt©L« v‹w ftiy ïUªjJ. bfhŸifÆš Koî brŒJÉ£lh®fŸ v‹gijí«, mJ rkur¤â‰F ïlÄšiy. bfhŸifia v¥goí« uh#Jntõkhd Éõa« v‹W eilKiw¥gL¤j gšntW KiwfŸ c©L. Ô®¥ò¥ bgW« v‹gijí« Étfhu« ngRtâš fhy¤â‰nf‰g, NHY¡nf‰g, vâÇfË‹ ga‹ V‰glhJ v‹gijí« cz®ªnj‹” Éôf¤â‰nf‰g mQFKiwfis kh‰w v‹W TW« bgÇah® xU Koî¡F tU»wh®. nt©oa mtáa« neU«. bgÇah®, “ X® msî¡F r®¡fhUl‹ uhÍ V‰gL¤â¡ ‘r®¡fhU¡F« ek¡F« å© bjhªjuî« bfhŸsyh« v‹»‹w MirÆ‹ Ûnj kd¡ fr¥ò«’ Ú§f rkhkhd¤J¡F tªjh®. bghUshjhu Éõa¤âš rkj®k¡ bfhŸifia¥ ïij V‰fhjt®fŸ ïa¡f¤âš ïU¡f¡ ãu¢rhu« brŒtâš r®¡fhU¡F« M£nrgid TL«. bgÇah® brhš»wh®, “gy® ïa¡f¤ij ïšiy v‹W«, #hâ, kj r«gªjkhd É£L¥ nghŒÉLtjhfî« brhšyyh«. ïit 71 všyh« vªj - v¥go¥g£l ïa¡f¤J¡F« Koî, ïa¡f¢ brašghL F¿¤j x›bthU rka§fËš ïa‰ifnaahF«. És¡f«, k‹Å¥ò¡ nfhu nt©oa giHa thÈg®fŸ MŸfŸ fÊjY«, òâa NHš v‹w všyht‰iwí« ‘FomuR’ thÈg®fŸ MŸfŸ òFjY« F‰wkšy, fhy ïjœ tÊahf¤ njhH®fS¡F ïa‰ifnaahF«.” ïªj¤ J¢rš jiyaha btË¥gilahf¤ bjÇÉ¥gJ bgÇahÇ‹ jiyik¥ g©ghF«. bjh©l®fis, mQFKiw. k¡fis tÊ el¤j¡ Toat®jh‹ jiytuhf ïU¡f Koínk jÉu, bjh©l®fË‹ 4 ïa¡f¢ brašghLfËš áyU¡F ã‹dhš Xl¡ Toat®fŸ jiytuhf ïU¡f mâU¥â V‰gl¡ TL«. bfhŸif KoahJ. nghƉW; ÔÉu« nghƉW; ïa¡f« mÊa¥ ngh»wJ v‹W Fl« FlkhŒ 4 ïa¡f¤â‹ ÛJ uh#Jntõ F‰w« f©Ù® áªJth®fŸ. jiyikÆ‹ Rk¤j¥gL»wJ. jªij bgÇahÇ‹ brašf©L bt£f¥gLtjhŒ mQFKiw ïa¡f¤ij¡ fh¥gh‰W»wJ. J¡»¥gh®fŸ. m¥nghJ bgÇahÇ‹ v‹d mQFKiw? mQFKiw v‹d? “mt®fS¡F¢ rkhjhd« brhšÈ¡ bfh©L neu¤ij¡ 4 uh# Jntõ¤ij c©lh¡fnth, mij¥ bfL¤J¡ bfhŸtijÉl r‰W ãu¢rhu« brŒanth v©z§bfh©L bghWikahŒ ïUªJ ghU§fŸ v‹W m¥ò¤jf« ãuRÇ¡fÉšiy brhšÈ ÉLtJ ò¤ârhȤjdkhd v‹»wh® bgÇah®. nghÇny bt‰¿ fhÇakhFbk‹nw Ãid¡»nw‹.” bgw nt©L« v‹gj‰fhf¢ r‰W ã‹th§F« NœÃiyí« áy 4 ïa¡f eyD¡fhf nk‰bfhŸs¥gL« neu§fËš V‰gLtJ©L. mªj¥ c¤âfËdhš gy® r§fl¥gl¡ TL«. ã‹th§fš njhšÉ mšy. ïa¡f¤ij¡ ïa¡f¤âš ïU¥gnj RakÇahij¡F fh¥gh‰w, bfhŸifÆid¤ bjhl®ªJ ïG¡F v‹gh®fŸ. gy® ïa¡f¤ij Ãiwnt‰¿l, jiyik nk‰bfhŸS« É£L¥ nghŒÉLtjhfî« brhšth®fŸ. X® mQFKiw MF«. v⮤J, fdš m¥nghJ bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw v‹d? bj¿¡f trd« ngá, ïa¡f¤ij¡ “giHa thÈg®fŸ MŸfŸ fÊjY«, FÊnjh©o¥ òij¤JÉ£L, åu‹ v‹W òâa thÈg®fŸ MŸfŸ òFjY« g£l« N£o¡ bfhŸtjhš Éisí« F‰wkšy, fhy ïa‰ifnaahF«.” ga‹ ahJ? ãu¢áid tªjnghJ r‰W ã‹th§F« mQFKiwia¥ bgÇah® 4 ïa¡f« ïU¡F«. jiyik kh¿¡bfh©nl nk‰bfh©lh®. ïU¡F«. ïªj¢ á¡fš - ãu¢áid tªJbfh©nl ïU¡F«. m¥nghJ 4 <.bt.»UZzrhÄí«, g.éthdªjK« mŒahÉ‹ mQFKiw jiyik¡F k‹Å¥ò nf£L¡bfh©L btËna tÊfh£l¡Toa ghlkhf ïU¡F«. tªJ É£ld®. ï§nfí« bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw njhH®fis¥ gÊ¢ MS§f£á Mjuthsuh? brhšY¡F Msh¡fhkš ehnd #th¥jhÇ bgÇah® Úâ¡f£áÆ‹ M£áia v‹W KG¥ bghW¥igí« gÊiaí« MjǤjh®. fhkuhr® Kjštuhdîl‹ Rk¡»wh®. fh§»u° M£áia MjǤjh®. m©zh Kjštuhdîl‹ âuhÉl K‹nd‰w¡ 4 vâÇfË‹ Nœ¢á, ãÇ£oZ fHf M£áÆid MjǤjh®. m©zh murh§f¤jhÇ‹ mŒa«, kiwî¡F¥ ã‹ fiyP® jiyikÆyhd j©lid¡FŸsh¡FtJ v‹w muá‹ â.K.f. M£áÆid MjǤjh®. MS§f£á 72 Mjuîjh‹ bgÇahÇ‹ Ãiy¥ghlh? v‹w 4 kJÉy¡F¡F Mjuî; ãwF kJî¡F Édh vH¡ TL«. Mjuî.

uh#nfhghyh¢rhÇah® 1937-1939 M£áÆš 4 fhªâ¡F v⮥ò; mt® kiwªjnghJ ïUªjnghJ«, 1952-1954 M£áÆš fhªâ njr« v‹W bga® N£l¡ nfhuš. ïUªjnghJ« bgÇah® fLikahf v⮤jh®. nghuh£l§fis el¤âdh®. 1938M« M©L 4 fh§»u° v⮥ò; fhkuhr® MjÇ¥ò. eilbg‰w ïªâ v⮥ò¥ nghuh£l«, 1954M« M©L eilbg‰w Fy¡fšÉ¤ â£l 4 â.K.f. v⮥ò; â.K.f. Mjuî. v⮥ò¥ nghuh£l« uh#nfhghyh¢rhÇah® gjÉ Éyf fhuzkhƉW. 4 ïªâ v⮥ò; ïªâ v⮥ò¥ nghuh£l¤â‰F v⮥ò. bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw F¿¤J m¿ªJbfh©lhš FH¥g« bjËí«. bjËî nk‰brh‹dt‰iw nknyh£lkhf¥ ãw¡F«. “v‹Dila bfhŸifia V‰W¢ gh®¡F«nghJ bgÇah® Ku©gLtJ nghy¤ brašgL»‹wt®fŸ ahuhf ïUªjhY« njh‹wyh«. bgÇahÇaÈš _œ», cŸth§» mt®fis MjǤJ ntiy th§»¡ cz®ªjhš k£Lnk bgÇahÇ‹ cŸs¤ij - bfhŸSnt‹” v‹»wh® bgÇah®. vªj bjËit - áªjid ts®¢áia czu ïaY«. M£á¡fhfî« KjštU¡fhfî« bgÇah® j« ïšiybaÅš MŒths® xUt®, jtisÆ‹ bfhŸifia kh‰¿¡ bfh©lâšiy. Mdhš, xU fhiy bt£oa ã‹ ‘Fâ’ v‹W Tw, mªjªj M£áÆidí« Kjšt®fisí« j« jtis Fâ¤jJ. eh‹F fhšfisí« bt£oa bfhŸifÆid Ãiwnt‰w bgÇah® ga‹gL¤â¡ ã‹ ‘Fâ’ v‹W Tw Fâ¡fÉšiy. MŒths‹ bfh©lh® v‹gJjh‹ tuyhW. “ït®, jh« ão¤j Koî vGâdh‹, "jtisÆ‹ eh‹F fhšfis fhÇa¤ij¢ rhâ¡F« FzKilat®. ïtiu¥ bt£oÉ£lhš jtis¡F fhJ nf£fhJ” ãw® vËâš j« bfhŸif¡F¡ âU¥ãÉl v‹W. mªj¡ fijÆ‹ m¿t‰w Ãiyna KoahJ” v‹gJ rhÄ.áj«gudhÇ‹ T‰whF«.5 MŒî¡F V‰gL«. khWjš F‰wÄšiy mQFKiwÆny - â£l§fËny khWjš bgÇahÇ‹ thœÉny, mQFKiwfËny, v‹gJ jÉ®¡f KoahjJ. khwhjt‹ cyf â£l§fËny khWjšfis¡ fhz Ko»wJ. thœ¡if¡F¤ jFâíilat‹ mšy‹. kh‰w« fhytÇir¥go bjhF¤J¥ gh®¡F«nghJ x‹nw khwhjJ v‹gij m¿P®fŸ gyU« ts®¢áia¡ f©l¿ayh«. F¿¥ã£LŸsd®.

4 Úâ¡f£áia KjÈš v⮤jh®; ãwF ‘mo¡fo Ãiy¥ghL kh‰w«’ g‰¿ MjǤjh®. bgÇahÇl« nfŸÉ nf£lnghJ, ‘vªj kÅjD« xnu ÃiyikÆš ïU¡f nt©L« 4 fhªâaofis KjÈš MjǤjh®; ãwF v‹W Ú§fŸ V‹ Mir¥gL»Ö®fŸ?’ v‹W v⮤jh®. gâYiu¤j bgÇah®, “khWjš K‰ngh¡FŸsjh? ã‰ngh¡FŸsjh? mjdhš k¡fS¡F 4 ïªâia¡ f‰ã¡f gŸËfis el¤âdh®; e‹ikah? Ôikah? v‹gd ngh‹wt‰iw¡ ãwF ïªâ v⮥ò¥ nghuh£l§fis ftÅ¡f nt©oaJ m¿thËfË‹ el¤âdh®. flikahF«” v‹wh®.

4 njhËš RkªJ fj® JÂfis ɉwh®; "eh‹ vdJ bghJthœÉš mndf¡ ãwF fj® òu£il m«gykh¡»dh®. fuz§fŸ ngh£L ïU¡f¡ TL«; ïšiy 73 v‹W Tw tuÉšiy. eh‹ gy jlit “mt®fŸ ò¤ârhÈfsh, K£lhŸfsh, kh¿ ïU¡fyh«. gy F£o¡ fuzK« ig¤âa¡fhu®fsh, bf£o¡fhu®fsh v‹gJ ngh£oU¡fyh«. g¢nrhªâahŒ ïU¡fyh«. g‰¿ vd¡F¡ ftiy ïšiy”v‹wh®. 7 eh‹ v¤jid¡ fuz§fŸ ngh£lhY« vdJ bfhŸif, y£áa§fŸ Ãiwntw nt©L« v‹w “fHf¤âš nrU« K‹ò Ú§fŸ c§fŸ fhuz¤â‰fhf ïU¡Fnk xÊa, y£áa¤âš gF¤j¿î bfh©L fHf¡ nfh£ghLfis tGÉ ïU¡f kh£nl‹. vdJ y£áa¤ij v›tsî nt©LkhdhY« MuhŒªJ gh®¡fyh«. mila¤ â£l§fis¤jh‹ kh‰¿¡ bfh©L v‹Dl‹ thjhlyh«” v‹W bjÇÉ¡F« tUntnd xÊa, mo¥gilia mšy”6 bgÇah®, fHf¤âš nr®ªj ã‹ “c§fŸ brhªj¥ v‹»wh®. gF¤j¿it k£Lkšy c§fŸ kdrh£á v‹gij¡ Tl _£il¡ f£o it¤JÉl bgÇahÇ‹ x›bthU kh‰w¤â‰F¥ ã‹D« nt©oaJjh‹” v‹W c¤juÉL»wh®.8 xU tuyhW òijªâU¡»wJ. eh‹ v‹d Míj« Vªj nt©L« v‹gij vâÇ Ô®khÅ¡»wh‹ “kdrh£ánah, brhªj gF¤j¿nth, fHf¡ v‹gJnghy ahiu MjÇ¡f nt©L«; ahiu bfhŸifia x¥ò¡ bfhŸs kW¡Fkhdhš v⮡f nt©L« v‹gij¤ Ô®khÅ¥gJ e« clnd Éy»¡ bfhŸtJjh‹ Kiwna xÊa, ifÆš ïšiy. “ehis eh‹ v¥go khw¥ ngh»nw‹ cŸËUªJ bfh©nl Fj®¡f« ngᤠâÇtJ v‹gJ vd¡nf bjÇahJ” v‹w bgÇahÇ‹ thrf« Éõk¤jd«” v‹W v¢rÇ¡»wh®. ne®ik ÃiyÆš ËW ciu¤j ‘r¤âa th¡fhF«’. “ïy£áa¤âš khWjÈšyhkš ntiy KiwÆš bgÇah®, âuhÉl® fHf¤ jiyt®. fHf¤ mo¡fo khWjš brŒa nt©oaJ« brŒJ njhH®fËl« m‹ghf elªJ bfhŸs¡ tUtJ« F‰wkhfhJ” v‹w bgÇahÇ‹ T‰nw Toat®. njhH®fis kâ¥gâš bgÇahÇ‹ mtuJ mQFKiwahF«. mQFKiwia m¿a ö¤J¡Fo kheh£L ciu ga‹gL»wJ. “ekJ fHf¤âš ïa¡f¤ jiyik Raey¡fhu®fS¡F ïlÄšiy. fHf¤âš bgÇah® bjhl¡f¡ fhy¤âš fh§»u° j‹ brhªj yhg¤ij¡ fUâ ïU¥gtD¡F f£áÆš ïUªjh®. fh§»uáÈUªJ btËna¿ ïlÄšiy. fHf¤â‰fhf¤ j« brhªj¥ gz¤ij, RakÇahij ïa¡f§f©l ãwF jiyik¥ brhªj ciH¥ig¢ bryî brŒgtD¡F¤jh‹ bghW¥ò V‰wh®. Úâ¡f£áÆš jiytuhf, fHf¤âš kâ¥ò©L. fHf¤âÅl« Câa« âuhÉl® fHf¤â‹ jiytuhf¥ bghW¥ò bg‰W ntiy brŒgt‹ fHf¤â‹ t»¤jh®. ïa¡f¤ jiyik¥ bghW¥ãš jªij ntiy¡fhudhf¤jh‹ kâ¡f¥gLth‹. bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw v¥go ïUªjJ? vtbdhUt‹ j‹ brhªj¥ gz¤âÈUªJ “eh‹ r®thâfhu« brŒ»nw‹ v‹gJ« X® X® miu¡ fhrhÆD« fHf¤â‰F¢ bryî msî¡F c©ikjh‹. x¥ò¡ bfhŸ»nw‹” brŒ»whndh mtid¤jh‹ eh‹ v‹ v‹gJ bgÇahÇ‹ th¡F_y«. xU jiyt‹ e©gdhf, v‹ Jiztdhf, v‹ jiytdhf¡ el¤JgtdhŒ ïU¡f nt©L« v‹W Tl fUJnt‹. fHf« ghLgL»wtD¡F¤jh‹ ïy¡fz« tF¤j bgÇah®, el¤j¥gLgtdhŒ brhªjkhdnj xÊa, fHf¤â‹ _y« gz« ïU¡f¡ TlhJ v‹gij¤ bjËîgL¤âdh®. r«ghâ¡f nt©L« v‹W Ãid¥gtD¡fšy. fHf¤â‹ nguhš thœ¡if el¤J»wt‹ bgÇah®, j«ik¥ ã‹g‰¿ elªJ tUgt®fŸ fHf¤â‹ ntiy¡fhu‹. fHf¤â‰fhf¤ j‹ ò¤ârhÈfshŒ ïU¡f nt©L« v‹W á¿J« fhir¡ bfhL¥gt‹ fHf¤â‹ e©g‹..” ftiy bfh©lJ »ilahJ. “j§fŸ m¿it, ïJjh‹ bgÇahÇ‹ mQFKiw. M‰wiy kwªJ v‹ y£áa¤ij Ãiwnt‰¿¡ bfhL¡f¡Toa MŸfŸjh‹ vd¡F¤ njit” nj®jÈš ËW k¡fË‹ Mjuit¥ bg‰W, v‹W btË¥gilahf m¿É¤jh®fŸ. M£áia¥ ão¥gJ bgÇahÇ‹ neh¡fkšy. 74 “ï›Éa¡f¤ij nj®jÈš

bgÇah® ntW; ïa¡f« ntW v‹W bgÇah® v⮡fhj Éõa§fŸ Fiwî. bgÇah® thœªjâšiy. vªj ïa¡f¤âÈUªJ flîŸ, kj«, #hâ, #dehaf«, _le«ã¡if, bjh©lh‰¿dhY« mªj °jhgd¤ijna bg©zoik, òuhz«, rh°âu«, ïªâ, j«Kilajh¡»¡ bfhŸth®. mtnu ïa¡fkhf gh®¥gÅa«, fh§»u°, fhªâ, fšÉ Kiw, kh¿ ÉLth® v‹gJjh‹ bgÇahÇ‹ áÅkh, r£lrig, muáaš f£áfŸ, g©oiffŸ mQFKiw. bgÇahÇl« v¥nghJ« brhªj¥ v‹W všyht‰iwí« v⮤jh®. gz« v‹W x‹WÄšiy. mt® bghJ¥ g¡F tªjnghJ mtÇlÄUªj gz¤ij v⮥ò¡ fhÇa§fËš

f£Liu¢ RU¡f«: bg©zhš el¤j¥g£l ï›ÉjÊ‹ njh‰w« k‰W« ts®¢á F¿¤J MuhŒªJ, bgÇahÇaš- jÄœ ïjÊaš tuyh‰¿‹ bjhl¡f bg©Âaš neh¡»š ïjid¥ gâî brŒtJ, fhy¤ij ï¡f£Liu MuhŒ»wJ. m¡ ek¡fhd bgUik v‹»w neh¡»š MuhŒ¢á fhy¤ânyna bg©fS¡fhd jÅ ïjœfŸ Koîfis K‹it¡»wJ. tªjij¡ ftd¤âš bfhŸ»wJ. 1887ïš btËtªj 'khj® ĤâÇ' v‹w ïjiHí« mj‹ jÄÊš Mâ ïjœfŸ MáÇa® %¤ m«ikahiuí« MŒî¡F vL¤J¡bfhŸ»wJ. ïjÊ‹ cŸsl¡f¤ij ïªâahÉš m¢R ïaªâu¤â‹ tUif Mí« nghJ, ïj‹ gofŸ bjhl®¢áahf¡ ïjÊaÈ‹ Jt¡f fhy« vdyh«. ïU¥ãD« »£lhikia¢ R£o¡fh£o, »il¤j ».ã. 1476M« M©oš ïªâahî¡FŸ m¢R gofË‹ mo¥gilÆš jdJ MŒit¤ ïaªâu« tªjhY«, ».ã.1622ïš mjhtJ, bjhl®»wJ. m¢rf«, ïjÊ‹ msî, »il¤j xU ü‰wh©L¡F¥ ã‹ jh‹ ‘The Weekly News’ F¿¥òfË‹ _y« bg©fŸ m‹nw Éiy v‹D« ïjœ Kj‹KjÈš btËtªjJ. bfhL¤J ïjœfis th§»¥ go¤JŸsh®fsh 1666ïš London Gazetteer' 1780ïš ‘Bengel ngh‹wt‰iw mªj¡ fhy¢ NœÃiynahL Gazetteer' 1789ïš 'Indian Gazetteer' v‹W 18M« x¥ã£L MuhŒ»wJ. ü‰wh©oš x›bthU ïjHhf btËtªjJ. 19M« ü‰wh©o‹ bjhl¡f¡ fhy§fËšjh‹ 137 M©LfS¡F K‹dhš btËtªj jÄœ ïjœfŸ btËtu¤ bjhl§»d. ».ã ïjÊ‹ cŸsl¡f¤âš, 'áwªj bg©kÂfŸ 1802ïš 'ányh‹ bf#£' v‹D« ïjœ jÄœ, bjhl®ghd f£LiufŸ', 'fšÉÆ‹ mtáa«', á§fs«, M§»y« vd K«bkhÊfËš 'e§ifa®¡F ešYiu', 'áWt®fS¡fhd btËtªjd. ïJjh‹ jÄÊš KjÈš m¢rhd fijfŸ', 'ãurt üš kU¤Jt¡ F¿¥òfŸ', brŒâahf¡ fUj¥gL»wJ. 1830ïš 'jÄœ '»¿¤Jt kj¡F¿¥òfŸ', 'tuyh‰W¢ brŒâfŸ, nkfÌ‹' (The Tamil Magazine) v‹D« bgaÇš ghlšfŸ' ngh‹w gyt‰iwí« ï¡f£Liu jÄÊš KGikahd brŒâfŸ cŸsl§»a Mtz¥gL¤J»wJ. bg©fS¡fhf, xU Kjš ïjœ btËahdJ. 86 jÄœ ïjÊaš tuyh‰¿š KjÈš 19M« ü‰wh©oš btËahd 9 ïjœfËš btËtªj ïjœ, khj ïjnH. mj‹ã‹ thu bg© MáÇaiu¡ bfh©L el¤j¥g£l xnu ïjœ, thu« ïUKiw, K«Kiw ïjœfŸ ïjœ 1887ïš btËtªj 'khj® ĤâÇ' k£Lnk. btËtªjd. mjid¤ bjhl®ªJ fhyh©L, ïªj ïjÊ‹ MáÇa® bga® 'âUkâ %¤'. miuah©L ïjœfS« btËtªjd. mj‹ mtiu¥ g‰¿ ntW F¿¥òfŸ ïšiy. jÄHf ã‹; ehËjœfŸ tu¤ bjhl§»d. ïjÊaš tuyh‰¿š Kjš bg© MSikahf m¿a¥gL»wh®. 19M« ü‰wh©o‹ bjhl¡f¡ fhy§fËnyna r_f kh‰w¤â‰fhd jÄHf tuyh‰¿š ïjœfŸ Jt§f¥g£l ïjœfŸ btËtu¤bjhl§»d. mt‰¿š ü‰wh©onyna bg©fS¡fhf 9 ïjœfŸ bg©fS¡fhd ïjœfŸ F¿¥ãl¤j¡fd. btË tªjJ« mj‹ X® ïjÊid¥ bg©nz mj‹ mo¥gilÆš bg©fŸ thœÉaš el¤âaJ« Äfî« áw¥ghd x‹W. VbdÅš, ãu¢áidfis¥ g»®ªJ bfhŸsî«, fšÉÆ‹ 19M« ü‰wh©ošjh‹ bg©fŸ fšÉa¿î K¡»a¤Jt¤ij tÈíW¤jî«, thá¥ò¥ bgwnt©L« v‹W ãǤjhÅa®fŸ Ka‰á gH¡f¤ij ts®¡fî«, j§fis¤ jh§fns brŒj fhyf£l«. 1854 ïš rh®y°î£ v‹gt® cz®ªJ bfhŸsî«, bg©fS¡bf‹nw jÅ 'rh®y° î£ bl°gh£¢' v‹D« bgaÇš ïjœfŸ gy btËtªjd. tH§f¥g£l m¿¡if bg©fS¡F¡ fšÉ mË¥gjhš V‰gL« áw¥ghd r_f kh‰w§fis jÄÊš Mâ bg©fŸ ïjœfŸ Kj‹Kjyhf¢ R£o¡fh£oíŸsJ.

Kjš bg©fŸ ïjHhf 1860ïš MâehŸ bg© fšÉ 'mÄ®jt®rÅ' v‹D« thu ïjœ btËahdJ. ïj‹ MáÇa® mÄ®jghò.br‹id Rnjr 1882 M« M©oš 'r® ÉšÈa« A‹l®' »¿°Jt bg©fŸ ïa¡f¤â‹ rh®ghf m¿¡ifí« bg© fšÉ¡F Mjuthf ïUªjJ. btËtªjJ. 1883ïš br‹idÆÈUªJ ïU¥ãD« ï¡fhyf£l§fËš bg©fË‹ 'RFz nghâÅ' v‹D« khj« ïUKiw f‰wš xU rthyhfnt ïUªjJ. bg©fŸ fšÉ ïjÊ‹ MáÇa® ghyRªju« 1887ïš bgWtj‰fhd NœÃiyfis¥ bgwnt Ú©l beoa br‹idÆÈUªJ 'khj® ĤâÇ' khj ïjHhf nghuh£l§fS«, âahf§fS« njit¥g£ld. btËtªjJ. ïj‹ MáÇa® âUkâ %¤. mj‰F mo¤jskhf ïUªjt®fŸ 'rhɤâÇ ghŒ ïnj M©onyna br‹idÆÈUªJ 'khj® òny' ït® j‹ Jizt® n#hâuh› ònyîl‹ nghâÅ' v‹D« khj ïjœ ïuhkrhÄ v‹gtiu ïizªJ bg©fS¡fhf¤ jÅ¥gŸËia MáÇauhf¡ bfh©L«,'kfuhÂ' v‹D« òndÆš 1848nyna ÃWÉd®. ïJnt ïªâahÉ‹ khj« ïUKiw ïjœ É.»UZzkh¢rhÇ bg©fS¡fhf jÅ¥gŸË v‹»w áw¥ãid¥ v‹gtiu MáÇauhf¡ bfh©L« bg‰wJ. Kjš bg© MáÇa® v‹»w áw¥ãid¥ el¤j¥g£ld. mj‹ bjhl® M©LfËš bg‰wt® 'rhɤâÇ ghŒ òny'. mªj¥ gŸËÆ‹ btËtªj ïjœfS« br‹idÆÈUªnj bg© khzt®fŸ 9 ng®. rKjha¤âš bg©fŸ btËtªjd. 1891ïš 'bg© kâ nghâÅ' fšÉ f‰gj‰F ïUªj jilfis cil¤J v‹D« khj ïjiH o.ã.ehfu¤âd« fšÉ¢ rhiyfS¡F¥ bg©fis miH¤J tu v‹gtU«, 1899ïš 'khj® kndhuŠrÅ' 'k»sh nrt¡ k©lš' v‹D« mik¥igí« v‹D« khj ïjÊid á.v° ïuhkrhÄ V‰gL¤âíŸsh®. mŒa® v‹gtU« MáÇauhf ïUªJ el¤â tªjd®. 1897ïš 'PhdnghâÅ,' 1899ïš 1849ïš '#h‹ vËa£o§»§ bj® bg¤ö‹' 'c¤jk nghjuŠrÅ' v‹D« ïU bg©fŸ mt®fshš Jt§f¥g£l bg©fŸ gŸË 1879ïš ïjœfŸ btËtªjj‰fhd g£oaš cŸsJ. fšÿÇahf ts®¢á bg‰wJ. t§fhsnjr¤âš ntW jftšfŸ vJî« »il¡fÉšiy. cUthd bg¤ö‹ fšÿÇah»a ïJjh‹ 87 ïªâahÉ‹ Kjš bg©fŸ fšÿÇ v‹»w bjhF¥ghf btËÆl¥g£LŸsd. mªj¤ bgUik bg‰wJ. bjhF¥ãid 'nuh#h K¤ijah' üyf¤âš ik¡nuh~ãš« (Micro Film) toÉš nrfǤJ 19M« ü‰wh©oš Kjš g£ljhÇahf it¤JŸsd®. j‰nghJ CLfâ® (scan) ïU bg©fis tuyh‰W¥ gâîfËš tot¤âY« nrfǤJ ghJfh¤J tU»‹wd®. fhzKo»‹wJ.'rªâuK» ghR' (Chandramukzi mj‰F ãªija 12 M©LfËš bjhF¥òfŸ Basu) ït® ãǤjhÅa ïªâahÉš Kjš »il¡fÉšiy. 1901 M« M©o‹ k‰W« ïU bg© g£ljhÇfËš xUt®.1882ïš mj‹ ã‹DŸs áy ïjœfŸ »il¡f¥ g£l« bg‰wh®.; 1886ïš bg¤ö‹ fšÿÇÆš bg‰wd. mªj ïjœfŸ KGikahf »¿°Jt ÉÇîiuahsuhf¥ gÂÆš nr®ªjh®. ã‹ kj ïjHhf kh¿ ïU¡»‹wd. ïilÆš cŸs mªj¡ fšÿÇÆ‹ Kjštuhf¥ bghW¥ng‰wh®. 12 M©LfËš vªj M©oÈUªJ ïªj ïjœ bj‹fháÆš ïs§fiy fšÉ ÃWtd¤â‹ KGikahf »¿°Jt ïjHhdJ v‹gij Kjš bg© jiytuhf ïUªJŸsh®, fj«ãÅ m¿a KoaÉšiy. mjdhš bg© ÉLjiy f§FÈ (Kadambini Ganguly) v‹gt®. ït®, bjhl®ghd 12 ïjœfËš cŸs brŒâfns ekJ nkiy kU¤Jt¥ gƉá g£l« bg‰w MŒî¥ bghU©ikahf mik»wJ. bj‰fháahÉ‹ Kjš clÈaš kU¤Jt® Mth®. Mdªâ nfhghš n#hÎ mnj ‘khj® ĤâÇ’ ïjœ br‹id nt¥ngÇ M©oš (1886) kU¤Jt¥ gÂah‰¿at®. bkjo°£ vã° nfhgš m¢rf¤âš m¢á£L bg© ÉLjiy bra‰gh£lhs®. btËÆl¥g£lJ. “The women’s friend published by the women foreign missionary society Methodist ïªâahÉš M§fh§nf bg©fS¡fhd Episcopal church U.S.A” v‹W F¿¥ã£LŸsJ. fšÉ ÃWtd§fËY«; mâš go¤J¥ g£l« ïj‹ msî 24 x 18 br.Û; g¡f§fŸ 12. "ïJ bg‰w Kjš bg©fS« cUthd fhyf£l¤âš ïªJ °âßfË‹ cgnahf¤â‹ bghU£L jÄHf¤âš bg©fË‹ thœÉaš cau á¤âu¥ gl§fSl‹ khjªnjhW« ãuRukhF« btËtªj ïjHhf ‘khj® ĤâÇ’ ïUªJŸsJ. g¤âÇif. ãuâ x‹W¡F xU tUõ¤â‰F ifbah¥g« ïu©L mzh. xU nkš khj® ĤâÇ ïjœ Éyhr¤â‰F mD¥g¥gL« xU ãuâ¡F xU tUõ¤â‰F¤ jgh‰ TÈ _‹W mzh. xU ‘khj® ĤâÇ’ ïjœ bg©fË‹ fšÉ, nkš Éyhr¤â‰F mD¥g¥gL« mŒªJ muáaš, bjhÊš, gÂthŒ¥òfŸ, e‹el¤ij, ãuâfS¡F xU tUõ¤â‰F¤ jgh‰ TÈ kU¤Jt« ngh‹w bg© ÉLjiy¡F _‹W mzh. ifbah¥g« gzK« jgh‰ njitahd fU¤Jfis¥ gâî brŒJŸsJ. TÈí« K‹djhf mD¥g¥g£lhbyhÊa, bg© moik¤jd¤â‰F¡ fhuzkhf ïU¡F« g¤âÇif mD¥g¥gl kh£lhJ" mÂfy‹fË‹ ÛJ Mir, mH»š eh£l« ngh‹wt‰iw¡ fisa nt©oaj‹ mtáa« ï¡F¿¥ò K‹ g¡f¤âš cŸsJ. F¿¤J¥ ngáíŸsJ. K‹djhf¥ gz« f£o ïjÊid th§»¥ go¡F« msî¡F bg©fŸ ïUªJŸsd®. bg©fS¡fhf¥ bg©zhš el¤j¥g£l 19M« ü‰wh©L v‹gJ jÄHf tuyh‰¿š Kjš ïjHhd ‘khj® ĤâÇ’ 1887 ïš btËtªjJ. bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰f¤ Jt§»a fhyf£l«. ïj‹ MáÇauhf âUkâ. %¤ mt®fshš br‹id khefu¤âš 1822ïš 12 MÆu¤J¡F« el¤j¥g£l ï›ÉjÊ‹ Kjyh« M©L¤ nk‰g£l â©iz¥ gŸËfŸ ïUªjjhf (1887-1888) bjhF¥ò ek¡F¡ »il¡fÉšiy. m¥nghJ khfhz MSeuhf ïUªj 'jhk° Kjš ãuâ ãÇ£oZ üyf¤âš cŸsjhf k‹nuh, fhy¤ija fz¡bfL¥ò TW»wJ. m.kh. rhÄ F¿¥ãL»wh®. ïu©lh« M©L mj‹ ãwFjh‹ M§»y muR j‰nghJ ïjœfshd (1888-1889) X® M©o‹ ïjœfŸ òH¡f¤âYŸs gŸËfis cUth¡»d®. 88 r_f¤âš bg© fšÉ Éthj§fŸ vG¤jhs®fË‹ bga®fŸ F¿¥ãl¥glÉšiy. khjªnjhW« e§ifa®¡F ešYiu v‹bwhU bg©fns go¡f¡TlhJ v‹W fUâ¡ gFâ btËtªJŸsJ. m¥gFâ f£LiuÆ‹ bfh©oUªj rKjhakhf¤jh‹ ïUªjJ. ca®ªj MáÇa® j‹id Ä.Ä. v‹W F¿¥ã£LŸsh® #h⥠(gh®¥gd®) bg©fshf ïUªjhY« Ä.Ä. v‹whš ‘ĤâÇ¡F ĤâÇ. ĤâÇ¡F bg©fŸ v‹whš gŠrk® vd¥g£l mŒªjh« ĤâÇ v‹whš e©ãfË‹ e©ã v‹gJ ãÇÉdU¡F« ÑnHjh‹. N¤âu®fns go¡f¡ bghUŸ. òid¥bgaÇid¡ bfh©l TlhJ v‹»wnghJ mj‰F¡ ÑnH ïU¡f¡Toa ï¡f£Liuahs® xU bg© v‹gJ mtuJ bg©fŸ fšÉia Ãid¤J¡Tl¥ gh®¡f¡ vG¤â‹ _y« bjÇ»wJ. TlhJ. 'ghša Éthf«' vd¥gL« FHªij kz« Kiw ïUªjJ. bg©fŸ fšÉia bg©fË‹ vG¤â‰F m¡fhy¤âš it¤J fšÉ f‰f nt©Lkh? - nt©lhkh? kâ¥ãšyhj j‹ikia kâ¥ãid v‹W ïjœfËš Éthj§fŸ elªj fhyf£l« 'e§ifa®¡F ešYiu' v‹D« Kjš f£Liu mâš bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰f¡ TlhJ v‹»w bjËîgL¤J»wJ. "ĤâÇ¡F ĤâÇahd eh‹ fU¤J tY¥bg‰W ËwJ. jÄœeh£lhŸ; efutháašy. Úuf« bghUªâa Cuf¤âÈU¡F« eh£Lthá. MÆD« ehL« jÄHf tuyh‰¿š Kjš g£ljhÇahf, m¿nt‹; efU« m¿nt‹;. go¥gtŸ kU¤Jtuhf m¿a¥gl¡ Toat® K¤Jy£RÄ v‹W« brhšny‹. eh‹ f‰wJ ifasî; m«ikah® òJ¡nfh£ilÆš ïU¡F« fšyhjJ cyfsî. v©zw¥ go¤J vG¤jw fšÿÇÆš ït® É©z¥g« mˤjnghJ thá¤jhY« bg©ò¤â ã‹ò¤âna v‹W ïtUl‹ mªj fšÉÆš É©z¥ãUªj M© bg© ò¤âia¡ Fiw TWnth® gy®. Fiw khzt®fŸ bg‰nwhÇlÄUªJ KjštU¡F brhšnth® brhšy£L«; ã‹ò¤âahdhY« Äu£lš foj§fŸ tªJŸsd - ï¥bg©Q¡F K‹ò¤âahdhY« v‹ò¤â v‹ò¤âna. v‹ò¤â go¡f ïl« mˤjhš v§fŸ ãŸisfis RakhŒ k©ò¤âahdhY« mij¥ bgh‹ fšÿÇ¡F mD¥g kh£nlh« v‹W. ò¤âah¡F« thfl« m¿nt‹" (kh.Ä.g.8)

Mdhš, xU bg©Q¡fhtJ Ä.Ä v‹W j‹ bgaiu F¿¥ã£L¡ bfhŸS« thŒ¥ò mˤJ Él nt©L« v‹w ï¥bg©Â‹ vG¤J cWâ Ãu«ãajhŒ M§»nya M£áahs®fË‹ cWâahd cŸsJ. bg©bzhG¡f¤â‰fhd Fiwthd Koîjh‹ K¤Jy£RÄ m«ikahU¡F kâ¥ÕL fhy« fhykhŒ¤ bjhl®tij¥ gâî thŒ¥ãid mˤjJ. m¥go¥g£l brŒjJl‹, Fiw brhšgt®fis¥ g‰¿¡ ftiy NHšjh‹ jÄHf¤âš ÃyÉaJ. 1914M« bfhŸshJ; ne®kiwahf vL¤J¡bfhŸS« M©ošjh‹ bg©fS¡bf‹W jÅ¡ fšÿÇ kndhÃiyia btË¥gL¤J»wh®. ïtÇ‹ bjhl§f¥bg‰wJ. mªj¢ áw¥ò¡FÇaJ ï¡f£LiuÆš "br‹w g‹Åu©L br‹id ïuhÂnkÇ fšÿÇ. bg© fšÉ¡nf khj¤J¡FŸ ‘khj® ĤâÇ’¡F ĤâÇfshndh® thŒ¥g‰w fhy¤âš btËtªj ïjHhd gy®. mt®fËš ehD« xU¤â." ‘khj® ‘khj®Ä¤âÇ’ia thá¡F« bg©fŸ ĤâÇ’ ehbshUt©zkhf ts®ªnj¿ ïUªJŸsd®; K‹ gz« brY¤â mjid thH nt©Lbk‹gJ v‹ cŸs¡ fÅthd th§»íŸsd® v‹gJ Éa¥ò¡FÇa ÉU¥g«. mtŸ, ehŸfŸ bgUf¥ bgUf, brŒâahf¤ bjÇ»wJ. mtis ehLnth® bgUFth®fshf. mtŸ e‹neh¡f« thŒ¥gj‰F všnyhU« cjÉ khj® ĤâÇÆ‹ f£Liu - brŒa nt©Lbk‹gJ v‹gJ v‹ Mir. bg© fšÉ¡fhd kâ¥ò ehD« v‹dhyhd cjÉ brŒnt‹" v‹»wh®.;

‘khj®Ä¤âÇ’Æ‹ f£Liufis vGâa »uhk¤âš ts®ªj bg©zhf ïUªJ« 89 fšÉ f‰¿U¡»wh®. ïjœfis¤ bjhl®ªJ rnfhjÇfŸ v‹W« F¿¥ãL»wh®. Mdhš, thá¡F« g©òŸstuhfî«, f£Liuahsuhf gy MŒîfŸ âUtŸSt® bjhl®ghd ïU¡F« msî¡F vG¤jh‰wš Ä¡ftuhfî«, brŒâfŸ c©ikfŸ mšy v‹gijna bg©fS¡F ïašghdJ v‹W ïªj r_f¤âd TW»‹wd®. ïªj¡ f£Liuahs® F¿¥ã£l uhš f‰ã¤âU¡f¡ Toa T¢r«,; m¢r«, ja¡f« bg©fËš m›itah® v‹»w fšÉahs® vJî« á¿J« m‰wtuhfî«; ïUªJŸsh®. ïUªjJ c©ikahF«. mt® âUtŸStÇ‹ j‹ ÛJ j‹ m¿É‹ ÛJ mtU¡F ïUªj rnfhjÇ v‹gj‰F vªj¢ rh‹WfS« ïšiy. Äf ca®ªj kâ¥ãid mtnu R£o¡ fh£L« m›itah® v‹»w bga® bfh©l òyt®fŸ ïl« Éa¥ãid mË¡»wJ. 'râ' v‹D« gy®. r§ffhy¤âš thœªj m›itah® ».K cl‹f£il VWjš, FHªij kz¤â‹ 3M« ü‰wh©L¥ òytuhth®. ïil¡fhy bfhLik, v©Âyl§fh ÉjitfË‹ Ãiy m›itah® »ã 10M« ü‰wh©L¡F K‹ ngh‹w gšntW bfhLikfis¥ bg©fË‹ thœªjt®. nrhH®fhy¤âš thœªj m›itah® ÛJ brY¤â¡ bfh©oUªj m‹iwa fhy¢ 12M« ü‰wh©L m›itah®, rka¥ òytuhf NHš ï¤jifa â©ik Ä¡f MSik bfh©l ïUªjt®. 14M« ü‰wh©L. ã‰fhy¤âY« xU bg©iz¥g‰¿, bg©Â‹ vG¤ij¥ 16,17,18 M« ü‰wh©L¥ ghlšfËY« g‰¿ ïjœfŸ thÆyhf btË¥gLtJ Äfî« m›itah®fŸ fhz¥gL»wh®fŸ. ïâš xUt® áw¥ò¡FÇa x‹whF«. Tl âUtŸStÇ‹ rnfhjÇ v‹gj‰fhd rh‹WfŸ ïšiy. vdnt, f£Liuahs® khj® ĤâÇÆ‹ f£Liu - fhâš nf£l brŒâia it¤J rh‹Wfh£o thá¥ò gH¡f« És¡»íŸsJ bjÇatU»wJ. ïU¥ãD« g‹bdL§fhykhf¥ bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰W¥ thá¥ò¥ gH¡f« Äf mtáa« nt©L« òyik Ä¡ft®fshf ïUªjh®fŸ v‹gJ v‹gij ‘thá¥ò’ f£Liu tÈíW¤J»wJ. c©ikna. fšÉ f‰F« bghJik¢ rKjha« bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰f¤ jilahf ïU¡F« kh‰w« bg‰wJ MÇaÇ‹ tUif¡F¥ ã‹jh‹. r_f¤âdiu nfŸÉ nf£»wJ - 'ïªJ °âßfŸ' v‹D« f£Liu. ïªJ¥ bg©fŸ Kf«, eif, bg© fšÉ¡fhf, bg©fŸ g£lghLfŸ eil, cil, mH»š všyh« nkyhdt®fshf ïU¡»wh®fŸ. Mdhš, fšÉ mH»š Äfî« nkY«, f£Liuahs® ïªJkj¥ Fiwªjt®fshf ïU¡»wh®fŸ v‹»wh® bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰f¤ jilÆUªjjhfnt f£Liuahs®. F¿¥ã£LŸsh® ïªâa tuyh‰¿š Kjš g£ljhÇ¥ bg©fshd rªâuK»ghR xU "ó®åf ïªJ °âßfŸ ntj§fis »¿°Jt®. fhj«ãÅ f§TÈ ãu«k rkh# thá¥gâY«, fÉ f£LtâY« òUõU¡F¢ Ó®âU¤jthâ. ïU¥ãD« ïªâahÉ‹ Kjš rkhdkhÆUªjh®fŸ bg©fŸ fšÉ f‰gj‰F¤ bg© lh¡l® MdªâghŒ n#hÎ xU nkš jilahf ÉF« áy® ó®åf¤âš bg©fŸ #hâ v‹W miH¡f¥gL« gh®¥gd¥ bg©. go¤jâšiyba‹W t‰òW¤â¤ J®thj« j‹ bg‰nwh®fshš nfhghš uh› n#hÎ brŒ»wh®fŸ ït®fŸ brhštJ mg¤jnk v‹gtU¡F ïu©lh« jhukhf¤ âUkz« jÉu, ahjh®¤jkšy". (kh.Ä.g.6) brŒJ it¡f¥g£lh®. gy nghuh£l§fS¡F¥ ã‹ mbkÇ¡fhÉ‹ bg‹ášntÅah nkš brh‹d T‰iw bkŒ¥ã¡f bko¡fš fhnyÍš g£l nk‰go¥ò« go¤J f£Liuahs® Kªija fhy¤âš fšÉ rhjid òǪJŸsh®. 'Fragmented Feminism' f‰W, ghlšfŸ vGâa bg©fis vL¤J¡ v‹D« jiy¥ãš mtuJ thœ¡if üiy fh£L»‹wh®. m›it. cig, cUit, Ûuhnfhrh«ã vGâíŸsh®. mâš mt® tŸËa«ik M»a bg©fŸ fšÉ fztÇl« g£l bfhLikfisbašyh«; f‰wt®fbs‹W«, ït®fis âUtŸStÇ‹ gâî brŒJŸsh®. mâš mbkÇ¡fhÉÈUªJ 90 j‹ fztU¡F MdªâghŒ n#hÎ vGâa k©Q« fiuí«, kiyí« cUF«" foj« F¿¥ãl¤j¡fJ. "vdJ g¤J taâš v‹»wh®. "áy® mt®fis mL¥g§fiu¡nf ku¡f£ilahš; v‹id mo¤JŸç®fŸ; moikfshfî«,áy® mt®fis btŸsǤ eh‰fhÈia¤ ö¡» v‹ ÛJ åá njh£l¤J¡F¥ òšYUÉfshfî«, áy® mo¤JŸç®fŸ vdJ ò¤jf§fis ö¡» mt®fis¢ nrhs¡bfhšiy¡F ntÈfshfî«, v‹ ÛJ åába¿ªJŸç®fŸ. 12 taâš áy® mt®fis eªjtd¤J¡F¥ gªjdkhfî« eh‹ ïU¡F«nghJ v‹id¤ jÅna É£L v©Â el¤Jth®fŸ. ÉLnt‹ v‹W gaKW¤âíŸsnjhL Énehjkhd j©lidfisbašyh« Tl ï›bt©zKilnahÇY« r‰W c¤jkuhd bfhL¤JŸç®fŸ! ng®fŸ mt®fis, òUõ® ÉisahL« bgh«ikfshfî«,bgh‹ Éy§»£l v‹ taJ¡F«, clY¡F«, kdJ¡F« óidfshfî« ghɤJ, mt®fis¡ Äfî« bfh^ukhd j©lidfŸ ït‰iwí« f£oÈY«, bjh£oÈY«, miwÆY«, jh©o jh‹ eh‹ lh¡luh» nrit òÇa K‹ òiuÆYkh¤âu« it¤J, mj‰f¥ghš mt®fŸ tªJŸns‹. v‹id Ú§fŸ m¥go el¤âaJ ga‹gl¤j¡ft®fsšybt‹W Ãid¤J ešyjh? bf£ljh? v‹W v‹dhš Ô®khÅ¡f m¿ådK«,gyådK« mt®fS¡F khwh¢ Koahj gUt« mªehËš v‹whY«, v‹id¡ RjªâukhÆU¡F« go¡F« g©Q»wh®fŸ. nf£lhš ïu©L« jh‹ v‹gnj vdJ ïj‰F _yhjhukhd FU£lh£l« òUõ®fis gâyhf ïU¡F«. v‹whY« lh¡luhnd‹!" kh¤âukšy, °âÇfisí« ão¤âU¥gjhš v‹W vGâíŸsh®. mªj¥ bg©Â‹ ït®fŸ v›Éj mãÉU¤â¡F« foj¤â‹ bjhl¡f¤âš "jaî brŒJ jtwhf ïl§bfhlhâU¡»wh®fŸ" v‹W bg©fŸ, v©zhÔ®fŸ" v‹W vGâíŸsh®. v¤jifa r_f¤â‹ ïÊÃiyÆš ïU¥gij ÄFªj NHÈY« fztid mDrǤJ¥ nghF« ntjidnahL gâî brŒ»wh®. bg©Â‹ kdÃiyia czuKo»wJ. bg©fis¡ bfhLik brŒjjhf¡ TW« xU bg© go¥gj‰F cfªj NHš MáÇa®, clšßâahd m¤JÛwšfisnah, ïšyhj j‹ikí« v›tsî J‹g§fis M©fŸ mo¡»wh®fŸ, cij¡»wh®fŸ, mo cijfis¡ flªJ tu nt©oa NHš fLikahd th®¤ijfshš â£L»wh®fŸ ïUªJŸsJ. ï¤jifa âlkdÃiy všyh¥ v‹bwšyh« F¿¥ãlÉšiy. mt®fis bg©fS¡F« vËâš tªJÉlhJ. gy mL¥g§fiuÆš rik¡f k£Lnk bg©fŸ rKjha¡ f£Lfis¤ jf®¡f m¢r« ga‹gl¤j¡ft®fŸ. v‹W«, fzt‹kh®fË‹ bfh©L, mªj¢ NœÃiyiana jd¡bfd Éisah£L¥ bgh«ikfshfî« thœÉ‹ všiyfsh¡»¥ ghLg£L, btËÆš Ãid¡»wh®fŸ. m¥goba‹whš jd¡F¥ ão¤j tu vªj Ka‰áí« m‰W m¥gona thœªJ bgh«ikia ÉU¥g«nghy ifia¤ ö¡fyh«, koªJ nghíŸsh®fŸ. ïJjh‹ bgU«gh‹ik¢ fhiy¤ ö¡fyh«, ö¡»¥ nghlyh«,bfhŠryh«, rKjha¤â‹ ïašghF«. t‹KiwbrŒayh« bkh¤j¤âš v¥go nt©Lbk‹whY« ga‹gL¤â¡ bfhŸsyh«. khj® ĤâÇÆ‹ f£Liu - bg©fis bgh‹Mguz§fis¡ ifÆY«, M©fŸ el¤âa Éj« fhšfËY« ó£o óid¡F£ofis¥ nghy ga‹gL¤J»‹wd®. nkY« bg©fŸ '°âÇ#hâ nk‹ik' v‹D« f£LiuÆš m¿t‰w K£lhŸfŸ mt®fS¡F v⮤J ïªj njr¤J¥ bg©fË‹ ÃiyF¿¤J¥ ÉF« tÈika‰wt®fŸ v‹W fUâ¡ ngR»wh® MáÇa®. "eh£oš bg©fŸ bfh©oU¡»‹wd®. ï¤jifa f£LfËÈUªJ ïU¡F« Ãiyikí«, mt®fS¡F el¡F« btËtu bg©fŸ ÉU«òtâšiy v‹W bfhLikiaí« m¿ªnjh« v‹whš tU¤j« bfhŸ»wh®. 91 nkY«, òUõ®fŸ bg©fis fhY¡F¢ mHF brU¥gh¡»¥ ngh£L¤ njŒ¡fhkš, Jizahf Ãid¡f nt©L«. mªj¤ njtnd (VR »¿°J) ‘khj® ĤâÇ’Æ‹ e§ifa®¡F ešYiu¥ kfh òUõ‹ v‹W neuoahf ïw§fhkš, gFâÆš f£Liuahs® Ä.Ä mt®fŸ bg©Â‹ tƉ¿š ãŸisahf tªjj‰F¡ vGâa 'mHF' v‹D«' f£Liu Äfî« fhuz«, bg©iz kâ¡fnt v‹W TW»wh®. áw¥ghd x‹whF«. mâš "mHfHbf‹W bg©fS¡F ÉÊ¥òz®î bfhŸS« tifÆš, mo¤J¡bfhŸtJ mnef bg©Q¡F ïašò. áyt‰iw¡ TW»wh®. ïªj¥ bg© btF r£l« v‹W«, mªj¥ bg© TªjyH»ba‹W«, ïtŸ f£lH»ba‹W«, "bg©fns, ï¤jifa cÇikfS«, mtŸ eilaH»ba‹W« j§fis¡ ÉLjiyí«, fšÉí« c§fS¡F¡ »il¡f F¿¤J¥ gyU« brhšy nt©Lbk‹W nt©L« v‹W brhštj‰F¡ fhuz«, Ú§fŸ Mir¥g£L mHF njL« bg©fŸ mnef®" M©fis MS« mf§fhÇfshf nt©L« v‹W bjhl§F»‹wh®. v›tsî ïašghd v‹gj‰F mšy; Ú§fŸ ãiH¡f nt©L«, brhšyhlšfŸ! ï‹Wtiu bg© ÉLjiy¡fhd ciH¡f nt©L« v‹gj‰fhf¤jh‹" vd ïjœfËšTl bg©fS¡fhd mHF¡ f£Liuia Ãiwî brŒ»wh®. F¿¥òfis g¡f« g¡fkhf¥ gâî brŒí« ïjœfns mâf«. bg© ÉLjiy ngR« bg©fŸ go¤jhš, cÇik »il¤jhš bg©fŸ Tl j§fis 'mH»'v‹W k‰wt®fŸ å£o‰F ml§fhkš eh‹ v‹»w mfªij òfHnt©L« v‹W ÉU«òtJ ïašghf bfh©L ÉLth®fŸ v‹D« bghJ¥ò¤â cŸsJ. Mdhš, bg©fŸ ÉLjiy¡fhd ïašghŒ r_f¤âš Ãyî»wJ. bg© ÉLjiy ÉÊ¥òz®î tuhj NHÈš bg© moikÆ‹ ngRgt®fns å£L¡F ml§fhjt®fŸ moehj¤ij¡ f©l¿ªJ mJ bjhl®ghf¥ v‹»w fU¤âš ï‹Wtiu ÃyÉtUtij¥ ngáÆU¥gJ Äfî« Éa¥ò¡FÇa x‹whF«. gh®¡»‹nwh«. mJ ï‹W k£Lkšy; fhy§fhykhŒ¥ bg©fis ml¡» nkY«, m¡f£LiuÆš taJ, tWik, it¡F« MSik¡ fU¤jhF«. mj‰F nehŒbeho M»a fhuz§fshš v›tsî f£LiuaháÇauh»a bg©Â‹ vG¤J k£L« mHFila bg©fS«; kfhF%ãfshf ÉâÉy¡F¥ bg‰WÉ£lhš, f£Liuahsiuna khw¡TL«. mJ bjÇahkš j§fŸ MSik¢ rKjha« òwªjŸËÉL«. gz¤ijbašyh« j§fis my§fǤJ¡ Mfnt, midtiuí« mutiz¤J¥ bfhŸtânyna bryÉL»‹wd®. g¢ir nghF« ngh¡F¡F f£LiuahsÇ‹ vG¤J« F¤â¡ bfhŸ»‹wd®. mjdhš clÈš f£L¥g£L É»‹wij czu Ko»wJ. v›tsî tÈí«, ntjidíkilªjhY«; mjid¤ jh§fŸ mHfhf nt©L« Mdhš, vªj¢ rkhjhdK« m‰w åÇakhd v‹gj‰fhf¥ bghW¤J¡ bfhŸ»‹wd®. vG¤ij¡ bfh©LŸsh®. K‹ gFâ¡ ïijÉl ò¤âÆšyhj braš ntbwJî« f£LiuÆ‹ å¢rhdJ x£Lbkh¤j¥ bg© r_ ïU¡f KaYkh? g‰fS¡F fiwÆ£L¡ f¤â‹ ïÊÃiyia¢ R£o¡fh£o, MSik¢ bfhŸSjš, kŠrŸ óá¡ bfhŸSjš, rKjha¤ij neh¡» rukhÇahf¡ f£Liuahs® ÄD§bf©izia¥ ga‹ gL¤Jjš nf£F« nfŸÉfS¡F, ü‰wh©L ïitbašyh« my§fhukšy, my§nfhy« flªJ« Éilí« ïšiy; Ô®¥ò« ïšiy. v‹W TW»wh®. f£oY«, bjh£oY«, mL¥g§fiuÆY«, bgh‹Éy§»£l bgh«ikfshf ï‹Wtiu "mŒnuh¥ãa °âßfŸ bgU«ghY« mt®fË‹ Ãiy bjhlU»wJ. j§fis t°âu§fshš my§fÇ¥gh®fŸ. khd¤J¡F« kÇahij¡F« ÄŠád khj® ĤâÇÆ‹ f£Liu - bg©fË‹ t°âu§fis kh£o¡ bfhŸtjhš 92 mt®fŸ gU¤â¥ gŠR _£ilfisí«, "ÃahahâgâfŸ F‰wthËfS¡F¡ M£LkÆ® _£ilfisí«, ö¡F« fhšÉy§F k£L«jh‹ nghL»wh®fŸ. Rk£L¡fhÇfsh»wh®fŸ"; "mŒnuh¥ãa¥ °âßfnsh v‹dbt‹whš cy¡if¥ bg©fŸ J _£il¡fhÇfŸ; ï¤njr¤J¥ ó© f£oaJnghy, ghlf«,ghjru«, bg©fnsh k© _£il¡fhÇfŸ. bgh‹ j©il, áy«ò, bfhYR KjÈa gy fhš _£ilÆY« ghukhd k© _£il vJ? Éy§Ffisí«; fh¥ò, njhlh, tisaš, ekJ njrkh®fŸ mªâU¡F« bgh‹, f§fz« v‹w gy if Éy§Ffisí«, btŸË, eiffisbašyh« cU¡» cU£o¤ K¤Jkhiy, rªâufhu«,f©lru« KjÈa âu£odhš v¤jid t©o ghHhF«?; ïªj¥ gy fG¤J Éy§Ffisí« jiy¢á§fhu« ghu¤ij e«kt®fŸ v›tsî r§fl¤Jl‹ v‹W bga®bg‰w jiyÉy§Ffisí«, ö¡»tU»wh®fŸ. ïij¤ ö¡f¡ fhâY« x£oahdbk‹W brhšy¥g£l ïL¥ò _¡»Y« brŒJbfhŸS« bjhŸsš Éy§Ffisí«, nkhâu§fsh»a Éuš v¤jid, Jthu§fŸ v¤jid? bg©fŸ Éy§Ffisí« jǤJ¡bfhŸ»wh®fŸ. mH»aÈš ïU¡F« ïašghd eh£l¤âid¡ fhJfËY« _¡FfËY« ršyil¡ nfhg¤Jl‹ gâî brŒ»wh®, mH»aš f©nghy Jthu§fis¢ brŒJ gy eiffis

5.åukÂ, »., thœÉaš áªjidfŸ, bgÇah® ït® vGâ btËÆ£LŸs üšfŸ: RakÇahij¥ ãu¢rhu ÃWtd btËpL, ÉʤbjGªj ÉijfŸ (fÉij üš), r_f¤â‹ bgÇah® âlš, 50,<.bt.». r«g¤ rhiy, MÂnt® (MŒî üš); 'bg©Âa¡Fuš' nt¥ngÇ, br‹id -600 007. v‹w ቿjG« el¤âíŸsh®. ÉLjiy, c©ik, bg©Âa«, òâaFuš, ehis Éoí«, MáÇa® F¿¥ò : bg©Âa¡Fuš ngh‹w ïjœfËš, ïtuJ f£LiufS« fÉijfS« btËtªJŸsd. Kidt®. f©kÂ, njtnfh£il ctik¡ fÉP® Rujh, fÉP® fÈ.ó§F‹w‹ $nrîf‹ m©zhkiy fšÿÇ, jiyikÆš fÉau§f§fËY« g§nf‰WŸsh®. jÄœ¤JiwÆš, cjÉ¥ nguháÇauhf ïy§if, knyáah, á§f¥ó® ngh‹w ehLfËš cŸsh®. g‹dh£L¡ fU¤ju§f¡ f£LiufŸ, gŸË khzt®fSl‹ ciuah‰¿íŸsh®. njáa¡ fU¤ju§f¡ f£LiufŸ, v‹W ïtiu¥ ghuh£o¡ bfhG«ò jÄœ r§f« jÄœ¢ gy fU¤ju§fËY« mw¡f£lisfËY« br«kš ÉUJ tH§»íŸsJ. fhiu¡Fo fšÉ¢ ciuÃfœ¤â tU»wh®. m¿bthË nrit mik¥ò 'kÅj nea' ÉUJ tH§»¢ ïa¡f¤âš Fut®fS¡fhd áw¥ò tF¥ò áw¥ã¤JŸsJ. vL¤JŸsh®. âytfâ mŒ. ã.v° mt®fis be¿ahsuhf¡ bfh©L És§»a ghÈd

97 #hâí« rkj®kK« R.m¿î¡fuR, brayit¤jiyt®,âuhÉl® fHf«.

f£Liu¢ RU¡f« : jt¿aij vL¤J¡ fh£L»wJ. k¡fis x‹Wnru Élhkš #hâKiw v¥gobašyh« rkj®k¤J¡F vâuhd #hâ mik¥ãid jL¡»wJ v‹gij És¡», RakÇahij, Muhí« ï¡f£Liu, #hâ vªj bkhÊ¢ gF¤j¿î, ïd ÉLjiy, bg©Âa« ngh‹w brhš v‹gjidí« nr®¤J MuhŒ»wJ. bfhŸiffŸ ahî«, rk¤Jt« v‹gijna r_f¤âš t®¡f« kh¿dhY«, #hâ Mjhu mo¥gilahf¡ bfh©LŸsikia khwhkš ïU¡F« E£g« neh¡F»wJ. ï¡f£Liu MŒ»wJ. ïy¡»a« k‰W« tuyh‰W¤ juîfŸ _ykhf, #hâ mik¥ò ahuhš, vj‰fhf #hâ v‹gj‹ Kfîiu V‰gL¤j¥g£lJ v‹gijí«, moikKiw gy ehLfËš ïU¥ãD«, #hâKiw "ïU£liwÆš cŸsjlh cyf« - rhâ ïªâahÉš, F¿¥ghf ïªJ kj¤â‰F ïU¡»‹wbj‹ghD« ïU¡»‹whnd" v‹wh® k£Lnk cǤjhdJ V‹ v‹gijí« njL« òu£á¡fÉP® ghuâjhr‹. eh‹F tUz§fis ï¡f£Liu, #hâKiw xÊ¥gj‰F¥ bgÇah® ïªJ kj¡ flîns c©lh¡»ÆU¡»wJ. tF¤j jŤJtkhd tÊKiwfisí« ãw kj§fËš flîŸ ï¤jF braiy¢ MŒî brŒ»wJ. muáaš r£l«, #hâKiw brŒaÉšiy. ehštUz¥ ghFghLfS¡F¡ Ú£o¥ò¡F cjî»wjh? vD« nfŸÉ¡F« flîns fhu v‹whš, 6400 #hâfS¡F ah® ÉilnjL»wJ. fhuÂ? kÅj®fns fhuÂ!

rkj®k« ngáa bghJîilik¡ f£áfŸ, '#hâ' v‹gJ rk°»Uj¢brhš.jÄœ¢brhš V‹ ïªâahÉš bt‰¿ bgwKoaÉšiy mšy. '#hâ' v‹gij 'rhâ' vd kh‰¿¥ngRtJ« v‹gij¤ njL« ï¡f£Liu, muR, kj«, gz« vGJtJ« brŒ»nwh«. ïj‹ Éisthf, ï«_‹¿‹ T£l v¥go¢ brašgL»wJ ïisnah® ïjid¤ jÄœ¢brhš v‹nw fU⢠v‹gijí« ngR»wJ. ïªâa¢ NHÈš brašgL»‹wd®. rhâ jÄH®¡fhdJ v‹W t®znk t®¡fkhf cŸsij EŤJ¡ fh£o, ka§F»‹wd®. vdnt, #hâ v‹W òH§»dhš bghJîilik ngánah® mij czu¤ ka¡f« tuhJ. #hâ ïl« khwhjJ. t®¡f« ïl« 98 khW«, bghUshjhu V‰w¤jhœîŸs t®¡f« Fat®, j£lh®, f‹dh®, fšj¢r®, bfhšy®, bghUshjhu Ãiy¡nf‰g ïl« khW«. gz¡fhu‹ j¢r®, v©bzŒthÂf®, c¥òthÂf®, ViH Mfyh«. ViH gz¡fhu‹ Mfyh«. ïiythÂf®, gŸË, ókhiy¡fhu®, giwa®, m¥nghJ t®¡f« khWgL«. Mdhš, ViHahf nfhÆš Foah®, X¢r®, tiya®, ghz® ïUªJ gz¡fhu‹ MdhY«, gz¡fhudhf v‹ngh® ïâš ml¡f«. nkiy ehLfËš ïUªJ ViHahf MdhY« mtdJ #hâ khwnt bjhÊšfŸ tif¥gL¤j¥g£ld. Mdhš khwhJ ïªj #hâ Kiwia V‰gL¤ânah® vt®? ï§nfh, bjhÊyhs®fŸ tif¥gL¤j¥g£ld®. tuyh‰¿š rÇahd Mjhu§fŸ ïšiy. ghFghL fh£l¥g£ld® - #hâfË‹ bgauhš. gh®¥gd® ïUãw¥ghs® (JÉ#h) vd¥g£ld®. cy»‹ Kjš N¤âu rh«uh{akhd kîÇa¥ jÄHnuh ïÊãw¥ghs® vd¥g£ld®. nguuá‹ òfœbg‰w mnrhf k‹dÇ‹ (òweh}W, ghlš 170). ïÊád‹ vd t«r¤ij tŠrfkhf mʤj ãwF F¥j®fŸ ïfH¥g£ld® (òw«, ghlšfŸ 81,82,287,289). fhy¤âš njh‹¿ajhf xU kâ¥ÕL c©L. òiya‹ vd¥g£ld® (òw«, ghlšfŸ 287,360), ghuâah® ghoaij¥nghy, "rh¤âu« f©lhŒ, bg©o® òiy¤â (òw«. ghlšfŸ 259,311) rhâÆ‹ cÆ®¤ jy« rh¤âu« ï‹nwš vd¥g£ld®. rhâÆšiy" v‹gij neh¡»dhš, Vnjh rh¤âu¥go #hâKiw V‰gL¤j¥g£oU¡»wJ. #hâÆ‹ m°âthu« #hâ¡bfhU Úâ brhš»wJ kDrh°âu«. vL¤J¡fh£lhf, bfhiy¡F‰w« òǪjt‹ ïªJ kj¤â‹ m°âthunk #hâ v‹whdJ. áu¢nrj« brŒa¥gl nt©L«. Mdhš, #hâfË‹ bjhF¥ng ïªJ kj« v‹whdJ. mt‹ gh®¥gddhf ïUªjhš jiykÆiu ïªJ kj¤â‹ ïjaK« _isí« gh®¥gÅa« bkh£ilao¤J áif¢nrj« brŒjhny nghJ« v‹gnj x¤J¡bfhŸs¥g£l c©ik. ïjid v‹»wJ kD üš. vL¤J¢ brh‹dt®fŸ jªij bgÇahU« lh¡l® m«ng¤fU« Mt®. xU Foahf ïUªj jÄH® gy Fy§fshf¥ ãÇ¡f¥g£ld®. mt®fS« ty§if, ïl§if "gh®¥gdU¡F« r¤âÇa¥ bg©Q¡F« #hâÆd® v‹W« ãsîgL¤j¥g£ld®. Égrhu¤jhš ãwªjt®fŸ gŠrk®fsh«. ty¡if ca®î v‹W« ïl¡if jhœ¢á fhÂahs®, ntsh©rhkªj® v‹»w bga® v‹W« f‰ã¡f¥g£lJ nghynt #hâÆY« bfh©lt®fsh«. gh®¥gd® itáa¥ ãsî. ty§if 98 #hâfS« ïl§if 98 bg©Ql‹ nr®ªjjhš ãwªjt®fŸ Fat®, #hâfS« vd¥ ãÇî/ãsî. m¡ufhu« ehÉj® v‹gt®fsh«. gh®¥gdU¡F« vd¥g£l gh®¥gd¢ nrÇfËš jŤJ thœªj N¤âu¥bg©Q¡F« ãwªnjh® gujt®, gh®¥gd® ntWghLfis¥ bgÇjh¡»d®. ntLt® v‹gt®fsh« .gh®¥gd¥ jÄH® midtiuínk N¤âu® - ïÊFy¤âd® bg©Q¡F« N¤âu MQ¡F« ãwªjt®fŸ v‹wh¡»É£ld®. nfhÆšfŸ, kl§fŸ, bghJ r©lhs®fsh«. mw¢rhiyfËš EiHa mDkâ¡fhkš xJ¡» it¤jd®. VG áwªj C®fËš fhŠáòu« flîŸ, kj« M»ait kÅj x‹W v‹g®. gšyt® fhy¤ jiyef®. m§nf áªjidÆš x£L©Ânghy nt%‹¿ ty§if, ïl§if nfhÆšfŸ jŤjÅ. Égjhš, kjnk ãujhd« v‹»w bghŒik k©lg§fS« jŤjÅ. ty§if, ïl§if Ãiy bg‰¿U¥gjhš, mit KjÈš njtuoah®fS« c©L. v‹d nfty«! xÊ¡f¥g£lhfnt©L«. m©zš m«ng¤f® 1936ïš ãufld¥gL¤âathW, 18 tif¥g£l bjhÊyhs®fS« "ntj§fisí« rh¤âu§fisí« jÅ #hâahf¡ fUj¥g£lij "mãjhd xʤjhšjh‹ #hâ vD« nfh£ilia¤ jf®¡f áªjhkÂ" bjÇÉ¡»wJ. t©zh®, ehÉj®, Koí«." "eh« #hâia xÊ¡f K‰gL«nghJ 99 kj« v‹gJ xʪJ nghF« v‹whš, mªj kj« f®¥g¤âš tªjhu‹nwh - r»na ek¡F nt©lh«. kj¤ij¥ bghR¡F«nghJ f®¥g¤âš tªjhu‹nwh" ntjK« bghR§»¥nghtbj‹whš mªj ntjK« ntf£L«. ntj¤ij X£L«nghJ vd ïo¤Jiu¤jh®. flîS« XoÉL« v‹whš, mªj¡ flîŸ v‹gJ ïªj ÃÄõ¤ânyna XoÉl£L«. "rhâ¥ãÇî brŒjh® mªj¡ flîS« ek¡F nt©lh«" v‹wh® j«ik ca®¤Jj‰nf bgÇah®, 1929ïš âU¢áÆš. vdnt, #hâ ÚâfŸ brh‹dhuo - r»na xʪâl, flîŸ, kj, rh°âu e«ã¡iffis ÚâfŸ brh‹dhuo" KjÈš xÊ¡fnt©L«.mªj e«ã¡iffis it¤J¡bfh©nl #hâ TlhJ v‹whš, vd c©ikia¥ ngh£Lil¤jh®. eo¥òjh‹. VbdÅš, #hâ v‹gJ MÇa¡ fyh¢rhu¤â‹ FHªij. #hâ Kiw¥go gh®¥gd ca®it¡ fh£Lj‰F kD Úâ btFk¡fshd N¤âu®fŸ ntiy¡fhu‹jh‹. v‹gij vGâ¡bfh©lij¢ R£o¡fh£odh®. gh®¥gd®fË‹ fhšfis¡ fGîtJ ïªj kD Úâ¥go MÆu« M©Lfshf¥ ntiyfËš x‹W v‹W gŠrÉÅõ gšyt, nrhH, gh©oa, nru, eha¡f k‹d®fŸ ãuhkz« TW»wJ v‹whš, #hâKiw M£á brŒjj‹ Éisthf rh°âu¥go v›tsî nflhdJ v‹gij És§»¡ bfhŸsyh«.gh®¥gd®fË‹ "vŠrhâ¡ »t®rhâ fhšfis¡ fGt N¤âu®fŸ t§fhs¡ ïÊbt‹W r©ilÆ£L¥ f§if¡ fiuÆš fhiyÆš Égij¥ g‰¿¡ gŠrh»¥ nghdhuo - r»na FoauR¤ jiytuhf ïUªj ãudh¥ Kf®Í gŠrh»¥ nghdhuo" v‹wh®. F¿¥ã£lij ÃidîgL¤â¡bfhŸf. mªj Ãiy ï‹iw¡F« cŸsnj! r£l§fŸ ntW gy ehLfËš moikfŸ ngh£L« jL¡f KoaÉšiyna! ï¥go¡ nftykhf el¤j¥g£lh®fŸ. ï§F N¤âu®fS¡F« moikfS¡F« #h⥠ãÇî g‰¿, mj‹ ÔikfŸ K¡»a ntWghL ïUªjJ. moikfis g‰¿ ïJtiu MÆu¡fz¡fhd üšfŸ ɉf, th§f Koí«. N¤âu®fSila Ãiy vGâ¡ FɤJ« r_f« âUªâaghošiy. m¥goašy. moikfŸ j§fŸ thœîÇik ïªâak©Âš flªj 150 M©Lfshf¤ nf£L¥ nghuhoanghJ eR¡f¥g£lh®fŸ. njh‹¿a r_f Ó®âU¤j ïa¡f§fŸ MwhÆu« moikfŸ áYitÆš miwªJ vD« bgaÇš tªjdbtšyh« fh£L bfhšy¥g£ld®. ï¤jifa bfhLikfŸ Éy§fh©o¥ gH¡ftH¡f§fis¥ g‰¿í«, csÉaš ßâahf¢ N¤âu®fŸ ÛJ _le«ã¡iffis¥ g‰¿í« ngádnt ãunahf¥gL¤j¥g£ld. xJ¡Fjš, CÇ‹ jÉu, _yfhuz¤ij¡ f©L xʤâl jhœªj gFâÆš FoÆU¤jš, bghJ Ú® KidaÉšiy vD« c©ik RL»wJ. Ãiyfis¥ ga‹gL¤j mDkâ¡fhik xL¡FKiw¡F Msh¡f¥g£l #hâÆd® ntW ngh‹w bfhLikfŸ Ãfœ¤j¥g£ld. kj§fS¡F kh¿Élhkš jL¤âlnt mt®fŸ Ka‹¿U¡»wh®fŸ nghY«! jªij bgÇahÇ‹ fU¤Jfis¢ brŒíŸ toÉš M¡»¥ gu¥ãa bgU«gÂia¢ brŒj #hâfS« kj§fS« r£l§fS« òu£á¡fÉP®, ï¡bfhLikia kj« kh¿at®fS« Tl r®¢R¡F¥ "m‰g¤ Ô©lhjh® v‹D« nghF« ïªJ¡fŸ v‹»w khâÇjh‹ kh¿ mtU« ãwU« X®jhŒ ïU¡»wh®fns xÊa, kdkh‰w« VJ« 100 V‰glÉšiy. #hâfis xʤj kjkhf¢ kj¤â‰F« bjhl®g‰w j‹ik v‹Wjh‹ brhšy¥gL« Ó¡»a¤âY« jhœ¤j¥g£lt®fŸ M§»y¤âš ï¢brhšiy cUth¡»a ïªJkj¡ bfhLikiana mDgÉ¡»wh®fŸ. nAhÈnah¡ És¡f« jªjh®. M§»y ca®#hâ v‹gtnd Ãy cilikahs‹ mfuhâfËY« m«khâÇna cŸsJ. Mdhš, vD« ÃiyÆš xL¡f¥g£lt‹ ntsh© ïªâahÉš...? TÈahfnt Úo¡»w bfhLik.nghjh¡Fiw¡F¥ gz« gil¤jt®fS¡F¥ ghJfh¥ghd muR. jªij bgÇah® T¿dh®, "flîŸ ï‹d #hâ¡fhu® k£Lnk ïªj¥ g¡F ïšyhÉ£lhš cy»š brštthD« ÃaÄ¡f¥glnt©L« v‹»w khâÇahd jǤâuthD« ïU¡f, Koant KoahJ. mJ vGj¥glhj r£l«. öŒik¥ gÂahsiu¤ nghynt kj« ïšyhÉ£lhš nkš #hâí« Ñœ nj®ªbjL¡F«nghJ gh®¥gd® ahU« tUtJ #hâí« ïU¡f KoahjJ.nghynt, rhjhuz ïšiyna! všnyhU« N¤âu®fŸjhnd! M¤khî« kfh¤khî« ïU¡fnt KoahJ" v‹wh®.flîS« kjK« muR« x‹iwbah‹W #hâ¡FŸnsna kzKiw #hâia g‰¿¥ ãizªJ ãÇ¡f KoahjthW Úo¡f it¡»wJ. mªjªj #hâ¡fhd gH¡f ïU¡»‹wd. ït‰iwí« ït‰¿‹ ÛJŸs tH¡f§fŸ vD« kl¤jd« Úo¡»wJ. g‰iwí« mʤjhšjh‹ kÅj rK¤Jt« #hâ¥gH¡f§fŸ v‹git brh¤J¥ ãÇÉid, kyU«. kzK¿î, j¤bjL¤jš ngh‹w áyt‰¿š Mâ¡f« brY¤J»‹wd. mt‰iw tH¡F ïnj e«ã¡iffŸ t®¡f¢ rk¤Jt¤â‰F« k‹w§fŸ m§ÑfÇ¡»‹wd vD«nghJ, Énuhjkhdit.nt£ilaho¡ bfh‹w mit r£ló®tkhf¡ fUj¥gL»‹wd. #hâ Éy§»‹ cliy, òÈ eÇ¡F¡ bfhL¤jhY« rhfhkš ïU¡»wJ. muR mâfhu« _y« KjyhË j‹ bršt¤ij, áW msÉnyD« fh¥gh‰w¥g£L ts®¡f¥gL»wJ. ïšyhjh®¡F¤ jukh£lh‹. ïJ KjyhˤJt kndhght«.m¥goÆU¡f ï¤jifa KiwnfL, ïªâa muR rk‹ik v¥go V‰gL«? xUt‹ gz« mik¥ò¢ r£l« _yK« ghJfh¡f¥g£L¤ gil¤j Fngudhfî« xUt‹ jǤâu bjhl®»wJ. muR« kjK« Ru©L« t®¡fK« ehuhazdhfî« ãw¥ã¡f¢ brŒjJ flîË‹ T£lhf¢ brašgL»‹wd.mjdhš rhjhuz braš v‹Wjhnd TW»wh®fŸ? Éâ, k¡fŸ v›Éj »s®¢áÆY«

br‹idÆš gh®¥gd®fŸ njhš bjhÊÈš 9. jªij bgÇah®, 'FomuR' ïjœ, ïU¡»wh®fŸ, v‹whY« gh®¥gd®fŸjh‹. 18.8.1933) (m›it r©K» âiu¥gl« Ãidî¡F tUnk), ïªj¤ bjhÊš brŒjhY«, ca®#hâjhnd. 10. g.éthdªj«, 'FomuR' ïjœ, 27.10.1935) mnj nghy, M¡uh¡fhu®fŸ g£oaÈd« jhnd! nfhO°tudhdhY« #hj›jhnd! 11. g. éthdªj«, 'âdkÂ' ehËjœ, ïÊî nghfÉšiyna. gz« tªjhY« 25.10.1936) nghfhnj - ïªJ kj ÉâKiwfË‹go. mJ nghynt, kuh£oa khÃy¤âš kh£L 12. jªij bgÇah®, 'FomuR' ïjœ, ïiw¢á V‰Wkâ brŒgt®fŸ gh®¥gd®fŸjh«! 01.01.1933) vtU« mt®fis kfh¤ vd¡ TWtâšiy. bjhÊÈ‹ mo¥gilÆš #hâ v‹gbjšyh« 13. jªij bgÇah®, bgÇah® ãwªj ehŸ (93) gr¥ò th®¤ij, Vkh‰W ɤij v‹gij ky® 17.09.1971) m¿ayh«.vdnt t®¡f« kh¿dhY«, bjhÊš 107 14. KUf¥g‹ b#á T£lhf vGâaJ. gF¤j¿ths® fHf¤âš ïiz¢brayhs®, "behW¡f¥gL« k¡fS« kW¡f¥gL« Jiz¤jiyt®, khÃy¤jiyt® vdî« Úâí«", ïisP®fS¡fhd r_f fHf¥g M‰¿at®. j‰nghJ âuhÉl® ÉÊ¥òz®î ika«, jÄœ ehL, g¡f« 91 fHf¢ brayit¤ jiytuhf És§F»‹wh®. nkilfËš ciuah‰¿ k¡fis <®¡F« 15. 'â ïªJ' ehËjœ, 15.12.2013 eht‹ik Ä¡ft®.

16. KUf¥g‹ b#á T£lhf vGâaJ. knyáah, á§f¥ó®, jhŒyhªJ, Ah§fh§, "behW¡f¥gL« k¡fS« kW¡f¥gL« mŒ¡»a muò vÄnu£R, Í«gh¥nt, Úâí«", ïisP®fS¡fhd r_f 炙yhªJ, ï¤jhÈ, b#®kÅ, RÉ£r®yhªJ, ÉÊ¥òz®î ika«, ãuh‹R, ã‹yhªJ, neghs«, ÃôáyhªJ jÄœ ehL, g¡f« 21 KjÈa ehLfËš gaz« brŒjt®. ïJtiu 27-¡F« nk‰g£l ü‰fis vGâíŸsh®. MáÇa® F¿¥ò : bgÇah® g‹Kf«, bg©, ïªJ M¤kh eh«, bj‹wš mšy òaš, òuhz§fŸ 18+1, K£ilí« m¿î¡fuR mt®fŸ, 40 M©LfS¡F« j£ilí«, m¢r«=m¿ahik=flîŸ, nkš muR¥ gÂah‰¿at®. 1958-ïš vG¤juhf cyf¥gF¤j¿ths®fŸ, m«ng¤f® thœî« EiHªJ, kht£l tUthŒ mYtyuhf ghlK«, rh®È rh¥Ë‹, âuhÉl® fHf« ca®ªJ, 1998-ïš XŒî bg‰wt®. jÄœehL f£áašy-xU òu£á ïa¡f«, ïªâ rk°»Uj muR mYty® x‹¿a¤âš kht£l¤jiyt®, v⮥ò tuyhW, mt® jh« òu£á¡ fÉP® bghJ¢brayhs®, khÃy¤jiyt® vd 30 gh®, ïªJ khia, khd« khDl« bgÇah® - M©Lfshf¢ r§f¥g M‰¿at®. khÃy¥ ngh‹wit ït® vGâa ò¤jf§fSŸ áy.

108 âuhÉl¥ bghÊš MŒÉjœ - MŒtu§f«

Jt¡f ÉHh: M»nah® MŒÉjiH¡ fhbzhÈ _y« bg‰W¡ bfh©lh®fŸ. ntªj® lh¡l®. bgÇah® kÂa«ik m¿Éaš k‰W« ».åuk Ãfœ¢á¡F¤ jiyik jh§»dh®. bjhÊšE£g ÃWtd¤â‹ (Ãf®Ãiy¥ âuhÉl¥ bghÊš MŒÉjÊ‹ áw¥gháÇa®, gšfiy¡fHf«) btËplhf kyU« âuhÉl¥ nguh. Kidt®. f©zãuh‹ ïuÉr§f®, bghÊš fhyh©L MŒÉjÊ‹, Kjyh« ãuh‹áÈUªJ tunt‰òiuah‰¿dh®. ïjœ, jÄœ¥ ò¤jh©L« jÄH® âUehSkhd Kidt® th.neU e‹¿ T¿dh®. ij¥ bgh§fš ehisbah£o, 2021 rdtÇ 16 m‹W btËÆl¥ bg‰wJ. kndh‹kÂa« âuhÉl¥ bghÊš MŒÉjœ - m¢R Rªjudh® gšfiy¡fHf nkdhŸ Jizntªj® ïjHhfî« / ïiza ïjHhfî« - ïUtÊ¡ nguh. Kidt®. ntj»Ç r©KfRªju«, fšÉ¢ rhiyÆš, cybf§F« guÉaJ. MŒÉjÊid btËÆ£L¡ fU¤Jiu F¿¥ghf¥ gy gšfiy¡fHf§fŸ, tH§»dh®. fšÿÇfis¢ br‹wilªjJ. nguháÇa®fŸ k‰W« rh‹nwh®fË‹ Mjuî bjhl®ªJ 4 jÄœeh£oÈUªJ nguh. Kidt® »il¤J tU»wJ. kiwkiy ïy¡Ftdh®

4 b#®kÅÆÈUªJ nguh. Kidt® cšÇ¡ gF¤j¿î, g©ghL, ehfÇf«, fiy, tuyhW, áy° bkhÊ, kÅj« ngh‹w e‹da§fËš, âuhÉl« rh®ªJ, MHkhd fšÉ¥ òy MuhŒ¢áia, 4 á§f¥óÇÈUªJ nguh. Kidt®. midtU¡F« bfhz®tnj MŒÉjœ Rg.â©z¥g‹ neh¡f«. cyf msÉyhd fšÉ¥òy¤ ju¤âny (Global Academic Standards), cyf¡ 4 mbkÇ¡fhÉÈUªJ nguh. Kidt®. fšÉahs®fis, âuhÉl¢ áªjid rh®ªJ thR. bu§fehj‹ xU§Fâu£o, ïsÃiy MŒths®fisí«, 4 炙yhªâÈUªJ MŒt¿P®. fh®¤â¡ ïsÃiy¥ bg© MŒths®fisí«, uh« kndhfu‹ xL¡f¥g£l r_f§fËš K»œ¤bjGªJŸs 109 ïsÃiy MŒths®fisí«, âuhÉl¥ bghÊš Tamil’ MŒî¡ f£Liuia Kidt®. MŒÉjœ C¡FÉ¡F«. fhyh©L njhW«, ïu.ãughfu‹ mt®fS«, g‹bkhÊ cŸçLfnshL, btËtU«. 3. Dr. kh¤É bgh£ÿÇ vGâa, ‘Quest MŒtu§f«: to breaking the Caste Barriers in India and across the world – Can DNA Testing MŒÉjœ btËtªJ xU khj¤â‰FŸ, help?’ f£Liuia nguh. Kidt®. MŒtu§f« eilbg‰wJ. 2021 ã¥utÇ 14M« f©zãuh‹ ïuÉr§f® mt®fS«, njâ ïuî 8.30 k¡F (ïªâa neu«) mu§f« bjhl§»‰W. mbkÇ¡fhÉ‹ òfœbg‰w áfhnfh 4. nguh. Kidt®. bg.b#fÔr‹ vGâa gšfiy¡fHf¥ bgU« nguháÇa® Kidt®. ‘British and European Sankritist Scholars rh¢rh

K¤jhŒ¥ghf¤ âuhÉl¥ bghÊš âuhÉl¥ bghÊš Kjš ïjnH Äf¢ áw¥ghf MŒÉjÊ‹ òuty®, ntªj®, lh¡l®. ».åuk tªâU¡»wJ v‹whš mj‰F¡ fhuz« mt®fŸ, MŒî¤ bjhF¥òiu tH§», ciH¥ng! áw¥gháÇa®, nguh. f©zãuh‹ MŒtu§if¥ ghuh£o, ÑGŸs òŸËfis ïuÉr§f® mt®fË‹ ïilawh ciH¥ò«, K‹it¤jh®. lh¡l® nrhk. ïs§nfht‹, Kidt® neU, Kidt®. e« ÓÅthr‹, nguh. b#fÔr‹, MW MŒî¡ f£Liufisí«, MW nguh. fhËK¤J cŸË£l MáÇa® FGÉ‹ rh‹nwh®fŸ, gy nfhz§fËš, ÉU¥ò ïiz¥gh¡f«; ïjœ toth¡f« brŒj btW¥ã‹¿, âwdhŒî brŒj gh§F Äf¢ njhH®fŸ rutz‹, ãÇ‹R, ehuhaz‹, ïiza áw¥ghf mikªjJ; f£Liu vGâat®fns toth¡f« brŒj njhH®fŸ KUfnty‹, Éa¡F« t©z« âwdhŒths®fË‹ ciu m‹òuh{ ahtU¡F« e‹¿. 115 MŒths®fË‹ ciufËny, áy nkyâf¤ v‹W xUÉj Éõk¤Jl‹ F¿¥ã£oU¥gh®. jftšfS« brhšy ÉiH»nw‹. ïJ Vnjh X® vG¤J k£Lkšy; khÃy¤â‹ jÄœ¥ bgaiu v¥goah»Y« áij¡f nt©L« lh¡l®. khjÉ bgh£ÿÇ f£Liu: eh‹F v‹w neh¡f¤â‹ tuyh‰W¥ ã‹d jh‹ t®z, ãuhkz‹-r¤âÇa‹-itáa‹- ïbjšyh«. Kidt®. r§fugh©o tH§»a N¤âu‹ c©lhdJ ãu«khÉ‹ be‰¿(thŒ)- Kidt®. neU f£Liu: MÇaâuhÉl njhŸ-bjhil-fhš v‹gJ kD°ÄUâ ntWghL v‹gJ u¤j¥ gÇnrhjid ntWghL fh£L« F¿¥ò. khwhf, nguh. f©zãuh‹ mšy; bkhÊ, ïd«, g©ghL ït‰¿‹ ntWghL ïuÉr§f® F¿¥ã£lJ nghš, guk òUõ‹ v‹W bgÇah® m‹nw bjhiyneh¡nfhL vD« KGKj‰ flîË‹ Kf«-njhŸ- brh‹dij, ï‹W m¿ÉaY« cWâ brŒ»wJ. bjhil-fhyo v‹gJ Ç¡ntj«-òUõN¡j« fh£L« F¿¥ò. fhy tÇirÆš, Ç¡ ntjnk ï›thW MáÇa® ». åukÂ, j‹ MŒî¥ Kjš, ãwF jh‹ kD °ÄUâ, mj‹ ãwF bghU©ikfis tH§», MŒtu§if gft¤ ÑijÆY«, eh‹F t®z§fis ehnd Ãiwî brŒJ it¤jh®. gy¥gy MŒî¤ gil¤nj‹ v‹»wh®, ÉZQÉ‹ mtjhu« jftšfŸ, òâJ òâjhf¤ bjǪJ, bj˪J v‹W fUj¥gL« »UZz‹. ï¥go _‹W bfh©l k»œ¢áÆš midtU« ÃiwnthL itÔf üšfSnk,guk òUõ‹-ãu«kh- Éilbg‰wd®. »UZz‹ v‹W kh‰¿ kh‰¿, K‹D¡F¥ ã‹ KuzhŒ¥ ngRtij¡ Tl vtnuD« nf£lh®¥ ã¡F« jifathŒ¡ nfshU« MuhŒ¢á¡F vL¤J¡ bfhŸsyh«. nt£g bkhÊtjh« brhš (FwŸ 643)

nguh. fhËK¤J f£Liu: m¿P® m©zh ïu©lh« ïjÊ‹ MŒtu§f« v¥nghJ jÄœehL – Tamil Nadu’ v‹W khÃy¤J¡F¥ eilbgW«? v‹w V¡f¤ij midtU¡F« bga® N£L«nghJ, âU. uh#hÍ mt®fŸ, V‰gL¤â É£lJ; ïJ, âuhÉl¥ bghÊš - °tuh{ah ïjÊš ’Dear Reader’ gFâÆš, ’Tamil MŒÉjœ MŒtu§f¤â‹ áw¥ghd Nad’ v‹W vGj nt©L«; ‘U’ nghl¡TlhJ bt‰¿ahF«!

116 Who are the Dravidians? It is a fact that the term Dravidians and Nagas are merely two different names for the same people. The Nagas were a very ancient people. It must also be remembered that the Nagas were in no way an aboriginal or uncivilised people. Not only did the Naga people occupy a high cultural level but history shows that they ruled a good part of India.

The word Dravida is the name of language of the people and does not denote the race of the people.Nagas was a racial or cultural name and Dravida was their linguistic name.

Thus the Dasas are the same as the Nagas and the Nagas are the same as the Dravidians. In other words what we can say about the races of India is that there have been at the most only two races in the field, the Aryans and the Nagas.

(Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches:Vol.7 - The Untouchables? Part III, Chapter VII) Prof. Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR , M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc. Hon’ble Minister (1st Minister) of Law and Justice, Union Of India (1947-51). Minister of Labour in Viceroy's Executive Council (1942-46). Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee - Constituent Assembly of India (1946-50). Member of Parliament - Rajya Sabha for Bombay State (1952-56).

117 The Indus script is most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family. The Indus symbols and seals represent a logo-syllabic script and based on computer analysis, it is strongly suggested that an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language is the most likely candidate for the underlying language of the Indus Valley Civilization.

(Proto-Indica: Report onthe Investigations of the Proto-Indian Texts. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, 1981). Prof. Dr. YURI KNOROZOV N.N. Miklukho-Maklai- Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology (IEA), Academy of Sciences of (formerly USSR) Russia.

118 Notes

119 Notes

120